**3. Vegetable marketing**

392 Ecosystems Biodiversity

Vegetables are grown worldwide, on large and small farms, on good and marginal land, and by large commercial growers and small subsistence farmers. According to FAO statistics, the production of vegetables in the world in 2007 was almost 900 million tons (FAO, 2009). Asia produced 74.7% of the world's vegetables (671 million t) on 72.8% of the world's vegetable production area (52.7 million ha). China has always been a large contributor to world vegetable production, and currently produces over 50% of the world's vegetables, which translates to 313 kg per capita. India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world but at almost a six-fold lower level than China. Worldwide the area of arable land devoted to vegetables is expanding at 2.8% annually, higher than fruits (1.75%), oil crops (1.47%), root crops (0.44%) and pulses (0.39%), and at the expense of

The worldwide consumption and importance of vegetables in the diet is difficult to estimate owing to scant production statistics. Even where crop reporting services are an integral part of the agricultural infrastructure, information is available on only a small percentage of the vegetable crops grown. The consumption and caloric contribution of vegetables to the diet varies widely with geographical region, nationality, local customs, and cuisine. China is the largest consumer of vegetables in the world. Vegetables make up about 35% of per capita food consumption in China, a much higher share than the world average (Dias, 2011). Besides India, other southern Asian countries such as Bangladesh, Cambodia, North and South Vietnam, Laos and Philippines are also high producers and great consumer of vegetables. For example, vegetables comprise 40% of the Bangladeshi diet (Dias, 2011). Many vegetables are consumed near where they are produced, especially in Asia. The per capita consumption of vegetables in Asia has increased from 41 kg to 141 kg between 1975 and 2003 (FAO, 2009). Particularly in China the per capita consumption has increased from

Rapid growth in mean per capita incomes in developed countries during the 1990s enabled consumers to purchase a broader range of relatively expensive vegetable commodities such as off-season produce, relatively new or renewed vegetables, and organic produce. Higher incomes of consumers in developed countries have also raised the demand for other attributes such as better quality vegetables and more variation in the daily menu. In developing countries consumption and domestic vegetable markets are also expanding because of an emerging educated middle class with increasing incomes. As worldwide health awareness increases and household income grows, an increasing global demand for vegetables is expected. At the same time, available arable land and a suitable water supply are lessening, so energies should be directed to enhance vegetable productivity and quality. Increasingly, consumers in developed and developing countries are also concerned about the quality and safety of their food, as well as the social and the environmental conditions where it is produced. It is expected that the assurance of safe vegetable products will become increasingly important. Food safety legislation in the European Union, in the United

Desire for year-round availability and increased diversity, and growing health awareness, have also been important reasons for increased consumption of vegetables in developed countries. For example, the dietary benefit of fresh produce is the major reason for the 25% increase in fresh vegetable consumption in the United States during the 1977–1999 period (Regmi & Gehlar, 2001). On the other hand, factors such as increased participation by women in the labor market have created demand for processed, ready-to-eat convenience

States, and in Japan is introducing increasingly stricter standards.

cereals (-0.45%) and fiber crops (-1.82%) (FAO, 2009).

43 kg (1975) to 154 kg (2003).

vegetable products.

Vegetables typically are perishable products that are of specific high value and that usually are sold through specialized markets. Currently more than 60% of the vegetables produced in the world are sold by vegetable growers to wholesale dealers or huge supermarket chains. Relatively few growers sell their product at retail prices to consumers in farm markets. Globally the horticultural product markets are still dominated by a large number of wholesalers or middlemen, which means not only that the producers have a lower profit but also the consumer often does not have access to lower-priced vegetables. Globally growers receive only 30% or less of the retail price. This situation is a serious problem for growers.

Domestic and international markets for vegetables are changing rapidly all over the world, partially fueled by the spread of supermarkets (Dias, 2011). Consumers increasingly purchase their vegetables and other foods in large convenience stores such as supermarkets and hypermarkets. The proliferation of supermarkets in developed and developing countries creates both challenges and opportunities for vegetable producers (Shepherd, 2005; Dias, 2011). Indeed, supermarkets may contribute to a higher demand for horticultural products and increase expectations for quality, safety, and presentation while simultaneously excluding small growers from participating in procurement and contracts. The growing importance of supermarket outlets has implications of its own regarding methods of procurement and quality standards. Supermarkets in the cities bring quality to the shelves. Vegetables are well packed and presented, providing scope for premium quality as well as novelty items. The difficulties that growers can experience is reflected in fairly rapid declines in the numbers of growers involved, as companies tend to delist suppliers who do not meet expectations in terms of volume, quality, and timely delivery. The standards of quality, safety, and presentation make it difficult for the small producers to compete. The market is getting more refined in terms of quality and yield expectations, and there is a clear demand for excellent hybrid vegetable varieties. Success for vegetable growers will depend on their ability to access diverse markets and respond promptly to changes in market conditions. Growers grow vegetables for immediate marketing, and their produce is subject to competition to decide the prices. Hence they cannot compromise the quality of the seeds they use for fear of rejection of their produce. They buy the best seeds, mainly hybrids, and frequently try new products to remain successful. The seed companies in turn get instant response and success if they develop new

Biodiversity and Vegetable Breeding in the Light of Developments in Intellectual Property Rights 395

perishable, restricting the ability of producers to store them to cope with price fluctuations. Reducing postharvest losses would make diversification into vegetable production less risky and more attractive. Postharvest-related quality losses also reduce opportunities for export and export revenues. Improved vegetable varieties subject to fewer postharvest losses can help improve this situation. Competitive participation in international markets requires relatively sophisticated marketing, information, and transportation networks as well as improved varieties, quality control, product

