**2.5 The vegetation of the forest edges**

#### **2.5.1 Class** *Galio-Urticetea*

The class *Galio-Urticetea* is represented by the high-grass communities that grow along neutrophilous margins that are in contact with pre-forest or forest formations, and in some cases also near to artificial tree plantations, as for example the reforestation of conifers. Its distribution area includes territories with a thermoboreal, pluviseasonal Mediterranean and holarctic temperate bioclimate (Rivas Martinez et al., 2002).

The sites where it is possible to find vegetation of the class *Galio-Urticetea* are still today, or were in the past, under modifications attributable to human activities, which results in particular in enrichment of the soil with nitrogenous substances (Poldini, 1989). The plants

the abandonment of grasslands of *Festuco-Brometea* favours the recollonisaton of the pastures by shrub species, with the consequent floristic impoverishment and drastic reduction in the plant biodiversity. The associations that grow on calcareous substrata are protected according to the specific Community Directive 92/43/EEC, as habitat 6210, and therefore

In the territories that were included in our analysis, the grasslands of this class can be

 *Brometalia erecti*: This order includes the grasslands that substitute the forest vegetation and that are found on calcareous or marly-arenaceous substrata, which is more or less deep, in the temperate bioclimate areas, including the zones that fall within the Submediterranean variant. Its distribution area includes central and western Europe (Royer, 1991). The coenoses of this syntaxon are diffusely represented throughout the

*\*Centaureo bracteatae-Brometum erecti* (Fig. 6): The grasslands attributed to *Centaureo-Brometum* are mesophilous continuous formations that to grow often as a postcultivation stage and that are present on marly-arenaceous, arenaceous-clayey, and marly-calcareous substrata of the hilly slopes. These are widely diffuse in the northern and central Apennines (Biondi et al., 2006). They are included in the alliance *Bromion erecti* and their characteristic species are *Brachypodium rupestre*, *Galium album*, *Carex* 

The class *Galio-Urticetea* is represented by the high-grass communities that grow along neutrophilous margins that are in contact with pre-forest or forest formations, and in some cases also near to artificial tree plantations, as for example the reforestation of conifers. Its distribution area includes territories with a thermoboreal, pluviseasonal Mediterranean and

The sites where it is possible to find vegetation of the class *Galio-Urticetea* are still today, or were in the past, under modifications attributable to human activities, which results in particular in enrichment of the soil with nitrogenous substances (Poldini, 1989). The plants

they need to be managed in such a way as to guarantee their conservation.

included in the order *Brometalia erecti*.

*flacca* ssp. *flacca* and *Centaurea bracteata*.

Fig. 6. *Centaureo bracteatae-Brometum erecti*.

**2.5 The vegetation of the forest edges** 

holarctic temperate bioclimate (Rivas Martinez et al., 2002).

**2.5.1 Class** *Galio-Urticetea*

Italian peninsula.

of the groups referred to this class are generally characterised by a good ability to live under shady conditions. They prefer deep soils with a good water content and rich in nutrients.

In the agroecosystem the plant associations of this syntaxon can be seen in sites such as the margins of ditches or the edges of copses, rows of trees, or hedges, and they can often be found also in human contexts, like in and around urban areas. They can grow on acidic substrata as well as on alkaline terrain.

From the serial point of view, the vegetation of this syntaxon can be identified as a pre-forest herbaceous stage that grows in the contact zones beween the herbaceous hemicryptophytic and shrub-arboreal vegetation. From the evolutive aspect, as it is mainly linked to the influence of man, and it is considered less mature with respect to the edge vegetation of the class *Trifolio-Geranietea*, which instead is found in contact with arboreal formations that are better conserved and structured.

*Galio-Urticetea* can be subdivided into two orders according to their ecological characteristics.

 *Galio-Alliarietalia*: This order is represented by the coenoses of the nitrophilous preforest or forest margins (Font et al., 1988). These can also be seen in small clearings, and they are linked to temperate and Mediterranean bioclimates, and require conditions of deep soil. The formations of this syntaxon can be more or less sciaphilous and their survival depends on good water availability of the soil also in summer; they are. However. never linked to situations characterised by stagnant water.

*\*Galio aparines-Smyrnietum olusatri*: This association was described by Allegrezza et al. (1987). It is dominated by the *Smyrnium olusatrum* species, and it can be found at the edges of semi-natural and artificial arboreal formations, often along the sides of roads in shady and wet areas in and around urban zones. This coenosis is included in the alliance *Galio-Alliarion* and is particularly nitrophilous and distributed both on marlycalcareous substrata and on arenaceous and clayey hills. It is well enough represented in the rural landscape.

*\*Alliario petiolatae-Chaerophylletum temuli* (Fig. 7): This nitrophilous edge association with *Alliaria petiolata* and *Chaerophyllum temulum* is also included in the alliance *Galio-Alliarion*, and has a sciaphilous character and grows in locations with soil rich in nutrients, e.g. in the zones next to the banks of rivers and edges of ditches, where the fine and rich soils are deposited (Hruska, 1988). Moreover, it is present at the edges of forest formations and in dense coenoses along the sides of roads. It is very well represented in the egroecosystem environment.

*\*Petasitetum hybridi*: This association is characterised physiognomically by the large leaves of the species *Petasites hybridus*, and it is usually found on the external parts of the banks of the water courses, sometimes at the edges of riparian formations of *Salix alba*, generally under conditions of high atmospheric humidity (Baldoni & Biondi, 1993). The soil on which this grows is rich in organic matter and is constantly wet. This belongs to the alliance *Aegopodion podagrariae* and is well represented in the terriory analysed.

