**3. Evaluation of the quality and functionality of the agroecosystem**

#### **3.1 A system of floristic-vegetational indexes for the analysis of ecosystem functionality**

Aspects of the ecological functionality relative to the agricultural systems can be evaluated and understood using the sysem of bioindicators introduced Taffetani & Rismondo (2009) and then updated (Rismondo *et al*., 2011). It is based on the floristic-syntaxonomic particularities of the areas examined. In this type of analysis, the study of the plant landscape is examined with the aim of collecting and interpreting the effects caused by the diverse types of previous management.

The model of the study in question is based on two specifically formed databases:


Environmental Evaluation and Monitoring of Agro-Ecosystems Biodiversity 355

as the herbaceous vegeation is characterised by being particularly susceptible and responsive to the ways in which it is used, which can also be observed even over short

This makes the method particularly efficacious for the monitoring of environmental quality of contexts within which the ecomosaic is characterised by being influenced by human activities in an evident way. In the following paragraphs, the structure and significance of

The indexes relative to the phytocoenoses allow the measuring of some ecological

This information essentially regards the maturity, i.e. the evolutive level reached (Index of Maturity*; IM*), the biodiversity, expressed as the species number for each phytocoenosis (Index of Floristic Biodiversity; *IFB*), and various other parameters, like the edaphism (Indexes of Hygrophylia, Xerophylia and Alophylia; *IW*, *IX*, *IA*), the relative presence of the various biological forms (indexes of the terophytic, hemicryptophytic and nonhemicryptophytic perennial components*; IT, IH*, *IF*), and the relative presence of some of the chorological types (indexes of the endemic, wide distribution and exotic components; *IL*, *ID*, *IE*). The index of maturity is expressed in a range that goes from 0 to 9 (according to the maturity scale described in the previous paragraph), the index of floristic biodiversity is a simple number (of species per relevé), and all the others are as

In most cases, these indexes are calculated as a function of the coverage that can be attributed to each single species. The coverage can be considered within each single relevé

The indexes that we have used with the greatest frequency for the functional characterisation of the herbaceous communities are the Index of Maturity, the Index of Floristic Biodiversity, and the edaphic indexes, with the Index of Hygrophylia in particular. Of these, the following provides brief descriptions of the formulas for their calculation. Index of Maturity: This allows the evaluation of the level of evolution of the coenoses analysed, which will be higher when there is a greater presence and coverage of species of the more evolved vegetation classes (e.g. shrubs, pre-woods, woods). For the herbaceous communities, the value will be higher as a function of the presence of

perennial entities that are typical of mature grasslands or of ecotone coenoses.

coverage obtained from the sum of the coverage values for all of the species.

single taxon (Puppi, 2008).

�� � <sup>∑</sup> �������� � ��� ������

where *IM* is the Index of Maturity; *ci* is the coverage value for each single species, as an absolute value for single relevés or as a mean for groups of relevés in a Table; *y* is the value corresponding to *m* (*y* = *m*) for each single species and assigned on the basis of the information contained in the databases described above; and *C(tot)* is the value of the total

 Index of Floristic Biodiversity: This measure is the number of species relative to each of the coenoses, which are given as groups of floristic species that can develop in an ecologically homogeneous context. This does not depend on the coverage value of each

or as the mean for a Table of relevés that are all attributable to one phytocoenosis.

the indexes used in the analytical and applicative part of this study are described

characteristics of the plant communities found in the field.

periods of time.

percentages.

**3.1.1 Coenotic indexes** 


Fig. 13. Scheme which illustrates the maturity significance of each single community.

The numeric values introduced therefore increase bit by bit passing from pioneering vegetation typologies, like those relative to the commensals of annually seeded crops (*Stellarietea*), or to terophytic herbaceous formations (*Stellarietea*, *Polygono-Poetea*), to the herbaceous formations of the grasslands (*Artemisietea*, *Molino-Arrhenatheretea*, *Phragmito-Magnocaricetea*, *Festuco-Brometea*) and of the edges (*Galio-Urticetea*, *Trifolio-Geranietea*), and finally to the typologies identifiable with the pre-forest (*Rhamno-Prunetea*) or forest (*Salici-Populetea*, *Querco-Fagetea*) stages. This is in agreement with that which is illustrated in the section dedicated to the description of the agroecosysem landscape.

The classes characterised by a cerain type of edaphic determinism (adaptability of the vegetation to grow in contexts with soils always rich in water, or arid, or with high concentrations of salts) are distinguished by specific hygrophilous, xerophilous and alophilous coefficients; these last are functional in the calculation of the edaphic indexes, as well as for the calculation of the maturity indexes (see paragraph 3.1.1.).

The results of the vegetational investigations (relating to the presence and abundance of each taxon found) and the information contained in the two databases (ecological characteristics of every species) represent the applicative basis of the indexes used, through which numerical values are obtained that measure the conservation level of each individual coenosis (coenotic indexes) or of entire territorial contexts (cartographic indexes).

The system was specifically designed for the rural areas and as a consequence, its set-up is for areas mainly characerised by agricultural use of the territory.

The method is seen to be particularly efficacious in the analysis of the grassland formations, because a good part of the scale used for the quantification of the levels of maturity refer to the classes of herbaceous vegetation. This last is by far the most represented in the rural contexts than the mature elements of the landscape, such as shrubs, pre-woods and woods, as the herbaceous vegeation is characterised by being particularly susceptible and responsive to the ways in which it is used, which can also be observed even over short periods of time.

