**2. Regions and study areas**

Under the National Protected Areas System (SNAP, created in 1976), there are currently 40 protected areas, of which 37 are continental (18% of Ecuador); one is insular, The Galapagos National Park (693,700 ha); and, two are exclusively marine, including the Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) with 14,110,000 ha. In addition, Ecuador possesses 107 areas designated as Important Bird Areas (IBAs) and 12 Ramsar sites (i.e., wetlands of international importance) for the conservation of biodiversity and protection of threatened species, including critically endangered species (Santander et al., 2009). A review of all sites and areas for waterbirds conservation in Ecuador are out of the scope of this chapter; therefore, for the purpose of this review, only regions and areas in which the authors have been directly involved in censuses, banding, field work and research in southern Ecuador and the Galapagos Islands, described as follows.

#### **2.1 Guayaquil Gulf Estuary Basin**

The Gulf of Guayaquil is the largest estuary of the Pacific coast in South America with surface area of approximately 13,701 km and 230 km of length (Fig. 1). The entrance of the

Ecuador), the Andean region (highlands), the Amazon jungle (eastern region) and the UNESCO Heritage site, the Galapagos Islands. Of the total number of bird species recorded in Ecuador, 13.6 % or 223 species (Granizo et al., 2002; Santander et al., 2006a) are represented by aquatic and seabirds dwelling diverse habitats including oceanic-offshore environments, nearshore habitats, intertidal zones, islands, coastal lagoon, mangroves,

However, several environmental stressors and human activities threaten the population and survival of waterbirds in both continental Ecuador and the Galapagos. While habitat fragmentation and deforestation, urban sprawl, agriculture, current use pesticides, marine pollution and wetland degradation are the major impacts identified on the Ecuadorian coast, invasive species and pathogens, bycatch (long-line/gillnets) and the regional climate variability are the major threats in the Galapagos Islands. While these conservation threats have been recognized to some degree, most of their impacts have been scarcely identified and assessed. This is critical under the paradigm of conservation biology and preservation of wildlife, depending on science sound data and baseline information intended to support

Therefore, the aim of this chapter is to contribute with a review focused on the conservation status of the biodiversity of aquatic birds and an overall environmental impact assessment of current and looming threats in Ecuador, with special emphasis in the Galapagos Islands. To accomplish this goal, a revision of waterbird species and abundance of seabirds, shorebirds and aquatic birds of freshwater systems will be conducted. The chapter will also include a section describing major features of the natural history and conservation status of priority species, including threatened and endemic species (e.g., Waved Albatross, Galapagos Petrel, Galapagos Penguin, Flightless Cormorant, Horned Screamer, Brownwood Rail, among others), as well as key species for the functioning and health of aquatic ecosystems. This section will be followed by the identification and assessment of current anthropogenic impacts and emerging conservation threats jeopardizing their survival in critical habitats and protected areas. Finally, the chapter will conclude with a section portraying mitigation strategies, recommendations for waterbird conservation and

Under the National Protected Areas System (SNAP, created in 1976), there are currently 40 protected areas, of which 37 are continental (18% of Ecuador); one is insular, The Galapagos National Park (693,700 ha); and, two are exclusively marine, including the Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) with 14,110,000 ha. In addition, Ecuador possesses 107 areas designated as Important Bird Areas (IBAs) and 12 Ramsar sites (i.e., wetlands of international importance) for the conservation of biodiversity and protection of threatened species, including critically endangered species (Santander et al., 2009). A review of all sites and areas for waterbirds conservation in Ecuador are out of the scope of this chapter; therefore, for the purpose of this review, only regions and areas in which the authors have been directly involved in censuses, banding, field work and research in southern Ecuador

The Gulf of Guayaquil is the largest estuary of the Pacific coast in South America with surface area of approximately 13,701 km and 230 km of length (Fig. 1). The entrance of the

shrimp farms, salt ponds and continental freshwater systems.

environmental management plans and conservation efforts.

environmental stewardship.

**2. Regions and study areas** 

and the Galapagos Islands, described as follows.

**2.1 Guayaquil Gulf Estuary Basin** 

Gulf is located at 3ºS of Ecuador and it goes 204 km from north to south, and enters a distance of 130 km. This estuary is located on the edge of the Guayas River and the city of Guayaquil. It is part of the Guayas Ecosystem, a large tropical area covering the Gulf of Guayaquil, the Guayas River Basin, the Guayas River Estuary and the city of Guayaquil. This ecosystem is home to 45% of the national human population, and articulates 12 provinces and 88 municipalities. Several watersheds drainage into the Guayas River Basin, including a vast geographical area with a hydrological system of 34 000 km2, which captures the effluents coming from the Daule, Vinces and Babahoyo rivers. The Guayas River Estuary begins on at the Puná Island, across the Jambelí and Del Morro channels, and extends as far as the influence of the tide and salinity, which ends about 100 km within the continent at the confluence of the Daule and Babahoyo rivers. The depth of The Guayas River Estuary ranges from 20 to 180 m.

Fig. 1. Study areas on the southern coast of Ecuador, including mangrove-estuarine areas (as indicated by black rings) in the Guayaquil Gulf and Guayas River Basin and several other coastal sites, including the Ecuasal lagoons in the Santa Elena Peninsula (Santa Elena Province), Canclon Lagoon, located in the Manglares Churute Ecological Reserve (MCER); and Santa Clara Island (The El Oro Provi nce).

some locations, and severe in others, some pristine mangroves in isolated patches are still well conserved and act as biological corridors and provide suitable habitat for local waterbird populations (e.g., heron nesting sites) and mammals. Mangroves around this area, including the Puerto Hondo Mangroves Sanctuary, are roosting habitat for about 214 individuals of the Red-lored Amazon (*A. autumnalis lilacina*) (Berg & Angel, 2006). Five of the six species of mangrove trees recorded for Ecuador are found in this reserve: red mangrove (*Rhizophora mangle*), hybrid red mangrove *(Rhizhopora harrisonii)*, black mangrove (*Avicennia germinans*)*,* white mangrove (*Laguncularia racemosa*) and *jeli* or button mangrove

Isla Santay is a Ramsar site (02º13'S, 79º51'W) with 4,700 ha located in the inner estuary of the Guayaquil Gulf (Guayas River Basin) and also close to the urban periphery of Guayaquil City (Delgado et al., 2000, Jaramillo et al., 2002, Santander & Muñoz, 2004). Isla Santay includes intertidal mud, sand or salt flats and intertidal forested wetlands, encompassing mangrove swamps, and tidal freshwater swamp forests. The total area of mangroves on is 2,224 hectares. The mangroves includes: *R. mangle, R. harrisonii*, *A. germinans, L. racemosa, C. erectus,* mangrove golden leatherfern (*Acrostichum aureum*)*, Salicornia fruticosa* and *Zizhypus thyrsiflora.* During the rainy season (i.e. late December to May) 60% of the island is flooded. The island is also inhabited by humans and several anthropogenic activities such as livestock farming (goats, pigs, and chickens), coal production from burning of trees and rice cultivation (Delgado et al., 2000; Jaramillo et al., 2002). Even though it has a considerable degree of human perturbation, Isla Santay is still a refuge for numerous species of terrestrial

**2.5 El Morro Mangroves Wildlife Refuge: Isla Manglecito (Manglecito Island)** 

The El Morro Mangroves Wildlife Refuge (2°39'S, 80°11'W) is a recent protected area encompassing 10,130 ha of mangrove forest, intertidal mudflats, estuarine channels and creeks in the El Morro Channel (Guayas Province), Gulf of Guayaquil. Manglecito Island, also known as the Frigatebirds' Island, is part of this Reserve and is habitat for a large breeding colony and year-round population of 2,000-6,000 Magnificent Frigatebirds (*Fregata magnificens*), which a large seabird population on the Ecuadorian coast Five species of mangrove trees occur in this island too, including red, hybrid red, black, white

Santa Clara Island (3º10' S, 80º 26' W) is a Ramsar site and a Wildlife Refuge in the Gulf of Guayaquil and influenced by the highly productive Peruvian upwelling system, delivering nutrient enriched water to the marine ecosystem of the island (Nixon and Thomas, 2001). With 5 hectares and 50-60 meters over the sea level, this refuge harbors the largest colonies of seabirds (15,000-20,000 seabirds), including one of the largest magnificent frigatebird population (5000-8000 frigatebirds) and about 6000−14000 bluefooted boobies and 3000−4000 brown pelicans, in coastal Ecuador (Valle, 1997; Valle, 1998; Suarez & Calle, 2005). The island possesses arid vegetation represented by *Capparis* and *Cordia* shrubs, as well as *Armathocereus* cactuses. Due to the large number of sea birds breeding on the island, the harvesting of "*guano*" has been recorded as an illegal activity,

(*Conocarpus erectus*).

birds and waterbirds.

and button mangroves.

**2.6 Santa Clara Island** 

**2.4 Isla Santay (Santay Island - national recreation area)** 

The Guayaquil Gulf Estuary contains approximately 81% or 121 hectares of the total area of Ecuadorian mangroves, encompassing about 148,000 hectares (CLIRSEN 2007)., and is suitable habitat for vast populations of different species of herons and egrets, shorebirds and frigatebirds, (Alava et al., 2005, Carvajal et al*.,* 2005, Carvajal & Alava, 2007).

#### **2.2 Churute Mangrove Ecological Reserve and El Canclon Lagoon**

The Manglares Churute Ecological Reserve (MCER) (02°30'S, 79°42'W; Fig. 1) is located in the Guayaquil Gulf Estuary Basin (INEFAN & Fundación Natura, 1997; Briones et al., 2001) of the Guayas province. El Canclon Lagoon is one of the 32 wetlands identified in the Ecuadorian coastal region and was declared as a Ramsar site in 1996. The surrounding floodplain has an area of 800 ha, and is situated in the northern part of in the northern part of the MCER. Moreover, the El Canclon Lagoon is part of one of the most important endemic bird areas (EBA) in the Neotropics for biodiversity conservation, the Tumbesian region, which extends from southwest Ecuador to northwest Peru (Best et al., 1995; Stattersfield et al., 1998). Its lentic bodies of water and surrounding wetland ecosystem constitute a unique riparian habitat and refuge for Neotropical migrants as well as resident breeding birds. Among the tropical plant species representatives of the area are floating and emergent water plants such as duckweed (*Lemna minima*), water hyacinth (*Eichornia crassipes*), sleeping-beauty waterlily (*Nymphaea blanda*), water lettuce (*Pistia stratoites*), flat sedge (*Cyperus odoratus*) and cattails (*Thypa latifolia* and *T. dominguensis*) (Sierra et al., 1999). In addition, riparian vegetation, lowland bushes, and tropical dry and humid forest remnants border the southeast, east and northeast edges of the lagoon, which lies adjacent to the mountainous watershed of the El Mate, Perequete Chico, Perequete Grande, Cimalon, Pancho Diablo and Masvale hills. The area's unique habitat types, as well as its high level of bird endemism (~ 40%) (Alava et al., 2002), warrant the publication of all ornithological observations of the area, which may prove useful to future conservation efforts. The aquatic species recorded in and around El Canclon Lagoon include mainly waterfowl such as Fulvous Whistling Duck (*Dendrocygna bicolor*) and Black-bellied Whistling Duck (*D. autumnalis*), Neotropical Cormorant (*Phalacrocorax brasilianus*), Purple Gallinule (*Porphyrula martinica*), Wattled Jacanas(*Jacana jacana*), and herons such as Great Egret (*Ardea alba*) and Cattle Egret (*Bubulcus ibis*) egrets (Briones *et al.* 2001; Alava et al., 2002; Alava et al., 2009). A representative threatened species residing year-round in this wetland is the rare Horned Screamer (*Anhima cornuta*), a bird locally known "canclon" (Alava et al., 2007).

#### **2.3 Reserva de Producción de Fauna Manglares el Salado-RPFMS (El Salado Mangrove–Wildlife Production Reserve).**

The RPFMS is a wildlife refuge confining 9,748 hectares of remnant mangroves in southeast Guayaquil City (2º10'S, 79º56'W)*,* Guayas Province. About 3% of the total area of this reserve is occupied by shrimp farms (<200 ha), of which 100 ha have been abandoned. Three thermoelectric facilities, a water pump station and sewers also occur within its boundaries. Small-scale clearing of mangrove trees (i.e. timber extraction for coal production) occurs at specific locations, while pollution from solid wastes and water contamination are environmental issues of concern being close to human urbanization and industrial parks (Carvajal et al., 2006). Artisanal fisheries are subsistence activities practiced by communities residing within the RPFMS. Although the RPFMS has a moderate level of fragmentation in some locations, and severe in others, some pristine mangroves in isolated patches are still well conserved and act as biological corridors and provide suitable habitat for local waterbird populations (e.g., heron nesting sites) and mammals. Mangroves around this area, including the Puerto Hondo Mangroves Sanctuary, are roosting habitat for about 214 individuals of the Red-lored Amazon (*A. autumnalis lilacina*) (Berg & Angel, 2006). Five of the six species of mangrove trees recorded for Ecuador are found in this reserve: red mangrove (*Rhizophora mangle*), hybrid red mangrove *(Rhizhopora harrisonii)*, black mangrove (*Avicennia germinans*)*,* white mangrove (*Laguncularia racemosa*) and *jeli* or button mangrove (*Conocarpus erectus*).

