**Impact of Domestic Animals on Ecosystem Integrity of Lesotho High Altitude Peatlands**

P.J. Du Preez1 and L.R. Brown2

*1Department of Plant Sciences, University of the Free State 2Applied Behavioral Ecology and Ecosystem Research Unit, University of South Africa Republic of South Africa* 

## **1. Introduction**

248 Ecosystems Biodiversity

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Wetlands are considered ecologically sensitive ecosystems with unique habitats for a great variety of plants species, birds, small mammals and other aquatic organisms. The term "wetland" is used to describe various habitats where the soil is wet for extended periods of the year but not necessarily permanently waterlogged (Collins, 2005). Wetlands are formed where surface water collects or where ground-water seeps to the surface for long-enough periods to sustain vegetation typically adapted or tolerant of hydric soil conditions. Thus wetlands comprise a large variety of waterlogged habitats such as bogs, estuaries, fens, floodplains, marshes, peatlands, playas (pans), seeps, springs, and swamps located on various altitudes and topographical locations.

In his book on wetlands of southern Africa, Cowan (1995) used the definition of a wetland as it is stated in Article 1.1 of the Ramsar Convention where it has been defined as: *"areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres*". The South African National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998) defines wetlands as "*land which is transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land periodically covered with shallow water, and which in normal circumstances support or would support vegetation typically adapted to life in saturated soil*".

Peatlands are unique wetland ecosystems in terms of their species composition and age. The process of peat formation is very slow which means that some of these wetlands are ancient as they have a deep peat deposit of over two metres. Peat is organic soil material with a particularly high organic content which, depending on the definition, usually has at least 20% organic carbon by weight. Peatlands are wetlands in which peat (dead plant matter) accumulates due to slow decomposition (Cronk & Fennessy, 2001). These peatlands can be classified into two major types namely bogs and fens. The definition of a **bog** is, a peataccumulating wetland that has no significant water inflows or outflows and supports acidophilic mosses, particularly *Sphagnum* (usually acidic; pH<7). A **fen** is a peataccumulating wetland that receives some water from surrounding mineral soil and usually supports marsh-like vegetation (usually alkaline; pH>7)( Cronk & Fennessy, 2001; Mitch & Gosselink, 2000). According to these definitions, the high-altitude wetlands of Lesotho are therefore incorrectly classified as bogs by Grobbelaar & Stegman (1987), Herbst & Roberts

Impact of Domestic Animals on Ecosystem Integrity of Lesotho High Altitude Peatlands 251

Overgrazing practices and the making of animal tracks on slopes and through wetlands result in erosion, decline in the biomass production and change in the species composition

Due to the sourveld nature of the high alpine vegetation of Lesotho, the wetlands of Lesotho are considered a critical grazing resource by local Basotho herdsmen, especially in summer when thousands of sheep, goats, cattle and horses can be seen grazing on the open wetlands (Figure 1). Grazing areas are communal and controlled primarily by local chiefs (Letsela et al., 2002). The livestock industry in Lesotho has long been a vital component of the economic and social structure of the country (Mpiti-Shakhane et al., 2002) and due to the open nature (unfenced) of the Lesotho wetlands it will be a challenge to alter this over exploitation in the

Fig. 1. Grazing of domestic animals in the high-altitude wetlands of Lesotho.

The vegetation of the study area falls within the Lesotho Highland Basalt Grassland (Gd 8) as described by Mucina & Rutherford (2006). Although this vegetation type is one of the most endemic-rich vegetation units in the Drakensberg Alpine Centre, only 1% of it is statutorily conserved. Except for the Sehlabathebe and Bokong National Parks, the rest of the conservation areas are situated in South Africa. This implies that in Lesotho, less that 1% of the area is officially conserved. A large transfrontier park, namely the Maloti-Transfrontier Park is planned to protect the high-altitude vegetation of Lesotho and South Africa. In order to determine the effect of grazing on these sensitive ecosystems this

For this study, selected high-altitude peatlands influenced by domestic animals, were studied and compared with near pristine high-altitude peatlands in the nearby eastern Free State of South Africa. This was done by comparing the biomass production, vegetation structure and plant species composition. These comparisons allow for the assessment of the current state of these peatlands and recommendations to manage these human-impacted

of the wetlands and surrounding catchments.

near future.

investigation was undertaken.

sensitive ecosystems in a sustainable manner.