This makes the method particularly efficacious for the monitoring of environmental quality of contexts within which the ecomosaic is characterised by being influenced by human activities in an evident way. In the following paragraphs, the structure and significance of the indexes used in the analytical and applicative part of this study are described

#### **3.1.1 Coenotic indexes**

354 Ecosystems Biodiversity

7. Herbaceous perennial vegetation of the edges of the forest formations;

Fig. 13. Scheme which illustrates the maturity significance of each single community.

section dedicated to the description of the agroecosysem landscape.

well as for the calculation of the maturity indexes (see paragraph 3.1.1.).

for areas mainly characerised by agricultural use of the territory.

coenosis (coenotic indexes) or of entire territorial contexts (cartographic indexes).

The numeric values introduced therefore increase bit by bit passing from pioneering vegetation typologies, like those relative to the commensals of annually seeded crops (*Stellarietea*), or to terophytic herbaceous formations (*Stellarietea*, *Polygono-Poetea*), to the herbaceous formations of the grasslands (*Artemisietea*, *Molino-Arrhenatheretea*, *Phragmito-Magnocaricetea*, *Festuco-Brometea*) and of the edges (*Galio-Urticetea*, *Trifolio-Geranietea*), and finally to the typologies identifiable with the pre-forest (*Rhamno-Prunetea*) or forest (*Salici-Populetea*, *Querco-Fagetea*) stages. This is in agreement with that which is illustrated in the

The classes characterised by a cerain type of edaphic determinism (adaptability of the vegetation to grow in contexts with soils always rich in water, or arid, or with high concentrations of salts) are distinguished by specific hygrophilous, xerophilous and alophilous coefficients; these last are functional in the calculation of the edaphic indexes, as

The results of the vegetational investigations (relating to the presence and abundance of each taxon found) and the information contained in the two databases (ecological characteristics of every species) represent the applicative basis of the indexes used, through which numerical values are obtained that measure the conservation level of each individual

The system was specifically designed for the rural areas and as a consequence, its set-up is

The method is seen to be particularly efficacious in the analysis of the grassland formations, because a good part of the scale used for the quantification of the levels of maturity refer to the classes of herbaceous vegetation. This last is by far the most represented in the rural contexts than the mature elements of the landscape, such as shrubs, pre-woods and woods,

8. Vegetation of the forest mantle and the shrubs;

9. Arboreal forest vegetation.

The indexes relative to the phytocoenoses allow the measuring of some ecological characteristics of the plant communities found in the field.

This information essentially regards the maturity, i.e. the evolutive level reached (Index of Maturity*; IM*), the biodiversity, expressed as the species number for each phytocoenosis (Index of Floristic Biodiversity; *IFB*), and various other parameters, like the edaphism (Indexes of Hygrophylia, Xerophylia and Alophylia; *IW*, *IX*, *IA*), the relative presence of the various biological forms (indexes of the terophytic, hemicryptophytic and nonhemicryptophytic perennial components*; IT, IH*, *IF*), and the relative presence of some of the chorological types (indexes of the endemic, wide distribution and exotic components; *IL*, *ID*, *IE*). The index of maturity is expressed in a range that goes from 0 to 9 (according to the maturity scale described in the previous paragraph), the index of floristic biodiversity is a simple number (of species per relevé), and all the others are as percentages.

In most cases, these indexes are calculated as a function of the coverage that can be attributed to each single species. The coverage can be considered within each single relevé or as the mean for a Table of relevés that are all attributable to one phytocoenosis.

The indexes that we have used with the greatest frequency for the functional characterisation of the herbaceous communities are the Index of Maturity, the Index of Floristic Biodiversity, and the edaphic indexes, with the Index of Hygrophylia in particular. Of these, the following provides brief descriptions of the formulas for their calculation.

 Index of Maturity: This allows the evaluation of the level of evolution of the coenoses analysed, which will be higher when there is a greater presence and coverage of species of the more evolved vegetation classes (e.g. shrubs, pre-woods, woods). For the herbaceous communities, the value will be higher as a function of the presence of perennial entities that are typical of mature grasslands or of ecotone coenoses.

$$IM = \frac{\sum\_{l=1}^{n} (c\_l \ge \mathcal{y})}{\mathcal{C}\_{\text{(tot)}}}$$

where *IM* is the Index of Maturity; *ci* is the coverage value for each single species, as an absolute value for single relevés or as a mean for groups of relevés in a Table; *y* is the value corresponding to *m* (*y* = *m*) for each single species and assigned on the basis of the information contained in the databases described above; and *C(tot)* is the value of the total coverage obtained from the sum of the coverage values for all of the species.

 Index of Floristic Biodiversity: This measure is the number of species relative to each of the coenoses, which are given as groups of floristic species that can develop in an ecologically homogeneous context. This does not depend on the coverage value of each single taxon (Puppi, 2008).

Environmental Evaluation and Monitoring of Agro-Ecosystems Biodiversity 357

down ditches or with profoundly altered riverbank vegetation. In contrast to the previous example, in this case the map does not come from an analysis of the surface, but from a linear investigation, as the ditches are divided into segments to which a numerical value is associated, which is relative to the vegetational typology of the corresponding margin. The interpretation of the qualitative characteristics and of the management dynamics that can be revealed in the various contexts investigated is made possible by the superpositioning and

The map of the maturity provides the foundation for the calculation of the so-called cartographic indexes, the index of synthetic maturity (*ISM*) and the index of the unproductive areas (*IUA*), expressed as a 1 9 scale and as a percentage, respectively, and

 Index of Synthetic Maturity: This is based on the area occupied on the map by each vegetational typology reported in the cartography and on the maturity value attributed

> ��� � <sup>∑</sup> (��� x �) � ���

where *ISM* is the Index of Synthetic Maturity; *IMi* is the index of maturity relative to the ith

��� � <sup>∑</sup> [Ω(�)] � � ��� Ω(���)

�

*(tot)* is the total area of the carography.