#### **2.4 Isla Santay (Santay Island - national recreation area)**

Isla Santay is a Ramsar site (02º13'S, 79º51'W) with 4,700 ha located in the inner estuary of the Guayaquil Gulf (Guayas River Basin) and also close to the urban periphery of Guayaquil City (Delgado et al., 2000, Jaramillo et al., 2002, Santander & Muñoz, 2004). Isla Santay includes intertidal mud, sand or salt flats and intertidal forested wetlands, encompassing mangrove swamps, and tidal freshwater swamp forests. The total area of mangroves on is 2,224 hectares. The mangroves includes: *R. mangle, R. harrisonii*, *A. germinans, L. racemosa, C. erectus,* mangrove golden leatherfern (*Acrostichum aureum*)*, Salicornia fruticosa* and *Zizhypus thyrsiflora.* During the rainy season (i.e. late December to May) 60% of the island is flooded. The island is also inhabited by humans and several anthropogenic activities such as livestock farming (goats, pigs, and chickens), coal production from burning of trees and rice cultivation (Delgado et al., 2000; Jaramillo et al., 2002). Even though it has a considerable degree of human perturbation, Isla Santay is still a refuge for numerous species of terrestrial birds and waterbirds.

#### **2.5 El Morro Mangroves Wildlife Refuge: Isla Manglecito (Manglecito Island)**

The El Morro Mangroves Wildlife Refuge (2°39'S, 80°11'W) is a recent protected area encompassing 10,130 ha of mangrove forest, intertidal mudflats, estuarine channels and creeks in the El Morro Channel (Guayas Province), Gulf of Guayaquil. Manglecito Island, also known as the Frigatebirds' Island, is part of this Reserve and is habitat for a large breeding colony and year-round population of 2,000-6,000 Magnificent Frigatebirds (*Fregata magnificens*), which a large seabird population on the Ecuadorian coast Five species of mangrove trees occur in this island too, including red, hybrid red, black, white and button mangroves.

#### **2.6 Santa Clara Island**

274 Ecosystems Biodiversity

The Guayaquil Gulf Estuary contains approximately 81% or 121 hectares of the total area of Ecuadorian mangroves, encompassing about 148,000 hectares (CLIRSEN 2007)., and is suitable habitat for vast populations of different species of herons and egrets, shorebirds and

The Manglares Churute Ecological Reserve (MCER) (02°30'S, 79°42'W; Fig. 1) is located in the Guayaquil Gulf Estuary Basin (INEFAN & Fundación Natura, 1997; Briones et al., 2001) of the Guayas province. El Canclon Lagoon is one of the 32 wetlands identified in the Ecuadorian coastal region and was declared as a Ramsar site in 1996. The surrounding floodplain has an area of 800 ha, and is situated in the northern part of in the northern part of the MCER. Moreover, the El Canclon Lagoon is part of one of the most important endemic bird areas (EBA) in the Neotropics for biodiversity conservation, the Tumbesian region, which extends from southwest Ecuador to northwest Peru (Best et al., 1995; Stattersfield et al., 1998). Its lentic bodies of water and surrounding wetland ecosystem constitute a unique riparian habitat and refuge for Neotropical migrants as well as resident breeding birds. Among the tropical plant species representatives of the area are floating and emergent water plants such as duckweed (*Lemna minima*), water hyacinth (*Eichornia crassipes*), sleeping-beauty waterlily (*Nymphaea blanda*), water lettuce (*Pistia stratoites*), flat sedge (*Cyperus odoratus*) and cattails (*Thypa latifolia* and *T. dominguensis*) (Sierra et al., 1999). In addition, riparian vegetation, lowland bushes, and tropical dry and humid forest remnants border the southeast, east and northeast edges of the lagoon, which lies adjacent to the mountainous watershed of the El Mate, Perequete Chico, Perequete Grande, Cimalon, Pancho Diablo and Masvale hills. The area's unique habitat types, as well as its high level of bird endemism (~ 40%) (Alava et al., 2002), warrant the publication of all ornithological observations of the area, which may prove useful to future conservation efforts. The aquatic species recorded in and around El Canclon Lagoon include mainly waterfowl such as Fulvous Whistling Duck (*Dendrocygna bicolor*) and Black-bellied Whistling Duck (*D. autumnalis*), Neotropical Cormorant (*Phalacrocorax brasilianus*), Purple Gallinule (*Porphyrula martinica*), Wattled Jacanas(*Jacana jacana*), and herons such as Great Egret (*Ardea alba*) and Cattle Egret (*Bubulcus ibis*) egrets (Briones *et al.* 2001; Alava et al., 2002; Alava et al., 2009). A representative threatened species residing year-round in this wetland is the rare Horned Screamer (*Anhima cornuta*), a bird locally

frigatebirds, (Alava et al., 2005, Carvajal et al*.,* 2005, Carvajal & Alava, 2007).

**2.3 Reserva de Producción de Fauna Manglares el Salado-RPFMS (El Salado** 

The RPFMS is a wildlife refuge confining 9,748 hectares of remnant mangroves in southeast Guayaquil City (2º10'S, 79º56'W)*,* Guayas Province. About 3% of the total area of this reserve is occupied by shrimp farms (<200 ha), of which 100 ha have been abandoned. Three thermoelectric facilities, a water pump station and sewers also occur within its boundaries. Small-scale clearing of mangrove trees (i.e. timber extraction for coal production) occurs at specific locations, while pollution from solid wastes and water contamination are environmental issues of concern being close to human urbanization and industrial parks (Carvajal et al., 2006). Artisanal fisheries are subsistence activities practiced by communities residing within the RPFMS. Although the RPFMS has a moderate level of fragmentation in

**2.2 Churute Mangrove Ecological Reserve and El Canclon Lagoon** 

known "canclon" (Alava et al., 2007).

**Mangrove–Wildlife Production Reserve).** 

Santa Clara Island (3º10' S, 80º 26' W) is a Ramsar site and a Wildlife Refuge in the Gulf of Guayaquil and influenced by the highly productive Peruvian upwelling system, delivering nutrient enriched water to the marine ecosystem of the island (Nixon and Thomas, 2001). With 5 hectares and 50-60 meters over the sea level, this refuge harbors the largest colonies of seabirds (15,000-20,000 seabirds), including one of the largest magnificent frigatebird population (5000-8000 frigatebirds) and about 6000−14000 bluefooted boobies and 3000−4000 brown pelicans, in coastal Ecuador (Valle, 1997; Valle, 1998; Suarez & Calle, 2005). The island possesses arid vegetation represented by *Capparis* and *Cordia* shrubs, as well as *Armathocereus* cactuses. Due to the large number of sea birds breeding on the island, the harvesting of "*guano*" has been recorded as an illegal activity,

The Ecuasal lagoons are located in the southwestern coastal region of Ecuador (Santa Elena Peninsula), including the Salinas (500 ha) and Pacoa (1000 ha) lagoons. The Ecuasal lagoons are man-made lakes situated less than 200 m from the coastline (Salinas: 02º 13´S 80º58´O; Pacoa: 02º 05´S 80º44´O), which were dug out in order to extract sea salt for commercialization by the Ecuadorian Salt and Chemical Products Company (ECUASAL) (WHSRN, 2009a). The Salinas lagoons are located 1 km southeast of the town of the same name and the Pacoa lagoons are 10 Km from Santa Elena (15 Km from Salinas) between San Pablo and Monteverde). The Salinas lagoons face the sea (towards the west) and are surrounded by different types of urban and industrial infrastructure, while the Pacoa lagoons are still mostly surrounded by an arid semi-desert area. Due to the dry, cold weather and scarce precipitation, this is one of the few areas in the country that facilitates salt production at industrial level. The lagoons are a suitable habitat for aquatic birds and currently home to thousands of resident and migratory water birds throughout the year (WHSRN, 2009a,b), and this already prompted its designation as Important Bird Conservation Areas (IBAs) (Santander et al., 2009). The lakes are an important stopover place for migratory birds, particularly during the months of August and September when they gather in large numbers. Systematic census work has been carried out since 1988, and a total of 95 species of aquatic birds have been registered, including 41 species of shorebirds, 9 gull species and 10 tern species (WHSRN, 2009a ; Haase, 2011a). An average of 4000 birds is counted per month. Each year the maximum number of birds is counted in September, when more than 30,000 individuals of the Wilson's phalarope (*Phalaropus tricolor*) have been counted in the area, representing more than 2% of the total population (Haase, 2011a). Additionally, the site is home to over 20,000 waterbirds per year. The Grey-hooded Gull (*Croicocephalus cirrocephalus*) breeds from February until October with over 700 pairs, and 400 pairs of Gull-billed Tern (*Gelochelidon nilotica*), in colonies spread out over the area (Haase, 1991; WHSRN, 2009b; Haase, 2011a). The Kelp Gull (*Larus dominicanus*) and South American Tern (*Sterna hirundinacea*) has also been found to breed and nest in this area for first time in Ecuador (Haase, 1996; WHSRN, 2009b). Other birds, among them some near threatened (NT) species, are regular visitors or permanently resident waterbirds of the site such as Peruvian Tern, (*Sternula lorata*), Chilean Flamingo (*Phoenicopterus chilensis*) and Elegant tern (*Thalasseus elegans*)

The Galapagos comprises an Archipelago with 13 major volcanic islands, situated approximately 1000 km from the Ecuadorian coast, between 01°40´N-01°25´S and 89°15´W-92°00´W (Fig. 2). The roots of their unique nature can be attributed to their remote, oceanic geography. At present, 2,909 marine species have been identified, of which 18.2% are endemic to the Galapagos (Bustamante et al., 2002). Several oceans currents influence the regional climate and drive the population dynamics of native and endemic species. The most important oceanic surface currents are the Panama (El Niño) current, coming from the Northeast and bringing warm, nutrient-poor waters and, and the Peru (Humboldt) current, arriving from the Southern Ocean, and transporting cold, nutrient rich waters. Both current systems merge to form the South Equatorial Current (SEC), which drives surface marine waters to the west of the islands and which has been proposed as the major mean of transportation bringing species from mainland Ecuador to the Galapagos (Banks, 2002;

**2.9 Ecuasal-Salinas Lagoons** 

(WHSRN, 2009b; Haase, 2011a).

**2.10 Galapagos islands** 

with a total extraction of 120 m3 equivalent to 2000 sacs per season (Suarez y Calle, 2005). The Santa Clara Island is considered as one of the most important areas used as nesting and resting sites by blue-footed boobies in Ecuador's mainland coast (Miranda et al., 2010).

