**6. Conclusions**

Our experimental system provides a good alternative to investigate effects of species and genetic diversity in concert. It is easy to setup and contains organisms that are easily accessible. Moreover, it provides the possibility to be extended and address current challenges of BEF experiments. One of these challenges consists in that future BEF studies must go beyond experiments relating some selected species, singly and in combination, to some ecosystem process. Rather, they must address environmental heterogeneity in space or time, which can be captured in long-term studies on one hand, and working with natural communities on the other. Our experimental units as described here are closed systems, however, they can possibly be converted to semi-closed systems and be setup outdoors. Like

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this they would not suffer from the bottling effect, therefore allowing longer-term studies, and capturing the natural variation of environmental conditions. The exact methodology for this has still to be established, but such a system may yield promising results. As the experiment of, e.g., Cardinale & Palmer (2002), very elegantly shows, disturbance may dampen strong single-species effects. It is more probable that changing environmental conditions allow resource partitioning among species, and that under natural conditions, such disproportionate key species effects are greatly reduced allowing stronger diversity effects *per se* (Stachowicz et al., 2008). Moreover, there are many possibilities to include more organisms, species and/or trophic levels and functional groups in an extended version of our setup. Especially when including macrofauna, the system would more accurately reflect the complex interactions among species and trophic levels as they occur in nature.

Our experimental approach will contribute to the understanding of indirect mechanisms leading to biodiversity effects on ecosystem processes. The integrative insight in the interactions among the different levels and the consequences that changes in one level may have on the others and on the system as a whole, may offer the possibility for adequate decisions about conservational priorities. As shown by the experiment by Lankau & Strauss (2007), genetic and species diversity are inherently linked to one another. Therefore, conservation of species diversity may also depend on the maintenance of the processes that sustain genetic diversity. Although BEF studies are designed to understand general patterns and processes, rather than provide solutions to applied conservation problems (Duffy, 2009), they have provided fundamental inputs. The many studies on plant systems for example provided the background at Tijuana River National Estuarine Research Reserve, where a functional ecosystem needed to be restored (Callaway et al., 2003). Just as in many plant studies experimental plantings of differing species diversity were set up, and as a result, biomass and accumulation of nitrogen increased with increasing species diversity (Callaway et al., 2003). As such, our experimental system may offer valuable input for new conservation strategies.

We think that the integrative experimental system as we propose it can be a promising direction for future BEF studies focusing on benthic systems and potential applications for conservational efforts. Today's conservational effort concentrates mainly on identifying and protecting hotspots of species diversity. However, results of such integrative studies will show if the consideration of all organizational levels, as well as the functioning of the whole system, may provide an alternative approach in order to take the best conservation decision under given circumstances. Although BEF experiments conducted to date are likely to underestimate the importance of biodiversity to ecosystem functioning and the provision of ecosystem services in the real world (Duffy, 2009), they could offer constructive inputs for the sustainable management of entire communities and ecosystems.

#### **7. Acknowledgements**

RG thanks Tiago José Pereira for his generous help with the compilation of the literature, as well as Ian W. King and Tom Crystal for proof-reading earlier drafts.

#### **8. References**

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this they would not suffer from the bottling effect, therefore allowing longer-term studies, and capturing the natural variation of environmental conditions. The exact methodology for this has still to be established, but such a system may yield promising results. As the experiment of, e.g., Cardinale & Palmer (2002), very elegantly shows, disturbance may dampen strong single-species effects. It is more probable that changing environmental conditions allow resource partitioning among species, and that under natural conditions, such disproportionate key species effects are greatly reduced allowing stronger diversity effects *per se* (Stachowicz et al., 2008). Moreover, there are many possibilities to include more organisms, species and/or trophic levels and functional groups in an extended version of our setup. Especially when including macrofauna, the system would more accurately reflect

the complex interactions among species and trophic levels as they occur in nature.

conservation strategies.

