**4. Data analysis**

#### **4.1 Ecological data**

All special features of interest in the area e.g. water sources, valley bottom wetlands, natural grassland ecosystem, miombo woodlands and wooded grasslands were identified and compiled into a lists with a descriptions of their species composition. The identified strata and field data were developed into tables showing a list of different vegetation types and their species composition, abundance and dominance. The abundance and dominance of each species was determined from their percent cover estimates.

Valley Bottom Wetlands Can Serve for Both

which disappear during the dry season.

0

Valleybottom Wetlands

Natural Grasslands

Fig. 3a. Average Number of Plant Species by Natural Vegetation Types in Uchindile

Wooded

Grasslands

.

20

40

60

**Plant Species Richness (#)**

80

100

Biodiversity Conservation and Local Livelihoods Improvements 225

Three natural vegetation types were identified in Uchindile including (i) Valley bottom Wetlands/Riverine/Riparian, (ii) Natural Grasslands and (iii) Wooded Grasslands. In addition to the natural vegetation there were two types of plantations which are among the major vegetation found on the landscape. These are (i) Pine plantations and (ii) Eucalyptus plantations. The number of plant species varied between vegetation types. In regards to the natural vegetation Valleybottom Wetlands have the highest number of species compared to all other vegetation types (Figure 3a). Further when we consider all the vegetation types Valleybottom Wetlands still rank the highest in plant species richness (Figure 3b). Previous studies have also shown the valley bottom/riverine/riparian vegetation to have higher species richness than the other types of vegetation (Munishi 2006, 2007). The significance of Valleybottom Wetlands in acting as refuge for most species becomes more apparent during the peak of the dry season in which there would definitely be higher species richness for both flora and fauna in valley bottoms because of the wetter conditions compared to the other areas. Most grasslands for example would have higher number of short-lived plant growth forms (annuals) during the rain season

**5.2 Plant species composition by vegetation types in Uchindile landscapes** 

#### **4.2 Socio-economic data**

Socio-economic data were analyzed and summarized into social economic activities undertaken by a household, agricultural utilization of wetlands and crops grown in dry/wet seasons and the proportional contribution of each wetland related socio-economic activities to household food security (food available for household consumption) and income. The economic benefits were assessed by using gross margin analysis, food available for consumption as indicator of food security was used to assess food security at household level; and the contingent valuation technique was applied to assess the value of wetland services. The gross margin analysis was computed as:

$$\mathbf{GM} = \mathbf{TR} \cdot \mathbf{TC}$$

where:


The food available for consumption at household level was determined to be 300kg of cereal/ person/year. This figure was used to offset post harvest losses (storage loss and handling loss) (FAO, 1985; Ishengoma, 1998). Food available for consumption was obtained by subtracting the amount of food crop that was sold from the total food produced per person per year. Standardization of food available for consumption was done using adult equivalent scale considering age category (Ishengoma, 1998). In this case where the adult above 15 years old has unit equivalent of 1, ages 11 – 15 will have unit equivalent of 0.75 while children with age equal or less than 10 years will have unit equivalent of 0.36 (Ishengoma, 1998).

## **5. Results and discussions**

#### **5.1 Vegetation types and plant species composition**

Several vegetation types were identified in the different sites. The major natural vegetation types identified included valleybottom wetlands, natural grasslands, wooded grasslands, and miombo woodlands. In addition planted exotic tree species formed specific vegetation types and included Eucalyptus and Pine Plantation. There was a big variation in plant species composition and richness in all sites studied with the different vegetation types having different species composition and richness within sites. The variation in composition is a reflection of high diversity of plants in the areas. In all three sites studied for plant species composition (Uchindile, Idete and Mapanda landscapes), valleybottom wetlands ranked the highest in plant species richness when compared with other natural vegetation and combined natural vegetation and plantation of exotic species. This general trend shows that valleybottom wetlands in the Ruaha River Basin will likely be the major repositories of biodiversity of plant species. By the fact that vegetation composition may be a reflection of other taxa in an ecosystem there is a high possibility that fauna diversity will follow the same trend. Because plants respond to multiple environmental factors both biotic and abiotic, this richness and diversity of species is a reflection of the heterogeneity of the areas, diverse vegetation types, habitats and landscapes that allow co-existence of species in heterogeneous landscape (Carson & Root, 2000; Franzén, 2004; Tetsuya & Kuniyasu, 2005; Munishi *et al*., 2007; Tomas & Frantisek 2008).