#### **2.7 Bajo Alto Mangroves**

The Bajo Alto mangroves is located in the El Oro Province (3ºS, 79.5ºW), and encompasses 555 ha, from which 357 ha are mangrove forests and 199 ha is represented by the adjacent estuarine water (Calle, 2003). Bajo Alto mangroves are not yet under any protected area or reserve status even though all the mangroves are protected by the Ecuadorian Mangrove Law. Mangrove remnants are still semipristine, and suitable for wildlife. The El Oro Province is typically characterized by a vast amount of banana plantations and shrimp farms. For instance, shrimp farm ponds are encroaching nearby mangrove habitat where mangrove hawks were sighted. The predominant mangrove tree species in this area is the red mangrove, followed by black and white mangroves (Calle, 2003)*.* 

#### **2.8 Santa Elena Peninsula**

The Santa Elena Peninsula is located in the southern coast of Ecuador (Fig. 1). This Peninsula is under the influence of the cold Humboldt Current, and, throughout the year, the environmental temperature fluctuates between 22ºC in summer (between June and November) and a maximum temperature of 33ºC in winter (between December and May). From June, when the southern winter sets in, the temperature of the sea surface decreases. Masses of relatively cold sea air enter the coastal strip, resulting in drizzly weather with very weak rain values, so this is an area of dry weather with a maximum average of 250 mm a year (WHSRN, 2009a). On the south east side of the Santa Elena Peninsula (southwestern tip of the mainland coast) there is a series of salt lakes owned by the ECUASAL Company and categorized as an IBA (see next subsection). In September 2007, a narrow coastal strip of coastal habitat and surrounding maritime stretch of ocean was declared marine protected area. It is located at the westernmost tip of the province of Santa Elena, and includes the beaches and several square miles of water around the Chocolatera. At present, a sea-watching project is being carried out. In order to know about the presence, migration and other behavior of the bird species, regular countings are done from the Chocolatera. The Santa Elena Peninsula is considered an important area and stopover for migratory birds (Haase, 1991; Haase, 2010). In 2010, the results of a total of 250 hours of sea-watching revealed that many poorly known species happen to occur more frequently near Salinas than previously thought. They include threatened species like Waved Albatross (*Phoebastria irrorata*), Galapagos Petrel (*Pterodroma phaeopygia*), Parkinson´s Petrel (*Procellaria parkinsoni*), Pink-footed Shearwater (*Puffinus creatopus*). Other species of concern like Elegant Tern (*Thalasseus elegans*) and Peruvian tern (*Sternula lorata*) are also observed at regular times. The Arctic Tern (*Sterna paradisaea*) and the Sabine's Gull (*Xema sabini*), as well as the six species of boobies occurring in coastal Ecuador (*Sula* spp.) have been also recorded from this area (Haase, 2010). This observation site directly within the Marine Protected area is located near a light house, at 6 meter above the sea level. This panoramic site offers a view of 280 ° of ocean, and is an extraordinary strategic location to watch sea- and coastal bird migration throughout the year. Within one year, 57 species of sea and coastal birds were recorded (Haase, 2010).

### **2.9 Ecuasal-Salinas Lagoons**

276 Ecosystems Biodiversity

with a total extraction of 120 m3 equivalent to 2000 sacs per season (Suarez y Calle, 2005). The Santa Clara Island is considered as one of the most important areas used as nesting and resting sites by blue-footed boobies in Ecuador's mainland coast (Miranda et al.,

The Bajo Alto mangroves is located in the El Oro Province (3ºS, 79.5ºW), and encompasses 555 ha, from which 357 ha are mangrove forests and 199 ha is represented by the adjacent estuarine water (Calle, 2003). Bajo Alto mangroves are not yet under any protected area or reserve status even though all the mangroves are protected by the Ecuadorian Mangrove Law. Mangrove remnants are still semipristine, and suitable for wildlife. The El Oro Province is typically characterized by a vast amount of banana plantations and shrimp farms. For instance, shrimp farm ponds are encroaching nearby mangrove habitat where mangrove hawks were sighted. The predominant mangrove tree species in this area is the

The Santa Elena Peninsula is located in the southern coast of Ecuador (Fig. 1). This Peninsula is under the influence of the cold Humboldt Current, and, throughout the year, the environmental temperature fluctuates between 22ºC in summer (between June and November) and a maximum temperature of 33ºC in winter (between December and May). From June, when the southern winter sets in, the temperature of the sea surface decreases. Masses of relatively cold sea air enter the coastal strip, resulting in drizzly weather with very weak rain values, so this is an area of dry weather with a maximum average of 250 mm a year (WHSRN, 2009a). On the south east side of the Santa Elena Peninsula (southwestern tip of the mainland coast) there is a series of salt lakes owned by the ECUASAL Company and categorized as an IBA (see next subsection). In September 2007, a narrow coastal strip of coastal habitat and surrounding maritime stretch of ocean was declared marine protected area. It is located at the westernmost tip of the province of Santa Elena, and includes the beaches and several square miles of water around the Chocolatera. At present, a sea-watching project is being carried out. In order to know about the presence, migration and other behavior of the bird species, regular countings are done from the Chocolatera. The Santa Elena Peninsula is considered an important area and stopover for migratory birds (Haase, 1991; Haase, 2010). In 2010, the results of a total of 250 hours of sea-watching revealed that many poorly known species happen to occur more frequently near Salinas than previously thought. They include threatened species like Waved Albatross (*Phoebastria irrorata*), Galapagos Petrel (*Pterodroma phaeopygia*), Parkinson´s Petrel (*Procellaria parkinsoni*), Pink-footed Shearwater (*Puffinus creatopus*). Other species of concern like Elegant Tern (*Thalasseus elegans*) and Peruvian tern (*Sternula lorata*) are also observed at regular times. The Arctic Tern (*Sterna paradisaea*) and the Sabine's Gull (*Xema sabini*), as well as the six species of boobies occurring in coastal Ecuador (*Sula* spp.) have been also recorded from this area (Haase, 2010). This observation site directly within the Marine Protected area is located near a light house, at 6 meter above the sea level. This panoramic site offers a view of 280 ° of ocean, and is an extraordinary strategic location to watch sea- and coastal bird migration throughout the year. Within one year, 57 species of sea and coastal birds were recorded (Haase, 2010).

red mangrove, followed by black and white mangroves (Calle, 2003)*.* 

2010).

**2.7 Bajo Alto Mangroves** 

**2.8 Santa Elena Peninsula** 

The Ecuasal lagoons are located in the southwestern coastal region of Ecuador (Santa Elena Peninsula), including the Salinas (500 ha) and Pacoa (1000 ha) lagoons. The Ecuasal lagoons are man-made lakes situated less than 200 m from the coastline (Salinas: 02º 13´S 80º58´O; Pacoa: 02º 05´S 80º44´O), which were dug out in order to extract sea salt for commercialization by the Ecuadorian Salt and Chemical Products Company (ECUASAL) (WHSRN, 2009a). The Salinas lagoons are located 1 km southeast of the town of the same name and the Pacoa lagoons are 10 Km from Santa Elena (15 Km from Salinas) between San Pablo and Monteverde). The Salinas lagoons face the sea (towards the west) and are surrounded by different types of urban and industrial infrastructure, while the Pacoa lagoons are still mostly surrounded by an arid semi-desert area. Due to the dry, cold weather and scarce precipitation, this is one of the few areas in the country that facilitates salt production at industrial level. The lagoons are a suitable habitat for aquatic birds and currently home to thousands of resident and migratory water birds throughout the year (WHSRN, 2009a,b), and this already prompted its designation as Important Bird Conservation Areas (IBAs) (Santander et al., 2009). The lakes are an important stopover place for migratory birds, particularly during the months of August and September when they gather in large numbers. Systematic census work has been carried out since 1988, and a total of 95 species of aquatic birds have been registered, including 41 species of shorebirds, 9 gull species and 10 tern species (WHSRN, 2009a ; Haase, 2011a). An average of 4000 birds is counted per month. Each year the maximum number of birds is counted in September, when more than 30,000 individuals of the Wilson's phalarope (*Phalaropus tricolor*) have been counted in the area, representing more than 2% of the total population (Haase, 2011a). Additionally, the site is home to over 20,000 waterbirds per year. The Grey-hooded Gull (*Croicocephalus cirrocephalus*) breeds from February until October with over 700 pairs, and 400 pairs of Gull-billed Tern (*Gelochelidon nilotica*), in colonies spread out over the area (Haase, 1991; WHSRN, 2009b; Haase, 2011a). The Kelp Gull (*Larus dominicanus*) and South American Tern (*Sterna hirundinacea*) has also been found to breed and nest in this area for first time in Ecuador (Haase, 1996; WHSRN, 2009b). Other birds, among them some near threatened (NT) species, are regular visitors or permanently resident waterbirds of the site such as Peruvian Tern, (*Sternula lorata*), Chilean Flamingo (*Phoenicopterus chilensis*) and Elegant tern (*Thalasseus elegans*) (WHSRN, 2009b; Haase, 2011a).

#### **2.10 Galapagos islands**

The Galapagos comprises an Archipelago with 13 major volcanic islands, situated approximately 1000 km from the Ecuadorian coast, between 01°40´N-01°25´S and 89°15´W-92°00´W (Fig. 2). The roots of their unique nature can be attributed to their remote, oceanic geography. At present, 2,909 marine species have been identified, of which 18.2% are endemic to the Galapagos (Bustamante et al., 2002). Several oceans currents influence the regional climate and drive the population dynamics of native and endemic species. The most important oceanic surface currents are the Panama (El Niño) current, coming from the Northeast and bringing warm, nutrient-poor waters and, and the Peru (Humboldt) current, arriving from the Southern Ocean, and transporting cold, nutrient rich waters. Both current systems merge to form the South Equatorial Current (SEC), which drives surface marine waters to the west of the islands and which has been proposed as the major mean of transportation bringing species from mainland Ecuador to the Galapagos (Banks, 2002;

conduct the censuses (Alava, 2005). From February 2001 to January 2002, weekly bird inventories and 218 alternated field censuses to study aquatic birds were conducted simultaneously or sequentially during a study focused on a Horned Screamer population and habitat along 100m transects around the Canclon lagoon perimeter in five survey areas, showing different degree of perturbation, during the dry and wet seasons during 92 days (Alava et al, 2007; Alava et al., 2009). Daily observations lasted between 15 and 30 minutes at each transect using binoculars (7× 50). These observations were conducted in the morning and at noon (0730-0930 or 1000-1200 hr PDT), and during in the afternoon hours (1300-1500 hr PDT). In order to do the sea-watching from the Chocolatera in Salinas (Santa Elena Peninsula), powerful binoculars (16 x 70) were used to scan the stretch of water in front until the horizon to look for birds, during continued watching periods of 60 minutes (not necessarily on whole clock hours). Additionally, the local atmospheric conditions were also noted down. Most observations were done by one, and sometimes by three people. For the monthly census at the Ecuasal salt lakes one to three observers moved by bicycle or by car on the dikes that divide the pools, noting down the numbers of individuals per recorded species. During most visits a steady route was followed and most visits (90%) were done within the first four hours of daylight. The available optic material included a telescope (Swarovski 25 x60) and binoculars (16 x 70; 10 x 42). Between 1991 and the year 2000, the second author (B. Haase) conducted more than 240 systematic censuses of shorebirds and water birds (Haase, 2011a). As of 2004, two annual water bird census have been conducted (contribution by Wetlands International through the Ecuadorian non governmental organization, Aves & Conservación-Birds & Conservation), as part of the Neotropical Censuses of Water birds. Additionally, more than 2000 hours of shorebird banding has been carried out, with a total number of 6500 birds (smaller waders) captured with mistnets and banded. Basic biometric data were obtained before the birds were equipped with an aluminum band and according to the inter-american standard method, two color flags (for Ecuador: light green over red) were placed on the tibia (Haase, 2011a). Finally, data from Neotropical waterbird censuses conducted in Ecuador were also analyzed in this study and retrieved from published technical reports (Santander & Muñoz, 2005; Santander et al., 2006b; Santander et al., 2007;

Data on field surveys to determine the species and relative abundance and spatial distribution of seabirds in interior and exterior waters of the Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) were retrieved from the information and datasets collected by oceanographic expeditions aboard the R/V BAE Orion (INOCAR-Ecuadorian Navy) on August 2000 and April 2009, as well as on the R/V Roger Revelle (SCRIPPS Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, UCSD) from August to September 2001 (Cruz-Delgado, 2001; Alava, 2002; Jimenez et al., 2010; Alava et al., 2010). This study also includes data on censuses of Galapagos penguins and flightless cormorants reported elsewhere (Vargas et al., 2005; Jiménez-Uzcátegui et al., 2006; Jiménez-Uzcátegui & Vargas, 2007; Jiménez-Uzcátegui and Devineau 2009) and compared to time series of sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies to asses the impact of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), used here as a proxy to explore the effect of regional climate change. Data on SST anomalies were retrieved from the National Weather Service of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

(http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis\_monitoring/ensostuff/ONI\_change.shtml)

Santander & Lara, 2008).

**3.2 Galapagos islands** 

(NOAA, 2011):

Bustamante et al., 2002). Remarkably, about 50% of terrestrial and waterbird species are endemic to the Galapagos either at the species or subspecies level (Jimenez-Uzcategui & Wiedenfeld, 2002; Wiedenfeld, 2006). The Galapagos and surrounding waters harbour between 88 and 111 species of seabirds and coastal-shorebirds, including native, breeding and regular migrant species.

Fig. 2. Location of the Galapagos Islands relative to continental Ecuador, South America. The coastal zoning scheme for the Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) is also shown. The zones are fully-protected 'no-take' area, in green; non-extractive use areas, in blue; regulated extractive uses, in red; and, special zones nearby the inhabited port areas, in black. Adapted from Charles Darwin Foundation and World Wildlife Fund (2002).

