**4. Threats to marine biodiversity**

Any plan to achieve effective conservation of biodiversity and the functionality of the natural systems requires precise knowledge of the sources of actual or potential hazards or pressures and where and how those pressures could affect ecosystems and their components. Such pressures (pollution, resource exploitation, etc.) cause environmental disturbances in a given area, impacting the biological attributes of the biota or physical components of the ecosystem. Threats to biodiversity can then be described as a pressure source, by its spatial coverage, and the intensity of its actual or potential impacts. The Orinoco Delta and the Venezuelan Atlantic Front are very diverse collections of particular marine and coastal ecosystems (mangrove and palm forests, sand barriers, estuary and micro watershed nets, muddy/sandy marine bottoms, demersal fish and crustacean

Biodiversity and Conservation of the Estuarine

Channel dredging and flux

Water pollution and upper

river basin impacts

Introduction of alien

species

impacts.

control

**Threat Description of impact** 

and Marine Ecosystems of the Venezuelan Orinoco Delta 81

poorly controlled extraction of fish and some invertebrates organisms, and the disruption of the bottom sediments

controlled extraction of organisms by different fishing techniques (traps, seines, small trawling nets, hooks).

transformation and destruction, wildlife extraction and commercialization, introduction of non-native species, solid and liquid wastes, noise, etc. Effects depend on the size of human settlements and population density (i.e., large, dense

agricultural activities like habitat transformation, wildlife extraction, introduction of non-native species, solid and liquid wastes, and chemical pollution of land and water bodies.

Regular disturbance of soft-bottom benthic communities and increased suspended sediments due to major and maintenance dredging activities in the navigation channels. Regulation of water flux affects natural migration patterns of species.

Water quality alteration due to high loads or regularly elevated loads of pollutants delivered by the river delta. Related to urban and agricultural activities in the upper basin. Effects could be propagated towards the open sea, depending on river

extraction of construction material for housing and fishing gear could produce locally important habitat loss of mangrove and

decommissioning). Existing and planned activities equally

ports including maneuvering, loading and unloading operations, and repairs. Fishing and sport marinas are also

alien species, and pollution sources from bilge water

Competition, displacement and extinction of local species. Impact on fisheries due to predation of juveniles of commercial species, and on human health (transmission of diseases).

Industrial fisheries Effects on fish and soft bottom communities produced by

produced by trawling nets. Artisanal fisheries Effects on fish and invertebrates populations by poorly

Coastal urban development Impacts generated by human activities such as habitat

towns, greater impacts). Agricultural activities Consider threats due to normal or poorly regulated

discharge.

considered.

considered.

discharges.

Mangrove deforestation Though highly controlled as industrial activities, local

its associated communities. Oil industry activities Impacts produced by all stages of an oil industry project

Ports and marinas Impact produced by regular activities of vessels at commercial

Maritime corridors Major navigation routes. May serve as dispersion agents for

Table 6. Summary of threats to marine and coastal biodiversity and description of their

(exploration, development, exploitation, and

populations), with relatively limited coastal and marine area (35,000 km²). In general, all these ecosystems are healthy, with minimal disturbance. In this generally pristine landscape, there are some small urban and rural communities, whose presence determines the occupation and use of the area. The delta environment provides several types of resources for the people who live there (Creole and indigenous communities), and, in turn, the residents create different threats to the ecosystems, which in some cases, measurably impacts them.

In addition, in light of recent Venezuelan governmental strategies to boost the economy, the national oil industry has initiated a large scale project for offshore and nearshore gas exploitation, covering more than 25% of Venezuela's territorial sea and EEZ. This development could pose a significant threat to marine biodiversity in the region and to traditional livelihoods of local human populations. Few models have been developed to measure the impact of the human activities on the marine environment.

On a global scale, the model developed by Halpern et al. (2008), propose a 'low cumulative impact score' for the Golfo de Paria and Atlantic Front. In this estimation, impacts for the region generated by fisheries are minor and nonexistent for the oil and gas activities. In a more detailed model with higher spatial resolution (Klein & Cárdenas, 2009), fisheries and oil and gas activities (exploration, production, and decommissioning) have a high incidence in shaping the threats map (Figure 4).

Fig. 4. Map of the Orinoco Delta and Gulf of Paria region in the Venezuelan Atlantic front showing the areas under threat by human activities.