 Index of Unproductive Areas: This index is based on the distinction between cultivated or disturbed areas, characerised by *IM* ≤2, and unproductive areas with *IM* >2, and it is calculated as the relative presence of the cultivated or disturbed areas included in the

(*tot*) is the total area on the cartography.

In the following, there are some examples of the application of the system of the bioindicators just described. These refer to some of the territorial contexts described over the last few years and they are aimed at helping the reader in their understanding of the method presented here and in their appreciation of its potential use. The applications

The application is based on the reconstruction of transects of the vegetation typologies that are revealed under particular conditions of morphology and use. These refer in particular to the edges of the water courses and of the dirt tracks. The schemes and the graphics that support the analysis allow the demonstration of how the method of bioindication on a floristic-vegetational basis provides precise and easily understood results regarding the influence of particular ecological or management conditions on

presented refer to both the coenosis indexes and the cartographic indexes.

**3.2.1 Analysis of the ecological gradient in a vegetation transect** 

Ω(���)

����

�

*<sup>I</sup>* is the area of the ith vegetational typology

(*<sup>u</sup>*)]*I* is the area of the ith vegetation

the reading of the various cartographic representations presented.

as described in the following.

from the cartography; and

cartography.

typology with *IM* >2; and

**3.2 Applying the indexes** 

specific phytocoenoses.

to the same phytosociological typology.

vegetational typology from the cartography;

�

where *IUA* is the Index of the Unproductive Areas; [

�

$$IFB = sp/rtil$$

where *IFB* is the Index of Floristic Biodiversity; *sp* is the number of species of a given coenosis; and *ril* is the single relevé.

 Edaphic Indexes: These allow the qualtification of the weight of the hygrophilous, xerophilous and alophilous components of each coenosis and they are used to gather and measure the adaptability of each coenosis to develop under particular edaphic conditions regarding the availability of water and salts in the soil.

$$IW = \frac{\sum\_{l=1}^{n} [c\_{\text{(sw)}}]\_{\ i}}{C\_{\text{(tot)}}} x \mathbf{100}$$

$$IX = \frac{\sum\_{l=1}^{n} [c\_{\text{(sx)}}]\_{\ i}}{C\_{\text{(tot)}}} x \mathbf{100}$$

$$IA = \frac{\sum\_{l=1}^{n} [c\_{\text{(sa)}}]\_{\ i}}{C\_{\text{(tot)}}} x \mathbf{100}$$

where *IW* is the Index of Hygrophylia; *IX* is the Index of Xerophylia; and *IA* is the Index of Alophylia; [*c* (*sw*)]*i*; [*c* (*sx*)]*i*; [*c* (*sa*)]*i* are the coverage values of each single species that belongs to the hygrophilous (*sw*), xerophilous (*sx*) and alophilous (*sa*) classes, as an absolute value for single relevé or as a mean for groups of relevés in a Table; and *C*(*tot*) is the value of the total coverage obtained from the sum of the coverage values for all of the species.

#### **3.1.2 Cartographic indexes**

The cartographic indexes come from the integration of the content of the maturity index with the data derived from the cartographic representations. This last is realised through the use of GIS (geographic information system). The cartographic analyses are carried out at a number of levels and allow thematic maps of different contents to be obtained.

The first phase is the photointerpretation of the territory under study, with the consequent attribution of each single patch to a specific category (previously defined). This allows the drawing up of the map of the use of the soil. Then, the cartographic investigation is deepened and the single polygons are assigned to defined vegetation typologies, inserted in their specific serial and landscape context. In this way, this provides the maps of the vegetation and the plant landscape, which illustrate the study area in a qualitative way.

The final level of the cartographic analysis is the assigning of the maturity values calculated for every coenosis to each of the corresponding spaces reported on the map. In this way it is possible to construct the maturity map, which provides a qualitative-quantitative vision related to the evolutive state and grade of conservation of the area investigated.

The ecological functionality of the hydrographic network of the agricultural areas can be measured with an analysis system based on the reconstruction of the graph of the fluvial segments and on the intersection of this with the vegetation map. This method, which will be considered more deeply in a following publication, allows a map of the conservation state of the hydrographic network to be obtained, as a predictive instrument that is useful for the identification of the part of territories that are potentially susceptible to erosion phenomena and hydrogeological problems, as characterised by high numbers of closed down ditches or with profoundly altered riverbank vegetation. In contrast to the previous example, in this case the map does not come from an analysis of the surface, but from a linear investigation, as the ditches are divided into segments to which a numerical value is associated, which is relative to the vegetational typology of the corresponding margin. The interpretation of the qualitative characteristics and of the management dynamics that can be revealed in the various contexts investigated is made possible by the superpositioning and the reading of the various cartographic representations presented.

The map of the maturity provides the foundation for the calculation of the so-called cartographic indexes, the index of synthetic maturity (*ISM*) and the index of the unproductive areas (*IUA*), expressed as a 1 9 scale and as a percentage, respectively, and as described in the following.

 Index of Synthetic Maturity: This is based on the area occupied on the map by each vegetational typology reported in the cartography and on the maturity value attributed to the same phytosociological typology.

$$ISM = \frac{\sum\_{l=1}^{n} (IM\_l \ge \Omega\_l)}{\Omega\_{(tot)}}$$

where *ISM* is the Index of Synthetic Maturity; *IMi* is the index of maturity relative to the ith vegetational typology from the cartography; �*<sup>I</sup>* is the area of the ith vegetational typology from the cartography; and �*(tot)* is the total area of the carography.

$$IUA = \frac{\sum\_{l=1}^{n} [\Omega\_{(u)}]\\_l}{\Omega\_{(tot)}} x 100$$

 Index of Unproductive Areas: This index is based on the distinction between cultivated or disturbed areas, characerised by *IM* ≤2, and unproductive areas with *IM* >2, and it is calculated as the relative presence of the cultivated or disturbed areas included in the cartography.

where *IUA* is the Index of the Unproductive Areas; [�(*<sup>u</sup>*)]*I* is the area of the ith vegetation typology with *IM* >2; and �(*tot*) is the total area on the cartography.

