**2. World importance of vegetables**

390 Ecosystems Biodiversity

In the 1970's breeders' rights protection has been provided through International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV), which coordinates an international common legal regime for plant variety protection. Protection was granted for those who develop or discover varieties that are new, distinct, uniform, and stable. Varieties may be either sexually or asexually propagated. Coverage is for 20 years for herbaceous species. Protective ownership was extended by UPOV in 1991 to include essentially derived varieties. At the same time, the farmer's exemption (that permitted farmers to save seed for their own use) was restricted, giving member states the option to allow farmer's to save seed. In addition, after 1998 in Europe, and 2001 in the United States plant breeding companies can take advantages of patent laws to protect not only the variety itself but all of the plant's parts (pollen, seeds), the progeny of the variety, the genes or genetic sequences involved, and the method by which the variety was developed. The seed can be used only for research that does not include development of a commercial product i.e., another variety, unless licensed by the patent older. The patents are considered the ultimate protective device alowing neither a farmer's exemption nor a breeder's exemption (that permitted that the protected variety could be used by others in further breeding to create

Research and development (R&D) for improved seed development is expensive. Such product protection has presented a business incentive to corporations to invest in the seed industry, which supported an enormous increase in private R&D leading to strong competition in the marketplace between the major seed companies. The majority of current vegetable varieties sold nowadays are proprietary products developed by private R&D. A significant consequence of this increase in R&D has been a reduction in public breeding programs. As a result, the cost for R&D to develop new varieties is shifting from the

publicly supported research programs to the customers of the major seed companies.

One of the main factors that determine success in vegetable production is biodiversity and genetic capacity. No practical breeding program can succeed without large numbers of lines (genotypes) to evaluate, select, recombine and inbreed (fix genetically). This effort must be organized, so valid conclusions can be reached and decisions made. Scientists, breeders, support people and facilities, budgets, and good management are requirements to assure success in the vegetable seed business. Science must be state-of-the-art to maximize success in a competitive business environment. Since the continued need for fundamental breeding research is critical to support development of new technology and expansion of the knowledge base that supports variety development, competition among proprietary varieties results in owner-companies striving to do the best possible research to develop their own products and to compete on genetic and physiological quality of vegetable seed in the marketplace. Reasonable profit margins are necessary to pay back the R&D costs to the owner and to fund future research on developing even better vegetable varieties to stay competitive. There is considerable genetic variation within the various vegetable species, which can be exploited in the development of superior proprietary varieties. The consequences of this dynamic situation will mean relatively short-lived varieties replaced by either the owner of the variety or a competitor seed company. This intense competition means constantly improved and more sophisticated varieties for the vegetable industry. Seed companies are in the business of manipulating genes to improve plant variety performance for a profit. The success of the research is judged by the success of the product in making a reasonable profit. The research must improve economic performance starting

new varieties).

Vegetables make up a major portion of the diet of humans in many parts of the world and are considered essential for well-balanced diets since they supply vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber, and phytochemicals and have been associated with improvement of gastrointestinal health –good vision, and reduced risk of heart disease, stroke, chronic diseases such as diabetes, and some forms of cancer (Keatinge et al., 2010).

"Hidden hunger" or micronutrient deficiency is a pernicious problem that is caused by a lak of vitamins and minerals such as vitamin A, iodine and iron in the human diet and affects the health of between 2 and 3.5 billion people in the developing world (Pfeiffer & McClafferty, 2007). The consequences of micronutrient deficiency are: higher mortality, higher morbidity, lower cognitive ability and work productivity, and impaired growth and reproduction. Vegetables, due to their biodiversity, with increased available iron, zinc, and caroten, and enhanced protein quality could greatly improve the nutrition, health, and quality of life of these people. Diversifying diets with vegetables is a potent weapon in the current global battle against malnutrition. Food security and nutrition is not only about solving the urgency in the short-term; it must also address the long-term issue of poverty alleviation and economic growth. Greater investment in agriculture, including breeding and variety development, more effective development aid, and reforms to trade and domestic policies are all part of the solution.

Biodiversity and Vegetable Breeding in the Light of Developments in Intellectual Property Rights 393

A world vegetable survey showed that 392 vegetable crops are cultivated worldwide, representing 70 families and 225 genera (Kays & Dias, 1995, 1996); non-cultivated species, lower organisms (e.g. fungi), most trees and woody shrubs, and plants grown in or gathered from salt water were excluded. Vegetable crops, of which the leaves or young leafy shoots are consumed, were the most common group of vegetables utilized (53% of the total), followed by vegetable fruits (15%). Below ground crop vegetable organs ranked as follows in frequency of use: roots>tubers>rhizomes>corms>stolons, and together comprised 17% of the total number. Many vegetable crops have more than one part used. Most of the vegetables are marketed fresh with only a small proportion processed. Of these marketed vegetables, only 67 (17%) have attracted great breeding attention by international seed companies, due to their large area of production and substantial consumption, 52 (13%)

Vegetables typically are perishable products that are of specific high value and that usually are sold through specialized markets. Currently more than 60% of the vegetables produced in the world are sold by vegetable growers to wholesale dealers or huge supermarket chains. Relatively few growers sell their product at retail prices to consumers in farm markets. Globally the horticultural product markets are still dominated by a large number of wholesalers or middlemen, which means not only that the producers have a lower profit but also the consumer often does not have access to lower-priced vegetables. Globally growers receive only 30% or less of the retail price. This situation is a serious