The marine region of the Orinoco Delta supports important fisheries that provide 10,000 tons/year (around 5 % of the total marine national catch). The fishery targets mainly species

populations), with relatively limited coastal and marine area (35,000 km²). In general, all these ecosystems are healthy, with minimal disturbance. In this generally pristine landscape, there are some small urban and rural communities, whose presence determines the occupation and use of the area. The delta environment provides several types of resources for the people who live there (Creole and indigenous communities), and, in turn, the residents create different threats to the ecosystems, which in some cases, measurably

In addition, in light of recent Venezuelan governmental strategies to boost the economy, the national oil industry has initiated a large scale project for offshore and nearshore gas exploitation, covering more than 25% of Venezuela's territorial sea and EEZ. This development could pose a significant threat to marine biodiversity in the region and to traditional livelihoods of local human populations. Few models have been developed to

On a global scale, the model developed by Halpern et al. (2008), propose a 'low cumulative impact score' for the Golfo de Paria and Atlantic Front. In this estimation, impacts for the region generated by fisheries are minor and nonexistent for the oil and gas activities. In a more detailed model with higher spatial resolution (Klein & Cárdenas, 2009), fisheries and oil and gas activities (exploration, production, and decommissioning) have a high incidence

Fig. 4. Map of the Orinoco Delta and Gulf of Paria region in the Venezuelan Atlantic front

The marine region of the Orinoco Delta supports important fisheries that provide 10,000 tons/year (around 5 % of the total marine national catch). The fishery targets mainly species

showing the areas under threat by human activities.

measure the impact of the human activities on the marine environment.

impacts them.

in shaping the threats map (Figure 4).


Table 6. Summary of threats to marine and coastal biodiversity and description of their impacts.

Biodiversity and Conservation of the Estuarine

industry in planning their operations.

fisheries resources.

and Marine Ecosystems of the Venezuelan Orinoco Delta 83

conservation. The proposed portfolio of priority conservation areas would add 17,681 km² of mostly marine areas to the formally protected areas (Figure 5). The proposed PCAs overlap to some extent with existing protected areas, but in many cases, areas not considered before are included. Although these additional PCAs have not been formally adopted by an official environmental agency, the associated conservation strategies are being used by the oil

Considering the remoteness and limited accessibility of most of this region, adequate management of protected areas represents a challenge. In many cases, areas are accessible only by river or by air, although human activities are already taking place. Controlling and surveying the main threats is difficult at best, so their cumulative impacts may affect the biodiversity of the region. A major enforcement effort is necessary to provide basic services needed to guarantee effective implementation of conservation strategies for the region, which could be related to innovative management plans for the current and future protected areas. Such plans should not only regulate the landscape and its elements, but also consider the administration of trans-regional exploited populations, as are the widely distributed

Fig. 5. Map of the Orinoco Delta and Gulf of Paria region in the Venezuelan Atlantic front showing the protected areas (NP= National Parks), the Orinoco Biosphere Reserve declared by UNESCO, and the proposed conservation areas considering present and future threats to

biodiversity using an ecosystem based model.

of Ariidae, Sciaenidae, Carangidae, Lutjanidae and Scombridae families in waters up to 60m depth. Industrial trawling, which fished mainly for shrimp, was banned in 2009, but artisanal trawling still persists near the coast. Poorly controlled, artisanal trawling represents a major threat to marine coastal biodiversity because of its intensity and the large swath of area it covers in highly sensitive coastal environments.

Although in early stages of development, offshore and nearshore gas reserves represent 2.4% of the total national gas reserves (6-10 TCF). Some structures are already in place (Pedernales subregion) and exploratory offshore drilling is ongoing (Oceanic subregion). Plans are that all gas production is directed to a new inland facility (CIGMA: Industrial Complex Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho) that will be built near Güiria (Península de Paria subregion). This transport and processing complex will directly affect 63 km² of coastal area and indirectly 110 km² of marine area. Its construction and operation will generate an elevated demand of services in what is now a poorly developed area. The environmental impacts of this complex have been evaluated, but little has been done to reduce or mitigate them.

At present, a number of major threats to Venezuelan marine biodiversity have been identified, quantified and mapped (Table 6). The threats and the potentially affected ecosystems can be viewed at http://paria.cbm.usb.ve/mapas/dinamicos , and Martínez-Escarbassiere et al. (2003), Lasso & Sánchez-Duarte (2011) and Lasso-Alcalá et al. (2005a, 2005b, 2009).

#### **5. Conservation initiatives**

The Orinoco Delta region has been recognized as one of the most pristine and biodiversity rich environments of Venezuela. Since 1979, three major National Parks have been established, covering a total of 4,385 km². All parks are classified as type II (IUCN, 1994), which mean they are managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation. None, however, includes a significant portion of their marine areas. To help rectify this, in 1991, the Orinoco Delta Biosphere Reserve was decreed by the Venezuelan Ministry of the Environment, and designated by UNESCO in 2009, to protect a land and water surface of 11,250 km². The reserve was created to protect the rich biodiversity of plants, animals and cultural features, and encompasses about 4,500 km² of marine and estuarine area. In 2002, a major effort also was made to evaluate the biodiversity of the reserve, and the investigations produced the first integrated and geo-referenced inventory of vegetation, mammals and aquatic and marine biota of the reserve (Bone et al., 2004).