(1974a & b), Jacot-Guillarmod (1962, 1963, 1972), Van Zinderen Bakker (1955), Van Zinderen Bakker & Werger (1974). Intermediate types can also be found which are transitional between a bog and fen and a couple of defining parameters such as pH/alkalinity, hydrology, and nutrient availability as well as plant community structure are needed to distinguish accurately between a bog and fen. In view of this difficulty, Cronk & Fennessy (2001) suggests that the term **peatland** should be used. For this study the Lesotho highaltitude wetlands will therefore be referred to as peatlands.

The functions and values of wetlands are well-known. Collins (2005) classifies these benefits as either direct or indirect benefits to mankind and to the environment. Direct benefits of wetlands are water supply, provision of harvestable resources, socio-cultural significance, tourism and recreation, and education and research. The indirect benefits are hydrological benefits such as water purification, sustained stream flow, flood reduction, groundwater recharge / discharge, and erosion control. Other indirect benefits are biodiversity conservation (integrity and irreplaceablility), and chemical cycling (Kotze, 1999, 2010; Kotze et al., 2008). Direct benefits include grazing, fibre for construction and handcraft production, fisheries, hunting of waterfowl and wildlife, valuable land for cultivation, and a valuable source of water (Collins, 2005). The peatlands of the Lesotho highlands deliver most of these direct and indirect goods and services to the environment.

For many years wetlands throughout the world have been regarded as "cheap land" that could be drained and used for development purposes. In South Africa many slimes dams from mines are located on wetlands or directly adjacent to these sensitive ecosystems. This has led to the destruction of natural vegetation and its associated animal species as well as its total ecosystem functioning. In many cases exotic invasive plant species such as the tree *Eucalyptus* spp. (blue gum), the shrub *Tamarix chinensis,* and the grasses *Cortaderia jubata, C. selloana,* and *Pennisetum clandestinum,* are planted in an attempt to dry up and stabilise the slimes dams. Various other developments such as housing, retail parks, and industrial areas have either completely destroyed wetland ecosystems or hugely impacted on its ecological functioning. Agriculture, damming of water, and invasion of alien plant species have also resulted in the destruction of wetland ecosystems and their functioning. Many crop fields and forest plantations have been established on wetlands thereby displacing the natural vegetation and animal species. The mining of peat for commercial purposes has also degraded a large number of these sensitive ecosystems.

Whereas the wetlands in South Africa are threatened by a number of human activities the wetlands of Lesotho are mostly threatened by agricultural activities such as grazing. The riverheads of the Senqu River System are situated in the Maluti Mountains of the Lesotho Kingdom where they all have their sources in high-altitude peatlands. The functioning of these high-altitude peatlands can be negatively affected by human activities. The peatlands of the Lesotho highlands are under serious threat of human activities. Jacot-Guillarmod already mentioned in 1969 that the Lesotho wetlands are under threat of degradation due to over-utilisation. The land of Lesotho belongs to the people of Lesotho, meaning that all pastoral land is held communally. Everyone has the right to use the land and its products. The land use in the upper catchments is pastoral. The land is subdivided into areas "owned" by a ward chief who may delegate his power to subordinate chiefs or headmen. Control over the numbers of domestic animals and periods they graze the wetlands is almost impossible. The resultant impact on the aquatic and semi-aquatic vegetation is severe.