Socio-economic data were analyzed and summarized into social economic activities undertaken by a household, agricultural utilization of wetlands and crops grown in dry/wet seasons and the proportional contribution of each wetland related socio-economic activities to household food security (food available for household consumption) and income. The economic benefits were assessed by using gross margin analysis, food available for consumption as indicator of food security was used to assess food security at household level; and the contingent valuation technique was applied to assess the value of wetland

GM = TR - TC

The food available for consumption at household level was determined to be 300kg of cereal/ person/year. This figure was used to offset post harvest losses (storage loss and handling loss) (FAO, 1985; Ishengoma, 1998). Food available for consumption was obtained by subtracting the amount of food crop that was sold from the total food produced per person per year. Standardization of food available for consumption was done using adult equivalent scale considering age category (Ishengoma, 1998). In this case where the adult above 15 years old has unit equivalent of 1, ages 11 – 15 will have unit equivalent of 0.75 while children with age equal or less than 10 years will have unit equivalent of 0.36

Several vegetation types were identified in the different sites. The major natural vegetation types identified included valleybottom wetlands, natural grasslands, wooded grasslands, and miombo woodlands. In addition planted exotic tree species formed specific vegetation types and included Eucalyptus and Pine Plantation. There was a big variation in plant species composition and richness in all sites studied with the different vegetation types having different species composition and richness within sites. The variation in composition is a reflection of high diversity of plants in the areas. In all three sites studied for plant species composition (Uchindile, Idete and Mapanda landscapes), valleybottom wetlands ranked the highest in plant species richness when compared with other natural vegetation and combined natural vegetation and plantation of exotic species. This general trend shows that valleybottom wetlands in the Ruaha River Basin will likely be the major repositories of biodiversity of plant species. By the fact that vegetation composition may be a reflection of other taxa in an ecosystem there is a high possibility that fauna diversity will follow the same trend. Because plants respond to multiple environmental factors both biotic and abiotic, this richness and diversity of species is a reflection of the heterogeneity of the areas, diverse vegetation types, habitats and landscapes that allow co-existence of species in heterogeneous landscape (Carson & Root, 2000; Franzén, 2004; Tetsuya & Kuniyasu, 2005;

**4.2 Socio-economic data** 

where:

(Ishengoma, 1998).

**5. Results and discussions** 

services. The gross margin analysis was computed as:

**5.1 Vegetation types and plant species composition** 

Munishi *et al*., 2007; Tomas & Frantisek 2008).

GM = Average gross margin (Tshs/kg) or (Tshs/month) TR = Average total revenue (Tshs/kg) or (Tshs/month) TC = Average variable total cost (Tshs/kg) or (Tshs/month)

#### **5.2 Plant species composition by vegetation types in Uchindile landscapes**

Three natural vegetation types were identified in Uchindile including (i) Valley bottom Wetlands/Riverine/Riparian, (ii) Natural Grasslands and (iii) Wooded Grasslands. In addition to the natural vegetation there were two types of plantations which are among the major vegetation found on the landscape. These are (i) Pine plantations and (ii) Eucalyptus plantations. The number of plant species varied between vegetation types. In regards to the natural vegetation Valleybottom Wetlands have the highest number of species compared to all other vegetation types (Figure 3a). Further when we consider all the vegetation types Valleybottom Wetlands still rank the highest in plant species richness (Figure 3b). Previous studies have also shown the valley bottom/riverine/riparian vegetation to have higher species richness than the other types of vegetation (Munishi 2006, 2007). The significance of Valleybottom Wetlands in acting as refuge for most species becomes more apparent during the peak of the dry season in which there would definitely be higher species richness for both flora and fauna in valley bottoms because of the wetter conditions compared to the other areas. Most grasslands for example would have higher number of short-lived plant growth forms (annuals) during the rain season which disappear during the dry season.