#### **3.2 Applying the indexes**

356 Ecosystems Biodiversity

��� � ������ where *IFB* is the Index of Floristic Biodiversity; *sp* is the number of species of a given

 Edaphic Indexes: These allow the qualtification of the weight of the hygrophilous, xerophilous and alophilous components of each coenosis and they are used to gather and measure the adaptability of each coenosis to develop under particular edaphic

> �� � <sup>∑</sup> ��(��)] � � ��� �(���)

�� � <sup>∑</sup> ��(��)] � � ��� �(���)

�� � <sup>∑</sup> ��(��)] � � ��� �(���)

total coverage obtained from the sum of the coverage values for all of the species.

number of levels and allow thematic maps of different contents to be obtained.

related to the evolutive state and grade of conservation of the area investigated.

where *IW* is the Index of Hygrophylia; *IX* is the Index of Xerophylia; and *IA* is the Index of Alophylia; [*c* (*sw*)]*i*; [*c* (*sx*)]*i*; [*c* (*sa*)]*i* are the coverage values of each single species that belongs to the hygrophilous (*sw*), xerophilous (*sx*) and alophilous (*sa*) classes, as an absolute value for single relevé or as a mean for groups of relevés in a Table; and *C*(*tot*) is the value of the

The cartographic indexes come from the integration of the content of the maturity index with the data derived from the cartographic representations. This last is realised through the use of GIS (geographic information system). The cartographic analyses are carried out at a

The first phase is the photointerpretation of the territory under study, with the consequent attribution of each single patch to a specific category (previously defined). This allows the drawing up of the map of the use of the soil. Then, the cartographic investigation is deepened and the single polygons are assigned to defined vegetation typologies, inserted in their specific serial and landscape context. In this way, this provides the maps of the vegetation and the plant landscape, which illustrate the study area in a qualitative way. The final level of the cartographic analysis is the assigning of the maturity values calculated for every coenosis to each of the corresponding spaces reported on the map. In this way it is possible to construct the maturity map, which provides a qualitative-quantitative vision

The ecological functionality of the hydrographic network of the agricultural areas can be measured with an analysis system based on the reconstruction of the graph of the fluvial segments and on the intersection of this with the vegetation map. This method, which will be considered more deeply in a following publication, allows a map of the conservation state of the hydrographic network to be obtained, as a predictive instrument that is useful for the identification of the part of territories that are potentially susceptible to erosion phenomena and hydrogeological problems, as characterised by high numbers of closed

����

����

����

conditions regarding the availability of water and salts in the soil.

coenosis; and *ril* is the single relevé.

**3.1.2 Cartographic indexes** 

In the following, there are some examples of the application of the system of the bioindicators just described. These refer to some of the territorial contexts described over the last few years and they are aimed at helping the reader in their understanding of the method presented here and in their appreciation of its potential use. The applications presented refer to both the coenosis indexes and the cartographic indexes.

#### **3.2.1 Analysis of the ecological gradient in a vegetation transect**

The application is based on the reconstruction of transects of the vegetation typologies that are revealed under particular conditions of morphology and use. These refer in particular to the edges of the water courses and of the dirt tracks. The schemes and the graphics that support the analysis allow the demonstration of how the method of bioindication on a floristic-vegetational basis provides precise and easily understood results regarding the influence of particular ecological or management conditions on specific phytocoenoses.

Environmental Evaluation and Monitoring of Agro-Ecosystems Biodiversity 359

Fig. 14. Indexes of Maturity and Hygrophylia of the vegetation of the principal and minor ditches (Scheme B). Legend: a1*=Helosciadetum nodiflori;* a2*= Carex pendula* communities; a3=*Rubo ulmifolii-Salicetum albae*; a4=*Petasitetum hybridi*; a5=*Ranunculetum repentis;*  a6=*Festuco fenas-Caricetum hirtae*; a7=*Lolio perennis-Plantaginetum majoris Juncus bufonius* variant; b1=*Convolvulo sepii-Epilobietum hirsuti*; b2= *Agropyron repens and Galium album* 

 Vegetation of the dirt tracks: The farm roads made of beaten earth provide the connections between the farms and their fields and they are used mainly for the passage of agricultural machinery. These have little traffic, but are anyway subjected to high compaction of the terrain. The particular ecological conditions that are created corresponding to these secondary communication tracks allow the development of vegetation that is well adapted to this mechanical disturbance and the alterations to the structure of the terrain, which is little aerated. The coenoses that can be found mainly belong to the class *Polygono-Poetea*, although in some cases also to the classes *Stellarietea* or *Molinio-Arrhenatheretea*. These habitats are also today decreasing, mainly due to the vegetation stripping that also affects the environments outside of the cultivated fields, and to the extreme simplification of the network of tracks between the fields and houses in the countryside (as a function of the depopulation of the countryside, which has resulted in the abandoning of many houses in the countryside, and the incorporation of small plots in the larger cultivated fields). In some situations, however, the state of

communities.