(1974a & b), Jacot-Guillarmod (1962, 1963, 1972), Van Zinderen Bakker (1955), Van Zinderen Bakker & Werger (1974). Intermediate types can also be found which are transitional between a bog and fen and a couple of defining parameters such as pH/alkalinity, hydrology, and nutrient availability as well as plant community structure are needed to distinguish accurately between a bog and fen. In view of this difficulty, Cronk & Fennessy (2001) suggests that the term **peatland** should be used. For this study the Lesotho high-

The functions and values of wetlands are well-known. Collins (2005) classifies these benefits as either direct or indirect benefits to mankind and to the environment. Direct benefits of wetlands are water supply, provision of harvestable resources, socio-cultural significance, tourism and recreation, and education and research. The indirect benefits are hydrological benefits such as water purification, sustained stream flow, flood reduction, groundwater recharge / discharge, and erosion control. Other indirect benefits are biodiversity conservation (integrity and irreplaceablility), and chemical cycling (Kotze, 1999, 2010; Kotze et al., 2008). Direct benefits include grazing, fibre for construction and handcraft production, fisheries, hunting of waterfowl and wildlife, valuable land for cultivation, and a valuable source of water (Collins, 2005). The peatlands of the Lesotho highlands deliver most of these direct and indirect goods and

For many years wetlands throughout the world have been regarded as "cheap land" that could be drained and used for development purposes. In South Africa many slimes dams from mines are located on wetlands or directly adjacent to these sensitive ecosystems. This has led to the destruction of natural vegetation and its associated animal species as well as its total ecosystem functioning. In many cases exotic invasive plant species such as the tree *Eucalyptus* spp. (blue gum), the shrub *Tamarix chinensis,* and the grasses *Cortaderia jubata, C. selloana,* and *Pennisetum clandestinum,* are planted in an attempt to dry up and stabilise the slimes dams. Various other developments such as housing, retail parks, and industrial areas have either completely destroyed wetland ecosystems or hugely impacted on its ecological functioning. Agriculture, damming of water, and invasion of alien plant species have also resulted in the destruction of wetland ecosystems and their functioning. Many crop fields and forest plantations have been established on wetlands thereby displacing the natural vegetation and animal species. The mining of peat for commercial purposes has also

Whereas the wetlands in South Africa are threatened by a number of human activities the wetlands of Lesotho are mostly threatened by agricultural activities such as grazing. The riverheads of the Senqu River System are situated in the Maluti Mountains of the Lesotho Kingdom where they all have their sources in high-altitude peatlands. The functioning of these high-altitude peatlands can be negatively affected by human activities. The peatlands of the Lesotho highlands are under serious threat of human activities. Jacot-Guillarmod already mentioned in 1969 that the Lesotho wetlands are under threat of degradation due to over-utilisation. The land of Lesotho belongs to the people of Lesotho, meaning that all pastoral land is held communally. Everyone has the right to use the land and its products. The land use in the upper catchments is pastoral. The land is subdivided into areas "owned" by a ward chief who may delegate his power to subordinate chiefs or headmen. Control over the numbers of domestic animals and periods they graze the wetlands is almost impossible. The resultant impact on the aquatic and semi-aquatic vegetation is severe.

altitude wetlands will therefore be referred to as peatlands.

degraded a large number of these sensitive ecosystems.

services to the environment.

Overgrazing practices and the making of animal tracks on slopes and through wetlands result in erosion, decline in the biomass production and change in the species composition of the wetlands and surrounding catchments.

Due to the sourveld nature of the high alpine vegetation of Lesotho, the wetlands of Lesotho are considered a critical grazing resource by local Basotho herdsmen, especially in summer when thousands of sheep, goats, cattle and horses can be seen grazing on the open wetlands (Figure 1). Grazing areas are communal and controlled primarily by local chiefs (Letsela et al., 2002). The livestock industry in Lesotho has long been a vital component of the economic and social structure of the country (Mpiti-Shakhane et al., 2002) and due to the open nature (unfenced) of the Lesotho wetlands it will be a challenge to alter this over exploitation in the near future.

Fig. 1. Grazing of domestic animals in the high-altitude wetlands of Lesotho.