Fig. 3a. Average Number of Plant Species by Natural Vegetation Types in Uchindile

.

Valley Bottom Wetlands Can Serve for Both

Wetlands

medicinal value for the treatment of prostate cancer.

*Protea welwitschii Engl*.

Wooded Grasslands

Valleybottom

**Plant Species Richness (#)**

Tanzania

Biodiversity Conservation and Local Livelihoods Improvements 227

Miombo Woodlands

Fig. 4. Plant species richness in different natural vegetation types of Idete Landscapes Iringa

Grasslands were the largest vegetation type in the Idete landscape, dominated by the grass family (Poaceae) with grasses growing to more than 1m tall. Based on species abundance expressed as percent cover the major species in this vegetation type were *Hyparrhenia rufa (Nees) Stapf, Diheteropogon ampelactens, Faurea saligna Harvey, Cymbopogon excavatus, Hyparrhenia sp., Pteridium aquilinum, Londetia simplex (Nees) C.E Hubbard, Allophylus abyssinicus, Protea rupestris R.E.Fr.. Protea welwitschii Engl. Pygmaeothanmnus zeyheri, Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC, Themeda triandra Forssk* and *Vitex mombassae Vatke.* This vegetation type is a home for rare/threatened species such as *Protea rupestris R.E.Fr.* and

**5.5 Plant species dominance in the different vegetation types of Idete landscapes**  The most dominant species in the Idete landscapes were F*icus lutea, Loudentia simplex* (Nees) C.E Hubbard*, Nymphaea nguchali, Prunus africana, Themeda triandra* Forssk*, Cymbopogon excavatus, Cynodon sp, Panicum maximum* Jacq*, Faurea saligna* Harvey.*, Oxtenanthera abyssinica, Vernonia sp, Dombeya rotundifolia* (Mast) Planch, *Erythrina abyssinica* D.C.*ssp abyssinica, Macaranga capensis, Sorghum bicolor, Annona senegalinsis Pers, Bersama abyssinica, Catha edulis*  (M.Vahl.) Forssk, *Cyperus ajax* C.B. Clarke, *Osmunda regalis L.Cynodon sp, Parinari curatelifolia, Setaria sphacelata, Syzygium cordutum* Hochst ex Krauss *and Cyperus ajax* C.B. Clarke. The riverine vegetation closely associated with the Valleybottom wetlands category was mainly dominated by *Prunus africana, Bridelia micrantha, Macaranga capensis, Khaya anthotheca, Cartha edulis, Syzygium cuminii, Syzygium guinensis, Harungana madagascariensis, Myrianthus hostii, Tralepisium madagascariensis, Rauvolfia cafra and Ficalhoa laurifolia.* This vegetation type contains some elements of endangered plant species such as *Prunus africana* which also have

Natural Grasslands

Fig. 3b. Plant Species Richness in all Vegetation Types in Uchindile

#### **5.3 Species dominance in the different vegetation types in Uchindile landscapes**

The Valleybottom Wetlands/Riverine Ecosystems were the most diverse compared to other vegetation zones of Uchindile with the most dominant species being *Cyperus papyrus, Cyperus dives, Cyperus corymbetes, Cyperus glaucophyillus, Cyperus articulates and Pteridium aquilinum.* In the natural grasslands the most dominant species were *Hyparrhenia filipendula* (Hochst.) Stapf, *Exotheca abyssinica* Anders, *Parinari curalellifolia* Benth, *Hyparrhenia cymabarica* (L.) Stapf, *Cymbopogon nardus* (Linn.) Rendle, *Protea madiensis* Oliv and *Vernonia sp*.. The wooded grasslands were dominated by *Loudetia simplex* (Nees) C.E.Hub, *Cymbopogon nardus* (Linn.) Rendle, *Protea madiensis* Oliv, *Psorospernum febrifugum* Spach. and *Melinis minutiflora* P.Beauv

#### **5.4 Plant species composition by vegetation types in Idete landscapes**

Four different natural vegetation types were identified in the Idete landscapes. These vegetation types include Valleybottom Wetlands/Riparian Areas, Natural Grasslands, Wooded Grasslands and Miombo Woodlands. Valleybottom Wetlands/riparian areas had the highest proportion of species compared to all other vegetation types followed by Wooded Grasslands. Miombo Woodlands and Natural Grasslands had almost the same species richness (Figure 4). These findings indicate that the wetland ecosystems are the most diverse followed by wooded grasslands.