 *Calystegietalia sepium*: The phytocoenoses of this syntaxonomic unit are instead closely linked to the presence of water. Indeed, they can be found mainly on the banks of ditches and small pools of water, on soils with a high content of nitrates and water. Often, these associations can survive also under conditions of temporary stagnant water. The plants that form a part of these communities are climbers and moderately sciaphyle.

Environmental Evaluation and Monitoring of Agro-Ecosystems Biodiversity 347

areas found in the countryside are tilled right up to the margins of the wood, with the

From the synphytosociological point of view, the class *Trifolio-Geranietea* can be considered as the herbaceous state with greater evolutive significance. The reference order for the

 *Origanetalia vulgaris*: This order includes the coenoses of the edges of the woods that grow on mature soils that have a lot of humus and are mainly calcareous or marlyarenaceous. The coenoses are diffuse in the temperate and Submediterranean bioclimates, and the order is diffusely spread throughout the Italian peninsula, and especially in the Apennines, at the margins of both thermophilous and mesophilous

*\*Buglossoido purpureocaeruleae-Glechometum hirsutae* (Fig. 8): This coenosis is the forest edge formations of downy oak or hop hornbeam of the areas with a temperate or Submediterranean climate. It has been described for a forest area of the Marche hinterlands ("Monaci Bianchi"Wood; Taffetani et al., 2009). It is included in the alliance *Trifolion medii* and it is not infrequent to see it at the margins of the residual woods of rural territories, in ecotone zones that are not greatly disturbed and in situations with deep and humus-rich soil. It is dominated by the species *Glechoma hyrsuta* and in the better preserved zones ìt can be noted for its good floristic richness and the presence of

The class *Rhamno-Prunetea* includes all of the coenoses of the forest and shrub mantle, which are composed mainly of nanophanerophyte or phanerophyte species that normally grow in

This syntaxon is mainly diffuse in the Eurosiberian and Mediterranean regions and the coenoses that belong to it can be more or less mesophilous or thermophilous (Rivas-Martinez et al. 2002). From the edaphic point of view, the class shows good ability for colonisation of various substrata. Among the communities that are a part of this class, some prefer fresh and deep soils, while others have adapted to also live on very poor and superficial substrata. In this last case, sometimes the shrub vegetation can take on the role as head of the series, due to a lack of the right ecological conditions for the development of

contact with forest communities of the classes *Querco-Fagetea* and *Salici-Populetea*.

consequent destruction of the edge coenoses.

species of the upper heirachical levels.

Fig. 8. *Buglossoido purpureocaeruleae-Glechometum hirsutae*

**2.6 The shrub and arboreal vegetation** 

**2.6.1 Class** *Rhamno-Prunetea*

mature forest formations.

woods

coenoses found is *Origanetalia vulgaris* (Biondi et al., 2006).

*\*Arundini donacis-Convolvuletum sepium*: The reed beds of *Arundo donax* are included in the alliance *Calystegion sepium* and are often associated with the fluvial margins that are degraded following the effects of remodelling of the banks and of herbicide use. The dominant species, which is almost always accompanied by the climbing Convulvulacea *Calystegia sepium*, was introduced for agricultural purposes and has become naturalised since. Today it is a constant element of the rural landscape, where it grows mainly on wet clayey terrain.

*\*Convolvulo sepii-Epilobietum hirsuti*: The formations dominated by *Epilobium hyrsutum*, which can also themselves be included in the alliance *Calystegion sepium*, grow on constantly wet soil, on various types of substrata. In the agricultural environment they can be found both on the borders of water courses with a permanent flow, in contact with more hygrophilous vegetation, and in the internal parts of ditches with periodic water flow, which are situated along the hilly slopes.

Fig. 7. *Alliario petiolatae-Chearophylletum temuli*.

#### **2.5.2 Class** *Trifolio-Geranietea*

This syntaxonomic class includes the plant communities of the margins of the pre-forest or forest formations of the Eurosiberian and Submediterranean regions (Rivas Martinez et al., 2002). The associations of this syntaxon are found in the hilly and montane bioclimate belts, both along the borders of the thermophilous oak and hornbeam woods as well as along the margins of the more mesophilous beech woods.

The phytocoenoses *Trifolio-Geranietea* can be seen on various terrains of calcareous, arenaceous and clayey origins. They usually prefer wet, deep-soiled sites with a good humus layer and constantly in the shade; in some cases they can even grow on particularly poor substrata. Some coenoses are more adapted to growing on acidic terrain, others in edaphic contexts that are more alkaline (Biondi et al., 2001).

The communities of this class are linked in contact with well-conserved forest environments and often show high floristic richness due to their growth in situations that are ecologically transitory; this last factor increases the plant biodiversity.

In the agroecosystem, this class is not widespread, both for its scarcity and for the often not optimal conservation state of the residual woods of the rural territory. Indeed, with these residual woods, the ecotone space of the transition towards contexts used by man, e.g. cultivated fields, is often missing; frequently the terrain in contact with the small wooded

wet clayey terrain.