Domestic and international markets for vegetables are changing rapidly all over the world, partially fueled by the spread of supermarkets (Dias, 2011). Consumers increasingly purchase their vegetables and other foods in large convenience stores such as supermarkets and hypermarkets. The proliferation of supermarkets in developed and developing countries creates both challenges and opportunities for vegetable producers (Shepherd, 2005; Dias, 2011). Indeed, supermarkets may contribute to a higher demand for horticultural products and increase expectations for quality, safety, and presentation while simultaneously excluding small growers from participating in procurement and contracts. The growing importance of supermarket outlets has implications of its own regarding methods of procurement and quality standards. Supermarkets in the cities bring quality to the shelves. Vegetables are well packed and presented, providing scope for premium quality as well as novelty items. The difficulties that growers can experience is reflected in fairly rapid declines in the numbers of growers involved, as companies tend to delist suppliers who do not meet expectations in terms of volume, quality, and timely delivery. The standards of quality, safety, and presentation make it difficult for the small producers to compete. The market is getting more refined in terms of quality and yield expectations, and there is a clear demand for excellent hybrid vegetable varieties. Success for vegetable growers will depend on their ability to access diverse markets and respond promptly to changes in market conditions. Growers grow vegetables for immediate marketing, and their produce is subject to competition to decide the prices. Hence they cannot compromise the quality of the seeds they use for fear of rejection of their produce. They buy the best seeds, mainly hybrids, and frequently try new products to remain successful. The seed companies in turn get instant response and success if they develop new

were considered minor, and 85 (22%) were considered rare.

**3. Vegetable marketing** 

problem for growers.

Vegetables are grown worldwide, on large and small farms, on good and marginal land, and by large commercial growers and small subsistence farmers. According to FAO statistics, the production of vegetables in the world in 2007 was almost 900 million tons (FAO, 2009). Asia produced 74.7% of the world's vegetables (671 million t) on 72.8% of the world's vegetable production area (52.7 million ha). China has always been a large contributor to world vegetable production, and currently produces over 50% of the world's vegetables, which translates to 313 kg per capita. India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world but at almost a six-fold lower level than China. Worldwide the area of arable land devoted to vegetables is expanding at 2.8% annually, higher than fruits (1.75%), oil crops (1.47%), root crops (0.44%) and pulses (0.39%), and at the expense of cereals (-0.45%) and fiber crops (-1.82%) (FAO, 2009).

The worldwide consumption and importance of vegetables in the diet is difficult to estimate owing to scant production statistics. Even where crop reporting services are an integral part of the agricultural infrastructure, information is available on only a small percentage of the vegetable crops grown. The consumption and caloric contribution of vegetables to the diet varies widely with geographical region, nationality, local customs, and cuisine. China is the largest consumer of vegetables in the world. Vegetables make up about 35% of per capita food consumption in China, a much higher share than the world average (Dias, 2011). Besides India, other southern Asian countries such as Bangladesh, Cambodia, North and South Vietnam, Laos and Philippines are also high producers and great consumer of vegetables. For example, vegetables comprise 40% of the Bangladeshi diet (Dias, 2011). Many vegetables are consumed near where they are produced, especially in Asia. The per capita consumption of vegetables in Asia has increased from 41 kg to 141 kg between 1975 and 2003 (FAO, 2009). Particularly in China the per capita consumption has increased from 43 kg (1975) to 154 kg (2003).

Rapid growth in mean per capita incomes in developed countries during the 1990s enabled consumers to purchase a broader range of relatively expensive vegetable commodities such as off-season produce, relatively new or renewed vegetables, and organic produce. Higher incomes of consumers in developed countries have also raised the demand for other attributes such as better quality vegetables and more variation in the daily menu. In developing countries consumption and domestic vegetable markets are also expanding because of an emerging educated middle class with increasing incomes. As worldwide health awareness increases and household income grows, an increasing global demand for vegetables is expected. At the same time, available arable land and a suitable water supply are lessening, so energies should be directed to enhance vegetable productivity and quality. Increasingly, consumers in developed and developing countries are also concerned about the quality and safety of their food, as well as the social and the environmental conditions where it is produced. It is expected that the assurance of safe vegetable products will become increasingly important. Food safety legislation in the European Union, in the United States, and in Japan is introducing increasingly stricter standards.

Desire for year-round availability and increased diversity, and growing health awareness, have also been important reasons for increased consumption of vegetables in developed countries. For example, the dietary benefit of fresh produce is the major reason for the 25% increase in fresh vegetable consumption in the United States during the 1977–1999 period (Regmi & Gehlar, 2001). On the other hand, factors such as increased participation by women in the labor market have created demand for processed, ready-to-eat convenience vegetable products.

A world vegetable survey showed that 392 vegetable crops are cultivated worldwide, representing 70 families and 225 genera (Kays & Dias, 1995, 1996); non-cultivated species, lower organisms (e.g. fungi), most trees and woody shrubs, and plants grown in or gathered from salt water were excluded. Vegetable crops, of which the leaves or young leafy shoots are consumed, were the most common group of vegetables utilized (53% of the total), followed by vegetable fruits (15%). Below ground crop vegetable organs ranked as follows in frequency of use: roots>tubers>rhizomes>corms>stolons, and together comprised 17% of the total number. Many vegetable crops have more than one part used. Most of the vegetables are marketed fresh with only a small proportion processed. Of these marketed vegetables, only 67 (17%) have attracted great breeding attention by international seed companies, due to their large area of production and substantial consumption, 52 (13%) were considered minor, and 85 (22%) were considered rare.