Plant Species Richness (#)

Valleybottom Wetlands

*Melinis minutiflora* P.Beauv

diverse followed by wooded grasslands.

Eucalyptus

Plantations

Fig. 3b. Plant Species Richness in all Vegetation Types in Uchindile

Pine Planatations

**5.3 Species dominance in the different vegetation types in Uchindile landscapes**  The Valleybottom Wetlands/Riverine Ecosystems were the most diverse compared to other vegetation zones of Uchindile with the most dominant species being *Cyperus papyrus, Cyperus dives, Cyperus corymbetes, Cyperus glaucophyillus, Cyperus articulates and Pteridium aquilinum.* In the natural grasslands the most dominant species were *Hyparrhenia filipendula* (Hochst.) Stapf, *Exotheca abyssinica* Anders, *Parinari curalellifolia* Benth, *Hyparrhenia cymabarica* (L.) Stapf, *Cymbopogon nardus* (Linn.) Rendle, *Protea madiensis* Oliv and *Vernonia sp*.. The wooded grasslands were dominated by *Loudetia simplex* (Nees) C.E.Hub, *Cymbopogon nardus* (Linn.) Rendle, *Protea madiensis* Oliv, *Psorospernum febrifugum* Spach. and

**5.4 Plant species composition by vegetation types in Idete landscapes** 

Four different natural vegetation types were identified in the Idete landscapes. These vegetation types include Valleybottom Wetlands/Riparian Areas, Natural Grasslands, Wooded Grasslands and Miombo Woodlands. Valleybottom Wetlands/riparian areas had the highest proportion of species compared to all other vegetation types followed by Wooded Grasslands. Miombo Woodlands and Natural Grasslands had almost the same species richness (Figure 4). These findings indicate that the wetland ecosystems are the most

Natural Grasslands

Wooded Grasslands

Fig. 4. Plant species richness in different natural vegetation types of Idete Landscapes Iringa Tanzania

#### **5.5 Plant species dominance in the different vegetation types of Idete landscapes**

The most dominant species in the Idete landscapes were F*icus lutea, Loudentia simplex* (Nees) C.E Hubbard*, Nymphaea nguchali, Prunus africana, Themeda triandra* Forssk*, Cymbopogon excavatus, Cynodon sp, Panicum maximum* Jacq*, Faurea saligna* Harvey.*, Oxtenanthera abyssinica, Vernonia sp, Dombeya rotundifolia* (Mast) Planch, *Erythrina abyssinica* D.C.*ssp abyssinica, Macaranga capensis, Sorghum bicolor, Annona senegalinsis Pers, Bersama abyssinica, Catha edulis*  (M.Vahl.) Forssk, *Cyperus ajax* C.B. Clarke, *Osmunda regalis L.Cynodon sp, Parinari curatelifolia, Setaria sphacelata, Syzygium cordutum* Hochst ex Krauss *and Cyperus ajax* C.B. Clarke. The riverine vegetation closely associated with the Valleybottom wetlands category was mainly dominated by *Prunus africana, Bridelia micrantha, Macaranga capensis, Khaya anthotheca, Cartha edulis, Syzygium cuminii, Syzygium guinensis, Harungana madagascariensis, Myrianthus hostii, Tralepisium madagascariensis, Rauvolfia cafra and Ficalhoa laurifolia.* This vegetation type contains some elements of endangered plant species such as *Prunus africana* which also have medicinal value for the treatment of prostate cancer.

Grasslands were the largest vegetation type in the Idete landscape, dominated by the grass family (Poaceae) with grasses growing to more than 1m tall. Based on species abundance expressed as percent cover the major species in this vegetation type were *Hyparrhenia rufa (Nees) Stapf, Diheteropogon ampelactens, Faurea saligna Harvey, Cymbopogon excavatus, Hyparrhenia sp., Pteridium aquilinum, Londetia simplex (Nees) C.E Hubbard, Allophylus abyssinicus, Protea rupestris R.E.Fr.. Protea welwitschii Engl. Pygmaeothanmnus zeyheri, Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC, Themeda triandra Forssk* and *Vitex mombassae Vatke.* This vegetation type is a home for rare/threatened species such as *Protea rupestris R.E.Fr.* and *Protea welwitschii Engl*.