#### **3. Censuses and field methods**

#### **3.1 Ecuador mainland coast**

Field observations and censuses were conducted from December 1998 to January 2002 to conduct inventories of waterbirds in mangrove areas of the Gulf of Guayaquil. A total of 22 field trips were deployed, including observations from a boat and an over-flight surveillance trip in an aircraft through mangrove conservation monitoring routes (Carvajal & Alava, 2007; Alava, 2005). Boat trips also followed line transects (n = 9) of 25 and 4 km established in three different areas (northwest, northeast and southeast) of the Gulf of Guayaquil to conduct the censuses (Alava, 2005). From February 2001 to January 2002, weekly bird inventories and 218 alternated field censuses to study aquatic birds were conducted simultaneously or sequentially during a study focused on a Horned Screamer population and habitat along 100m transects around the Canclon lagoon perimeter in five survey areas, showing different degree of perturbation, during the dry and wet seasons during 92 days (Alava et al, 2007; Alava et al., 2009). Daily observations lasted between 15 and 30 minutes at each transect using binoculars (7× 50). These observations were conducted in the morning and at noon (0730-0930 or 1000-1200 hr PDT), and during in the afternoon hours (1300-1500 hr PDT). In order to do the sea-watching from the Chocolatera in Salinas (Santa Elena Peninsula), powerful binoculars (16 x 70) were used to scan the stretch of water in front until the horizon to look for birds, during continued watching periods of 60 minutes (not necessarily on whole clock hours). Additionally, the local atmospheric conditions were also noted down. Most observations were done by one, and sometimes by three people. For the monthly census at the Ecuasal salt lakes one to three observers moved by bicycle or by car on the dikes that divide the pools, noting down the numbers of individuals per recorded species. During most visits a steady route was followed and most visits (90%) were done within the first four hours of daylight. The available optic material included a telescope (Swarovski 25 x60) and binoculars (16 x 70; 10 x 42). Between 1991 and the year 2000, the second author (B. Haase) conducted more than 240 systematic censuses of shorebirds and water birds (Haase, 2011a). As of 2004, two annual water bird census have been conducted (contribution by Wetlands International through the Ecuadorian non governmental organization, Aves & Conservación-Birds & Conservation), as part of the Neotropical Censuses of Water birds. Additionally, more than 2000 hours of shorebird banding has been carried out, with a total number of 6500 birds (smaller waders) captured with mistnets and banded. Basic biometric data were obtained before the birds were equipped with an aluminum band and according to the inter-american standard method, two color flags (for Ecuador: light green over red) were placed on the tibia (Haase, 2011a). Finally, data from Neotropical waterbird censuses conducted in Ecuador were also analyzed in this study and retrieved from published technical reports (Santander & Muñoz, 2005; Santander et al., 2006b; Santander et al., 2007; Santander & Lara, 2008).

#### **3.2 Galapagos islands**

278 Ecosystems Biodiversity

Bustamante et al., 2002). Remarkably, about 50% of terrestrial and waterbird species are endemic to the Galapagos either at the species or subspecies level (Jimenez-Uzcategui & Wiedenfeld, 2002; Wiedenfeld, 2006). The Galapagos and surrounding waters harbour between 88 and 111 species of seabirds and coastal-shorebirds, including native, breeding

Merchena

Santa Cruz

90°

Fig. 2. Location of the Galapagos Islands relative to continental Ecuador, South America. The coastal zoning scheme for the Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) is also shown. The zones are fully-protected 'no-take' area, in green; non-extractive use areas, in blue; regulated extractive uses, in red; and, special zones nearby the inhabited port areas, in black. Adapted

Field observations and censuses were conducted from December 1998 to January 2002 to conduct inventories of waterbirds in mangrove areas of the Gulf of Guayaquil. A total of 22 field trips were deployed, including observations from a boat and an over-flight surveillance trip in an aircraft through mangrove conservation monitoring routes (Carvajal & Alava, 2007; Alava, 2005). Boat trips also followed line transects (n = 9) of 25 and 4 km established in three different areas (northwest, northeast and southeast) of the Gulf of Guayaquil to

Santa Fe

Española

San Cristobal

1°

0°

**Ecuador**

**Pacific Ocean**

89°

89°

Genovesa

90°

Santiago

from Charles Darwin Foundation and World Wildlife Fund (2002).

Pinta

91°

and regular migrant species.

Fernandina

Wolf

Darwin

0°

1°

92°

No extractive use area Regulated extractive use

**3. Censuses and field methods** 

**3.1 Ecuador mainland coast** 

Isabela

Floreana Full protected no–take area

Special zone close to inhabited port areas

92° 91°

Data on field surveys to determine the species and relative abundance and spatial distribution of seabirds in interior and exterior waters of the Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) were retrieved from the information and datasets collected by oceanographic expeditions aboard the R/V BAE Orion (INOCAR-Ecuadorian Navy) on August 2000 and April 2009, as well as on the R/V Roger Revelle (SCRIPPS Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, UCSD) from August to September 2001 (Cruz-Delgado, 2001; Alava, 2002; Jimenez et al., 2010; Alava et al., 2010). This study also includes data on censuses of Galapagos penguins and flightless cormorants reported elsewhere (Vargas et al., 2005; Jiménez-Uzcátegui et al., 2006; Jiménez-Uzcátegui & Vargas, 2007; Jiménez-Uzcátegui and Devineau 2009) and compared to time series of sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies to asses the impact of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), used here as a proxy to explore the effect of regional climate change. Data on SST anomalies were retrieved from the National Weather Service of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA, 2011):

(http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis\_monitoring/ensostuff/ONI\_change.shtml)

and Least Sandpiper. The environmental conditions of the Ecuasal lagoons offer a suitable

February July February July February July February July

censused 11 22 23 25 29 26 27 21

species 45 68 67 74 59 62 80 77

individuals 3750 13759 21201 15533 17600 21509 39764 24704

Table 1. Data of Neotropical waterbird censuses conducted in Ecuador from 1995 to 2007. The censuses are generally conducted twice per year (February and July). In 1995 and 2004, the census was carried out only in February and July, respectively. Adapted from Santander

Abundant species Maximum Counts

Table 2. Major shorebird species and maximum abundaces recorded in Ecuasal lagoons.

During the oceanographic cruises conducted around the Galapagos Islands in 2000, 2001 and 2009, a total of 24 species of seabirds were recorded (Fig. 3), with abundances ranging from 830 individuals in 2001 to 2242 individuals in 2002. The Nazca Booby (*S. granti*) was the most abundant seabird accounting for 51% of the total abundance of species recorded (1560 seabirds) in 2009 (Fig. 3). Most of the sightings were aggregated in places southwestern Galapagos (0º-2ºS; 94-91ºW), where generally nutrient-enriched, upwelling areas are found (Jimenez et al. 2010; Alava et al., 2010). A high abundance of sea birds was also observed in areas exhibiting the highest values of primary production (0.5-1.7 mg/m3 in 2000 and 0.46-0.50 mg/m3 in 2009), southeast of the Galapagos (2-3ºS; 88ºW) (Alava et al., 2010). These observations underline the role of seabirds as eco-markers of primary productivity in a highly stochastic marine environment. Several seabirds, including critically endangered species such as the Waved Albatross (*Phoebastria irrorata*) and Galapagos Petrel (*Pterodroma phaeopygia*), were recorded in foraging areas (87°-84° W) off the GMR boundaries, implying the risk of bycatch in these unprotected areas. A reduction of 82% and 87% in the abundance of Waved Albatross and Galapagos Petrel recorded at sea (using similar tracks and cruises with the INOCAR Ecuadorian Navy for both years) is observed from 2001 to 2009, respectively (Fig. 3). In addition, large numbers of the Red-necked Phalarope (*Phalaropus lobatus*) were observed in several oceanographic cruises off Ecuador and around Galapagos waters (B. Haase, pers. obs.). On the contrary, a negative local

 Snowy Plover (*Charadrius alexandrinus* ) 221 Sanderling (*Calidris alba*) > 1,000 Black-necked Stilt (*Himantopus mexicanus*) 1,500 Western Sandpiper (*Calidris mauri*) 1,500 Least Sandpiper (*Calidris minutilla*) 1,500 Semipalmated Sandpiper (*Calidris pusilla*) 2,000 Wilson's Phalarope (*Phalaropus tricolor)* 32,000 Source: WHSRN, (2009b). http://www.whsrn.org/site-profile/lagunas-de-ecuasal

stopover and habitat for a substantial number of shorebird and seabird species.

1995 2004 2005 2006 2007

Sites

Number of

Number of

& Lara (2008)

#### **3.3 Richness and abundance of waterbird species**

Several censuses of Neotropical waterbids have been conducted in Ecuador since 1995 (Santander & Lara, 2008). However, the censuses were not carried out each year, and census data is only available for 1995, 2004, 2005, 2006 and 2007, with a gap between 1995 and 2004, as reported elsewhere (Santander & Muñoz, 2005; Santander et al., 2006b; Santander et al., 2007; Santander & Lara, 2008). Censuses for 2008, 2009 and 2010 were not yet available at the time the present review was conducted. For the purpose of this study, the 2007-Neotropical waterbird census, including the coastal zone, highlands and Amazon region (Santander & Lara, 2008; retrieved online, http://lac.wetlands.org/), was used to measure waterbird biodiversity. The rationale to select this census is based on the fact that it represents the census with the highest records of both species and number of individuals in the history of Neotropical waterbird censuses undertaken in Ecuador since 1995. Under this premise, the total annual biodiversity of waterbirds for mainland Ecuador was estimated using the Shannon-Weaver and the Simpson biodiversity indices. The former was calculated using the equation (Krebs, 1999):

$$H' = -\sum p i \ln(p i) \tag{1}$$

Where *H'* is the Shannon-Weaver diversity index, and *pi* is the relative abundance of each group of species. The Shannon-Weaver index is usually expressed as *eH'*. Typically the value of the index ranges from 1.5 (i.e., low species richness and evenness) to 3.5 (i.e., high species evenness and richness), but values beyond this range can be found (McDonald, 2003). The latter was calculated using the Simpson's index (*D*) as follows:

$$D = \sum (\text{pi})^2\tag{2}$$

Where equation (2) is subtracted from 1to yield 1-*D* (i.e., the Simpson's index of diversity), and *pi* is the fraction of all organisms which belong to the *i-*th species. The value of this index ranges between 0 and 1, with 1 representing infinite diversity and 0 representing no diversity (e.g., the greater the value, the greater the sample diversity). In this case, the index represents the probability that two individuals randomly selected from a sample will belong to different species. Additionally, seabird observations conducted in the Galapagos were sorted by species and relative abundances. For each threatened species identified in the present review, both the national (Ridgely & Greenfield 2001, Granizo et al., 2002) and global assigned categories by the IUCN Red List for birds (BirdLife International, 2011) are noted. Scientific names and English common names for waterbirds follow the South American Classification Committee (SACC) Classification (Freile, 2010).