 Vegetation of the diches edges: Considering agroecosystems, the plant coenoses of the edges of the water courses often provide a high floral richness and an elevated naturalistic interest (as for the better-conserved edges of the fields and of the farm tracks) and perform multiple functions: they contribute to the protection of the soil from erosive phenomena, they act as connecting ecological corridors between semi-natural habitats, they host numerous forms of life and favour interactions between living and non-living organisms, and they absorb CO2.

Unfortunately, the coming of intensive agriculture has favoured the practice of management techniques of rural territories that are particularly aggressive, such as the stripping of vegetation on a large scale and the tillage of areas previously not used, which have been performed with the aim of obtaining the maximum areas possible for cultivation. This has often resulted in the removal or alteration of a large part of the riverbank plant component.

In our studies into the understanding of the state of the biodiversity of the rural territories, following investigations of the countryside, we have been able to reconstruct the plant successions that can be potentially found along the edges of the primary and secondary water courses. The coenoses found can be referred to classes that are particularly hygrophilous, such as *Phragmito-Magnocaricetea* and *Salici-Populetea*, or to mesophilous classes, such as *Galio-Urticetea* and *Molinio-Arrhenatheretea*. To the reconstruction of the vegetation transects, we added the application of two of the floristic-vegetational indexes, as the maturity index (*IM*) and the hygrophilous index (*IW*), which allowed us to reveal interactions between the morphology of the soil, the gradient of available water, and the vegetation.

Scheme A of Figure 14 shows the succession of the coenoses seen at the edges of the main ditches with permanent water-flow throughout the seasons of the year (Rismondo *et al*., 2011). The gradient of available water is shown by the progression of the hygrophilous index along the transect: it is higher for the coenoses that are in direct contact with the water, such as *Helosciadetum nodiflori* (*Phragmito-Magnocaricetea*), the *Carex pendula* communities (*Phragmito-Magnocaricetea*) and the association *Rubo ulmifolii*-*Salicetum albae*  (*Salici-Populetea*), and lower for the ecotone formations, such as *Petasitetum hybridi* (*Galio-Urticetea*), and for the mesophilous grasslands of the external margins of the ditch, attributed to *Ranunculetum repentis*, *Festuco fenas-Caricetum hirtae* and *Lolio multiflori-Plantaginetum majoris Juncus bufonius* variant (all three of which are included in the class *Molinio-Arrhenatheretea*).

The grade of maturity is greatest for the riparian arboreal formation of willow, while it decreases for the herbaceous coenoses: it is lower for the vegetation with *Juncus bufonius* of the compacted and slightly depressed zones, as a function of the greater human disturbance (passing of agricultural machines, contact with the cultivated fields).

Scheme B of Figure 14 shows instead the sequence of coenoses of the ditches of the slopes with water flowing only during and immediately after rain events. The indexes of Maturity and Hygrophylia are higher for the formations within the ditch, such as *Convolvulo sepii-Epilobietum hirsuti*, and lower for the mesophilous coenoses of the external edges of the ditch, such as *Agropyron repens* and *Galium album* communities. In the agroecosystems the presence of these two plant formations (both of the class *Galio-Urticetea*) are seriously endangered by the profound alterations of the segments of the hydrographic network positioned in the hilly zones with the greater slopes.

 Vegetation of the diches edges: Considering agroecosystems, the plant coenoses of the edges of the water courses often provide a high floral richness and an elevated naturalistic interest (as for the better-conserved edges of the fields and of the farm tracks) and perform multiple functions: they contribute to the protection of the soil from erosive phenomena, they act as connecting ecological corridors between semi-natural habitats, they host numerous forms of life and favour interactions between living and

Unfortunately, the coming of intensive agriculture has favoured the practice of management techniques of rural territories that are particularly aggressive, such as the stripping of vegetation on a large scale and the tillage of areas previously not used, which have been performed with the aim of obtaining the maximum areas possible for cultivation. This has often resulted in the removal or alteration of a large part of the riverbank plant component. In our studies into the understanding of the state of the biodiversity of the rural territories, following investigations of the countryside, we have been able to reconstruct the plant successions that can be potentially found along the edges of the primary and secondary water courses. The coenoses found can be referred to classes that are particularly hygrophilous, such as *Phragmito-Magnocaricetea* and *Salici-Populetea*, or to mesophilous classes, such as *Galio-Urticetea* and *Molinio-Arrhenatheretea*. To the reconstruction of the vegetation transects, we added the application of two of the floristic-vegetational indexes, as the maturity index (*IM*) and the hygrophilous index (*IW*), which allowed us to reveal interactions between the morphology of the soil, the gradient of available water, and the

Scheme A of Figure 14 shows the succession of the coenoses seen at the edges of the main ditches with permanent water-flow throughout the seasons of the year (Rismondo *et al*., 2011). The gradient of available water is shown by the progression of the hygrophilous index along the transect: it is higher for the coenoses that are in direct contact with the water, such as *Helosciadetum nodiflori* (*Phragmito-Magnocaricetea*), the *Carex pendula* communities (*Phragmito-Magnocaricetea*) and the association *Rubo ulmifolii*-*Salicetum albae*  (*Salici-Populetea*), and lower for the ecotone formations, such as *Petasitetum hybridi* (*Galio-Urticetea*), and for the mesophilous grasslands of the external margins of the ditch, attributed to *Ranunculetum repentis*, *Festuco fenas-Caricetum hirtae* and *Lolio multiflori-Plantaginetum majoris Juncus bufonius* variant (all three of which are included in the class *Molinio-*

The grade of maturity is greatest for the riparian arboreal formation of willow, while it decreases for the herbaceous coenoses: it is lower for the vegetation with *Juncus bufonius* of the compacted and slightly depressed zones, as a function of the greater human disturbance

Scheme B of Figure 14 shows instead the sequence of coenoses of the ditches of the slopes with water flowing only during and immediately after rain events. The indexes of Maturity and Hygrophylia are higher for the formations within the ditch, such as *Convolvulo sepii-Epilobietum hirsuti*, and lower for the mesophilous coenoses of the external edges of the ditch, such as *Agropyron repens* and *Galium album* communities. In the agroecosystems the presence of these two plant formations (both of the class *Galio-Urticetea*) are seriously endangered by the profound alterations of the segments of the hydrographic network

(passing of agricultural machines, contact with the cultivated fields).

positioned in the hilly zones with the greater slopes.

non-living organisms, and they absorb CO2.

vegetation.

