**2. Materials and methods**

#### **2.1 Study sites**

The study site was the Great Ruaha River Basin in Mufindi district, Iringa region (Figure 1). Mufindi District is one of the seven Districts in Iringa Region located in Southern Highland of Tanzania. Mufindi District lies between latitude 80.00' 90 15' South and longitude 340 35'–

Valley Bottom Wetlands Can Serve for Both

Global Positioning System (GPS).

**3.2 Socio-economic study** 

information from household surveys.

**4. Data analysis 4.1 Ecological data** 

natural grasslands, pine plantations and eucalyptus plantations.

Biodiversity Conservation and Local Livelihoods Improvements 223

including woodlands, grasslands, valley bottom wetlands/swamps undisturbed natural vegetation and plantations of different types. While in the field the broad types were further sub divided into sub categories depending on field conditions such as wooded grasslands,

Temporary nested quadrats (sample plots) measuring 20 x 20 m (with nested subplots of 10m x 10m, 5m x 5m m, 1m x 1m and 0.5m x 0.5 m) were adopted and established systematically in clusters representing different vegetation types in each stratum on transect lines established along a predetermined compass direction. More than 100 plots were established in each site though the number of plots in each site differed depending on area and an adopted minimum sampling intensity of 0.01% ensuring a sufficient coverage and representation of each stratum. The location of each quadrat (plot) was recorded using

At each quadrat all the plant species encountered were identified, recorded and percent cover determined. For species that were difficult to identify in the field voucher specimens

Multistage sampling was used where two divisions within the Little Ruaha sub catchment were selected randomly. Two wards were then selected randomly from each ward. For each ward two villages were selected randomly for the study. The nature of the distribution of wetlands in the Little Ruaha sub-catchment called for purposeful sampling of villages to be included in the study.The selection of villages was based on close proximity to the wetlands with the assumption that the respective communities were more involved with wetlands cultivation as compared to other villages. In this case, Matanana village (Bumilayinga Ward) being in the upper streams and Luganga village (Ifwagi Ward) on the lower stream of the catchment were sampled. Other villages included in the study are Nyololo Njiapanda (Nyololo Ward), Kisada (Bumilayinga Ward) Igowole and Nzivi (Igowole Ward). In each village the village register was used as a sampling frame, households were then randomly selected and a questionnaire administered to heads of the selected households. Households were taken as sampling units in this study and total of 93 households were sampled (44 and 49 households from Luganga and Matanana respectively). The questionnaire sought to get information on whether the household is involved in any kind of wetland utilization, socioeconomic activities undertaken in the wetlands, costs and revenues obtained from wetland utilization. Further to questionnaire survey PRA techniques including Focus Group Discussions (FGD) were used as well as participant field observation to supplement

All special features of interest in the area e.g. water sources, valley bottom wetlands, natural grassland ecosystem, miombo woodlands and wooded grasslands were identified and compiled into a lists with a descriptions of their species composition. The identified strata and field data were developed into tables showing a list of different vegetation types and their species composition, abundance and dominance. The abundance and dominance of

each species was determined from their percent cover estimates.

were collected and identified at the National Herbarium in Arusha Tanzania.

350 55' East. The District is situated about 80 km from Iringa Municipality and boarders Iringa rural in the north, Kilolo in north east, Njombe in the south, Kilombero in the south east and Mbarali in the west. Administratively the District is divided into five (5) divisions, 28 wards and 132 villages. The wetlands of Little Ruaha River start from Bumilayinga, Nyololo, Mafinga and Ihalimba wards in Mufindi District (Fig. 1). The River further extends to Kilolo and Iringa Districts crossing the Ipogoro Bridge along the Dar es Salaam – Mbeya road before joining the Great Ruaha River at Mawande village. The entire catchment, lies between latitudes 7o 15' and 8o 35' south and longitudes 35o 00' East covering 4900 km2 and altitude of 600 m to 2100 m above sea level.

Selection of ecological study sites was based on the presence of and extent of valleybottom wetlands within the sites. For the social economic studies villages were selected for the study based on their proximity to wetland ecosystems. Three sites were selected for the ecological studies which include Uchindile with Mpombochi River and Isimani stream plus associated swamps, Idete with Idete River and associated swamps/streams and Mapanda with Mkungwe and Kinoga Rivers and associated swamps/streams. The five villages selected for the socio-economic study include Luganga, Matanana, Igowole, Kisada, Njiapanda and Nzivi villages within the little Ruaha sub catchment of the Great Ruaha River (Figure 1).