#### **4. Waterbird biodiversity**

#### **4.1 Richness and evenness**

Both the number of species and abundances have increased since the first Neotropical census was deployed in 1995 in Ecuador (Table 1). This can be explained due to an increase in the observation efforts and number of sites visited for censuses. The maximum number of species was registered in February 2007, with a total abundance close to 40000 individuals. At the Ecuasal lagoons, large numbers of shorebirds were recorded, with maximum counts for common and abundant species shown in Table 2. The most abundant shorebird species is the Wilson's Phalarope, followed by the Semipalmeated Sandpiper, Western Sandpiper

Several censuses of Neotropical waterbids have been conducted in Ecuador since 1995 (Santander & Lara, 2008). However, the censuses were not carried out each year, and census data is only available for 1995, 2004, 2005, 2006 and 2007, with a gap between 1995 and 2004, as reported elsewhere (Santander & Muñoz, 2005; Santander et al., 2006b; Santander et al., 2007; Santander & Lara, 2008). Censuses for 2008, 2009 and 2010 were not yet available at the time the present review was conducted. For the purpose of this study, the 2007-Neotropical waterbird census, including the coastal zone, highlands and Amazon region (Santander & Lara, 2008; retrieved online, http://lac.wetlands.org/), was used to measure waterbird biodiversity. The rationale to select this census is based on the fact that it represents the census with the highest records of both species and number of individuals in the history of Neotropical waterbird censuses undertaken in Ecuador since 1995. Under this premise, the total annual biodiversity of waterbirds for mainland Ecuador was estimated using the Shannon-Weaver and the Simpson biodiversity indices. The former was calculated using the

Where *H'* is the Shannon-Weaver diversity index, and *pi* is the relative abundance of each group of species. The Shannon-Weaver index is usually expressed as *eH'*. Typically the value of the index ranges from 1.5 (i.e., low species richness and evenness) to 3.5 (i.e., high species evenness and richness), but values beyond this range can be found (McDonald, 2003). The

Where equation (2) is subtracted from 1to yield 1-*D* (i.e., the Simpson's index of diversity), and *pi* is the fraction of all organisms which belong to the *i-*th species. The value of this index ranges between 0 and 1, with 1 representing infinite diversity and 0 representing no diversity (e.g., the greater the value, the greater the sample diversity). In this case, the index represents the probability that two individuals randomly selected from a sample will belong to different species. Additionally, seabird observations conducted in the Galapagos were sorted by species and relative abundances. For each threatened species identified in the present review, both the national (Ridgely & Greenfield 2001, Granizo et al., 2002) and global assigned categories by the IUCN Red List for birds (BirdLife International, 2011) are noted. Scientific names and English common names for waterbirds follow the South

Both the number of species and abundances have increased since the first Neotropical census was deployed in 1995 in Ecuador (Table 1). This can be explained due to an increase in the observation efforts and number of sites visited for censuses. The maximum number of species was registered in February 2007, with a total abundance close to 40000 individuals. At the Ecuasal lagoons, large numbers of shorebirds were recorded, with maximum counts for common and abundant species shown in Table 2. The most abundant shorebird species is the Wilson's Phalarope, followed by the Semipalmeated Sandpiper, Western Sandpiper

*H pi pi* ln( ) (1)

<sup>2</sup> *D pi* ( ) (2)

**3.3 Richness and abundance of waterbird species** 

latter was calculated using the Simpson's index (*D*) as follows:

American Classification Committee (SACC) Classification (Freile, 2010).

equation (Krebs, 1999):

**4. Waterbird biodiversity 4.1 Richness and evenness** 


and Least Sandpiper. The environmental conditions of the Ecuasal lagoons offer a suitable stopover and habitat for a substantial number of shorebird and seabird species.

Table 1. Data of Neotropical waterbird censuses conducted in Ecuador from 1995 to 2007. The censuses are generally conducted twice per year (February and July). In 1995 and 2004, the census was carried out only in February and July, respectively. Adapted from Santander & Lara (2008)


Source: WHSRN, (2009b). http://www.whsrn.org/site-profile/lagunas-de-ecuasal

Table 2. Major shorebird species and maximum abundaces recorded in Ecuasal lagoons.

During the oceanographic cruises conducted around the Galapagos Islands in 2000, 2001 and 2009, a total of 24 species of seabirds were recorded (Fig. 3), with abundances ranging from 830 individuals in 2001 to 2242 individuals in 2002. The Nazca Booby (*S. granti*) was the most abundant seabird accounting for 51% of the total abundance of species recorded (1560 seabirds) in 2009 (Fig. 3). Most of the sightings were aggregated in places southwestern Galapagos (0º-2ºS; 94-91ºW), where generally nutrient-enriched, upwelling areas are found (Jimenez et al. 2010; Alava et al., 2010). A high abundance of sea birds was also observed in areas exhibiting the highest values of primary production (0.5-1.7 mg/m3 in 2000 and 0.46-0.50 mg/m3 in 2009), southeast of the Galapagos (2-3ºS; 88ºW) (Alava et al., 2010). These observations underline the role of seabirds as eco-markers of primary productivity in a highly stochastic marine environment. Several seabirds, including critically endangered species such as the Waved Albatross (*Phoebastria irrorata*) and Galapagos Petrel (*Pterodroma phaeopygia*), were recorded in foraging areas (87°-84° W) off the GMR boundaries, implying the risk of bycatch in these unprotected areas. A reduction of 82% and 87% in the abundance of Waved Albatross and Galapagos Petrel recorded at sea (using similar tracks and cruises with the INOCAR Ecuadorian Navy for both years) is observed from 2001 to 2009, respectively (Fig. 3). In addition, large numbers of the Red-necked Phalarope (*Phalaropus lobatus*) were observed in several oceanographic cruises off Ecuador and around Galapagos waters (B. Haase, pers. obs.). On the contrary, a negative local

Species February July Total (*pi*) ln(*pi*) (*pi*)\*ln(*pi*) (*pi*)2 *Podiceps occipitalis* 69 134 203 0.00315 -5.7607 -0.0181 0.00001 *Podilymbus podiceps* 91 1093 1184 0.01837 -3.9973 -0.0734 0.00034 *Tachybaptus dominicus* 19 33 52 0.00081 -7.1227 -0.0057 0.00000 *Pelecanus occidentalis* 871 4970 5841 0.09060 -2.4013 -0.2176 0.00821 *Pelecanus thagus* 1546 1175 2721 0.04221 -3.1652 -0.1336 0.00178 *Phalacrocorax brasiliensis* 2272 1576 3848 0.05969 -2.8186 -0.1682 0.00356 *Anhinga anhinga* 34 34 0.00053 -7.5476 -0.0040 0.00000 *Ardea alba* 1374 887 2261 0.03507 -3.3504 -0.1175 0.00123 *Tigrisoma fasciatum* 4 4 0.00006 -9.6876 -0.0006 0.00000 *Ardea cocoi* 259 46 305 0.00473 -5.3536 -0.0253 0.00002 *Ardea herodias* 1 1 0.00002 -11.0739 -0.0002 0.00000 *Butorides striatus* 169 90 259 0.00402 -5.5171 -0.0222 0.00002 *Egretta caerulea* 630 390 1020 0.01582 -4.1464 -0.0656 0.00025 *Egretta thula* 1997 1539 3536 0.05485 -2.9032 -0.1592 0.00301 *Egretta tricolor* 43 94 137 0.00213 -6.1539 -0.0131 0.00000 *Ardea ibis* 1094 473 1567 0.02431 -3.7170 -0.0903 0.00059 *Botaurus pinnatus* 2 3 5 0.00008 -9.4645 -0.0007 0.00000 *Botaurus* spp 3 3 0.00005 -9.9753 -0.0005 0.00000 *Nyctanassa violacea* 50 128 178 0.00276 -5.8921 -0.0163 0.00001 *Nycticorax nycticorax* 94 96 190 0.00295 -5.8269 -0.0172 0.00001 *Ixobrychus exilis* 2 2 0.00003 -10.3808 -0.0003 0.00000 *Eudocimus albus* 27 52 79 0.00123 -6.7045 -0.0082 0.00000 *Plegadis falcinellus* 7 7 0.00011 -9.1280 -0.0010 0.00000 *Theristicus melanopis* 24 4 28 0.00043 -7.7417 -0.0034 0.00000 *Mycteria americana* 4 4 0.00006 -9.6876 -0.0006 0.00000 *Phoenicopterus chilensis* 738 264 1002 0.01554 -4.1642 -0.0647 0.00024 *Anhima cornuta* 24 24 0.00037 -7.8959 -0.0029 0.00000 *Anas andium* 426 111 537 0.00833 -4.7879 -0.0399 0.00007 *Anas bahamensis* 2103 511 2614 0.04055 -3.2053 -0.1300 0.00164 *Anas discors* 2896 2896 0.04492 -3.1028 -0.1394 0.00202 *Anas clypeata* 1 1 0.00002 -11.0739 -0.0002 0.00000 *Anas georgica* 888 371 1259 0.01953 -3.9359 -0.0769 0.00038 *Dendrocygma bicolor* 43 21 64 0.00099 -6.9150 -0.0069 0.00000 *Dendrocygna autumnalis* 389 60 449 0.00696 -4.9669 -0.0346 0.00005 *Netta erythrophthalma* 4 4 0.00006 -9.6876 -0.0006 0.00000 *Cairina moschata* 2 2 0.00003 -10.3808 -0.0003 0.00000 *Oxyura ferruginea* 177 176 353 0.00548 -5.2075 -0.0285 0.00003 *Aramus guarauna* 2 2 0.00003 -10.3808 -0.0003 0.00000 *Laterallus albogularis* 1 9 10 0.00016 -8.7713 -0.0014 0.00000 *Rallus longirostris* 5 4 9 0.00014 -8.8767 -0.0012 0.00000 *Aramides axillaris* 12 12 0.00019 -8.5890 -0.0016 0.00000 *Neocrex erythrops* 4 4 0.00006 -9.6876 -0.0006 0.00000 *Porphyrio martinicus* 40 35 75 0.00116 -6.7564 -0.0079 0.00000 *Gallinula chloropus* 454 98 552 0.00856 -4.7604 -0.0408 0.00007 *Fulica ardesiaca* 1157 1099 2256 0.03499 -3.3526 -0.1173 0.00122 *Jacana jacana* 126 87 213 0.00330 -5.7126 -0.0189 0.00001 *Haematopus palliatus* 31 32 63 0.00098 -6.9308 -0.0068 0.00000 *Himantopus mexicanus* 3379 1821 5200 0.08066 -2.5175 -0.2031 0.00651

population trend of this species has been reported at coastal Ecuador from 1991 to 2011 (Haase, 2011b). This species seems to be more oceanic, showing offshore habits compared to the Wilson's Phalarope, which is a more coastal species.

Several rare species of seabirds such as the Wandering Albatross (*Diomedea exulans*), Blackfooted Albatross (*Phoebastria nigripes*), Gould's Petrel (*Pterodroma leucoptera*), Buller's Shearwater (*Puffinus bulleri*) and White-faced Storm-Petrel (*Pelagodroma marina*) have been registered for the Galapagos, but never at the Continent's mainland coast (Annex I).

Interestingly, the Parkinson's Petrel (*Procellaria parkinsoni*) is a locally common species found offshore of Ecuador's southern coast, where more than 100 individuals have been registered (B. Haase, pers. obs.), underscoring that this petrel is more frequent than previously thought.

Fig. 3. Proportion of seabirds by species as a fraction of totals recorded around Galapagos waters aboard oceanographic cruises in 200, 2001 and 2009 (adapted from Alava et al., 2010).

The Masked Booby (*Sula dactylatra*) and the Brown Booby (*Sula leucogaster*) have recently been confirmed as booby species inhabiting the marine-coastal zone, including La Plata Island and Salinas, respectively (Haase, 2011a).

Based on the 2007 Neotropical census in Ecuador (Santander & Lara, 2008) and using both the Shannon-Weaver and Simpson indexes, a high biodiversity of waterbirds is found in Ecuador. The Shannon-Weaver index value was 3.50, while the Simpson biodiversity index value was close to 1.0 (Table 3). Although data for the Galapagos Islands was not present for the 2007 census, this still corroborates the high degree of richness and abundance of waterbird species in Ecuador, as previously reported (Santander et al., 2006a). A complete list of the waterbird species found and recorded for Ecuador and the Galapagos Islands, including the newest records, is available in Annex I.

282 Ecosystems Biodiversity

population trend of this species has been reported at coastal Ecuador from 1991 to 2011 (Haase, 2011b). This species seems to be more oceanic, showing offshore habits compared to

Several rare species of seabirds such as the Wandering Albatross (*Diomedea exulans*), Blackfooted Albatross (*Phoebastria nigripes*), Gould's Petrel (*Pterodroma leucoptera*), Buller's Shearwater (*Puffinus bulleri*) and White-faced Storm-Petrel (*Pelagodroma marina*) have been

Interestingly, the Parkinson's Petrel (*Procellaria parkinsoni*) is a locally common species found offshore of Ecuador's southern coast, where more than 100 individuals have been registered (B. Haase, pers. obs.), underscoring that this petrel is more frequent than previously thought.

Fig. 3. Proportion of seabirds by species as a fraction of totals recorded around Galapagos waters aboard oceanographic cruises in 200, 2001 and 2009 (adapted from Alava et al., 2010). The Masked Booby (*Sula dactylatra*) and the Brown Booby (*Sula leucogaster*) have recently been confirmed as booby species inhabiting the marine-coastal zone, including La Plata

Based on the 2007 Neotropical census in Ecuador (Santander & Lara, 2008) and using both the Shannon-Weaver and Simpson indexes, a high biodiversity of waterbirds is found in Ecuador. The Shannon-Weaver index value was 3.50, while the Simpson biodiversity index value was close to 1.0 (Table 3). Although data for the Galapagos Islands was not present for the 2007 census, this still corroborates the high degree of richness and abundance of waterbird species in Ecuador, as previously reported (Santander et al., 2006a). A complete list of the waterbird species found and recorded for Ecuador and the Galapagos Islands,

**0 10 20 30 40 50**

**% Of Total**

**2000 2001 2009**

registered for the Galapagos, but never at the Continent's mainland coast (Annex I).

the Wilson's Phalarope, which is a more coastal species.

