**Author details**

Elisa Couto Gomes and Geraint Florida-James\*

\*Address all correspondence to: g.florida-james@napier.ac.uk

School of Life, Sport and Social Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, United Kingdom

#### **References**

**7. Chapter summary**

20 Lung Inflammation

The main points of this chapter are:

generated by natural processes.

monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide.

**•** Air pollution can be found both indoor and outdoor. Sources of air pollution are mainly found in urban areas linked to human activities, such as power plants, and locations where there are high concentration of vehicles and burning of fossil fuel. Some pollutants are also

**•** Air pollutants can be found in different forms and sizes and they can exist as solid particles, liquid molecules or gases. Some examples include: Ozone, particulate matter, carbon

**•** High levels of air pollutants have been shown to cause and exacerbate various pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases, as well as increase mortality. Low birth weight and baby development have also been shown to occur in areas with high levels of air pollution.

**•** The active population that exercise and compete outdoors are a susceptible group. This is the case because exercise leads to an increase in the amount and depth of air that is inhaled, which results in higher doses of air pollutants reaching deeper places in the lungs. This also

**•** Some air pollutants can trigger an oxidative stress process in the lungs which can lead to

**•** Antioxidants are sacrificial molecules that promptly react with free radicals and reactive species neutralizing them. There is a wide range of antioxidants in body fluids, tissues and

**•** CC16 is a small-sized protein which changes in concentrations can indicate lung injury and toxicity. It can be measured in the upper and lower respiratory tract, as well as in the blood.

**•** Performance could be affected when individuals exercise in an ozone polluted environment. This, however, depends on the exercise type, intensity, duration, individual susceptibility

**•** Although more studies are necessary, antioxidant supplementation might help to mitigate

School of Life, Sport and Social Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, United Kingdom

facilitates the passage of the smaller sized PM into the systemic circulation.

cell death, inflammation, injury and loss of function.

and other environmental factors, such as heat and humidity.

\*Address all correspondence to: g.florida-james@napier.ac.uk

the adverse effect of ozone pollution on health and performance.

organs, working synergistically in a network

Elisa Couto Gomes and Geraint Florida-James\*

**Author details**


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**Chapter 2**

**Macrophage Polarization in Lung Biology and Diseases**

Lung is a major site of continuous immune reactions as it encounters various foreign particles and antigens entering the respiratory system. It is the main internal organ constantly exposed to the external environment that contains an array of microbes and particulate matter. Typically an adult exchanges 4.2 liters of air per minute amounting to almost 6000 liters per day [1In fact ventilation and respiration generates an environment where both inflammatory and anti-inflammatory response takes place continuously. However, a delicate balance is maintained between eliciting an immune response followed by resolution and repression of further immune reactions. Uncontrolled responses may result in injury or collateral damage to the lung whereas a subdued immune reaction may lead to unchecked infection. Hence, an efficient inflammatory reaction followed by precisely controlled resolution and fine-tuned remodeling process has evolved to minimize the effects of such challenges. The immune system of the lung is well developed to encounter this continuous challenge and disparate demands. Both innate and adaptive immune responses contribute to the surveillance of overall immune function in the lung. The respective immunological effector cells, T-lymphocytes, mast cells, dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages are present within the lung interstitium, as

Macrophages are strategically distributed all over the body, present virtually in all tissues. They represent an important part of the immune system as tissue resident cells. Macrophages can differentiate from circulating peripheral blood mononuclear cells which migrate into tissue in the steady state or in response to inflammation. As the most plastic cell of the hemapoetic system, macrophages are classified depending on the milieu and specialization. Macrophages are of various types such as alveolar (lungs), microglia (brain), kupffer cells (hepatic), splenic, intestinal, intraocular (eyes) and bone marrow. Macrophages represent a spectrum of activated

> © 2014 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Leema George, Swapna Upadhyay, Koustav Ganguly and Tobias Stoeger

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57567

**1. Introduction**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

early as from the pseudoglandular stage of development [2].

