**6. Conclusion**

264 Ecosystems Biodiversity

Due to the formation of erosion gullies, lateral drainage from the peat takes place at an alarming rate. Desiccation of the peat takes place along the gully which allows the peat to dry out and becomes eroded. A contributing factor is the trampling of the gully banks as animals drink from the streams. Their hooves loosen the dry peat which drains down to the

Fig. 13. Large erosion gullies in the peatlands as a result of trampling and overgrazing.

Fig. 14. The ice rat (*Otomys sloggettii*) (insert) with its tunnels draining the peatlands and

The ice rat (*Otomys sloggettii*) (Figure 14) is a natural inhabitant of high-altitude vegetation types including peatlands (Schwaibold, 2005). On an undisturbed peatland these rats' dens, runways and tunnels are limited to the peatland fringes and drier areas. The desiccation of the peatlands results in the encroachment of these rodents onto the drier parts, especially around those areas near erosion gullies. Their tunnels contribute to the erosion and agrivating the desiccation the peat (Figure 13) as well as the alteration of the habitat conditions. This leads to various terrestrial plant species establishing thereby displacing the

streams (Figure 13).

peatland vegetation.

causing erosion.

Due to the low vegetation cover, shallow soils and steep slopes of the valley heads in Lesotho, there is a high water and sediment run off (Figure 15). The peatlands are the only sites where water is being retained and slowly released. These peatlands are very valuable socioecological ecosystems to the highlands of Lesotho because of the goods and services they present. The natural vegetation of these peatlands sustains extensive grazing by domestic livestock. Destruction of these peatlands will have serious implications for the ecosystems and biodiversity of the region. The high runoff sometimes results in the deposition of sediment onto the peatlands. In these instances a sedimentation fan forms on top of the peatland. Subsequently the covered wetland vegetation dies off.

Fig. 15. Sediment runoff from the surrounding catchment areas onto the peatlands.

All the Lesotho peatlands as well as the surrounding upland slopes are heavily affected by grazing and trampling. Species composition of the slopes has been affected significantly. These slopes are all dominated by unpalatable dwarf shrubs such as *Helichrysum trilineatum, Eumorphia sericea, Chrysocoma ciliata, Euryops decurrens* and the absence of grass species is notable.

The degradation of these peatlands cannot really be attributed to the grazing per se of the wetland species. It has been noted that these mat forming plants especially *Isolepis cernua* has a remarkable tolerance of heavy grazing and the peatlands still maintain high species richness. A very dense cover remains despite the heavy grazing pressure.

The canopy cover of the herbaceous plants of both the Lesotho and near pristine Platberg peatland systems was generally high though the latter had a taller and more diverse structure. The more pristine Platberg peatlands had a lower species richness with a larger grass component than the Lesotho peatland areas. Furthermore the Platberg peatlands had a markedly higher biomass production than the Lesotho peatlands. However the exclosure plots showed a noticible increase in production compared to the grazed plots indicating the resilience of these systems if properly managed.

Impact of Domestic Animals on Ecosystem Integrity of Lesotho High Altitude Peatlands 267

peatlands, but would also protect the indigenous wildlife populations of grey rheebuck, rock hyrax, and several other species, which are on the brink of extinction in Lesotho. Long term monitoring of the exclosure and grazed plots should be continued on these sensitive

Brown, C. S. & Bugg, R. L. (2001), Effects of Established Perennial Grasses on Introduction of

Brown, L.R., Marais, H., Henzi, S.P. and Barrett, L. (2005). Vegetation classification as the

Carpenter, S., Walker, B., Anderies, J.M., & Abel, N. (2001). From Metaphor to

Cleaver G. (2004). Environmental impacts of large-scale groundwater abstraction on

Collins, N.B. (2005). *Wetlands: The basics and some more*. Free State Department of Tourism, Environmental and Econimic Affairs. ISBN 0-86886-708-X, Bloemfontein. Cowan,G I (ed.). (1995). *Wetlands of South Africa*. Department of Environmental Affairs and

Cronk, J.K. & Fennessey, M.S. (2001). *Wetland plants: biology and ecology*. Lewis Publishers,

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**7. References** 

The resilience of a system is dependant on its ability to sustain nutrient cycles and the storage of water. This ability is threatened when degradation of the habitat occurs via soil loss and structural change of the vegetation (Carpenter et al., 2001). Based on the results from this study it is clear that structural changes and soil loss have taken place in the Lesotho high-altitude peatlands (Figure 16) accompanied by a lower production. No improvements in the condition of the wetland and associated upland sites will be possible without a reduction in the grazing pressure in these areas. Degraded vegetation cover already leads to increased overland flow visible as gravel on the soil surface in the hill slopes and gully erosion in the wetlands. Reduced organic matter content in all the soils is expected due to drier soil conditions and short vegetation. Land use change will impact on soil hydrology and that impact will be reflected in the wetland hydrology.