*Daption capense Xema sabini*

*Pelecanus occidentalis urinator Puffinus creatopus Procellaria parkinsoni Larus atricilla*

*Fregata magnificens magnificens Phaethon aethereus Fregata sp. Phoebastria irrorata Sula sp.*

> *Pterodroma phaeopygia Oceanodroma sp. Sula nebouxii excisa Anous stolidus Sterna hirundo Larus furcatus Leucophaeus fuliginosus Puffinus subalaris Puffinus pacificus Oceanodroma tethys tethys Oceanodroma markhami Sula sula websteri Sula granti*

Island and Salinas, respectively (Haase, 2011a).

including the newest records, is available in Annex I.


The Pipping Plover is a globally Near Threatened species and its population appears to be increasing (BirdLife International, 2011). However, this shorebird species is Critically Endangered in Ecuador (Granizo et al., 2002; Santander et al., 2006a). At present, the only record of this accidental visitor for South America has occurred in the Ecuasal lagoons

A Near Threatened species also recorded in the Ecuasal lagoons (WHSRN, 2009b; B. Haase, pers. obs). The population of this species is globally declining due to overhunting in the past, habitat degradation and environmental contaminants (BirdLife International, 2011)

The Waved Albatross is an endemic, Critically Endangered species with almost the entire population breeding on a single island, Española Island, (Galapagos). Very few pairs breed in La Plata Island (Machalilla National Park) at coastal Ecuador. While the total population (i.e., breeders and non breeders) is currently estimated to be 15475 albatrosses, a population decline of 47% was observed from 1994 to 2007 (Anderson et al., 2008). It accounted for only 1% of the total abundance of seabirds observed in the 2009-INOCAR/Navy oceanographic cruise conducted in the Galapagos. Longline fisheries and targeted-direct fishing are the major threats in marine waters off Ecuador and Peru (Wiedenfeld and Jiménez-Uzcátegui 2008; Hardesty et al., 2010). In contrast to the serious problems that plastic ingestion causes in some other species of albatrosses, this pollution threat appears to pose a minor impact to

The Galapagos petrel is an endemic, Critically Endangered species breeding on Santa Cruz, Floreana, Santiago, San Cristóbal, Isabela and possibly other islands in the archipelago, where the global population ranges from 10,000 to 19,999 individuals, based on an estimate of 4,500-5,000 active nests in 2008 (BirdLife International 2011; F. Cruz-Delgado, pers. comm.). Similar to the Waved Albatross, this species represented about 1.50% of the total number of seabirds recorded in the 2009-INOCAR/Navy oceanographic cruise. Long-line fishing in the southeastern Pacific is a major threat; however, long-lining within the GMR limits is particularly likely to affect foraging birds, while introduced species such as cats, pigs and rats are a major threat at the breeding grounds (Wiedenfeld and Jiménez-Uzcátegui

This species is one of the rarest gulls in the world and widespread throughout the Galapagos Islands. With a very small endemic population of about 600-800 individuals, this gull only breeds in Galapagos and is considered Vulnerable by the IUCN (BirdLife International, 2011), which might understimate the conservation status risk for this species (Wiedenfeld and Jiménez-Uzcátegui 2008). Introduced predators such as cats and dogs as well as fishing activities (e.g., hooks and nets) are major conservation threats for this

particular species (Cepeda & Cruz, 1994; Wiedenfeld and Jiménez-Uzcátegui, 2008).

**4.2 Accounts of priority species** 

**4.2.1 Piping Plover (***Charadrius melodus***)** 

(Santander et al. 2006a; WHSRN, 2009b).

**4.2.3 Waved Albatross (***Phoebastria irrorata***)** 

**4.2.4 Galapagos Petrel (***Pterodroma phaeopygia***)** 

2008; BirdLife International 2011b).

**4.2.5 Lava Gull (***Leucophaeus fuliginosus***)** 

this species.

**4.2.2 Buff-breasted Sandpiper (***Tryngites subruficollis***)** 


Table 3. Richness and evenness for waterbirds accounted during 2007 Neotropical census in Ecuador and measurements of biodiversity indices, including the Shannon-Weaver (*H*') and Simpson (1-*D*) indices of biodiversity. The 2007 census also included water systems (e.g., lakes, lagoons and wetlands) from the highland and Amazon regions.

#### **4.2 Accounts of priority species**

284 Ecosystems Biodiversity

*H***' = 3.52 1-***D* **= 0.960** 

*Vanellus chilensis* 2 2 0.00003 -10.3808 -0.0003 0.00000 *Vanellus resplendens* 153 176 329 0.00510 -5.2779 -0.0269 0.00003 *Pluvialis squatarola* 378 49 427 0.00662 -5.0171 -0.0332 0.00004 *Pluvialis dominica* 1 1 0.00002 -11.0739 -0.0002 0.00000 *Charadrius alexandrinus* 43 37 80 0.00124 -6.6919 -0.0083 0.00000 *Charadrius collaris* 169 35 204 0.00316 -5.7558 -0.0182 0.00001 *Charadrius semipalmatus* 244 181 425 0.00659 -5.0218 -0.0331 0.00004 *Charadrius vociferus* 4 4 0.00006 -9.6876 -0.0006 0.00000 *Charadrius wilsonia* 59 25 84 0.00130 -6.6431 -0.0087 0.00000 *Charadrius* spp. 227 227 0.00352 -5.6490 -0.0199 0.00001 *Actitis macularius* 213 53 266 0.00413 -5.4904 -0.0227 0.00002 *Aphriza virgata* 6 6 0.00009 -9.2822 -0.0009 0.00000 *Arenaria interpres* 238 123 361 0.00560 -5.1850 -0.0290 0.00003 *Calidris alba* 1005 31 1036 0.01607 -4.1308 -0.0664 0.00026 *Calidris bairdii* 365 6 371 0.00575 -5.1577 -0.0297 0.00003 *Calidris mauri* 1533 281 1814 0.02814 -3.5706 -0.1005 0.00079 *Calidris melanotos* 6 5 11 0.00017 -8.6760 -0.0015 0.00000 *Calidris minutilla* 786 552 1338 0.02075 -3.8750 -0.0804 0.00043 *Calidris pusilla* 1139 278 1417 0.02198 -3.8176 -0.0839 0.00048 *Calidris* spp. 253 47 300 0.00465 -5.3701 -0.0250 0.00002 *Tringa semipalmata* 292 140 432 0.00670 -5.0055 -0.0335 0.00004 *Limnodromus griseus* 239 160 399 0.00619 -5.0850 -0.0315 0.00004 *Limosa haemastica* 2 1 3 0.00005 -9.9753 -0.0005 0.00000 *Micropalama himantopus* 322 220 542 0.00841 -4.7787 -0.0402 0.00007 *Numenius phaeopus* 158 97 255 0.00396 -5.5327 -0.0219 0.00002 *Phalaropus tricolor* 1529 1642 3171 0.04919 -3.0121 -0.1482 0.00242 *Tringa flavipes* 472 56 528 0.00819 -4.8048 -0.0394 0.00007 *Tringa melanoleuca* 260 51 311 0.00482 -5.3341 -0.0257 0.00002 *Tringa solitaria* 4 4 0.00006 -9.6876 -0.0006 0.00000 *Leucophaeus atricilla* 2591 612 3203 0.04968 -3.0021 -0.1492 0.00247 *Chroicocephalus cirrocephalus* 1466 1143 2609 0.04047 -3.2072 -0.1298 0.00164 *Larus dominicanus* 3 3 0.00005 -9.9753 -0.0005 0.00000 *Leucophaeus modestus* 12 217 229 0.00355 -5.6402 -0.0200 0.00001 *Leucophaeus pipixcan* 44 44 0.00068 -7.2897 -0.0050 0.00000 *Chroicocephalus serranus* 179 74 253 0.00392 -5.5405 -0.0217 0.00002 *Thalasseus elegans* 67 121 188 0.00292 -5.8375 -0.0170 0.00001 *Sterna hirundinacea* 53 53 0.00082 -7.1036 -0.0058 0.00000 *Sterna hirundo* 4 19 23 0.00036 -7.9384 -0.0028 0.00000 *Thalasseus maximus* 1479 500 1979 0.03070 -3.4836 -0.1069 0.00094 *Gelochelidon nilotica* 37 140 177 0.00275 -5.8978 -0.0162 0.00001 *Thalasseus sandvicensis* 132 1 133 0.00206 -6.1836 -0.0128 0.00000 *Sterna* spp. 150 4 154 0.00239 -6.0370 -0.0144 0.00001 *Rynchops niger* 1 1 2 0.00003 -10.3808 -0.0003 0.00000 **Total abundance 39764 24704 64468 1.00 -3.5206 0.04128** 

Table 3. Richness and evenness for waterbirds accounted during 2007 Neotropical census in Ecuador and measurements of biodiversity indices, including the Shannon-Weaver (*H*') and Simpson (1-*D*) indices of biodiversity. The 2007 census also included water systems (e.g.,

lakes, lagoons and wetlands) from the highland and Amazon regions.

#### **4.2.1 Piping Plover (***Charadrius melodus***)**

The Pipping Plover is a globally Near Threatened species and its population appears to be increasing (BirdLife International, 2011). However, this shorebird species is Critically Endangered in Ecuador (Granizo et al., 2002; Santander et al., 2006a). At present, the only record of this accidental visitor for South America has occurred in the Ecuasal lagoons (Santander et al. 2006a; WHSRN, 2009b).

#### **4.2.2 Buff-breasted Sandpiper (***Tryngites subruficollis***)**

A Near Threatened species also recorded in the Ecuasal lagoons (WHSRN, 2009b; B. Haase, pers. obs). The population of this species is globally declining due to overhunting in the past, habitat degradation and environmental contaminants (BirdLife International, 2011)

#### **4.2.3 Waved Albatross (***Phoebastria irrorata***)**

The Waved Albatross is an endemic, Critically Endangered species with almost the entire population breeding on a single island, Española Island, (Galapagos). Very few pairs breed in La Plata Island (Machalilla National Park) at coastal Ecuador. While the total population (i.e., breeders and non breeders) is currently estimated to be 15475 albatrosses, a population decline of 47% was observed from 1994 to 2007 (Anderson et al., 2008). It accounted for only 1% of the total abundance of seabirds observed in the 2009-INOCAR/Navy oceanographic cruise conducted in the Galapagos. Longline fisheries and targeted-direct fishing are the major threats in marine waters off Ecuador and Peru (Wiedenfeld and Jiménez-Uzcátegui 2008; Hardesty et al., 2010). In contrast to the serious problems that plastic ingestion causes in some other species of albatrosses, this pollution threat appears to pose a minor impact to this species.

#### **4.2.4 Galapagos Petrel (***Pterodroma phaeopygia***)**

The Galapagos petrel is an endemic, Critically Endangered species breeding on Santa Cruz, Floreana, Santiago, San Cristóbal, Isabela and possibly other islands in the archipelago, where the global population ranges from 10,000 to 19,999 individuals, based on an estimate of 4,500-5,000 active nests in 2008 (BirdLife International 2011; F. Cruz-Delgado, pers. comm.). Similar to the Waved Albatross, this species represented about 1.50% of the total number of seabirds recorded in the 2009-INOCAR/Navy oceanographic cruise. Long-line fishing in the southeastern Pacific is a major threat; however, long-lining within the GMR limits is particularly likely to affect foraging birds, while introduced species such as cats, pigs and rats are a major threat at the breeding grounds (Wiedenfeld and Jiménez-Uzcátegui 2008; BirdLife International 2011b).