Valley Bottom Wetlands Can Serve for Both

0

Valleybottom Wetlands

Eucalyptus

Plantations

Wooded

Fig. 5b. Plant Species Richness in all Vegetation Types of Mapanda Landscapes Iringa

**5.7 Species dominance in the different vegetation types in Mapanda landscapes**  The Valleybottom wetlands are dominated by *Hyparrhenia cymabarica* (L.) Stapf, *Dichanthium foveolatum* (Del.) Roberty Clayton & Renvoize, *Syzygium cordatum* Hochst. ex Krauss, *Gnidia glauca* (Fresen.) Gilg. and *Kotschya strigosa* Benth. The most dominant plant species in the natural grasslands include *Cymbopogon nardus* (Linn.) Rendle, *Fadogia odorata* K.Krause and *Hyparrhenia cymabarica* (L.)Stapf,. The Wooded Grasslands were dominated by *Cymbopogon nardus* (Linn.) Rendle, *Loudetia arundinacea* (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Steud, *Hyparrhenia cymabarica* (L.)Stapf, *Dolichos sericeus* E.Meyer, *Dichanthium foveolatum* (Del.) Roberty Clayton & Renvoize, *Multidentia crassa* (Hiern) Bridson & Verdc and *Protea* 

**5.8 Socio-economic values of valleybottom wetlands in the Little Ruaha River** 

Tanzania's wetlands contribute in diverse ways to livelihoods of many millions and wetlands are chiefly utilized for crop production and livestock. An assessment of wetland contribution to livelihoods in 6 villages of the Little Ruaha sub catchment of the Great Ruaha River showed that the total use value of productive activities carried out in upland and valley bottom wetlands was Tanzanian Shillings (Tshs) 3,415,458 (US\$ 2,732) per year per household in which 31% of the total economic benefits accrued from utilization of Valleybottom Wetlands. Wetland based socio-economic activities included agricultural production (farming) practiced by over 98% of the population followed by livestock grazing and fishing. Wetland based socio-economic activities carried out in valley bottoms commonly known by local people as *vinyungu* contribute about 15 of household food and 55

Grasslands

Pine Plantations

Natural Grasslands

50

100

Plant Species Richness

Tanzania

*madiensis* Oliv.

150

200

250

Biodiversity Conservation and Local Livelihoods Improvements 229

The Miombo woodlands in this landscape is dominated by *Brachystegia microphylla Harms., Uapaca kirkiana, Eragrostis sp, Periploca linearifolia* Dill.& A.Rich, *Aristida sp, Combretaum molle, Loudentia simplex* (Nees) C.E Hubbard, *Myrica salicifolia* A.Rich, *Sparmannia ricinocarpa* (Eckl & Zey) Kuntize, *Faurea saligna* Harvey., *Osyris lanceolata* Hochst. & Stend., *Parinari curatelifolia* Planch.ex Beth., *Protea welwitschii* Engl. and *Protea rupestris* R.E.Fr.. The dominant species in the Wooded Grasslands include *Hyparrhenia rufa (Nees) Stapf, Aristida sp, Psorospermum febrifugum* Spach, *Bridelia micrantha, Eragrostis sp, Vernonia lasiopus* O.Hoffm. *Protea rupestris R.E.Fr., Protea welwitschii* Engl., *Cartha edulis, Cymbopogon excavatus, Pteridium aquilinum, Melinis minutiflora* P. Beauv., *Allophylus abyssinicus, Apodytes dimidiata* Arn., *and Vitex mombassae* Vatke.