Fig. 16. Large scale erosion as a result of heavy grazing resulting in the degradation of the habitat and a loss of ecosystem functions.

In view of the uniqueness of these peatlands and the high endemicity of the Lesotho Highland Basalt Grassland vegetation it is urgent to identify and proclaim more wildlife conservation areas within the Lesotho highlands. As mentioned above a large transfrontier park namely the Maloti-Transfrontier Park is planned to protect the high-altitude vegetation of Lesotho and South Africa. Mucina & Rutherford (2006) state that this proposed park would increase the conservation status of Lesotho Highland Basalt Grassland. However, the authors of this chapter have their doubts about the effectiveness of such a Transfrontier Park to protect sensitive ecosystems such as peatlands. The reason being that with the proclamation of such as Transfrontier Park the landuse within the transfrontier park would not change significantly.

The authors are therefore proposing smaller conservation areas within the larger Transfrontier Park, which would exclude domestic animals, specifically to protect the peatlands and their catchments. These conservation areas would not only properly protect peatlands, but would also protect the indigenous wildlife populations of grey rheebuck, rock hyrax, and several other species, which are on the brink of extinction in Lesotho. Long term monitoring of the exclosure and grazed plots should be continued on these sensitive ecosystems to provide a basis for decision making.

#### **7. References**

266 Ecosystems Biodiversity

The resilience of a system is dependant on its ability to sustain nutrient cycles and the storage of water. This ability is threatened when degradation of the habitat occurs via soil loss and structural change of the vegetation (Carpenter et al., 2001). Based on the results from this study it is clear that structural changes and soil loss have taken place in the Lesotho high-altitude peatlands (Figure 16) accompanied by a lower production. No improvements in the condition of the wetland and associated upland sites will be possible without a reduction in the grazing pressure in these areas. Degraded vegetation cover already leads to increased overland flow visible as gravel on the soil surface in the hill slopes and gully erosion in the wetlands. Reduced organic matter content in all the soils is expected due to drier soil conditions and short vegetation. Land use change will impact on

Fig. 16. Large scale erosion as a result of heavy grazing resulting in the degradation of the

In view of the uniqueness of these peatlands and the high endemicity of the Lesotho Highland Basalt Grassland vegetation it is urgent to identify and proclaim more wildlife conservation areas within the Lesotho highlands. As mentioned above a large transfrontier park namely the Maloti-Transfrontier Park is planned to protect the high-altitude vegetation of Lesotho and South Africa. Mucina & Rutherford (2006) state that this proposed park would increase the conservation status of Lesotho Highland Basalt Grassland. However, the authors of this chapter have their doubts about the effectiveness of such a Transfrontier Park to protect sensitive ecosystems such as peatlands. The reason being that with the proclamation of such as Transfrontier Park the landuse within the transfrontier park would

The authors are therefore proposing smaller conservation areas within the larger Transfrontier Park, which would exclude domestic animals, specifically to protect the peatlands and their catchments. These conservation areas would not only properly protect

habitat and a loss of ecosystem functions.

not change significantly.

soil hydrology and that impact will be reflected in the wetland hydrology.

Backéus, I. & Grab, S. 1995. Mires in Lesotho. Gunneria 70:243-250. ISSN.0332-8554


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**13** 

*1Canada 2,3Ecuador* 

**Waterbird Biodiversity and** 

Juan José Alava1,2 and Ben Haase2,3

**Conservation Threats in Coastal** 

 **Ecuador and the Galapagos Islands** 

*Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, British Columbia,*

*1School of Resource & Environmental Management, Faculty of Environment, Simon* 

*2Fundación Ecuatoriana para el Estudio de Mamíferos Marinos (FEMM), Guayaquil, 3Museo de Ballenas, Av. Gral. Enríquez Gallo s/n, calles 47 y 50, Salinas, Santa Elena,* 