**7. Acknowledgements** 

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Our experimental approach will contribute to the understanding of indirect mechanisms leading to biodiversity effects on ecosystem processes. The integrative insight in the interactions among the different levels and the consequences that changes in one level may have on the others and on the system as a whole, may offer the possibility for adequate decisions about conservational priorities. As shown by the experiment by Lankau & Strauss (2007), genetic and species diversity are inherently linked to one another. Therefore, conservation of species diversity may also depend on the maintenance of the processes that sustain genetic diversity. Although BEF studies are designed to understand general patterns and processes, rather than provide solutions to applied conservation problems (Duffy, 2009), they have provided fundamental inputs. The many studies on plant systems for example provided the background at Tijuana River National Estuarine Research Reserve, where a functional ecosystem needed to be restored (Callaway et al., 2003). Just as in many plant studies experimental plantings of differing species diversity were set up, and as a result, biomass and accumulation of nitrogen increased with increasing species diversity (Callaway et al., 2003). As such, our experimental system may offer valuable input for new

We think that the integrative experimental system as we propose it can be a promising direction for future BEF studies focusing on benthic systems and potential applications for conservational efforts. Today's conservational effort concentrates mainly on identifying and protecting hotspots of species diversity. However, results of such integrative studies will show if the consideration of all organizational levels, as well as the functioning of the whole system, may provide an alternative approach in order to take the best conservation decision under given circumstances. Although BEF experiments conducted to date are likely to underestimate the importance of biodiversity to ecosystem functioning and the provision of ecosystem services in the real world (Duffy, 2009), they could offer constructive inputs for

RG thanks Tiago José Pereira for his generous help with the compilation of the literature, as

Bell, G. (1991). *The Ecology and genetics of fitness in Chlamydomonas. 4. The properties of mixtures* 

the sustainable management of entire communities and ecosystems.

well as Ian W. King and Tom Crystal for proof-reading earlier drafts.

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**6** 

*Italy* 

**Microbiological Quality of River** 

*Italian- National Institute of Health - Dep Environment and* 

Stefania Marcheggiani and Laura Mancini

*Primary Prevention Viale Regina Elena, Rome* 

**Sediments and Primary Prevention** 

The preservation of aquatic ecosystems is fundamental because water quality, plant and animal biodiversity, industrial activities and human health rely on it. During recent centuries, the condition of aquatic ecosystems has become worse due to the increasing their use for irrigation and drinking, excessive land use and deforestation, hydro morphology

A strong interdependence between the health of the ecosystem and human health can be demonstrated. Microbiological risks for human health can occur through direct or indirect (fish, molluscs, recreational activities, algal bloom, vegetables, fruits) consumption of contaminated water (Tauxe, 1997; UNEP 1997, 1998; Noji, 1997; Ahem *et al.*, 2005). It is a priority to know the quality of the water and manage the data, in this sense it is necessary to

Indicator organisms are commonly used to evaluate the *microbiological quality* of *aquatic ecosystems (*Berg 1978; Grabow 1996; EU 2006; Tyagi *et al.* 2006)*.* Standard-based water quality assessment is an essential component of monitoring programs and also works to protect human health. As a rule, microbiological indicator detection ( i.e. Enterococci and *Escherichia coli*) take place in the water column as necessitated by national and

In this context, it is appropriate underline the important role of sediment on aquatic ecosystems. This matrix is an extremely heterogeneous habitat characterised by a high microbial biodiversity due to the wide range of functional roles that they perform. Its origin is in the weathering and erosion of minerals, organic material, and soils in upstream areas usually after rainfall or the melting of snow. Transported downstream, it settles along the river bed and banks as sedimentation. Sediments consist of particulate matter that can be transported by fluid flow and which eventually is deposited as a layer of solid particles on the bed or bottom of water bodies. The suspended particle matter (SPM) which settle by sedimentation, include sediments whose diameter falls between 0.1 and 100 µm. Sediment heterogeneity (e.g. grain-size) in fresh and salt water, creates favorable conditions for

The particulate matter that plays a specific role in the aquatic ecosystems is the remaining material on a filter with a nominal porosity between 0.4 and 0.5 µm. The material with smaller dimensions is considered as colloidal and/or dissolved. When there have been

alteration, riparian zone reduction and not least, climate change.

identify the main variables that negatively impact human health.

biodiversity and is a source of life for a healthy river.

**1. Introduction** 

international laws.