*\*Arundini donacis-Convolvuletum sepium*: The reed beds of *Arundo donax* are included in the alliance *Calystegion sepium* and are often associated with the fluvial margins that are degraded following the effects of remodelling of the banks and of herbicide use. The dominant species, which is almost always accompanied by the climbing Convulvulacea *Calystegia sepium*, was introduced for agricultural purposes and has become naturalised since. Today it is a constant element of the rural landscape, where it grows mainly on

*\*Convolvulo sepii-Epilobietum hirsuti*: The formations dominated by *Epilobium hyrsutum*, which can also themselves be included in the alliance *Calystegion sepium*, grow on constantly wet soil, on various types of substrata. In the agricultural environment they can be found both on the borders of water courses with a permanent flow, in contact with more hygrophilous vegetation, and in the internal parts of ditches with periodic

This syntaxonomic class includes the plant communities of the margins of the pre-forest or forest formations of the Eurosiberian and Submediterranean regions (Rivas Martinez et al., 2002). The associations of this syntaxon are found in the hilly and montane bioclimate belts, both along the borders of the thermophilous oak and hornbeam woods as well as along the

The phytocoenoses *Trifolio-Geranietea* can be seen on various terrains of calcareous, arenaceous and clayey origins. They usually prefer wet, deep-soiled sites with a good humus layer and constantly in the shade; in some cases they can even grow on particularly poor substrata. Some coenoses are more adapted to growing on acidic terrain, others in

The communities of this class are linked in contact with well-conserved forest environments and often show high floristic richness due to their growth in situations that are ecologically

In the agroecosystem, this class is not widespread, both for its scarcity and for the often not optimal conservation state of the residual woods of the rural territory. Indeed, with these residual woods, the ecotone space of the transition towards contexts used by man, e.g. cultivated fields, is often missing; frequently the terrain in contact with the small wooded

water flow, which are situated along the hilly slopes.

Fig. 7. *Alliario petiolatae-Chearophylletum temuli*.

margins of the more mesophilous beech woods.

edaphic contexts that are more alkaline (Biondi et al., 2001).

transitory; this last factor increases the plant biodiversity.

**2.5.2 Class** *Trifolio-Geranietea*

areas found in the countryside are tilled right up to the margins of the wood, with the consequent destruction of the edge coenoses.

From the synphytosociological point of view, the class *Trifolio-Geranietea* can be considered as the herbaceous state with greater evolutive significance. The reference order for the coenoses found is *Origanetalia vulgaris* (Biondi et al., 2006).

 *Origanetalia vulgaris*: This order includes the coenoses of the edges of the woods that grow on mature soils that have a lot of humus and are mainly calcareous or marlyarenaceous. The coenoses are diffuse in the temperate and Submediterranean bioclimates, and the order is diffusely spread throughout the Italian peninsula, and especially in the Apennines, at the margins of both thermophilous and mesophilous woods

*\*Buglossoido purpureocaeruleae-Glechometum hirsutae* (Fig. 8): This coenosis is the forest edge formations of downy oak or hop hornbeam of the areas with a temperate or Submediterranean climate. It has been described for a forest area of the Marche hinterlands ("Monaci Bianchi"Wood; Taffetani et al., 2009). It is included in the alliance *Trifolion medii* and it is not infrequent to see it at the margins of the residual woods of rural territories, in ecotone zones that are not greatly disturbed and in situations with deep and humus-rich soil. It is dominated by the species *Glechoma hyrsuta* and in the better preserved zones ìt can be noted for its good floristic richness and the presence of species of the upper heirachical levels.

Fig. 8. *Buglossoido purpureocaeruleae-Glechometum hirsutae*

#### **2.6 The shrub and arboreal vegetation**

#### **2.6.1 Class** *Rhamno-Prunetea*

The class *Rhamno-Prunetea* includes all of the coenoses of the forest and shrub mantle, which are composed mainly of nanophanerophyte or phanerophyte species that normally grow in contact with forest communities of the classes *Querco-Fagetea* and *Salici-Populetea*.

This syntaxon is mainly diffuse in the Eurosiberian and Mediterranean regions and the coenoses that belong to it can be more or less mesophilous or thermophilous (Rivas-Martinez et al. 2002). From the edaphic point of view, the class shows good ability for colonisation of various substrata. Among the communities that are a part of this class, some prefer fresh and deep soils, while others have adapted to also live on very poor and superficial substrata. In this last case, sometimes the shrub vegetation can take on the role as head of the series, due to a lack of the right ecological conditions for the development of mature forest formations.

Environmental Evaluation and Monitoring of Agro-Ecosystems Biodiversity 349

This class includes the mesophilous woods that are spread over the hilly and montane zones of the areas with a temperate macrobioclimate, with penetration into zones with a

The formations of the class *Querco-Fagetea* can be more or less structured depending on their previous management, and as with all woods, these are characterised generally by a multilayered structure; indeed, they are composed of arboreal species, which characterise them

The coenoses that can be included in this sytaxonomic unit can be found on various types of substrata, from those of calcareous origins to those marly, clayey and arenaceous, and they generally prefer soils with a certain depth, even if in some situations they can grow in

The vegetation of *Querco-Fagetea* represents the climax, i.e. the maximum evolutive expression found in a landscape context. In the agroecosysems, the woods have now become rare, but precious, elements, because of their richness in life forms and their complexity, and because of the possibility to provide autochthonous germplasm of nemoral arboreal, shrub and herbaceous species. These therefore need to be carefully managed

With regard to the sector of the Italian peninsula, as the object of this analysis, this class is