Fig. 1. Map of Mufindi District showing the Little Ruaha Wetlands System

#### **3. Data collection**

#### **3.1 Ecological study**

Prior to field surveys the areas were stratified into broad vegetation types using existing topographic and land cover maps. This stratification gave several major vegetation types including woodlands, grasslands, valley bottom wetlands/swamps undisturbed natural vegetation and plantations of different types. While in the field the broad types were further sub divided into sub categories depending on field conditions such as wooded grasslands, natural grasslands, pine plantations and eucalyptus plantations.

Temporary nested quadrats (sample plots) measuring 20 x 20 m (with nested subplots of 10m x 10m, 5m x 5m m, 1m x 1m and 0.5m x 0.5 m) were adopted and established systematically in clusters representing different vegetation types in each stratum on transect lines established along a predetermined compass direction. More than 100 plots were established in each site though the number of plots in each site differed depending on area and an adopted minimum sampling intensity of 0.01% ensuring a sufficient coverage and representation of each stratum. The location of each quadrat (plot) was recorded using Global Positioning System (GPS).

At each quadrat all the plant species encountered were identified, recorded and percent cover determined. For species that were difficult to identify in the field voucher specimens were collected and identified at the National Herbarium in Arusha Tanzania.

## **3.2 Socio-economic study**

222 Ecosystems Biodiversity

350 55' East. The District is situated about 80 km from Iringa Municipality and boarders Iringa rural in the north, Kilolo in north east, Njombe in the south, Kilombero in the south east and Mbarali in the west. Administratively the District is divided into five (5) divisions, 28 wards and 132 villages. The wetlands of Little Ruaha River start from Bumilayinga, Nyololo, Mafinga and Ihalimba wards in Mufindi District (Fig. 1). The River further extends to Kilolo and Iringa Districts crossing the Ipogoro Bridge along the Dar es Salaam – Mbeya road before joining the Great Ruaha River at Mawande village. The entire catchment, lies between latitudes 7o 15' and 8o 35' south and longitudes 35o 00' East covering 4900 km2 and

Selection of ecological study sites was based on the presence of and extent of valleybottom wetlands within the sites. For the social economic studies villages were selected for the study based on their proximity to wetland ecosystems. Three sites were selected for the ecological studies which include Uchindile with Mpombochi River and Isimani stream plus associated swamps, Idete with Idete River and associated swamps/streams and Mapanda with Mkungwe and Kinoga Rivers and associated swamps/streams. The five villages selected for the socio-economic study include Luganga, Matanana, Igowole, Kisada, Njiapanda and Nzivi villages within the little Ruaha sub catchment of the Great Ruaha

The Little Ruaha Wetlands in Mufindi

altitude of 600 m to 2100 m above sea level.

Ruaha Catchment in Mufindi District

Fig. 1. Map of Mufindi District showing the Little Ruaha Wetlands System

Prior to field surveys the areas were stratified into broad vegetation types using existing topographic and land cover maps. This stratification gave several major vegetation types

Tanzania

**3. Data collection 3.1 Ecological study** 

River (Figure 1).

Multistage sampling was used where two divisions within the Little Ruaha sub catchment were selected randomly. Two wards were then selected randomly from each ward. For each ward two villages were selected randomly for the study. The nature of the distribution of wetlands in the Little Ruaha sub-catchment called for purposeful sampling of villages to be included in the study.The selection of villages was based on close proximity to the wetlands with the assumption that the respective communities were more involved with wetlands cultivation as compared to other villages. In this case, Matanana village (Bumilayinga Ward) being in the upper streams and Luganga village (Ifwagi Ward) on the lower stream of the catchment were sampled. Other villages included in the study are Nyololo Njiapanda (Nyololo Ward), Kisada (Bumilayinga Ward) Igowole and Nzivi (Igowole Ward). In each village the village register was used as a sampling frame, households were then randomly selected and a questionnaire administered to heads of the selected households. Households were taken as sampling units in this study and total of 93 households were sampled (44 and 49 households from Luganga and Matanana respectively). The questionnaire sought to get information on whether the household is involved in any kind of wetland utilization, socioeconomic activities undertaken in the wetlands, costs and revenues obtained from wetland utilization. Further to questionnaire survey PRA techniques including Focus Group Discussions (FGD) were used as well as participant field observation to supplement information from household surveys.