#### **4.2.5 Lava Gull (***Leucophaeus fuliginosus***)**

This species is one of the rarest gulls in the world and widespread throughout the Galapagos Islands. With a very small endemic population of about 600-800 individuals, this gull only breeds in Galapagos and is considered Vulnerable by the IUCN (BirdLife International, 2011), which might understimate the conservation status risk for this species (Wiedenfeld and Jiménez-Uzcátegui 2008). Introduced predators such as cats and dogs as well as fishing activities (e.g., hooks and nets) are major conservation threats for this particular species (Cepeda & Cruz, 1994; Wiedenfeld and Jiménez-Uzcátegui, 2008).

in the Ecuadorian highlands during 1951–1952 (Norton *et al.* 1972). Additionally, flocks of about 15–25 individuals were observed in the early morning (06:30) along a mangrove channel of the MCER near the El Canclón Lagoon in November 1987 (Ortiz–Crespo 1988). At the extreme border of southern Loja and west Macara provinces, a few individuals, with a potential resident population, have been sighted along Rio Sabiango and Zapotillo area (Best *et al.* 1993, Ridgely & Greenfield 2001). Likewise, a total of 12 individuals were recently reported at the El Azúcar Dam, Santa Elena Peninsula (Guayas Province) in July 2004 during a Neotropical waterbird census (Santander & Muñoz 2004). Hunting and use of pesticides in

The Muscovy Duck is currently rare and locally uncommon in lotic, lentic, and wetland (e.g., marshes) ecosystems in both east and southwest Ecuadorian lowlands, even though it was probably an abundant waterfowl in the past (Ridgely & Greenfield 2001). The species is Endangered in Ecuador (Granizo et al., 2002). In the El Canclon laggon, this species was seldom recorded, with 7 sightings at the beginning of the rainy season from December 2001 to January 2002 (Alava et al., 2007a). All observed individuals showed the typical feather coloration of wild birds. These are the second most recent sightings of this species in the MCER after more than a decade since about 25 birds were recorded in MCER in March 1998 by J. C. Matheus (as cited by Ridgely & Greenfield 2001). This species has also been sighted in the Yaguachi marshes since 1980 (Ridgely & Greenfield 2001). Recently, one individual of this species was recorded at the Santay Island during the 2004–Neotropical waterbird census (Santander & Muñoz 2004), while two individuals were recorded in the 2007- Neotropical census (Table 3; Santander & Lara, 2008). As with the Comb Duck, sightings of this species are extremely rare along the Ecuadorian coastal, and has been suggested that hunting pressure is the major cause of its population decline

This is a very rare and Critically Endangered species in Ecuador (Granizo et al., 2002), but considered as a species of Least Concern globally (BirdLife International, 2011). Only four individuals were recorded in the 2007 Neotropical census (Santander & Lara, 2008). Major threats include hunting, aquatic habitat degradation and wetland transformation due to agricultural encroachment (Santander et al., 2006a; BirdLife International, 2011).

The great heron blue is found in the Ecuadorian coast and Galapagos inhabiting mangroves and coastal wetlands. The great blue heron recorded for the Galapagos is an endemic subspecies (*A. h. cognata*), breeding in the islands (Jackson, 2001; Jiménez-Uzcátegui et al., 2007). This heron is not as abundant as other species of herons and its population number is

Research and conservation aspects on the Roseate Spoonbill population of the Gulf of Guayaquil were documented by Alava (2005). The mean number of recorded birds was 40.5

Conservation efforts for this species need to be focus on habitat protection.

rice fields are likely to be major threats for this species (Santander et al., 2006).

**4.2.10 Muscovy Duck (***Cairina moschata***)** 

in recent years (Ridgely & Greenfield 2001).

**4.2.12 Great Blue Heron (***Ardea herodias***)** 

probably declining due to habitat loss.

**4.2.13 Roseate Spoonbill (***Platalea ajaja***)** 

**4.2.11 Southern Pochard (***Netta erythrophthalma***)** 

#### **4.2.6 Galapagos Penguin (***Spheniscus mendiculus***)**

The tropical Galapagos penguin is an endemic and Endangered species breeding in the Galapagos Islands, where its decreasing population is estimated in 1,800 mature individuals, with approximately 95% of the population restricted to Isabela and Fernandina islands in the western part of the Galapagos (Vargas et al., 2005; Jiménez-Uzcátegui & Vargas, 2007; Vargas et al., 2007). The El Niño events driven by climate change is the primary threat, while oil spills, fishing activities, alien predators and emerging infectious diseases are categorized as looming threats impacting this unique population of penguins (Vargas et al., 2006; Vargas et al., 2007; Wiedenfeld and Jiménez-Uzcátegui, 2008; BirdLife International, 2011).

## **4.2.7 Flightless Cormorant (***Phalocrocorax harrisi***)**

Similar to the Galapagos penguin, the flightless cormorant is an endemic and Endangered seabird breeding on Isabela and Fernandina in the Galapagos Islands, where its population has been estimated close to 1680 individuals (BirdLife International, 2011). The threats for this species are similar to that identified for Galapagos penguins, mainly the El Niño events, and oils spills, as well as flooding (Wiedenfeld and Jiménez-Uzcátegui, 2008; BirdLife International, 2011).

#### **4.2.8 Horned Screamer (***Anhima cornuta***)**

The Horned Screamer is threatened (i.e., Endangered) in Ecuador (Granizo et al., 2002) and categorized as a species of Least Concern at the global level (BirdLife International, 2011). The population (i.e. the El Canclon Lagoon population) is confined to the Manglares Churute Ecological Reserve (MCER). Studies on the Horned Screamer (*Anhima cornuta*) population, conservation status and habitat deterioration in the El Canclon Lagoon wetland have been documented elsewhere (Alava et al., 2002; Alava et al., 2007a; Alava et al., 2009). The most recent data indicate that the estimated overall mean number of screamers in the lagoon was 68 ± 48 birds (Alava et al., 2009). The extrapolated, absolute mean density is estimated in approximately less than 1 bird/ha for the whole lagoon wetland (68 birds /800ha) or a relative density of 0.7 individuals per transect. Recently, 24 individuals were recorded in the 2007-Neotropical census (Table 3; Santander & Lara, 2008). The abundance of screamers was lower (six-ten individuals) in more disturbed areas containing farms, agriculture fields and cattle ranching. Abundance was inversely associated with the presence of cattle and was not seasonally dependent during the dry and wet seasons. Screamers were significantly associated with vegetation coverage. Because the Horned Screamer strongly relies on the wetland vegetation, cattle overgrazing jeopardizes its habitat and survival in this Ramsar wetland.

#### **4.2.9 Comb Duck (***Sakidiornis melanotos***)**

This is a Vulnerable and rare species of waterfowl scarcely observed in coastal Ecuador (Granizo et al., 2002; Santander et al., 2006a). In December and January 2002, a total of three records of this species were made at the southeastern edge of the El Canclón Lagoon, where individuals were sighted on the water surface during normal flood conditions (Alava et al., 2007a). The sightings of Comb Ducks in Ecuador's costal regions have been sporadic and scattered, suggesting a marked rareness of this species in lowlands of southwest Ecuador. The first two specimens of this species were recorded on the slopes of the Cayambe Volcano in the Ecuadorian highlands during 1951–1952 (Norton *et al.* 1972). Additionally, flocks of about 15–25 individuals were observed in the early morning (06:30) along a mangrove channel of the MCER near the El Canclón Lagoon in November 1987 (Ortiz–Crespo 1988). At the extreme border of southern Loja and west Macara provinces, a few individuals, with a potential resident population, have been sighted along Rio Sabiango and Zapotillo area (Best *et al.* 1993, Ridgely & Greenfield 2001). Likewise, a total of 12 individuals were recently reported at the El Azúcar Dam, Santa Elena Peninsula (Guayas Province) in July 2004 during a Neotropical waterbird census (Santander & Muñoz 2004). Hunting and use of pesticides in rice fields are likely to be major threats for this species (Santander et al., 2006).

#### **4.2.10 Muscovy Duck (***Cairina moschata***)**

286 Ecosystems Biodiversity

The tropical Galapagos penguin is an endemic and Endangered species breeding in the Galapagos Islands, where its decreasing population is estimated in 1,800 mature individuals, with approximately 95% of the population restricted to Isabela and Fernandina islands in the western part of the Galapagos (Vargas et al., 2005; Jiménez-Uzcátegui & Vargas, 2007; Vargas et al., 2007). The El Niño events driven by climate change is the primary threat, while oil spills, fishing activities, alien predators and emerging infectious diseases are categorized as looming threats impacting this unique population of penguins (Vargas et al., 2006; Vargas et al., 2007; Wiedenfeld and Jiménez-Uzcátegui, 2008; BirdLife

Similar to the Galapagos penguin, the flightless cormorant is an endemic and Endangered seabird breeding on Isabela and Fernandina in the Galapagos Islands, where its population has been estimated close to 1680 individuals (BirdLife International, 2011). The threats for this species are similar to that identified for Galapagos penguins, mainly the El Niño events, and oils spills, as well as flooding (Wiedenfeld and Jiménez-Uzcátegui, 2008; BirdLife

The Horned Screamer is threatened (i.e., Endangered) in Ecuador (Granizo et al., 2002) and categorized as a species of Least Concern at the global level (BirdLife International, 2011). The population (i.e. the El Canclon Lagoon population) is confined to the Manglares Churute Ecological Reserve (MCER). Studies on the Horned Screamer (*Anhima cornuta*) population, conservation status and habitat deterioration in the El Canclon Lagoon wetland have been documented elsewhere (Alava et al., 2002; Alava et al., 2007a; Alava et al., 2009). The most recent data indicate that the estimated overall mean number of screamers in the lagoon was 68 ± 48 birds (Alava et al., 2009). The extrapolated, absolute mean density is estimated in approximately less than 1 bird/ha for the whole lagoon wetland (68 birds /800ha) or a relative density of 0.7 individuals per transect. Recently, 24 individuals were recorded in the 2007-Neotropical census (Table 3; Santander & Lara, 2008). The abundance of screamers was lower (six-ten individuals) in more disturbed areas containing farms, agriculture fields and cattle ranching. Abundance was inversely associated with the presence of cattle and was not seasonally dependent during the dry and wet seasons. Screamers were significantly associated with vegetation coverage. Because the Horned Screamer strongly relies on the wetland vegetation, cattle overgrazing jeopardizes its habitat

This is a Vulnerable and rare species of waterfowl scarcely observed in coastal Ecuador (Granizo et al., 2002; Santander et al., 2006a). In December and January 2002, a total of three records of this species were made at the southeastern edge of the El Canclón Lagoon, where individuals were sighted on the water surface during normal flood conditions (Alava et al., 2007a). The sightings of Comb Ducks in Ecuador's costal regions have been sporadic and scattered, suggesting a marked rareness of this species in lowlands of southwest Ecuador. The first two specimens of this species were recorded on the slopes of the Cayambe Volcano

**4.2.6 Galapagos Penguin (***Spheniscus mendiculus***)** 

**4.2.7 Flightless Cormorant (***Phalocrocorax harrisi***)** 

**4.2.8 Horned Screamer (***Anhima cornuta***)** 

and survival in this Ramsar wetland.

**4.2.9 Comb Duck (***Sakidiornis melanotos***)** 

International, 2011).

International, 2011).

The Muscovy Duck is currently rare and locally uncommon in lotic, lentic, and wetland (e.g., marshes) ecosystems in both east and southwest Ecuadorian lowlands, even though it was probably an abundant waterfowl in the past (Ridgely & Greenfield 2001). The species is Endangered in Ecuador (Granizo et al., 2002). In the El Canclon laggon, this species was seldom recorded, with 7 sightings at the beginning of the rainy season from December 2001 to January 2002 (Alava et al., 2007a). All observed individuals showed the typical feather coloration of wild birds. These are the second most recent sightings of this species in the MCER after more than a decade since about 25 birds were recorded in MCER in March 1998 by J. C. Matheus (as cited by Ridgely & Greenfield 2001). This species has also been sighted in the Yaguachi marshes since 1980 (Ridgely & Greenfield 2001). Recently, one individual of this species was recorded at the Santay Island during the 2004–Neotropical waterbird census (Santander & Muñoz 2004), while two individuals were recorded in the 2007- Neotropical census (Table 3; Santander & Lara, 2008). As with the Comb Duck, sightings of this species are extremely rare along the Ecuadorian coastal, and has been suggested that hunting pressure is the major cause of its population decline in recent years (Ridgely & Greenfield 2001).

#### **4.2.11 Southern Pochard (***Netta erythrophthalma***)**

This is a very rare and Critically Endangered species in Ecuador (Granizo et al., 2002), but considered as a species of Least Concern globally (BirdLife International, 2011). Only four individuals were recorded in the 2007 Neotropical census (Santander & Lara, 2008). Major threats include hunting, aquatic habitat degradation and wetland transformation due to agricultural encroachment (Santander et al., 2006a; BirdLife International, 2011). Conservation efforts for this species need to be focus on habitat protection.

#### **4.2.12 Great Blue Heron (***Ardea herodias***)**

The great heron blue is found in the Ecuadorian coast and Galapagos inhabiting mangroves and coastal wetlands. The great blue heron recorded for the Galapagos is an endemic subspecies (*A. h. cognata*), breeding in the islands (Jackson, 2001; Jiménez-Uzcátegui et al., 2007). This heron is not as abundant as other species of herons and its population number is probably declining due to habitat loss.