 *Fagetalia sylvaticae*: This syntaxon has a central Europe and Caucasian distribution area and includes mesophilous forest phytocoenoses of deciduous trees of the montane and hilly zones of the areas with a temperate macrobioclimate. They have their optimum in fresh locations and with particularly deep and wet soils that have a good humus content. They include, in particular, beech, European hornbeam, lime and mountain ash

 *Quercetalia pubescentis*: This order groups the wood formations that are essentially constituted of thermophilous broad-leaved trees, among which the most widespread are downy oak, turkey oak, bay oak, hop hornbeam and flowering ash. The spread of these coenoses that can be seen in the temperate and Submediterranean areas is limited

*\*Roso sempervirentis*-*Quercetum pubescentis* (Fig. 10): The woods of downy oak of this association are diffuse across the meso-Submediterranean thermoclimate belt of the hilly subcoastal territory of the central Adriatic region (Biondi & Allegrezza, 1996). These can be found on substrata of various origins, as arenaceous, clayey, and more or less calcareous, and they usually grow in the zones that are more exposed to the sun or with more superficial soil. They are characterised by the presence of various thermophilous species, like *Rosa sempervirens*, *Smilax aspera*, *Rubia peregrine* and *Laurus nobilis*. They are included in the alliance *Carpinion orientalis* and can usually be seen on

*\*Asparago acutifolii-Ostryetum carpinifoliae*: This neutrophilous hop hornbeam wood is included in the alliance *Carpinion orientalis* and it occupies soils derived from calcareous, marly and pelitic-arenaceous substrata of the lower mesotemperate bioclimate belt (Biondi et al., 2006). In the rural landscape of the territories investigated, it mainly occupies the fresh and usually north-facing slopes. Among the more representive species, as well as the hop hornbeam, there are *Asparagus acutifolius*,

*Buglossoides purpureocaerulea*, *Smilax aspera* and *Acer obtusatum*.

**2.6.2 Class** *Querco-Fagetea*

relatively superficial edaphic contexts.

according to their potential.

represented by two orders.

woods.

to hilly zones.

the summit ridges of the hills.

Mediterranean influence (Rivas-Martinez et al. 2002).

physiognomically, as well low arboreal, shrub and herbaceous species.

In the rural landscape, the vegetation of *Rhamno-Prunetea* is well enough represented, both in the margins of woods or of riparian arboreal formations, and along rows of trees or in hedges. The shrubs colonise abandoned fields and pastures, and they represent the serial stage that precedes the return of the woods.

For the syntaxonomical classification, relative to the temperate and Submediterranean contexts analysed, the main reference order is *Prunetalia spinosae*.

 *Prunetalia spinosae*: This order collects the substitution phytocoenoses (mantles, shrubs, hedges) of the woods of the class *Querco-Fagetea* that grow mainly on well-structured soils that are often calcareous or calcareous-marly. Within this order, there are mesophilous coenoses that can be found on the hilly and montane zones of the temperate bioclimate, and others that are subthermophilous and thermophilous, which are typical of the Submediterranean areas.

*\*Clematido vitalbae-Rubetum ulmifolii*: These coenoses with a dominance of *Rubus ulmifolius* are usually found as extended shrub layers that are almost impenetrable, among which there are brambles, with their ability to quickly expand due to their intense production of suckers, and which are associated with the Ranuncolacea vines of *Clematis vitalba* (Poldini, 1989). These shrub coenoses of the alliance *Berberidion vulgaris* are usually characterised by a floristic poverty, and they are indifferent to soils of different origins due to the wide ecological valance of brambles. In the rural landscape, they are very widespread, especially in the zones abandoned for longer times; they are frequenly found on post-cultivation grasslands (*Senecio-Inuletum*) and often show high stability, slowing the return of the wood, especially in situations particularly degraded and with a scarcity or absence of the propagules of arboreal forest species.

*\*Symphyto bulbosi-Sambucetum nigrae* (Fig. 9): This mesophilous pre-forest formation of *Sambucus nigra* has been described for the hilly territory of Marche (Biondi & Allegrezza, 2004), and it prefers deep and fresh soils and makes up the pre-forest stage of elm coppices, both on sandy substrata and on alluvial substrata. It is ascribable to the alliance *Pruno-Rubion* and it is differentiated from analogous formations with elder of the northern Apennines and the eastern Alps by the presence of some Mediterranean and south European species, such as *Arum italicum*, *Symphytum bulbosum* and *Rubus ulmifolius*.

Fig. 9. *Symphyto bulbosi-Sambucetum nigrae* 

## **2.6.2 Class** *Querco-Fagetea*

348 Ecosystems Biodiversity

In the rural landscape, the vegetation of *Rhamno-Prunetea* is well enough represented, both in the margins of woods or of riparian arboreal formations, and along rows of trees or in hedges. The shrubs colonise abandoned fields and pastures, and they represent the serial

For the syntaxonomical classification, relative to the temperate and Submediterranean

 *Prunetalia spinosae*: This order collects the substitution phytocoenoses (mantles, shrubs, hedges) of the woods of the class *Querco-Fagetea* that grow mainly on well-structured soils that are often calcareous or calcareous-marly. Within this order, there are mesophilous coenoses that can be found on the hilly and montane zones of the temperate bioclimate, and others that are subthermophilous and thermophilous, which

