**2.1. Origin of radioactive waste**

Radioactive waste are created from all activities that radioactive materials are used, either as part of the process or the use of such materials as a constituent of equipment or instruments that allow the realization of a practice. Due to large differences in the characteristics of the waste generated in the different areas and to a better understanding of these origins, is

convenient to differentiate the activities coming from nuclear fuel cycle of applications coming from medical, research activities and industrial uses (Radiation Safety General Regulations, 1988; Méndez de Vigo, 2000).

### **2.2. Classification of radioactive wastes**

Classification of radioactive waste is in order of any stage from its origin just to their collection, segregation, treatment, conditioning, storage, transportation and final disposal. In this case, in the Figure 1 is the physical classification of radioactive waste (IAEA, 1970 and 1994).


**Figure 1.** Classification of radioactive waste (own creation).

Quantitative values of allowable activity content for each significant radionuclide will be specified on the basis of safety assessments for individual disposal sites, and the radiological classification of radioactive waste is (IAEA, 2009):


soil and rubble with low levels of activity concentration. Concentrations of longer lived radionuclides in VLLW are generally very limited.


#### **2.3. Management of radioactive waste**

convenient to differentiate the activities coming from nuclear fuel cycle of applications coming from medical, research activities and industrial uses (Radiation Safety General Regulations,

Classification of radioactive waste is in order of any stage from its origin just to their collection, segregation, treatment, conditioning, storage, transportation and final disposal. In this case, in the Figure 1 is the physical classification of radioactive waste (IAEA, 1970 and 1994).

**SEALED SOURCES**

**HALF-LIVE SOURCES FORM**

**SOLID**

**LIQUID**

**BIOLOGICAL**

**COMPACTIBLE NON-COMPACTIBLE**

> **AQUEOUS ORGANIC**

**OPEN SOURCES**

Quantitative values of allowable activity content for each significant radionuclide will be specified on the basis of safety assessments for individual disposal sites, and the radiological

**• Exempt waste (EW):** Waste that meets the criteria for clearance, exemption or exclusion from

**• Very short lived waste (VSLW):** waste that can be stored for decay over a limited period of up to a few years and subsequently cleared from regulatory control according to arrange‐ ments approved by the regulatory body, for uncontrolled disposal, use or discharge. This class includes waste containing primary radionuclides with very short half-lives often used

**• Very low level waste (VLLW):** Waste that does not necessary meet the criteria of EW, but that does not need a high level of containment and isolation and, therefore, is suitable for disposal in near surface landfill type facilities with limited regulatory control. Such landfill type facilities may also contain other hazardous waste. Typical waste in this class includes

regulatory control for radiation protection purposes (IAEA, 2004).

1988; Méndez de Vigo, 2000).

**LOW LEVEL WASTE**

**ACTIVITY**

**INTERMEDIATE LEVEL WASTE**

**HIGH LEVEL WASTE**

**2.2. Classification of radioactive wastes**

398 Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination

**VERY SHORT LIVE < 100 days**

> **SHORT LIVE < 30 years**

**LONG LIVE >30 years**

**Figure 1.** Classification of radioactive waste (own creation).

classification of radioactive waste is (IAEA, 2009):

for research and medical purposes.

The ultimate goal of waste management lies in its restraint and seclusion of the human environment, for a period of time and under conditions such that any release of radionuclides does not pose unacceptable radiological risk to people or the environment. Management should ensure that all charges are minimal for future generations.

A responsible management of radioactive waste requires the implementation of measures aimed at protecting human health and the environment. The basic steps for effective manage‐ ment of radioactive waste are part of a global system, ranging from waste generation to final disposal are: minimization of radioactive waste, pretreatment, characterization, treatment, conditioning, transport, storage and disposal (IAEA, 1970; Figure 2).

A management system should to be applied in all steps of radioactive waste management, in order to ensure that activities, facilities, equipment and waste products in meeting the overall safety, health, environmental, security, quality and economic requirements, with safety and environmental protection being of primary importance (IAEA-2008, IAEA 2006a, 2006b).