Despite the establishment of the protected areas for the region, a new approach was initiated that considered present and future threats to the area's biodiversity (Klein and Cárdenas, 2010). Using an ecosystem-based model (Possingham et al., 2000), nine areas were proposed for implementation of special conservation strategies (priority conservation areas or PCA). This approach took into account the health status and vulnerability of the main ecosystems, and their populations, and the costs of implementing viable conservation actions, considering the cumulative potential threats for the region. A similar analysis was made for the Venezuela's Caribbean Sea (Klein, 2008). One of the most innovative characteristics of this ecosystem-based model is that it takes into account the future plans of offshore oil and gas development, while recognizing the coexistence of development and

of Ariidae, Sciaenidae, Carangidae, Lutjanidae and Scombridae families in waters up to 60m depth. Industrial trawling, which fished mainly for shrimp, was banned in 2009, but artisanal trawling still persists near the coast. Poorly controlled, artisanal trawling represents a major threat to marine coastal biodiversity because of its intensity and the large

Although in early stages of development, offshore and nearshore gas reserves represent 2.4% of the total national gas reserves (6-10 TCF). Some structures are already in place (Pedernales subregion) and exploratory offshore drilling is ongoing (Oceanic subregion). Plans are that all gas production is directed to a new inland facility (CIGMA: Industrial Complex Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho) that will be built near Güiria (Península de Paria subregion). This transport and processing complex will directly affect 63 km² of coastal area and indirectly 110 km² of marine area. Its construction and operation will generate an elevated demand of services in what is now a poorly developed area. The environmental impacts of this complex have been evaluated, but little has been done to reduce or

At present, a number of major threats to Venezuelan marine biodiversity have been identified, quantified and mapped (Table 6). The threats and the potentially affected ecosystems can be viewed at http://paria.cbm.usb.ve/mapas/dinamicos , and Martínez-Escarbassiere et al. (2003), Lasso & Sánchez-Duarte (2011) and Lasso-Alcalá et al. (2005a,

The Orinoco Delta region has been recognized as one of the most pristine and biodiversity rich environments of Venezuela. Since 1979, three major National Parks have been established, covering a total of 4,385 km². All parks are classified as type II (IUCN, 1994), which mean they are managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation. None, however, includes a significant portion of their marine areas. To help rectify this, in 1991, the Orinoco Delta Biosphere Reserve was decreed by the Venezuelan Ministry of the Environment, and designated by UNESCO in 2009, to protect a land and water surface of 11,250 km². The reserve was created to protect the rich biodiversity of plants, animals and cultural features, and encompasses about 4,500 km² of marine and estuarine area. In 2002, a major effort also was made to evaluate the biodiversity of the reserve, and the investigations produced the first integrated and geo-referenced inventory of vegetation, mammals and

Despite the establishment of the protected areas for the region, a new approach was initiated that considered present and future threats to the area's biodiversity (Klein and Cárdenas, 2010). Using an ecosystem-based model (Possingham et al., 2000), nine areas were proposed for implementation of special conservation strategies (priority conservation areas or PCA). This approach took into account the health status and vulnerability of the main ecosystems, and their populations, and the costs of implementing viable conservation actions, considering the cumulative potential threats for the region. A similar analysis was made for the Venezuela's Caribbean Sea (Klein, 2008). One of the most innovative characteristics of this ecosystem-based model is that it takes into account the future plans of offshore oil and gas development, while recognizing the coexistence of development and

swath of area it covers in highly sensitive coastal environments.

mitigate them.

2005b, 2009).

**5. Conservation initiatives** 

aquatic and marine biota of the reserve (Bone et al., 2004).

conservation. The proposed portfolio of priority conservation areas would add 17,681 km² of mostly marine areas to the formally protected areas (Figure 5). The proposed PCAs overlap to some extent with existing protected areas, but in many cases, areas not considered before are included. Although these additional PCAs have not been formally adopted by an official environmental agency, the associated conservation strategies are being used by the oil industry in planning their operations.

Considering the remoteness and limited accessibility of most of this region, adequate management of protected areas represents a challenge. In many cases, areas are accessible only by river or by air, although human activities are already taking place. Controlling and surveying the main threats is difficult at best, so their cumulative impacts may affect the biodiversity of the region. A major enforcement effort is necessary to provide basic services needed to guarantee effective implementation of conservation strategies for the region, which could be related to innovative management plans for the current and future protected areas. Such plans should not only regulate the landscape and its elements, but also consider the administration of trans-regional exploited populations, as are the widely distributed fisheries resources.