*\*Clematido vitalbae-Rubetum ulmifolii*: These coenoses with a dominance of *Rubus ulmifolius* are usually found as extended shrub layers that are almost impenetrable, among which there are brambles, with their ability to quickly expand due to their intense production of suckers, and which are associated with the Ranuncolacea vines of *Clematis vitalba* (Poldini, 1989). These shrub coenoses of the alliance *Berberidion vulgaris* are usually characterised by a floristic poverty, and they are indifferent to soils of different origins due to the wide ecological valance of brambles. In the rural landscape, they are very widespread, especially in the zones abandoned for longer times; they are frequenly found on post-cultivation grasslands (*Senecio-Inuletum*) and often show high stability, slowing the return of the wood, especially in situations particularly degraded

*\*Symphyto bulbosi-Sambucetum nigrae* (Fig. 9): This mesophilous pre-forest formation of *Sambucus nigra* has been described for the hilly territory of Marche (Biondi & Allegrezza, 2004), and it prefers deep and fresh soils and makes up the pre-forest stage of elm coppices, both on sandy substrata and on alluvial substrata. It is ascribable to the alliance *Pruno-Rubion* and it is differentiated from analogous formations with elder of the northern Apennines and the eastern Alps by the presence of some Mediterranean and south European species, such as *Arum italicum*,

and with a scarcity or absence of the propagules of arboreal forest species.

stage that precedes the return of the woods.

are typical of the Submediterranean areas.

*Symphytum bulbosum* and *Rubus ulmifolius*.

Fig. 9. *Symphyto bulbosi-Sambucetum nigrae* 

contexts analysed, the main reference order is *Prunetalia spinosae*.

This class includes the mesophilous woods that are spread over the hilly and montane zones of the areas with a temperate macrobioclimate, with penetration into zones with a Mediterranean influence (Rivas-Martinez et al. 2002).

The formations of the class *Querco-Fagetea* can be more or less structured depending on their previous management, and as with all woods, these are characterised generally by a multilayered structure; indeed, they are composed of arboreal species, which characterise them physiognomically, as well low arboreal, shrub and herbaceous species.

The coenoses that can be included in this sytaxonomic unit can be found on various types of substrata, from those of calcareous origins to those marly, clayey and arenaceous, and they generally prefer soils with a certain depth, even if in some situations they can grow in relatively superficial edaphic contexts.

The vegetation of *Querco-Fagetea* represents the climax, i.e. the maximum evolutive expression found in a landscape context. In the agroecosysems, the woods have now become rare, but precious, elements, because of their richness in life forms and their complexity, and because of the possibility to provide autochthonous germplasm of nemoral arboreal, shrub and herbaceous species. These therefore need to be carefully managed according to their potential.

With regard to the sector of the Italian peninsula, as the object of this analysis, this class is represented by two orders.


*\*Roso sempervirentis*-*Quercetum pubescentis* (Fig. 10): The woods of downy oak of this association are diffuse across the meso-Submediterranean thermoclimate belt of the hilly subcoastal territory of the central Adriatic region (Biondi & Allegrezza, 1996). These can be found on substrata of various origins, as arenaceous, clayey, and more or less calcareous, and they usually grow in the zones that are more exposed to the sun or with more superficial soil. They are characterised by the presence of various thermophilous species, like *Rosa sempervirens*, *Smilax aspera*, *Rubia peregrine* and *Laurus nobilis*. They are included in the alliance *Carpinion orientalis* and can usually be seen on the summit ridges of the hills.

*\*Asparago acutifolii-Ostryetum carpinifoliae*: This neutrophilous hop hornbeam wood is included in the alliance *Carpinion orientalis* and it occupies soils derived from calcareous, marly and pelitic-arenaceous substrata of the lower mesotemperate bioclimate belt (Biondi et al., 2006). In the rural landscape of the territories investigated, it mainly occupies the fresh and usually north-facing slopes. Among the more representive species, as well as the hop hornbeam, there are *Asparagus acutifolius*, *Buglossoides purpureocaerulea*, *Smilax aspera* and *Acer obtusatum*.

Environmental Evaluation and Monitoring of Agro-Ecosystems Biodiversity 351

 *Phragmitetalia*: This syntaxonomic unit mainy concerns the marsh reed-beds and the *Typha* formations. These communities are characterised by the fact that the greater part of the biomass is produced by one, or a few, species (Poldini, 1989); usually these grow at the edges of water pools or along the banks of rivers and ditches where the water

*\*Typhetum latifoliae*: The communities of *Typha latifolia* are included in the order *Phragmition communis*; these are poor in species and in the countryside they find the optimal conditions for their development in proximity to channels or ditches characterised by stagnant water that is present throughout the year. In general, they cannot survive conditions of high eutrofixation (Baldoni & Biondi, 1993) and they indicate a conservation level of the riparian environment that is sufficiently good. *Magnocaricetalia*: This order gathers the communities comprising the species of Carex of medium to high size that can be found on the edges of pools, ponds, lakes and water courses. These formations are often found interpositioned beween the coenoses of the

*\*Cypero longi-Caricetum otrubae*: These formations are physiognomically dominated by *Carex otrubae* and *Cyperus longus* and belong to the alliance *Magnocaricion elatae*, and they are found on heavy and constantly wet soils on the inside edges of channels and ditches. In central Italy, this has been reported for the wet environments of Lakeo Trasimeno (Umbria; Venanzoni & Gigante, 2000) .In the rural territory, these are