*Arrhenatheretea*).

Fig. 14. Indexes of Maturity and Hygrophylia of the vegetation of the principal and minor ditches (Scheme B). Legend: a1*=Helosciadetum nodiflori;* a2*= Carex pendula* communities; a3=*Rubo ulmifolii-Salicetum albae*; a4=*Petasitetum hybridi*; a5=*Ranunculetum repentis;*  a6=*Festuco fenas-Caricetum hirtae*; a7=*Lolio perennis-Plantaginetum majoris Juncus bufonius* variant; b1=*Convolvulo sepii-Epilobietum hirsuti*; b2= *Agropyron repens and Galium album*  communities.

 Vegetation of the dirt tracks: The farm roads made of beaten earth provide the connections between the farms and their fields and they are used mainly for the passage of agricultural machinery. These have little traffic, but are anyway subjected to high compaction of the terrain. The particular ecological conditions that are created corresponding to these secondary communication tracks allow the development of vegetation that is well adapted to this mechanical disturbance and the alterations to the structure of the terrain, which is little aerated. The coenoses that can be found mainly belong to the class *Polygono-Poetea*, although in some cases also to the classes *Stellarietea* or *Molinio-Arrhenatheretea*. These habitats are also today decreasing, mainly due to the vegetation stripping that also affects the environments outside of the cultivated fields, and to the extreme simplification of the network of tracks between the fields and houses in the countryside (as a function of the depopulation of the countryside, which has resulted in the abandoning of many houses in the countryside, and the incorporation of small plots in the larger cultivated fields). In some situations, however, the state of

Environmental Evaluation and Monitoring of Agro-Ecosystems Biodiversity 361

 Analyses of the state of conservation of small herbaceous areas: This example concerns the characterisation of the threshing grounds surrounding an abandoned farmhouse (named as C2) located in the rural territory in a medium hilly area of Marche. The study has involved various threshing grounds of country houses located beween the provinces of Ancona and Macerata (inside Musone River Basin), and it involved the definition of all of the vegetation typologies present for every location analysed, the drawing up of the vegetation map, and the subsequent calculations of the coenosis indexes. Following this, the maturity map was constructed and the cartographic indexes were calculated on the basis of the area occupied by each coenosis and their

The investigations carried out allowed us to see how these herbaceous areas represent habitats rich in biodiversity and definitely worth further investigation from the point of view of the relationships that exist beween the flora and the historic usage. The threshing grounds are mainly characterised by coenoses of the class *Molinio-Arrhenatheretea*, grasslands that are regularly cut and that develop, as illustrated, on soils well supplied with nutrients and water. These communities are however on the road to extinction in the agroecosystem environment, due to the abandoning of the traditional management

maturity values.

Fig. 16. Vegetation and maturity maps of Farmhouse C2.

methods.

conservation is still sufficiently good and our study allowed the reconstruction of an example that illustrates the vegetation variation and the relative maturity level as a function of the level of compaction of the soil.

In Scheme C of Figure 15, it can be seen how the coenoses of the class *Polygono-Poetea*, which are *Coronopodo procumbentis-Sclerochloetum durae* and *Poetum annuae*, are positioned. The first of these is found in the individual tracks left by the passage of the agricultural machinery, and the second is in the centre and at the margins of the dirt track; *Lolio perennis-Plantaginetum majoris*, of the class *Molinio-Arrhenatheretea*, is instead found at the more external margins. In the transect, it can also be seen that there is an inverse relationship between the level of compaction of the soil and the evolutive level of the phytocoenoses: indeed, this last decreases going from the margin to the centre of the dirt track (in particular under the tracks of the tyres of the tractors).

Fig. 15. Indexes of Maturity of the vegetation of the dirt tracks (Scheme C). Legend: c1=*Lolio perennis-Plantaginetum majoris*; c2=*Poetum annuae*; c3=*Coronopodo procumbentis-Sclerochloetum durae*.

#### **3.2.2 Evaluation of the environmental quality of the territory at different scales of enquiry**

The example reported is based on the calculation of the maturity index of the coenoses found within determined territory contexts, on the construction of the maturity maps (derived from the vegetation maps), and on the calculation of the consequent cartographic indiexes. The analysis system is shown to be an excellent means for comparison of the areas characterised by different management modalities that can influence the state of conservation of the habitats. The following presents applications relative to the different scales of investigations.