Fig. 5. Map of the Orinoco Delta and Gulf of Paria region in the Venezuelan Atlantic front showing the protected areas (NP= National Parks), the Orinoco Biosphere Reserve declared by UNESCO, and the proposed conservation areas considering present and future threats to biodiversity using an ecosystem based model.

Biodiversity and Conservation of the Estuarine

and Marine Ecosystems of the Venezuelan Orinoco Delta 85

Antonio, M. E. & Lasso, C. (2003). Los peces del río Morichal Largo, estados Monagas y

Baker, H. B. (1923). The Mollusca collected by the University of Michigan, Williamson

Baker, H. B. (1925). The Mollusca collected by the University of Michigan, Williamson

Baker, H. B. (1927). The Mollusca collected by the University of Michigan, Williamson

Bone, D.; Machado, A.; Spinello, P.; Ortaz, M.; Posada, J.; Molinet, R.; Yerena, E.; Rodríguez,

Campo, M. (2004). Inventario preliminar de la ictiofauna de la Reserva de Fauna Silvestre

Cervigón, F. (1965). Exploratory Fishing off the Orinoco Delta. *Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute*, 17th Session, pp. 20 – 23, ISSN 0072-9019 Cervigón, F. (1982). La ictiofauna estuarina del caño Mánamo y áreas adyacentes, In: *Los* 

Cervigón, F. (1985). La ictiofauna de las aguas estuarinas del delta del río Orinoco en la costa

Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, ISBN 968-837-618-3, México Conde, J.E. (2000). The Orinoco River Delta, Venezuela, In: *Coastal Marine Ecosystems of Latin* 

Colonnello, G. (2004). Las planicies deltaicas del río Orinoco y Golfo de Paria: aspectos

37, Conservation International, Washington DC, USA, ISBN 1-881173-76-3 Conde, J.E. & Alarcon, C. (1993). Mangroves of Venezuela, In: *Conservation and Sustainable* 

Costello, M. J.; Coll, M.; Danovaro, R.; Halpin, P.; Ojaveer, H. & Miloslavich, P. (2010). A

*Ciencias Naturales,* Vol.161-162, pp. 41-60, ISSN 0037-8518

*Ciencias Naturales,* Vol.156, pp. 5-118, ISSN 0037-8518

*Michigan,* Vol.137, pp. 1-158, ISSN 0076-8413

*Michigan,* Vol.156, pp. 1-56, ISSN 0076-8413

*Michigan,* Vol.182, pp. 1-50, ISSN 0076-8413

Bolívar, Caracas, Venezuela, 644 p.

Timber Organization, Okinawa, Japan

Caracas, Venezuela

Germany

Anzoátegui, cuenca del río Orinoco, Venezuela. *Memoria de la Fundación La Salle de* 

Expedition in Venezuela, *Occasional Papers of the Museum of Zoology, University of* 

Expedition in Venezuela, *Occasional Papers of the Museum of Zoology, University of* 

Expedition in Venezuela, *Occasional Papers of the Museum of Zoology, University of* 

C.; Klein, E. & Martín, A. (Eds.). (2004). *Conservación y uso sustentable de la diversidad biológica en la Reserva de Biosfera y los Humedales del Delta del Orinoco. Evaluación Ecológica Rápida de la Fauna Acuática,* Final Report, INTECMAR, Universidad Simón

Gran Morichal, Estado Monagas, Venezuela. *Memoria de la Fundación La Salle de* 

*recursos pesqueros del río Orinoco y su explotación,* D. Novoa (Ed.), 205-260, Corporación Venezolana de Guayana, Editorial Arte, Legal deposit lf 82-3.784,

atlántica occidental, Caribe, In: *Ecología de comunidades de peces en estuarios y lagunas costeras: hacia una integración de ecosistemas*, A. Yáñez-Arancibia (Ed.), 57-78, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Programa Universitario de Alimentos,

*America,* U. Seeliger & B. Kjerve (Eds.), Springer-Verlag, ISBN 3-540-67228, Berlin,

físicos y vegetación. In: *Evaluación rápida de la biodiversidad y aspectos sociales de los ecosistemas acuáticos del delta del río Orinoco y Golfo de Paria, Venezuela,* C. A. Lasso, L. E. Alonso, A. L. Flores & G. Love (Eds.), 37-54, Boletín RAP de Evaluación Biológica

*Utilization of Mangrove Forest in the Latin America and Africa Regions. Part 1,* L.D. Lacerda (Ed.), 211-244, Serie Mangrove Ecosystems, Technical Report. Vol. 2, The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems and The International Tropical

Census of Marine Biodiversity Knowledge, Resources, and Future Challenges. *PLoS ONE,* Vol.5, No.8, e12110. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012110, ISSN 1932-6203