#### **4.2.13 Roseate Spoonbill (***Platalea ajaja***)**

Research and conservation aspects on the Roseate Spoonbill population of the Gulf of Guayaquil were documented by Alava (2005). The mean number of recorded birds was 40.5

disturbed or human modified mangroves, including in Guayas (Puerto Hondo) and El Oro (Bajo Alto) provinces (J.J. Alava, pers. obs.). Additional studies of *A. wolfi* are urgently

As an endemic bird to the Galapagos, this a rare species of rail occurring in several islands, mainly those offering suitable habitat with humid zone vegetation as that found in Pinta, Fernandina, Isabela, San Cristobal, Santa Cruz, Floreana, and Santiago (Rosenberg, 1990), as well as Wolf, Drawin and Alcedo (BirdLife International, 2011). This rail is threatened (i.e., Vulnerable) with a decreasing population, estimated on 5000-10000 mature individuals (BirdLife International, 2011). The threats for its conservation include continuing conversion of highland habitat to agriculture, invasive plants (quinine tress, *Cinchona pubescens*, and black berries, *Rubus niveus*), overgrazing by exotic mammalian herbivores (e.g., feral goats, cattle and horses) and predation by introduced cats, pigs and rats (Rosenberg, 1990; Gibbs et

Birds are closely associated with forests, and approximately 30% of the world's species of birds are highly restricted to tropical forests used as either winter grounds or year-round habitats (Myers 1992). In Ecuador, Western and Tumbesian forests of Ecuador are being cleared by farming and ranching and are highly threatened by browsing and trampling of domestic livestock, with about 4% of the original forest coverage remaining by 1998 (Dodson & Gentry, 1991; Best & Kessler, 1995). For instance, uncontrolled cattle grazing of the native vegetation, deforestation, and agricultural sprawl (rice crops and farms) have negatively impacted the El Canclon Lagoon at the MCER, jeopardizing its conservation and affecting the local population of the Horned Screamer (*A. cornuta*) and several other waterbirds depending on this wetland (Alava et al., 2007; Alava et al., 2009). Likewise, it is estimated that about 55,400 hectares (27% of the original total area: 203,625 hectares) of mangrove forests has been lost in coastal Ecuador from 1969 to 2006 due to uncontrolled clear-cutting of mangroves (Fig. 4), not only for construction of illegal shrimp farms (aquaculture), but for agriculture, illegal extraction of timber and urban sprawl (CLIRSEN, 2007; Carvajal & Alava, 2007). The decrease of slat flat areas is also of concern with a reduction of 93% since 1969 (Fig. 4). Extensive banana plantations are found in southwest Ecuador, and are primarily located in coastal provinces such as Los Rios, El Guayas and the El Oro (INEC 2007). A total area averaging 232,235 ha is dedicated to the production of bananas at the national level. About 79% of this total are located on the coastal zone, mainly in the El Guayas and the El Oro provinces (an average of 51,183 and 44,607 ha, respectively), which are relatively close to mangrove areas. Presence of solid wastes (i.e., plastic bags and bottles) and illegal camp fires are signs of human activity in mangrove areas, as well. There, it has been suggested that deforestation and fragmentation in mangrove habitats have affected the local and nesting population of Roseate Spoonbills (*P. ajaja*) in the Guayaquil Gulf Estuary (Alava, 2005), as well as the declining population of the Brown Wood Rail (*A. wolfi*), which is endangered and less

al., 2003; Wiedenfel & Jiménez-Uzcátegui, 2008; BirdLife International, 2011).

**5. Environmental impacts and conservation threats** 

tolerant to habitat deterioration in Ecuador (Alava et al., 2007).

**5.1 Habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation** 

required to increase knowledge of its natural history.

**4.2.16 Galapagos Rail (***Laterallus spilonotus***)** 

birds (95% CI: 16.0–64.8), ranging from 1 to 100 individuals. Censusing of birds based on the Hayne model yield a number of 662 individuals in an area of 48,000 ha (i.e., 2000 birds/1350 km2), with absolute and relative abundances of 0.7 birds/km and 0.014 birds/ha, respectively (Alava, 2005). Individuals were mainly aggregated in the northwestern and northeastern areas of the Guayaquil Gulf Estuary, and followed by the southeastern part. Wetlands destruction such as mangrove areas, agriculture, urbanization and non-controlled hunting have negative impacts on Roseate spoonbills. On the short term, the Roseate Spoonbill population may become threatened because of habitat loss.

#### **4.2.14 Greater Flamingo (***Phoenicopterus ruber***)**

This charismatic species is mainly found in saline and brackish coastal lagoons of the Galapagos Archipelago, mainly in Isabela, Santiago, Rábida, Floreana and San Cristobal islands. Although the flamingo population found in the Galapagos is not endemic to the islands and it is not threatened at the global level, the native population breeding in the islands is considered as threatened with approximately 320-520 individuals (Granizo et al., 2002; Wiedenfel & Jiménez-Uzcátegui, 2008). Sea level rise due to climate change has been identified as a potential conservation threat for flamingos in the Galapagos (Granizo et al., 2002; Jiménez-Uzcátegui, 2006; Jiménez-Uzcátegui et al., 2007). Flamingos are very sensitive to human perturbations and predation of nests by introduced species such as pigs (Jackson, 2001; Wiedenfel & Jiménez-Uzcátegui, 2008).

#### **4.2.15 Brown Wood-Rail (***Aramides wolfi***)**

The Brown Wood-rail is categorized as Vulnerable globally and as Endangered in Ecuador (Granizo et al., 2002; BirdLife International, 2011), where it is one of the rarest birds and, during the last two decades, seldom recorded, mainly in mangrove (Taylor, 1996; Ridgely & Greenfield, 2001). Most sightings have been in either the north-west or south-west, from: north of Quinindé; pristine humid forest at Paraíso de Papagayos ranch; secondary forest and disturbed wetlands at Jatun Sacha-Bilsa Biological Reserve (within Mache Chindul Ecological Reserve) (Esmeraldas province); forest remnants at Río Palenque Research Station, (Los Ríos province; and mangroves in Manglares Churute Ecological Reserve (MCER), (Guayas province) (Alava et al., 2007b). On 29 June 2001, a bird was seen on a dirt road bordering disturbed riparian vegetation and secondary foothill forest on the east side of El Canclon lagoon (02°30'S 79°42'W) (Alava et al., 2007b). Coloration of the head, neck and body identified it as *A. wolfi* (i.e., ashgrey head and cinnamon-rufous neck, with the rest of the upperparts and underparts pale olivaceous-brown). This observation is the first at El Canclon (a Ramsar site) and in the entire MCER for over a decade, following that of two birds in mangrove on 28 December 1989 (Ridgely & Greenfield, 2001). Unconfirmed sightings were made in 2005–2006 at Puerto Hondo, a mangrove relatively close to Cerro Blanco Protected Forest. Attempts are underway to verify these observations as Rufous necked Wood-rail *Aramides axillaris* is frequent there and juveniles have similar plumage to adult *A. wolfi* (Alava et al., 2007b). The two are locally sympatric in mangrove, but *A. wolfi*  seems to be more frequent inland (Ridgely & Greenfield, 2001). It has been suggested that *A. wolfi* is capable of surviving in fragmented or deteriorated habitats (Taylor, 1996; Ridgely & Greenfield, 2001). On the other hand, it is perhaps less tolerant of habitat perturbation than Grey-necked Wood-rail *A. cajanea* (Ridgely & Greenfield, 2001*)*, and is definitely much more sensitive than *A. axillaris* (Vulnerable in Ecuador). The latter is commonly found close to disturbed or human modified mangroves, including in Guayas (Puerto Hondo) and El Oro (Bajo Alto) provinces (J.J. Alava, pers. obs.). Additional studies of *A. wolfi* are urgently required to increase knowledge of its natural history.

#### **4.2.16 Galapagos Rail (***Laterallus spilonotus***)**

288 Ecosystems Biodiversity

birds (95% CI: 16.0–64.8), ranging from 1 to 100 individuals. Censusing of birds based on the Hayne model yield a number of 662 individuals in an area of 48,000 ha (i.e., 2000 birds/1350 km2), with absolute and relative abundances of 0.7 birds/km and 0.014 birds/ha, respectively (Alava, 2005). Individuals were mainly aggregated in the northwestern and northeastern areas of the Guayaquil Gulf Estuary, and followed by the southeastern part. Wetlands destruction such as mangrove areas, agriculture, urbanization and non-controlled hunting have negative impacts on Roseate spoonbills. On the short term, the Roseate

This charismatic species is mainly found in saline and brackish coastal lagoons of the Galapagos Archipelago, mainly in Isabela, Santiago, Rábida, Floreana and San Cristobal islands. Although the flamingo population found in the Galapagos is not endemic to the islands and it is not threatened at the global level, the native population breeding in the islands is considered as threatened with approximately 320-520 individuals (Granizo et al., 2002; Wiedenfel & Jiménez-Uzcátegui, 2008). Sea level rise due to climate change has been identified as a potential conservation threat for flamingos in the Galapagos (Granizo et al., 2002; Jiménez-Uzcátegui, 2006; Jiménez-Uzcátegui et al., 2007). Flamingos are very sensitive to human perturbations and predation of nests by introduced species such as pigs (Jackson,

The Brown Wood-rail is categorized as Vulnerable globally and as Endangered in Ecuador (Granizo et al., 2002; BirdLife International, 2011), where it is one of the rarest birds and, during the last two decades, seldom recorded, mainly in mangrove (Taylor, 1996; Ridgely & Greenfield, 2001). Most sightings have been in either the north-west or south-west, from: north of Quinindé; pristine humid forest at Paraíso de Papagayos ranch; secondary forest and disturbed wetlands at Jatun Sacha-Bilsa Biological Reserve (within Mache Chindul Ecological Reserve) (Esmeraldas province); forest remnants at Río Palenque Research Station, (Los Ríos province; and mangroves in Manglares Churute Ecological Reserve (MCER), (Guayas province) (Alava et al., 2007b). On 29 June 2001, a bird was seen on a dirt road bordering disturbed riparian vegetation and secondary foothill forest on the east side of El Canclon lagoon (02°30'S 79°42'W) (Alava et al., 2007b). Coloration of the head, neck and body identified it as *A. wolfi* (i.e., ashgrey head and cinnamon-rufous neck, with the rest of the upperparts and underparts pale olivaceous-brown). This observation is the first at El Canclon (a Ramsar site) and in the entire MCER for over a decade, following that of two birds in mangrove on 28 December 1989 (Ridgely & Greenfield, 2001). Unconfirmed sightings were made in 2005–2006 at Puerto Hondo, a mangrove relatively close to Cerro Blanco Protected Forest. Attempts are underway to verify these observations as Rufous necked Wood-rail *Aramides axillaris* is frequent there and juveniles have similar plumage to adult *A. wolfi* (Alava et al., 2007b). The two are locally sympatric in mangrove, but *A. wolfi*  seems to be more frequent inland (Ridgely & Greenfield, 2001). It has been suggested that *A. wolfi* is capable of surviving in fragmented or deteriorated habitats (Taylor, 1996; Ridgely & Greenfield, 2001). On the other hand, it is perhaps less tolerant of habitat perturbation than Grey-necked Wood-rail *A. cajanea* (Ridgely & Greenfield, 2001*)*, and is definitely much more sensitive than *A. axillaris* (Vulnerable in Ecuador). The latter is commonly found close to

Spoonbill population may become threatened because of habitat loss.

**4.2.14 Greater Flamingo (***Phoenicopterus ruber***)** 

2001; Wiedenfel & Jiménez-Uzcátegui, 2008).

**4.2.15 Brown Wood-Rail (***Aramides wolfi***)** 

As an endemic bird to the Galapagos, this a rare species of rail occurring in several islands, mainly those offering suitable habitat with humid zone vegetation as that found in Pinta, Fernandina, Isabela, San Cristobal, Santa Cruz, Floreana, and Santiago (Rosenberg, 1990), as well as Wolf, Drawin and Alcedo (BirdLife International, 2011). This rail is threatened (i.e., Vulnerable) with a decreasing population, estimated on 5000-10000 mature individuals (BirdLife International, 2011). The threats for its conservation include continuing conversion of highland habitat to agriculture, invasive plants (quinine tress, *Cinchona pubescens*, and black berries, *Rubus niveus*), overgrazing by exotic mammalian herbivores (e.g., feral goats, cattle and horses) and predation by introduced cats, pigs and rats (Rosenberg, 1990; Gibbs et al., 2003; Wiedenfel & Jiménez-Uzcátegui, 2008; BirdLife International, 2011).