In Scheme C of Figure 15, it can be seen how the coenoses of the class *Polygono-Poetea*, which are *Coronopodo procumbentis-Sclerochloetum durae* and *Poetum annuae*, are positioned. The first of these is found in the individual tracks left by the passage of the agricultural machinery, and the second is in the centre and at the margins of the dirt track; *Lolio perennis-Plantaginetum majoris*, of the class *Molinio-Arrhenatheretea*, is instead found at the more external margins. In the transect, it can also be seen that there is an inverse relationship between the level of compaction of the soil and the evolutive level of the phytocoenoses: indeed, this last decreases going from the margin to the centre of the dirt track (in particular

Fig. 15. Indexes of Maturity of the vegetation of the dirt tracks (Scheme C). Legend: c1=*Lolio perennis-Plantaginetum majoris*; c2=*Poetum annuae*; c3=*Coronopodo procumbentis-Sclerochloetum* 

The example reported is based on the calculation of the maturity index of the coenoses found within determined territory contexts, on the construction of the maturity maps (derived from the vegetation maps), and on the calculation of the consequent cartographic indiexes. The analysis system is shown to be an excellent means for comparison of the areas characterised by different management modalities that can influence the state of conservation of the habitats. The following presents applications relative to the different

**3.2.2 Evaluation of the environmental quality of the territory at different scales of** 

function of the level of compaction of the soil.

under the tracks of the tyres of the tractors).

*durae*.

**enquiry** 

scales of investigations.

conservation is still sufficiently good and our study allowed the reconstruction of an example that illustrates the vegetation variation and the relative maturity level as a  Analyses of the state of conservation of small herbaceous areas: This example concerns the characterisation of the threshing grounds surrounding an abandoned farmhouse (named as C2) located in the rural territory in a medium hilly area of Marche. The study has involved various threshing grounds of country houses located beween the provinces of Ancona and Macerata (inside Musone River Basin), and it involved the definition of all of the vegetation typologies present for every location analysed, the drawing up of the vegetation map, and the subsequent calculations of the coenosis indexes. Following this, the maturity map was constructed and the cartographic indexes were calculated on the basis of the area occupied by each coenosis and their maturity values.

The investigations carried out allowed us to see how these herbaceous areas represent habitats rich in biodiversity and definitely worth further investigation from the point of view of the relationships that exist beween the flora and the historic usage. The threshing grounds are mainly characterised by coenoses of the class *Molinio-Arrhenatheretea*, grasslands that are regularly cut and that develop, as illustrated, on soils well supplied with nutrients and water. These communities are however on the road to extinction in the agroecosystem environment, due to the abandoning of the traditional management methods.

Fig. 16. Vegetation and maturity maps of Farmhouse C2.

Environmental Evaluation and Monitoring of Agro-Ecosystems Biodiversity 363

Fig. 17. Maturity maps of Spescia and Bottiglie Sub-basins.

Table 2. Cartographic indexes of Spescia and Bottiglie Sub-basins*.*

**Area Area (Ha)**

Spescia Sub-basin(AN) 84,74 0,96 5,49% Bottiglie Sub-basin (AN) 107,32 2,31 22,12%

**ISM** **IUA**

The maturity map shown in Figure 16 reveals how the method allows the obtaining of highprecision data regarding the conservation state of the plant communities and of the entire area (as a function of the values of the indexes; Table 1) and provides the possibility of monitoring possible subsequent variations in the floral composition and the level of maturity due to changes in the type of management of the areas involved.


Table 1. Coenosis indexes and IMS of Farmhouse C2*.* 

 Comparison of the functionality of the agroecosystems at the territory scale: This example refers to two agricultural territories of medium hilly areas of Marche, located in the province of Ancona: the Spescia and Bottiglie sub-basins (municipality of Serra de' Conti; Taffetani & Rismondo, 2009). The two areas are located a few kilometres from each other on soils that originated from sedimentary rock and on clayey, silty-clayey, marly, silty and sandy substrata of various grades of compaction. The reference bioclimate is of the Submediterranean variant of the temperate region.

The Spescia sub-basin shows extreme simplification of the landscape and a lack of seminatural structures like herbaceous strips, small woods, or rows of trees and shrubs. It is cultivated in an intensive way according to conventional agricultural techniques. The whole of the territory is divided into only two properties and as a consequence the cultural diversification is minimal, also because the plots cultivated with seeded crops are very large and there is no tree growth. The study of the vegetation, the application of the indexes, and the obtaining of the relative maturity map (Fig. 17) reveal a very low level of conservation, as can be seen by the large area covered by coenoses of a very low grade of evolution and by the high homogeneity of use of the areas.

The Bottigle sub-basin instead presents a more diverse plant landscape and its area is subdivided into many small properties. The agricultural use of the terrain includes annual seeded crops, forage crops and polyphytic grasslands; some of the owners operate following the regulations of organic production. The variety of the environments is also favoured by a good level of semi-natural environments, such as herbaceous strips at the edges of the farm tracks, rows of trees and shrubs located at the limits of the fields, riparian vegetation and a small, well structured, turkey oak wood. These residual environments are characterised by vegetation with a good level of maturity; e.g. along the edges of the access tracks there are grasslands of the class *Festuco-Brometea*, the conservation of which is favoured by the periodic cutting. When the maturity map is compared to that of the Spescia sub-basin (Fig. 17), it clearly reveals higher environmental diversification and a good presence of seminatural marginal coenoses, with *IM* ≥2.

What can be easily noted graphically from the maturity map can be translated into numerical data through the use of the cartographic indexes. As can be seen from Table 2, both the Index of Syntetic Maturity (*ISM*) and the Index of the Unproductive Areas (*IUA*) are a lot higher for Bottiglie sub-basin with respect to the agricultural territory of Spescia.