Within the context of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) of the United Nations Environment Programme, the conservation of biodiversity is one of the major goals devoted to minimize and mitigate significantly the existing rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional and national scales. At this level, birds are exemplary sentinels and bioindicators for the conservation and monitoring of biodiversity and ecosystem health. While 1226 bird species are considered globally threatened with extinction due to small and declining populations or ranges (BirdLife International, 2008), a substantial number of seabird populations are declining and threatened with extinction at the global level because of several conservation threats both on land and at sea, including fishery interactions, predation by invasive species and habitat loss due to coastal development (BirdLife International, 2010). The Pacific is an important area for threatened seabirds, where their ranges span multiple Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) as well as many areas beyond National Jurisdictions (ABNJs). Although seabirds represent only 3% of the total number of bird species in the world, about 28% (over 130 species) are listed as threatened on the IUCN red list for birds, under which 10% of seabirds are Critically Endangered (BirdLife

Under the CBD, Ecuador is a signatory country (1992) and ratified the Convention in 1993 with the aim to pursue and establish conservation efforts and action plans to preserve the national biodiversity, including birds. Despite of being one of the smallest countries of the world (i.e., 0.19% of the terrestrial surface of the Earth) with 256 370 km2 and a human population close to 14 millions inhabitants, Ecuador is one of 17 world's megadiverse countries due to its rich biodiversity and high degree of bird endemism (Mittermeier et al., 1997; Stattersfield et al., 1998). Of the 151 wetlands identified as key habitats for Neotropical waterbirds in Ecuador, 40% are present on the continental coast (i.e., 59 wetlands), while 14 exist in the Galapagos (Santander et al., 2006). There, a total of 1640 species of birds are geographically distributed into four well defined geographical zones: the coast (coastal

**1. Introduction** 

International , 2010).

Westhoff, V. and Van der Maarel, E. 1980. The Braun-Blanquet approach, In: *Classification of Plant Communities.* R.H. Whitaker, (Ed.), 287-378, Kluwer Academic Publisher, ISBN 906-193566-0, The Hague.

Juan José Alava1,2 and Ben Haase2,3

*1School of Resource & Environmental Management, Faculty of Environment, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, British Columbia, 2Fundación Ecuatoriana para el Estudio de Mamíferos Marinos (FEMM), Guayaquil, 3Museo de Ballenas, Av. Gral. Enríquez Gallo s/n, calles 47 y 50, Salinas, Santa Elena, 1Canada 2,3Ecuador* 

#### **1. Introduction**

270 Ecosystems Biodiversity

Westhoff, V. and Van der Maarel, E. 1980. The Braun-Blanquet approach, In: *Classification of* 

ISBN 906-193566-0, The Hague.

*Plant Communities.* R.H. Whitaker, (Ed.), 287-378, Kluwer Academic Publisher,

Within the context of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) of the United Nations Environment Programme, the conservation of biodiversity is one of the major goals devoted to minimize and mitigate significantly the existing rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional and national scales. At this level, birds are exemplary sentinels and bioindicators for the conservation and monitoring of biodiversity and ecosystem health. While 1226 bird species are considered globally threatened with extinction due to small and declining populations or ranges (BirdLife International, 2008), a substantial number of seabird populations are declining and threatened with extinction at the global level because of several conservation threats both on land and at sea, including fishery interactions, predation by invasive species and habitat loss due to coastal development (BirdLife International, 2010). The Pacific is an important area for threatened seabirds, where their ranges span multiple Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) as well as many areas beyond National Jurisdictions (ABNJs). Although seabirds represent only 3% of the total number of bird species in the world, about 28% (over 130 species) are listed as threatened on the IUCN red list for birds, under which 10% of seabirds are Critically Endangered (BirdLife International , 2010).