 *Nasturtio-Glycerietalia*: This syntaxon instead includes the plant communities at the edges of rivers or of small water courses that include the small rhizomatose pioneer plants and characterise a good level of resistance to the force of the water current. These pioneer plants grow in contexts where there are frequent variations in water flow

*\*Helosciadetum nodiflori* (Fig. 11): The formations of *Apium nodiflorum* are relatively diffuse in the the rural territory investigated, both in the high hilly areas and in the better conserved subcoastal zones. They form a part of the alliance *Glycerio-Sparganion* and they colonise the more internal parts of the banks of the rivers and ditches with sufficiently oxygenated water flow. They resist the impact of the current and periodic

order *Phragmitetalia* and riparian arboreal formations (Poldini, 1989).

becoming more rare because of intensive cultivation practices.

flows slowly (Rivas-Martinez et al., 2002).

(Rivas-Martinez, 2002).

submersion well.

Fig. 11. *Helosciadetum nodiflori*.

*\*Lonicero xylostei*-*Quercetum cerridis*: The turkey oak woods of this association are included in the alliance *Carpinion orientalis* and they can be found in the centralsouthern sectors of the Italian Adriatic aspects. In particular, they occupy slopes with arenaceous-pelitic outcrops with a mainly sandy texture (Biondi & Allegrezza, 2004; Taffetani et al., 2005). Among the diagnostic species, as well as the hop hornbeam, there are *Lonicera caprifolium*, *Lonicera xylosteum*, *Sorbus domestica*, *Sorbus torminalis* and *Cyclamen hederifolium*.

Fig. 10. *Roso sempervirentis-Quercetum pubescentis*.

#### **2.7 The herbaceous and arboreal hygrophilous vegetation 2.7.1 Class** *Phragmito-Magnocaricetea*

The hygrophilous vegetation of the class *Phragmito-Magnocaricetea* grows in the marshy zones, at the edges of water courses, or ponds or lakes, in zones more-or-less constantly flooded. The class is well represented in territories with the temperate and Mediterranean macrobioclimate of continental Europe.

The communities that can be included in his syntaxonomic unit are often poor in species and composed mainly of helophyte plants, i.e. those characterised by their growth outside of the water although they are rooted in submerged soils. Among these, there are in particular the reeds, rushes, Carex sedges, and graminoid perennial species (Rivas-Martinez et al., 2002).

All of the coenoses of this class well tolerate long periods of submersion and soils that are very heavy or muddy, and deep. They grow both on clayey and silty soils, as well as on gravely alluvial plains that are typical of the valley bottoms. They cannot survive periods of drought, which can cause a decisive reduction in the water content of their soil. Some formations show from moderate to high resistance to the force of the water current.

In the rural contexts, *Phragmito-Margnocaricetea* characterises the more internal margins of ditches, channels, and small ponds or hill lakes, The presence of coenoses of this syntaxonomic unit within the rural territories contributes to the stabilisation and consolidation of the banks, and is an important index of good conservation: indeed, some of the species that characterise these communities can disappear if the level of human disturbance is high or in cases in which the concentration of nitrogen compounds in the water or in the soil are above specific levels.

From the syntaxonomic point of view, in the area under investigation, the coenoses seen can be referred to three main orders.

The hygrophilous vegetation of the class *Phragmito-Magnocaricetea* grows in the marshy zones, at the edges of water courses, or ponds or lakes, in zones more-or-less constantly flooded. The class is well represented in territories with the temperate and Mediterranean

The communities that can be included in his syntaxonomic unit are often poor in species and composed mainly of helophyte plants, i.e. those characterised by their growth outside of the water although they are rooted in submerged soils. Among these, there are in particular the reeds, rushes, Carex sedges, and graminoid perennial species (Rivas-Martinez

All of the coenoses of this class well tolerate long periods of submersion and soils that are very heavy or muddy, and deep. They grow both on clayey and silty soils, as well as on gravely alluvial plains that are typical of the valley bottoms. They cannot survive periods of drought, which can cause a decisive reduction in the water content of their soil. Some

In the rural contexts, *Phragmito-Margnocaricetea* characterises the more internal margins of ditches, channels, and small ponds or hill lakes, The presence of coenoses of this syntaxonomic unit within the rural territories contributes to the stabilisation and consolidation of the banks, and is an important index of good conservation: indeed, some of the species that characterise these communities can disappear if the level of human disturbance is high or in cases in which the concentration of nitrogen compounds in the

From the syntaxonomic point of view, in the area under investigation, the coenoses seen can

formations show from moderate to high resistance to the force of the water current.

*Cyclamen hederifolium*.

Fig. 10. *Roso sempervirentis-Quercetum pubescentis*.

**2.7.1 Class** *Phragmito-Magnocaricetea*

macrobioclimate of continental Europe.

water or in the soil are above specific levels.

be referred to three main orders.

et al., 2002).

**2.7 The herbaceous and arboreal hygrophilous vegetation** 

*\*Lonicero xylostei*-*Quercetum cerridis*: The turkey oak woods of this association are included in the alliance *Carpinion orientalis* and they can be found in the centralsouthern sectors of the Italian Adriatic aspects. In particular, they occupy slopes with arenaceous-pelitic outcrops with a mainly sandy texture (Biondi & Allegrezza, 2004; Taffetani et al., 2005). Among the diagnostic species, as well as the hop hornbeam, there are *Lonicera caprifolium*, *Lonicera xylosteum*, *Sorbus domestica*, *Sorbus torminalis* and  *Phragmitetalia*: This syntaxonomic unit mainy concerns the marsh reed-beds and the *Typha* formations. These communities are characterised by the fact that the greater part of the biomass is produced by one, or a few, species (Poldini, 1989); usually these grow at the edges of water pools or along the banks of rivers and ditches where the water flows slowly (Rivas-Martinez et al., 2002).