Breeders play a key role in determining what we eat, since the plant varieties (=cultivars) they develop begin the dietary food chain. Vegetable breeding is the development of new vegetable varieties with new proprieties. Innovation in vegetable breeding is dependent on biodiversity and access to genetic resources, on specific knowledge, on the development and application of new technologies, and capital to utilise those factors. Access to genetic biodiversity as well as to technology is essential for the development of new vegetable varieties. The impact of vegetable breeding on vegetable production is dependent upon the complex relationships involving the growers, the varieties available to them, and the developers of those varieties. Vegetable growers consist of commercial producers with varying size land holdings ranging from moderately small farms to very large ones, and poor growers many of them subsistence farmers with small farms often on marginal lands. The subsistence farmers are usually also poor. Several types of varieties are available. The least sophisticated in terms of the method of development are landraces, also known as local varieties. Modern varieties consist of those developed by crossing and selection alone, those developed by crossing and selection but with specific important improvements often obtained from crosses with wild species or by transgenic methods, and F1 hybrids between desirable inbred lines. The developers of landraces are usually the farmers themselves, and are obtained by repeated simple selection procedures generation after generation. Improved

varieties and hybrids are created either by public sector breeders or seed companies.

Farmers in some cases can plant and save their own vegetable seeds, but there are real problems in this system in commercial production, where typically many different species may be grown. In farmer-grown seeds, viability may be low, due to poor seed storage environment, pollination is often uncontrolled, genetic improvement is lacking and seed born diseases including virus may be a problem. Thus, in modern vegetable production the seed business is most efficiently conducted as a distinct industry dominated by international

The consequences of these relationships may be quite profound for the farmers at each level, the seed producers, the availability of food worldwide, and the future of crop biodiversity and sustainability. Therefore, it is worthwhile to examine international policy with regard to genetic resources genetic resources, vegetable breeding and its connections with

As stated biodiversity is the basis for plant breeding. Selection is impossible without diversity and new varieties for farmers and growers cannot be developed without it. This

commercial breeding industry to assess our future expectations.

makes access to this variation essential for breeders.

standardization, and, for some future markets, traceability.

**4.1 Introduction** 

private seed companies.

**4.2 Biodiversity** 

**4. Biodiversity, vegetable migration and vegetable breeding** 

promising hybrids. Price of seeds is a more critical factor in marginal vegetable areas, where capital and spending input regimes are low, but is less important where high yields can be obtained and the grower's produce can be sold profitably. Providing that the benefits of the hybrid seed are understood, the price of seeds is less important than other factors, such as availability of capital, confidence in the produce market, and ability to buy other inputs, such as fertilizers and pesticides.

The increase in total volume of vegetables traded worldwide has been dramatic. Still, compared to overall exports of agricultural products, the importance of vegetable exports remains minor, comprising less than 10%of the total value. However, in recent years, the share of vegetables traded worldwide has been rising and is projected to continue to rise faster than other agricultural products. During the 1990-2010 period, the value of fresh and processed vegetables imported by developed countries surpassed all other categories. Growth in these commodities is also linked to changing trends in consumer preference and food retailing. In this situation, many vegetable growers are eager to produce value-added horticultural crops as compared to field crops and to obtain higher yields of high-quality products. International supermarket chains and large processors are becoming the main buyers of exported fresh vegetables, and small-scale growers worldwide need to be trained and organized to meet the challenge of supplying these international players. The major constraints against the participation of small-scale growers in international vegetable exports are the increasing attention that food quality and safety are receiving in food trade and an expansion in the number of nontariff measures that developed countries apply to horticultural products (Henson & Loader, 2001; Dinham, 2003; Henson et al., 2005).

Vegetables belong to the class of food items most frequently affected by sanitary and phytosanitary measures. Sanitary issues refer to ensuring a safe food supply for consumers, while phytosanitary issues concern the protection of domestic crops from imported pests and diseases. The Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement (SPS) of the World Trade Organization specifies that countries can pursue their own levels of food safety standards. However, SPS issues sometimes are used as a protectionist tool against imports since multilateral trade agreements have reduced the ability to protect domestic production with tariffs and quotas (Henson & Loader, 2001). SPS regulations may be the most important barrier to international trade in fresh vegetables. Thus exporters from less developed countries must be provided training opportunities and information access on how to produce and supply safe products to developed countries. Traceability, phytosanitary, infrastructure, and productivity issues will continue to be a barrier for participation in the vegetable trade for most of the developing world. Application of agricultural chemicals is often poorly regulated, and industrial pollutants are common hazards in the soil, water, and air of developing countries. In the future, the inability of these countries to meet increasingly strict phytosanitary and traceability requirements for food products will constrict exports to developed countries. Small-scale growers and processors in developing countries thus will have to learn to supply safe products with traceability labels, if their participation in global trade is to continue and expand. Technologies for safe and environmentally friendly vegetable production as well as capacity building should therefore gain particular attention for training to enable small-scale growers to participate in vegetable production for international markets.

Horticultural production, particularly in Mediterranean, subtropical, and hot-wet tropical environments, is severely constrained by postharvest losses, which have been estimated as 15%, depending on the crop and season (Kader, 2003). Vegetables often are highly perishable, restricting the ability of producers to store them to cope with price fluctuations. Reducing postharvest losses would make diversification into vegetable production less risky and more attractive. Postharvest-related quality losses also reduce opportunities for export and export revenues. Improved vegetable varieties subject to fewer postharvest losses can help improve this situation. Competitive participation in international markets requires relatively sophisticated marketing, information, and transportation networks as well as improved varieties, quality control, product standardization, and, for some future markets, traceability.
