**4.4 Discussion**

296 Modern Telemetry

number of radio-telemetry observations were higher near the southern border of the reserve (Fig. 4). A 100% MCP yielded a home range of 383.9 km2 while the 95% fixedkernel method resulted in a home-range of 377.8 km2. Thus, both 100% MCP and 95% fixed-kernel methods resulted in home-range sizes that were larger than the game reserve (~360 km2). In terms of centers of activity, the 50% fixed-kernel method resulted in a core-area of 103.6 km2, representing about 29% of the total area covered by the game

Fig. 4. Map of the Mkhuze Game Reserve showing 847 radio-tracking locations collected from a wild-dog pack. The solid line represents the 100% MCP home-range of the wild-dog

Using the broad habitat classification system, wild dogs selected only for one habitat, *Terminalia sericea* savannah habitats while thicket habitat types and river floodplains were used less than expected based on their availability (Table 3). Using the most refined habitat classification system, our analyses indicated that out all woodland habitat types, *Acacia nilotica* low-closed woodland was the most important for wild dogs. Using this same classification system, it was also found that wild dogs clearly selected for *Terminalia sericea* savannah habitats (Table 3). These analyses also showed that the habitats that were used less than expected based on their availability were thicket habitat types, river floodplains and riverine forest. No significant preference was observed for any of the

reserve.

pack calculated in this study.

other habitat types.

An important requisite for the success of any reintroduction program of mammalian carnivores is the elimination of the factors that initially caused the decline of the species. As previously mentioned the main factors explaining the decline of wild dogs in Africa include killing by humans, reduced prey availability, competition with other carnivores, loss and fragmentation of habitats, as well as infectious diseases. The wild-dog pack reintroduced into Mkhuze Game Reserve in 2005 was seen in this game reserve only until June 2008. Although it is suspected that some pack members moved out of the reserve onto neighbouring conservation parks or reserves, other individuals were found dead within or nearby Mkhuze Game Reserve. Possible causes for the deaths of these animals include snares, predation, hunting injuries and infectious diseases that are still occurring in the study area (personal communication, Mkhuze Game Reserve staff and veterinarians). Thus, the analyses discussed below contribute to a forensic-like study that we hope can provide some insights into the factors that may have played a role in the failure of this wild-dog reintroduction program.

Use of Telemetry Data to Investigate

reintroductions, especially in small game reserves.

**5. Conclusions and future directions** 

represent 9% of the total area of the reserve.

radio-telemetry data.

Home Range and Habitat Selection in Mammalian Carnivores 299

(successful and unsuccessful) are being published and peer-reviewed at more frequent intervals, so other reintroduction attempts can benefit from these experiences. In this case study, we analyzed telemetry data from an unsuccessful wild-dog pack reintroduction and learned a few key issues regarding the species' needs that must be considered in future

The examination of habitat selection and home range patterns is an essential first step in the management of any wildlife species whether they are abundant, rare or endangered. The main goal of this chapter was to demonstrate how radio-telemetry data could be used to provide previously unavailable insights into the habitat selection and home range patterns of two mammalian carnivore species inhabiting human-dominated landscapes. In Case 1, the use of radio-telemetry data helped us to show that the presence of anthropogenic food sources in human-use areas and along roads is altering home range and habitat-selection patterns of red foxes inhabiting Prince Edward Island National Park (Prince Edward Island, Canada). In Case 2, radio-telemetry data were used to quantify home range and habitatselection patterns of a wild-dog pack reintroduced in Mkhuze Game Reserve, South Africa. In this case, our analyses not only helped us to quantify these patterns, but also to provide some insights into the reasons why this wild-dog reintroduction program failed. Radiotelemetry data clearly showed that the game reserve was smaller than the home-range of the wild dog pack and that the two habitat types that are preferred by the wild dogs only

The advent of satellite technology, such as global positioning systems (GPS), has allowed wildlife researchers to collect telemetry data on a temporal scale that was not previously practical. Observations can now be obtained many times per day for many months with GPS devices. Although GPS applications have certainly transformed wildlife telemetry, they are not without problems. GPS-collars can be very expensive and experience failures in the field during data collection and trade-offs between GPS location collection intervals and unit longevity lead generally to fewer monitored individuals and shorter study durations compared with radio-telemetry (Frair et al., 2010; Gau et al., 2004; Hebblewhite et al., 2007). Another problem associated with GPS-telemetry is that a decreased interval between recorded locations results in an increased level of autocorrelation in the resulting data. Although some researchers consider that autocorrelation in telemetry data is not a problem, others still disagree with this statement and argue that is really necessary to account for GPS errors in wildlife telemetry studies (Frair et al., 2010). In contrast with GPS-telemetry, radiotelemetry is inexpensive, accuracy is adequate for many types of investigations and it is possible to carry out studies for a relatively long time period. For instance, if the budget for the investigation is low, the use of radio-telemetry technology may be the only choice. This is the case of many developing areas of the world where ecologically-sensitive issues are present and is often very difficult for researchers or wildlife managers to acquire GPScollars. Another important advantage of radio-telemetry technology is that radio-collars can be implemented on almost all animals for which GPS telemetry devices are too heavy. Having said this, it is important to mention that radio-telemetry technology can be timeconsuming and limited by weather conditions. Thus, interpretations should be constrained within the accuracy and precision of the equipment and personnel involved in collecting the