#### **5.6 Plant species composition by vegetation types in Mapanda landscapes**

A total of 320 plant species belonging to 96 families were identified in the Mapanda landscapes which is a reflection of the heterogeneity of the landscape and habitats. Three natural vegetation types were identified in Mapanda which include Valleybottom Wetlands, Wooded Grasslands and Natural grasslands. In addition two vegetation types of planted exotic species were identified as among the major cover types in the landscape. These are Eucalyptus and Pine plantations. Among the natural vegetation types Valleybottom Wetlands had the highest plant species richness (Figure 5a) followed by Wooded grasslands. Of all vegetation types combined Valleybottom Wetlands still rank the highest in species richness (Figure 5b), showing the value of wetland ecosystems as repositories of species in the landscape.

Fig. 5a. Plant species richness in different natural vegetation types of Mapanda Landscapes Iringa Tanzania

The Miombo woodlands in this landscape is dominated by *Brachystegia microphylla Harms., Uapaca kirkiana, Eragrostis sp, Periploca linearifolia* Dill.& A.Rich, *Aristida sp, Combretaum molle, Loudentia simplex* (Nees) C.E Hubbard, *Myrica salicifolia* A.Rich, *Sparmannia ricinocarpa* (Eckl & Zey) Kuntize, *Faurea saligna* Harvey., *Osyris lanceolata* Hochst. & Stend., *Parinari curatelifolia* Planch.ex Beth., *Protea welwitschii* Engl. and *Protea rupestris* R.E.Fr.. The dominant species in the Wooded Grasslands include *Hyparrhenia rufa (Nees) Stapf, Aristida sp, Psorospermum febrifugum* Spach, *Bridelia micrantha, Eragrostis sp, Vernonia lasiopus* O.Hoffm. *Protea rupestris R.E.Fr., Protea welwitschii* Engl., *Cartha edulis, Cymbopogon excavatus, Pteridium aquilinum, Melinis minutiflora* P. Beauv., *Allophylus abyssinicus, Apodytes dimidiata* Arn., *and* 

**5.6 Plant species composition by vegetation types in Mapanda landscapes** 

A total of 320 plant species belonging to 96 families were identified in the Mapanda landscapes which is a reflection of the heterogeneity of the landscape and habitats. Three natural vegetation types were identified in Mapanda which include Valleybottom Wetlands, Wooded Grasslands and Natural grasslands. In addition two vegetation types of planted exotic species were identified as among the major cover types in the landscape. These are Eucalyptus and Pine plantations. Among the natural vegetation types Valleybottom Wetlands had the highest plant species richness (Figure 5a) followed by Wooded grasslands. Of all vegetation types combined Valleybottom Wetlands still rank the highest in species richness (Figure 5b), showing the value of wetland ecosystems as repositories of species in

*Vitex mombassae* Vatke.

the landscape.

**Plant Species Richness**

Iringa Tanzania

0

Valleybottom Wetlands

Wooded

Grasslands

Fig. 5a. Plant species richness in different natural vegetation types of Mapanda Landscapes

Natural Grasslands

50

100

150

200

250

Fig. 5b. Plant Species Richness in all Vegetation Types of Mapanda Landscapes Iringa Tanzania

#### **5.7 Species dominance in the different vegetation types in Mapanda landscapes**

The Valleybottom wetlands are dominated by *Hyparrhenia cymabarica* (L.) Stapf, *Dichanthium foveolatum* (Del.) Roberty Clayton & Renvoize, *Syzygium cordatum* Hochst. ex Krauss, *Gnidia glauca* (Fresen.) Gilg. and *Kotschya strigosa* Benth. The most dominant plant species in the natural grasslands include *Cymbopogon nardus* (Linn.) Rendle, *Fadogia odorata* K.Krause and *Hyparrhenia cymabarica* (L.)Stapf,. The Wooded Grasslands were dominated by *Cymbopogon nardus* (Linn.) Rendle, *Loudetia arundinacea* (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Steud, *Hyparrhenia cymabarica* (L.)Stapf, *Dolichos sericeus* E.Meyer, *Dichanthium foveolatum* (Del.) Roberty Clayton & Renvoize, *Multidentia crassa* (Hiern) Bridson & Verdc and *Protea madiensis* Oliv.