*\*Typhetum latifoliae*: The communities of *Typha latifolia* are included in the order *Phragmition communis*; these are poor in species and in the countryside they find the optimal conditions for their development in proximity to channels or ditches characterised by stagnant water that is present throughout the year. In general, they cannot survive conditions of high eutrofixation (Baldoni & Biondi, 1993) and they indicate a conservation level of the riparian environment that is sufficiently good.

 *Magnocaricetalia*: This order gathers the communities comprising the species of Carex of medium to high size that can be found on the edges of pools, ponds, lakes and water courses. These formations are often found interpositioned beween the coenoses of the order *Phragmitetalia* and riparian arboreal formations (Poldini, 1989).

*\*Cypero longi-Caricetum otrubae*: These formations are physiognomically dominated by *Carex otrubae* and *Cyperus longus* and belong to the alliance *Magnocaricion elatae*, and they are found on heavy and constantly wet soils on the inside edges of channels and ditches. In central Italy, this has been reported for the wet environments of Lakeo Trasimeno (Umbria; Venanzoni & Gigante, 2000) .In the rural territory, these are becoming more rare because of intensive cultivation practices.

 *Nasturtio-Glycerietalia*: This syntaxon instead includes the plant communities at the edges of rivers or of small water courses that include the small rhizomatose pioneer plants and characterise a good level of resistance to the force of the water current. These pioneer plants grow in contexts where there are frequent variations in water flow (Rivas-Martinez, 2002).

*\*Helosciadetum nodiflori* (Fig. 11): The formations of *Apium nodiflorum* are relatively diffuse in the the rural territory investigated, both in the high hilly areas and in the better conserved subcoastal zones. They form a part of the alliance *Glycerio-Sparganion* and they colonise the more internal parts of the banks of the rivers and ditches with sufficiently oxygenated water flow. They resist the impact of the current and periodic submersion well.

Fig. 11. *Helosciadetum nodiflori*.

Environmental Evaluation and Monitoring of Agro-Ecosystems Biodiversity 353

**3. Evaluation of the quality and functionality of the agroecosystem 3.1 A system of floristic-vegetational indexes for the analysis of ecosystem** 

The model of the study in question is based on two specifically formed databases:

range of 0 9; Fig. 13) on the basis of the maturity level determined:

5. Herbaceous perennial vegetation of pastures and mature grasslands;

Aspects of the ecological functionality relative to the agricultural systems can be evaluated and understood using the sysem of bioindicators introduced Taffetani & Rismondo (2009) and then updated (Rismondo *et al*., 2011). It is based on the floristic-syntaxonomic particularities of the areas examined. In this type of analysis, the study of the plant landscape is examined with the aim of collecting and interpreting the effects caused by the

 The floristic-syntaxonomic database collects the ecological information relative to each single species present in the Flora of Italy (Pignatti, 1982; Conti et al., 2005). Various indicators are associated with each taxon, among which there is the one relative to the syntaxonomic class to which it belongs (following consultation with various literature contributions: Guinochet et al., 1973; Rameau et al., 1989; Oberdorfer, 1990; Royer, 1991; Biondi et al., 1995; Biondi et al. 2005; Rivas Martinez et al., 2002), and those regarding the biological form, chorological type and the possible influences of the physical

 The database of the syntaxonomic classes includes the main classes of vascular vegetation found on national soil. A numerical value is given to every class (with a

3. Herbaceous ruderal nitrophilous vegetation of the margins and the abandoned fields; 4. Herbaceous perennial vegetation of the margins and the grasslands with cutting;

6. Mesonitrophilous herbaceous perennial vegetation of the ecotones of the arboreal

*Rubus ulmifolius*, *Hedera helix* and *Laurus nobilis.*

Fig. 12. *Symphyto bulbosi-Ulmetum minoris*.

diverse types of previous management.

conditions of the terrain (edaphism).

2. Herbaceous pioneer vegetation;

formations;

1. Commensal vegetation of the annually seeded crops;

**functionality** 

distribution area by the presence of species with a Mediterranean chorotype, such as

#### **2.7.2 Class** *Salici-Populetea*

The class *Salici-Populetea* includes the riparian arboreal phytocoenoses of deciduous trees of the Eurosiberian and Mediterranean regions (Rivas Martinez et al., 2002). These plant formations are made up of species of willow and poplar, and they prefer soils of alluvial origin subjected to periodic flooding as a result of river overflow; some of these are located in close contact with the water, with others at greater distances, as a function of their decreasing ability to resist the force of the current. These same coenoses are frequently positioned in close contact with communities of the class *Phragmito-Magnocaricetea* and often it is possible to find various species of this last syntaxon within them.

The presence of coenoses of the class *Salici-Populetea* is relatively common along the banks of the more important rivers; instead, at the margins of small water courses, these communities are often very rare, if not completely absent.