Management system has to contain a description of the processes and supporting information that explain how work is to be prepared, reviewed, carried out, recorded, assessed and improved. In the design of work processes, a detailed sequence of steps in the activities for

**Figure 2.** Steps for managing radioactive wastes (IAEA, 2001).

pretreatment, treatment, conditioning and disposal wastes should be considered, such as: (i) characterization of waste at each step in the overall waste management program, (i) analytical methods such as sampling protocols for waste characterization or process control; (iii) monitoring of discharges; (iv) monitoring for clearance purposes; (v) non-destructive exami‐ nation and testing; (v) heat treatment, (vi) use of special handling tools and techniques, protective clothing or facilities for radiation protection, etc.

Identification of items should be established and documented on the basis of the importance to safety and environmental protection or waste isolation. Records shall specify: (a) the origin of the waste and the processes that generated it; (b) pretreatment of the waste; (c) clearance of the waste; (d) discharge of the waste; (e) characterization of the waste; (f) treatment of the waste; (g) design of the containers and/or packages and of equipment, structures, systems and components for the pretreatment, treatment of the waste.

Additionally, assessments must perform on work processes used in the waste management. Inspections and measurements have to being performed and the associated records main‐ tained. Consequently, controls to activities, facilities, equipment and waste products will have to be designed, considering factors such as: (a) the quantities and potential hazards (radiolog‐ ical and non-radiological, for example chemical) of the waste, and the necessary degree of isolation; (b) the dispersibility and mobility of the waste forms involved and the necessary degree of containment; (c) the interval before disposal; (d) experience with, and maturity of, the technology and the potential for future advances; (e) the reliability of equipment and its function in relation to safety and environmental protection; (f) the complexity and degree of standardization of the activities; (g) the novelty and maturity of the activities; (h) ease of operation, maintenance of equipment and eventual decommissioning of the facility, etc.

Quality assurance requirements should be established for all phases of the waste management process to ensure that each waste is correctly processed and the final waste form has the required properties. This requires quality assurance parameters to be specified. Performance data must be documented for each parameter in order to demonstrate compliance. The quality assurance program should cover the following aspects: (1) waste characterization, (2) waste management process specification, (3) processing conditions, (4) product specification and (5) storage or disposal (HSEEA 2007; IAEA 2008, IAEA 2006).

#### **2.4. Safety guide**

pretreatment, treatment, conditioning and disposal wastes should be considered, such as: (i) characterization of waste at each step in the overall waste management program, (i) analytical methods such as sampling protocols for waste characterization or process control; (iii) monitoring of discharges; (iv) monitoring for clearance purposes; (v) non-destructive exami‐ nation and testing; (v) heat treatment, (vi) use of special handling tools and techniques,

**WASTE GENERATION** 

**PRE-TREATMENT MINIMIZATION COLLECTION SEGREGATION**

> **TREATMENT VOLUME REDUCTION**

**CONDITIONING INMOBILIZATION PACKAGING**

> **STORAGE INTERIM**

**SHIPMENT**

**DISPOSAL UNDERGROUND**

**DISPOSAL NEAR SURFACE**

**short live long live**

Identification of items should be established and documented on the basis of the importance to safety and environmental protection or waste isolation. Records shall specify: (a) the origin of the waste and the processes that generated it; (b) pretreatment of the waste; (c) clearance of the waste; (d) discharge of the waste; (e) characterization of the waste; (f) treatment of the waste; (g) design of the containers and/or packages and of equipment, structures, systems and

protective clothing or facilities for radiation protection, etc.

**LANDFILL**

**Figure 2.** Steps for managing radioactive wastes (IAEA, 2001).

**STORAGE FOR DECAY**

400 Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination

**SEWER STACK**

components for the pretreatment, treatment of the waste.

Safety is a top priority in radioactive waste management, because of this, the purpose of this section is to present a brief guideline of recommended procedures for working with radioactive wastes. The safety aspects and environmental protection which need to be considered in the handling and processing of radioactive wastes are mainly associated with: flammability, toxicity, explosion and radioactivity.

Some of the most important aspects to consider regarding safety and environmental protection in the radioactive waste management are (IAEA 2008, IAEA 2006a,2006b):


are mobile in the environment, or constituents that enhance the mobility of radionuclides should avoid.