#### **5.8 Socio-economic values of valleybottom wetlands in the Little Ruaha River**

Tanzania's wetlands contribute in diverse ways to livelihoods of many millions and wetlands are chiefly utilized for crop production and livestock. An assessment of wetland contribution to livelihoods in 6 villages of the Little Ruaha sub catchment of the Great Ruaha River showed that the total use value of productive activities carried out in upland and valley bottom wetlands was Tanzanian Shillings (Tshs) 3,415,458 (US\$ 2,732) per year per household in which 31% of the total economic benefits accrued from utilization of Valleybottom Wetlands. Wetland based socio-economic activities included agricultural production (farming) practiced by over 98% of the population followed by livestock grazing and fishing. Wetland based socio-economic activities carried out in valley bottoms commonly known by local people as *vinyungu* contribute about 15 of household food and 55

Valley Bottom Wetlands Can Serve for Both

Ecography 27(2), 218-224(7)

Morogoro, Tanzania, 337pp.

Kilombero District Tanzania

Kilombero District Tanzania

submitted to TAFORI

Green Resources (Ltd) Tanzania 48 pp

http://botanika.bf.jcu.cz/suspa /ohrazeni/

*Institute for Environment and Development*, London. 19pp.

*01.2*.Mkuki na Nyota Publishers, Dar es Salaam. 36pp.

Submitted to ENRECA, University of Dar es Salaam.76pp.

Working Group (NWWG) 30 July 2004, Dar es Salaam

Assessment University of Dar es Salaam. 41pp.

**7. Acknowledgements** 

and this study.

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Biodiversity Conservation and Local Livelihoods Improvements 231

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Mtatifikolo, F. and Comoro, C. (1999). Population Dynamics and Poverty. *Case Study of the Tomato Culture Zone Farming System Iringa*; *Tanzania*. A Final Report

and food security: A case study of "Nyumba Ya Mungu" wetland system in northern Tanzania Paper Presented at the Meeting of the National Wetlands


It has been argued that wetlands make appreciable contribution to rural livelihoods in terms of direct cash income and contribution to food security (Mkavidanda and Kaswamila, 2001; Munishi and Halima 2004), and many households that live close to wetland ecosystems in Tanzania and elsewhere utilize wetlands in coping strategies during times of drought and food scarcity. Differences in environmental and socio-economic conditions however result into significant variation in patterns of use between one area and another. The significance of wetlands in agricultural production, poverty reduction and contribution to rural livelihoods have variously been emphasized (Mkavidanda and Kaswamila, 2000; Ngailo et al., 2002; Munishi and Kilungu 2004). The wide range of economic benefits accrued from wetland ecosystems in Tanzania have been iterated (MNRT 2007). It is argued that often overlooked, unappreciated, taken for granted and therefore unmanaged the ecosystem services provided by wetlands in Tanzania include hydro-power production in which 95% of the hydropower production is from wetland related flows. Further 95% of domestic, irrigation, industrial and livestock water is from wetlands, 80% of traditional irrigation schemes depend on wetlands, 95% of rice and vegetable production depends on wetlands, about 850,000 ha of wetlands have potential for future irrigation, 95% of wildlife and wildlife corridors/game migration routes depend on wetlands, 66% of rural animal protein is derived from livestock grazing, game meat or fisheries, 95% of the 25 million livestock is maintained through dry season pastoralism in wetlands, 95% of coastal and wildlife tourism depends wetlands and 33% of the country's GDP depends on wildlife and wetland tourism. Other studies have shown that cultivation of paddy rice in wetlands of Bahi Tanzania contributed significantly to household food security generating 65.4% of total household food crop production compared to other crops grown in drier areas adjacent to the swamp (Rweyemamu, 2009, Munishi et al, – in press). Fishing in this case played a substantial contribution to household food security through household consumption of 10% of fish caught. For household income, sales of paddy rice from the swamp contributed 59.6% while fish sales contributed 36% of the total annual household income. Multiplier activities emerging during fishing season facilitate income to a wider group of communities and on average, 56.2% of the population depend on the swamp for daily socio-economic activities associated with generation of household food and income. The Bahi swamp and related products therefore play a significant role in enhancing local livelihoods for the adjacent communities. Planning for wise use of the swamp in respect of the dominant socioeconomic activities was seen as a means to improve its contribution to livelihoods.