In the agroecosystems analysed, the associations of this syntaxon are widely present, but in general little structured and reduced to thin strips positioned in direct contact with the water courses. This occurs because of the use of the major part of the terrain of the plains for the cultivation of annually seeded crops and as a function of the use of the soil that is determined by the development of commercial and industrial areas on river plains near to inhabited centres. Moreover, the arboreal riparian formations are always more often damaged extensively and heavily by badly designed reshaping and remodelling of the river banks, carried out to try to regulate the water flow of the main water courses.

Within this class, two orders can be distinguished, which include coenoses with different abilities to resist river flooding.

 *Populetalia albae*: This order includes the hygrophilous arboreal coenoses with a dominance of black poplar or elm that grow in zones not subjected to the continual influence of the water. These are usually located on alluvial terraces, on soils with a generally sandy texture and with good permeability, or in the bottom of the clayey gullies with deep and constantly wet soil.

*\*Symphyto bulbosi-Ulmetum minoris* (Fig. 12): The elm coppices are found in the gullies with deep and fresh soil of clayey origins, or on the alluvial terraces with a superficial water table. These are included in the alliance *Alnion incanae*. The association illustrated here has been described for the hilly territory of a hilly sector of the central Adriatic (Biondi & Allegrezza, 1996), and it is a constant enough element of the hilly agricultural territory studied. In the herbaceous layer, the most represented species are usually *Symphytum bulbosum* and *Arum italicum*.

 *Salicetalia purpureae*: This syntaxon includes the riparian coenoses with a dominance of bushy willows that can be found in particular in the internal parts of the fluvial beds. The species that are part of these communities show high resistance to the impact of the water flow and they manage to rapidly recover their vegetative ability after the flooding of the river.

*\*Rubo ulmifolii-Salicetum albae*: The riparian arboreal formations with a dominance of *Salix alba* are characteristic of the edges of the water courses which have a constant water flow. These are often seen as linear formations in direct contact with the adjacent cultivated fields. Those relative to the subcoastal hilly territory of the central-southern part of the Italian Adriatic sector are included in the association *Rubo ulmifolii-Salicetum albae* (Allegrezza et al., 2006). This coenosis belongs to the alliance *Salicion albae* and it is differentiated from analogous coenoses of white willow with a central European distribution area by the presence of species with a Mediterranean chorotype, such as *Rubus ulmifolius*, *Hedera helix* and *Laurus nobilis.*

Fig. 12. *Symphyto bulbosi-Ulmetum minoris*.

352 Ecosystems Biodiversity

The class *Salici-Populetea* includes the riparian arboreal phytocoenoses of deciduous trees of the Eurosiberian and Mediterranean regions (Rivas Martinez et al., 2002). These plant formations are made up of species of willow and poplar, and they prefer soils of alluvial origin subjected to periodic flooding as a result of river overflow; some of these are located in close contact with the water, with others at greater distances, as a function of their decreasing ability to resist the force of the current. These same coenoses are frequently positioned in close contact with communities of the class *Phragmito-Magnocaricetea* and often

The presence of coenoses of the class *Salici-Populetea* is relatively common along the banks of the more important rivers; instead, at the margins of small water courses, these communities

In the agroecosystems analysed, the associations of this syntaxon are widely present, but in general little structured and reduced to thin strips positioned in direct contact with the water courses. This occurs because of the use of the major part of the terrain of the plains for the cultivation of annually seeded crops and as a function of the use of the soil that is determined by the development of commercial and industrial areas on river plains near to inhabited centres. Moreover, the arboreal riparian formations are always more often damaged extensively and heavily by badly designed reshaping and remodelling of the river

Within this class, two orders can be distinguished, which include coenoses with different

 *Populetalia albae*: This order includes the hygrophilous arboreal coenoses with a dominance of black poplar or elm that grow in zones not subjected to the continual influence of the water. These are usually located on alluvial terraces, on soils with a generally sandy texture and with good permeability, or in the bottom of the clayey

*\*Symphyto bulbosi-Ulmetum minoris* (Fig. 12): The elm coppices are found in the gullies with deep and fresh soil of clayey origins, or on the alluvial terraces with a superficial water table. These are included in the alliance *Alnion incanae*. The association illustrated here has been described for the hilly territory of a hilly sector of the central Adriatic (Biondi & Allegrezza, 1996), and it is a constant enough element of the hilly agricultural territory studied. In the herbaceous layer, the most represented species are usually

 *Salicetalia purpureae*: This syntaxon includes the riparian coenoses with a dominance of bushy willows that can be found in particular in the internal parts of the fluvial beds. The species that are part of these communities show high resistance to the impact of the water flow and they manage to rapidly recover their vegetative ability after the

*\*Rubo ulmifolii-Salicetum albae*: The riparian arboreal formations with a dominance of *Salix alba* are characteristic of the edges of the water courses which have a constant water flow. These are often seen as linear formations in direct contact with the adjacent cultivated fields. Those relative to the subcoastal hilly territory of the central-southern part of the Italian Adriatic sector are included in the association *Rubo ulmifolii-Salicetum albae* (Allegrezza et al., 2006). This coenosis belongs to the alliance *Salicion albae* and it is differentiated from analogous coenoses of white willow with a central European

it is possible to find various species of this last syntaxon within them.

banks, carried out to try to regulate the water flow of the main water courses.

**2.7.2 Class** *Salici-Populetea*

are often very rare, if not completely absent.

gullies with deep and constantly wet soil.

*Symphytum bulbosum* and *Arum italicum*.

abilities to resist river flooding.

flooding of the river.