The vegetation of the study area falls within the Lesotho Highland Basalt Grassland (Gd 8) as described by Mucina & Rutherford (2006). Although this vegetation type is one of the most endemic-rich vegetation units in the Drakensberg Alpine Centre, only 1% of it is statutorily conserved. Except for the Sehlabathebe and Bokong National Parks, the rest of the conservation areas are situated in South Africa. This implies that in Lesotho, less that 1% of the area is officially conserved. A large transfrontier park, namely the Maloti-Transfrontier Park is planned to protect the high-altitude vegetation of Lesotho and South Africa. In order to determine the effect of grazing on these sensitive ecosystems this investigation was undertaken.

For this study, selected high-altitude peatlands influenced by domestic animals, were studied and compared with near pristine high-altitude peatlands in the nearby eastern Free State of South Africa. This was done by comparing the biomass production, vegetation structure and plant species composition. These comparisons allow for the assessment of the current state of these peatlands and recommendations to manage these human-impacted sensitive ecosystems in a sustainable manner.

Impact of Domestic Animals on Ecosystem Integrity of Lesotho High Altitude Peatlands 253

As far as the geology is concerned the entire Lesotho highland is underlain by basalt of the Lesotho formation and, to a lesser extent, dolerite and gabbro. The basalt is an igneous rock that covered the Clarens Formation about 120 million years ago when Gondwana begun to breakup. Basaltic colluvium and alluvium are the geologic material for the deep soils of the mountain valleys and accumulation glacis (Schmitz & Rooyani, 1987). The soils, at altitude, are mostly shallow and have more or less even proportions of gravel, coarse sand, fine sand, silt and clay particles. The breakdown of organic matter is a slow process due to the long periods of very low temperatures. Especially in the peatlands the accumulation of peat is the result of the decaying roots of the various plants species present on these wetlands. The peat

A total of 18 sample plots were surveyed in the reference as well as restoration catchments of the four study sites. Plot sizes were fixed at 4 x 4 m to give a total surface area of 16 m² (Du Preez, 1991; Malan, 1998). All plant species growing in the sample plots were recorded and their cover abundance assessed using a modified Braun-Blanquet cover abundance scale (Brown, et al., 2005; Mueller-Dombois & Ellenberg, 1974; Westhoff & Van

Environmental data recorded in each sample plot included aspect, slope, exposure, the size of the rocks, latitude and longitude, altitude, locality, geology, the per cent of area covered by rock, topography, the degree of surface erosion (indicated as low moderate and severe), the degree of trampling, drainage, soil depth and notes on management and utilisation as

The habitat as well as floristic data was processed with the TURBOVEG database (Hennekens & Schaminée, 2001). A first approximation was done with the TWINSPAN (two-way indicator-species analysis) algorithm of Hill (1979). The JUICE program (Lubomír 2002) was used to generate a phytosociological table (Table 1), which was refined by Braun-

From a grazing and resilience point of view, production or yield is one of the most important measures in assessing an ecosystem (Carpenter et al., 2001). Biomass or standing crop usually refers to the weight of organisms present at one time (Pieper, 1978). Most estimates of plant biomass or standing crop include only that above the soil surfaces. This material is commonly available to large herbivores. Direct harvesting is considered the most reliable method of determining aboveground biomass (De Leeuw et al., 1991; Snyman & Fouché, 1993). For this study two exclosure plots of 25 m² were erected within each of the

Biomass was determined in each of the exclosure and grazed plots as well in the other peatland systems by randomly placing 0.5 m2 quadrats in these areas and cutting the herbaceous material down to ground level (Figure 3). The grass and forb species were

The Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA by Ranks test (Welman et al., 2007) was used to compare the biomass (kilogram Dry Matter/hectare)(kg DM/ha) of the plots by grazing type while the

has a high water-retention.

**3. Methods** 

**3.1 Vegetation data** 

der Maarel, 1980).

Blanquet procedures.

**3.2 Biomass** 

well as total percentage canopy cover.

Khalong-la-Lithunya and Koti-Sephola peatland sites.

separated and dried a drying oven at 65°C for 48 hours (Cleaver, 2004).
