**7. Conclusions**

246 Ecosystems Biodiversity

catchment to reduce pressure on the fishery resources of the lake. The feasibility of paddy-cum-fish culture as an income generating activity as has been practiced by Apatani communities of Arunachal Pradesh in Apatani valley (Zero valley) could be examined. In addition, the introduction of sewage-fed fisheries would greatly reduce pollution from municipal wastes, and also enhance fish production. At this stage, it is essential that alternative or additional source of livelihood like piggery, duckery and revival of traditional handicraft and handloom industries though adequate incentives and technical

An EIA of the Loktak Hydro-electric Power Project is must. The damming of the Loktak Lake water seems to have done more damage to the wetland ecosystem than was earlier envisaged; especially in terms of accelerating eutrophication and adversely affecting certain

Facilities to utilize the weed for biogas production, paper pulp and fiber, chemical products, and mulch and compost needs to be introduced. The spread of weevils in the lake for the eradication of hyacinth urgently needs to be investigated. The riotous growth of *Phumdi* also

Phum compost promises to undo various threats to the lake ecosystem. Removal of *phumdis* lead to better quality water and phum compost are free from the side effect that chemical fertilizers used by farmers, have on the lake ecosystem. Hence, promotion of phum compost at various levels and farm for mass production of phum compost need to be built. Weed infestation is directly related to the large fertilizer inflow into the wetlands. Alternative cropping practices need to be introduced with emphasis on, i.e. horticulture, sericulture, and perhaps apiculture, which could also enhance income levels. Today Loktak Lake has been placed on the informal list of threatened Ramsar Sites of the world. Only a concentrated effort on the part of official agencies, professionals, NGOs, and the local communities themselves, to comprehend the complexities of this delicately balanced, biologically-rich

wetland ecosystem, and take appropriate action, can save Loktak Lake from demise.

Indigenous knowledge systems which through many years have evolved as a complex practice may be different from scientific conservation management. It would therefore be wise to conduct participatory research and studies to revive and recover traditional knowledge of indigenous management system of both in hill and valley villages as in the case of forest management in Caqueta, Columbia. The villages in the lake area are prone to water borne diseases. Close disease surveillance need to be kept. Mobile medical teams need to visit the villages during peak seasons and provide free medical camp. The hill villages need to given proper awareness regarding the negative effects of deforestation and forest fires not only to the lake ecosystem but also to their own lives. They should encouraged to form joint forest committees, which will control and monitor over

needs to be curtailed after a scientific assessment of the quantity to be removed.

and marketing support is necessary.

sectors of the traditional economy.

**6.6 Water hyacinth control** 

**6.7 Fertilizer usage control** 

**6.8 Indigenous knowledge** 

exploitation of forest resources.

**6.5 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)** 

For sustainable development of any natural resources, it is very important that the stakeholders at various levels come together and participate in conserving and managing the resources. After a thorough analysis, it is very much clear that the deforestation particularly jhum cultivation and land-use/cover change has drastically affected the water quality of the lake. The water quality, in general, falls within class C to E as per the CPCB's designated best use criteria. The lake water is not fit for direct drinking without treatment but can be used for irrigation purposes. A comparative analysis of water quality of different sites indicates significant levels of pollution in the densely populated sites as compared to that of less populated sites because dissolved oxygen was low and bio-chemical oxygen demand and other parameters including nutrient levels were higher in the densely populated sites. It also indicates that out of the three zones (i.e. northern, central and southern zones) of the lake, the Northern Zone and Southern Zone shows significant levels of pollution. High intensity of fertilizer usage in the agricultural fields and practice of fish farming contribute significantly to water quality deterioration in the Northern Zone. The highly polluted rivers (like Nambul and Nambol rivers) also finally discharge pollutants in this zone. Southern Zone is polluted due to flow of all the pollutants finally in this zone and their accumulation due to poor flushing. So, while taking up any water management plan of Loktak ecosystem the highly populated sites of the Northern Zone and Southern Zone should be given priority at any cost. The stakeholders who are source of threat to the ecosystem need proper attention and monitoring. Also different types of participation can be practiced as per demand of the situation so that it leads to self management.

#### **8. Acknowledgement**

The authors are thankful to the Head, Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, for facilities. We are also thankful to Dr. Alka Jain for her support, critical and constructive comments during the study period and Manipur Pollution Control board for laboratory analysis.

#### **9. References**


**12** 

P.J. Du Preez1 and L.R. Brown2

*Republic of South Africa* 

*1Department of Plant Sciences, University of the Free State* 

**Impact of Domestic Animals on Ecosystem** 

**Integrity of Lesotho High Altitude Peatlands** 

*2Applied Behavioral Ecology and Ecosystem Research Unit, University of South Africa* 

Wetlands are considered ecologically sensitive ecosystems with unique habitats for a great variety of plants species, birds, small mammals and other aquatic organisms. The term "wetland" is used to describe various habitats where the soil is wet for extended periods of the year but not necessarily permanently waterlogged (Collins, 2005). Wetlands are formed where surface water collects or where ground-water seeps to the surface for long-enough periods to sustain vegetation typically adapted or tolerant of hydric soil conditions. Thus wetlands comprise a large variety of waterlogged habitats such as bogs, estuaries, fens, floodplains, marshes, peatlands, playas (pans), seeps, springs, and swamps located on

In his book on wetlands of southern Africa, Cowan (1995) used the definition of a wetland as it is stated in Article 1.1 of the Ramsar Convention where it has been defined as: *"areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres*". The South African National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998) defines wetlands as "*land which is transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land periodically covered with shallow water, and which in normal circumstances support or would support vegetation typically adapted* 

Peatlands are unique wetland ecosystems in terms of their species composition and age. The process of peat formation is very slow which means that some of these wetlands are ancient as they have a deep peat deposit of over two metres. Peat is organic soil material with a particularly high organic content which, depending on the definition, usually has at least 20% organic carbon by weight. Peatlands are wetlands in which peat (dead plant matter) accumulates due to slow decomposition (Cronk & Fennessy, 2001). These peatlands can be classified into two major types namely bogs and fens. The definition of a **bog** is, a peataccumulating wetland that has no significant water inflows or outflows and supports acidophilic mosses, particularly *Sphagnum* (usually acidic; pH<7). A **fen** is a peataccumulating wetland that receives some water from surrounding mineral soil and usually supports marsh-like vegetation (usually alkaline; pH>7)( Cronk & Fennessy, 2001; Mitch & Gosselink, 2000). According to these definitions, the high-altitude wetlands of Lesotho are therefore incorrectly classified as bogs by Grobbelaar & Stegman (1987), Herbst & Roberts

**1. Introduction** 

*to life in saturated soil*".

various altitudes and topographical locations.