Several studies have suggested that a major reason why very few wild-dog reintroduction programs have succeeded to produce viable populations is because the game reserves were too small to include the whole home range of this species. Our findings provide support for this argument. In this study, the reintroduced wild-dog pack had a home range that was larger than the boundaries of the game reserve, indicating that these animals needed to use not only the entire reserve but also adjacent areas. Moreover, the center of activities (i.e., core areas) of the reintroduced wild-dog pack represented ~29% of the whole game reserve. Interestingly, most of the telemetry locations recorded in this study were situated in the southern region of the game reserve (Fig. 3). Different factors may be attracting wild dogs to this part of the game reserve and its neighbouring habitats. First, there is a private-game reserve (Phinda Game Reserve) that presents a similar wildlife diversity (including wild dogs) than that of Mkhuze Game Reserve, with the addition of lions. Wild dogs are social animals, so it is possible that they were interacting with conspecific animals occurring in the private game reserve. Second, the habitats preferred by wild dogs are more abundant in the southern border of the game reserve. In this study, we found that the wild-dog pack selected for *Terminalia sericea* savannah (3,334 ha) and *Acacia nilotica* low closed woodland (1,742 ha) habitats. These two habitats only represent ~14% of the whole game reserve, with most of the *Terminalia sericea* savannah habitat being located at the southern border of the reserve. Conservation efforts and future wild-dog reintroduction programs should consider the protection and restoration of these two habitat types in other parts of the Mkhuze Game Reserve.

Another factor that may have contributed to the failure of this wild-dog reintroduction may be competition for prey with other mammalian predators. Several studies have shown that wild dogs will avoid areas with high prey density if competition (or mortality due to) with predators such as hyaenas and lions is high (Creel & Creel, 1996; Mills & Gorman, 1997). In Mkhuze Game Reserve, there are no lions, but hyaenas are abundant. Thus, it is possible that although some habitats were available to wild-dogs, in practical terms, they were not accessible to them. For example, we found that one of the habitat types that wild dogs preferred was low closed woodlands dominated by *Acacia nilotica,* small bushes and deciduous tree species. This type of habitat is ideal for antelope species such as impala and nyala, but it may be sometimes too dense to prevent wild-dogs pack hunting coordination to be effective. However, *Terminalia sericea* savannah, the other habitat type preferred by wild dogs, is characterized by dense vegetation. Although hunting should theoretically be more efficient in this habitat type because the ability of other competitor species (e.g., hyaena) to locate and steal prey from wild-dog packs is reduced, *Terminalia sericea* savannah only represents ~9% of the total game reserve. Other studies have found that wild dogs preferred deciduous and thorn woodlands (Creel & Creel, 2002) as well as forest and open-woodland (Andreka, 1996). In this study, we found that river floodplain, riverine forest and woodland habitats dominated by tall *Acacia* trees were avoided by wild dogs. Low-thicket habitats can be dense in many areas of Mkhuze Game Reserve. Although many avian and small-bodied mammalian species may benefit from dense vegetation, large-bodied herbivores (common prey of wild dogs) are usually not able to find sufficient grazing area in this type of habitat. This may explain why wild-dogs tended to avoid low-thicket habitats in the game reserve.

Two decades ago, a successful reintroduction of a mammalian carnivore species in Africa was considerable unfeasible. Today, however, sufficient evidence exists suggesting that planned and well-documented reintroductions of mammalian carnivores are possible (Hayward et al., 2007a, 2007b). In part, this is because the results of other reintroductions

(successful and unsuccessful) are being published and peer-reviewed at more frequent intervals, so other reintroduction attempts can benefit from these experiences. In this case study, we analyzed telemetry data from an unsuccessful wild-dog pack reintroduction and learned a few key issues regarding the species' needs that must be considered in future reintroductions, especially in small game reserves.