Under the CBD, Ecuador is a signatory country (1992) and ratified the Convention in 1993 with the aim to pursue and establish conservation efforts and action plans to preserve the national biodiversity, including birds. Despite of being one of the smallest countries of the world (i.e., 0.19% of the terrestrial surface of the Earth) with 256 370 km2 and a human population close to 14 millions inhabitants, Ecuador is one of 17 world's megadiverse countries due to its rich biodiversity and high degree of bird endemism (Mittermeier et al., 1997; Stattersfield et al., 1998). Of the 151 wetlands identified as key habitats for Neotropical waterbirds in Ecuador, 40% are present on the continental coast (i.e., 59 wetlands), while 14 exist in the Galapagos (Santander et al., 2006). There, a total of 1640 species of birds are geographically distributed into four well defined geographical zones: the coast (coastal

Gulf is located at 3ºS of Ecuador and it goes 204 km from north to south, and enters a distance of 130 km. This estuary is located on the edge of the Guayas River and the city of Guayaquil. It is part of the Guayas Ecosystem, a large tropical area covering the Gulf of Guayaquil, the Guayas River Basin, the Guayas River Estuary and the city of Guayaquil. This ecosystem is home to 45% of the national human population, and articulates 12 provinces and 88 municipalities. Several watersheds drainage into the Guayas River Basin, including a vast geographical area with a hydrological system of 34 000 km2, which captures the effluents coming from the Daule, Vinces and Babahoyo rivers. The Guayas River Estuary begins on at the Puná Island, across the Jambelí and Del Morro channels, and extends as far as the influence of the tide and salinity, which ends about 100 km within the continent at the confluence of the Daule and Babahoyo rivers. The depth of The Guayas River Estuary

**Guayas Province**

**Salado Mangrove– Wildlife Production Reserve (RPFMS)**

**Puna Island**

**Santay Island (Ramsar site)**

**Gulf of Guayaquil**

**Santa Clara Island Wildlife Refuge-Ramsar Site**

**Morro Mangroves–Wildlife Refuge**

**Gulf of Guayaquil**

**Manglecito Island**

**81° 81.5° 80°**

Fig. 1. Study areas on the southern coast of Ecuador, including mangrove-estuarine areas (as indicated by black rings) in the Guayaquil Gulf and Guayas River Basin and several other coastal sites, including the Ecuasal lagoons in the Santa Elena Peninsula (Santa Elena Province), Canclon Lagoon, located in the Manglares Churute Ecological Reserve (MCER);

**The El Oro Province**

**Bajo Alto Mangroves**

**2°**

**MCER**

**Canclon Lagoon** **S**

**3°**

**W**

**2.5°**

ranges from 20 to 180 m.

**Pacific Ocean**

**Santa Elena Peninsula**

**Ecuasal Salinas Lagoons**

*N*

**25 km**

and Santa Clara Island (The El Oro Provi nce).

Ecuador), the Andean region (highlands), the Amazon jungle (eastern region) and the UNESCO Heritage site, the Galapagos Islands. Of the total number of bird species recorded in Ecuador, 13.6 % or 223 species (Granizo et al., 2002; Santander et al., 2006a) are represented by aquatic and seabirds dwelling diverse habitats including oceanic-offshore environments, nearshore habitats, intertidal zones, islands, coastal lagoon, mangroves, shrimp farms, salt ponds and continental freshwater systems.

However, several environmental stressors and human activities threaten the population and survival of waterbirds in both continental Ecuador and the Galapagos. While habitat fragmentation and deforestation, urban sprawl, agriculture, current use pesticides, marine pollution and wetland degradation are the major impacts identified on the Ecuadorian coast, invasive species and pathogens, bycatch (long-line/gillnets) and the regional climate variability are the major threats in the Galapagos Islands. While these conservation threats have been recognized to some degree, most of their impacts have been scarcely identified and assessed. This is critical under the paradigm of conservation biology and preservation of wildlife, depending on science sound data and baseline information intended to support environmental management plans and conservation efforts.

Therefore, the aim of this chapter is to contribute with a review focused on the conservation status of the biodiversity of aquatic birds and an overall environmental impact assessment of current and looming threats in Ecuador, with special emphasis in the Galapagos Islands. To accomplish this goal, a revision of waterbird species and abundance of seabirds, shorebirds and aquatic birds of freshwater systems will be conducted. The chapter will also include a section describing major features of the natural history and conservation status of priority species, including threatened and endemic species (e.g., Waved Albatross, Galapagos Petrel, Galapagos Penguin, Flightless Cormorant, Horned Screamer, Brownwood Rail, among others), as well as key species for the functioning and health of aquatic ecosystems. This section will be followed by the identification and assessment of current anthropogenic impacts and emerging conservation threats jeopardizing their survival in critical habitats and protected areas. Finally, the chapter will conclude with a section portraying mitigation strategies, recommendations for waterbird conservation and environmental stewardship.