The maturity map shown in Figure 16 reveals how the method allows the obtaining of highprecision data regarding the conservation state of the plant communities and of the entire area (as a function of the values of the indexes; Table 1) and provides the possibility of monitoring possible subsequent variations in the floral composition and the level of

> **) IM**

facies 141,52 2,80 33,00 0,00 0,55 0,00 **Area (m<sup>2</sup> ) IMS**

community 47,78 2,52 20,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

community 136,41 2,98 18,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

 **IFB IW(%)**

245,76 3,52 23,00 0,00 0,00 0,00

 **IX(%) IA (%)**

 Comparison of the functionality of the agroecosystems at the territory scale: This example refers to two agricultural territories of medium hilly areas of Marche, located in the province of Ancona: the Spescia and Bottiglie sub-basins (municipality of Serra de' Conti; Taffetani & Rismondo, 2009). The two areas are located a few kilometres from each other on soils that originated from sedimentary rock and on clayey, silty-clayey, marly, silty and sandy substrata of various grades of compaction. The reference

e

The Spescia sub-basin shows extreme simplification of the landscape and a lack of seminatural structures like herbaceous strips, small woods, or rows of trees and shrubs. It is cultivated in an intensive way according to conventional agricultural techniques. The whole of the territory is divided into only two properties and as a consequence the cultural diversification is minimal, also because the plots cultivated with seeded crops are very large and there is no tree growth. The study of the vegetation, the application of the indexes, and the obtaining of the relative maturity map (Fig. 17) reveal a very low level of conservation, as can be seen by the large area covered by coenoses of a very low grade of evolution and by

The Bottigle sub-basin instead presents a more diverse plant landscape and its area is subdivided into many small properties. The agricultural use of the terrain includes annual seeded crops, forage crops and polyphytic grasslands; some of the owners operate following the regulations of organic production. The variety of the environments is also favoured by a good level of semi-natural environments, such as herbaceous strips at the edges of the farm tracks, rows of trees and shrubs located at the limits of the fields, riparian vegetation and a small, well structured, turkey oak wood. These residual environments are characterised by vegetation with a good level of maturity; e.g. along the edges of the access tracks there are grasslands of the class *Festuco-Brometea*, the conservation of which is favoured by the periodic cutting. When the maturity map is compared to that of the Spescia sub-basin (Fig. 17), it clearly reveals higher environmental diversification and a good presence of semi-

What can be easily noted graphically from the maturity map can be translated into numerical data through the use of the cartographic indexes. As can be seen from Table 2, both the Index of Syntetic Maturity (*ISM*) and the Index of the Unproductive Areas (*IUA*) are a lot higher for Bottiglie sub-basin with respect to the agricultural territory of Spescia.

bioclimate is of the Submediterranean variant of the temperate region.

maturity due to changes in the type of management of the areas involved.

Trifolium repens

Table 1. Coenosis indexes and IMS of Farmhouse C2*.* 

**Farmhouse 2** 571,47 3,13

**Vegetation community Area (m<sup>2</sup>**

Avena fatua

Sonchus asper

Plantago lanceolata

Ranunculetum bulbosi-velutini

Lolio perennis-Plantaginetum majoris

the high homogeneity of use of the areas.

natural marginal coenoses, with *IM* ≥2.

Fig. 17. Maturity maps of Spescia and Bottiglie Sub-basins.


Table 2. Cartographic indexes of Spescia and Bottiglie Sub-basins*.*

Environmental Evaluation and Monitoring of Agro-Ecosystems Biodiversity 365

 Obligatory Management Criteria, as provisions of law, indicated as Acts already in force and deriving from the national implementation of the corresponding Community

 Good Agronomic and Environmental Conditions, indicated as norms set up at a national level to guarantee reaching five priority objectives fixed by the European Union, as: protection of the soil through the use of appropriate measures; maintenance of the levels of organic matter in the soil through the use of appropriate practices; protection of the structure of the soil through the use of adequate measures; assurance of a minimum level of maintenance of the ecosystem and avoidance of deterioration of

The Cross Compliance is based on the Regulation (EC) 1782/03, subsequently abrogated by

The politics of rural development at the European level proposed the specific objective of the conservation of the agricultural areas of High Natural Value (HNV Farmland Areas) according to Regulation (EC) 1257/99. These had to be identified by 2008, and then be subjected to management modalities aimed at the conservation of biodiversity. Unfortunately, Italy is still today behind also in the determination of the HNV Farmland Areas. These HNV Farmland Areas were defined by Baldock et al. (1993, 1995) as systems of low input and with good levels of biodiversity that are characterised by the application of agricultural practices of low intensiy, a high proportion of semi-natural elements, and a high diversity in the soil coverage. Andersen et al. (2003) identified three typologies of HNV

the habitats; and protection and management of the water resources.

Type 1: Agricultural terrain with a high coverage of semi-natural vegetation;

For the identification of each typology, they indicated three types of approach: Approach 1: soil coverage (Corine Land Cover, not applicable to type 3).

to the coverage of the soil, cultivation practices, and the presence of rare species.

population of a European or World animal or plant species.

Approach 3: species and habitat (Natura 2000, IBA, PBA, IPA).

of the planning and the implementation of the management measures.

Type 2: Agricultural terrain dominated by low intensity agriculture or by a mosaic of

Type 3: Agricultural terrain where there are rare species or a high proportion of a

Approach 2: investigation of the farming system (system of agricultural accountability,

The method is based on the application of a series of indicators and indexes that have the function of assigning to every specific context a value as a function of characteristics relative

The limit of this method is determined by the fact that this is essentially based on large-scale cartographic data, while not making reference to the need for detailed territorial analyses, such as floristic-vegetational investigations. These last would be a valid instrument of support both for the definition phase of the areas and in the course of the successive stages

Directive 92/43/EEC, known as the Habitat Directive, relates to the conservation of natural and semi-natural habitats and wild flora and fauna, and it was approved by the European

arrangements.

Regulation (EC) 73/09.

Farmland Areas:

semi-naural and cultivated territories;

RICA, not applicable to type 3).

**4.1.3 Habitat Directive** 

**4.1.2 HNV Farmland Areas** 
