**4. Phytochemical properties of the crops**

#### **4.1. Bambara groundnut**

Some phytochemistry studies have been done on species from the genus *Vigna*, with most focussing on *V. unguiculata* (cowpea) and limited information available on *V. subterreanea*. Pale et al. [35] investigated the anthocyanins present in bambara groundnut through column and preparative thin-layer chromatography. Three anthocyanins (delphinidin 3-*O*-β-glucoside, petunidin 3-*O*-β-glucoside and malvidin 3-*O*-β-glucoside) were identified. Anthocyanins have many beneficial effects on health, and further investigation into the health properties associ‐ ated with BGN consumption is needed. In a study by [36], eleven species of *Vigna* were surveyed for canavanine, proanthocyanidin and flavonoid profiles. Canavanine, delphinidin

and cyanidin were absent in BGN seeds. The absence of canavanine is consistent in the species of *Vigna*. The flavonoid profiles revealed that the four BGN varieties studied accumulated four types of kaempferol glycosides. In all *Vigna* species, the prevalent flavonoid appears to be kaempferol. Kaempferol-3-*O*-glucoside-7-rhamnoside seemed to be restricted to BGN. As a polyphenol antioxidant, kaempferol imparts many health benefits and reduces the risk of many chronic illnesses such as cancer [37]. A recently published article by [38] also reveals the possible components in BGN which could have beneficial effects on health in their study on the effects of gas flaring on the African breadfruit and BGN. Valuable information on the phytochemical properties of BGN was found with high concentrations in the unpolluted samples for oxalate (0.38 ± 0.04%), saponin (0.24 ± 0.02%); vitamin E (3.18 ± 0.15 mg/100 g), vitamin C (1.17 ± 0.20 mg/100 g), vitamin A (26.05 ± 0.14 mg/100 g) and niacin (2.10 ± 0.06 mg/ 100 g). The concentrations of oxalate, saponin, alkaloid and flavonoid were increased by gas flaring, whilst the concentrations of vitamins were significantly [p < 0.05] reduced. Vitamin A which is important for maintaining good eye-sight and preventing eye diseases [39], were significantly higher [p < 0.05] in the BGN seeds as compared to the other vitamins detected. The information available on phytochemical components of BGN seeds is promising, and should be further investigated to determine and highlight their specific effects on human health, which could greatly influence the current underutilised status of this crop.

#### **4.2.** *Moringa oleifera*

The highly nutritious content of BGN and its unusually high content of the sulphurcontaining essential amino acid methionine, makes BGN an important crop to consider for

Calories (kCal) 390.0 416.0 364.0 343.0 Protein (g) 20.8 36.5 19.3 23.8 Carbohydrates (g) 61.9 30.2 60.6 59.6 Fat (g) 6.6 19.9 6.0 2.1

*M. oleifera* leaves are good source of protein, β-carotene, vitamins, A, B, C and E, riboflavin, nicotinic acid, folic acid, pyridoxine, amino acids, minerals and various phenolic compounds [29-30]. *Moringa oleifera* leaf powder (25 g daily) is said to give a child the recommended daily allowance for protein (42%), calcium (125%), magnesium (61%), potassium (41%), iron (71%), vitamin A (272%), and vitamin C (22%). Gram for gram, *M. oleifera* leaves contain seven times the vitamin C in oranges, four times the calcium in milk, four times the β-carotene in carrots,

Leaves of *M. oleifera* are rich in palmitic (16:0) and linolenic (18:3) acids whereas the seeds are predominated by oleic acid (18:1). The roots are rich in palmitic and oleic acid whereas the stems and twigs are rich in palmitic acid [34]. It is becoming popular not only among the lower socio-economic class, but in the entire society irrespective of one's socio-economic background

Some phytochemistry studies have been done on species from the genus *Vigna*, with most focussing on *V. unguiculata* (cowpea) and limited information available on *V. subterreanea*. Pale et al. [35] investigated the anthocyanins present in bambara groundnut through column and preparative thin-layer chromatography. Three anthocyanins (delphinidin 3-*O*-β-glucoside, petunidin 3-*O*-β-glucoside and malvidin 3-*O*-β-glucoside) were identified. Anthocyanins have many beneficial effects on health, and further investigation into the health properties associ‐ ated with BGN consumption is needed. In a study by [36], eleven species of *Vigna* were surveyed for canavanine, proanthocyanidin and flavonoid profiles. Canavanine, delphinidin

**Table 4.** Nutritional composition of BGN and some commonly utilised legumes1

**4. Phytochemical properties of the crops**

twice the protein in milk and three times the potassium in bananas [31-33].

**Bambara groundnut Soybean Chickpea Cowpea**

food security [4].

194 Antioxidant-Antidiabetic Agents and Human Health

1 Adapted from [4]

**3.2.** *Moringa oleifera*

and health status.

**4.1. Bambara groundnut**

Strickly speaking, phytochemicals are non-nutritive chemicals produced by plants which may have an impact on health, or on flavour, texture, smell or colour of the plants. Plants produce these chemicals to protect themselves but recent research demonstrates that they can also protect humans against diseases. The phytochemicals include the alkaloids, anthocyanins, carotenoids, coumestans, flavan-3-ols, flavonoids, hydroxycinnamic acids, isoflavones, lignans, monophenols, monoterpenes, organosulfides, phenolic acids, phytosterols and saponins. Each phytochemicals work differently. *M. oleifera* contains various phytochemicals namely, carotenoids, vitamins, minerals, amino acids, sterols, glycosides, alkaloids, flavonoids and phenolics [40, 29]. Table 5 details the phytochemicals found in *M. oleifera*. *Moringa* species are rich sources of various phytochemicals including uncommon sugar-modified glucosino‐ lates, although there are only details on quantity and profiles for *M. oleifera*, *M. peregrine* and *M. stenopetala* [34, 41-42]. The predominant glucosinolate is 4-O-(α-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy) benzylglucosinolate (glucomoringin) and depending on the tissues three mono-acetylrhamnose isomers of this glucosinolate have also been detected [41, 43]. Chlorogenic acids and flavonols have been reported in different tissues of *M. oleifera* and *M. stenopetala* but there is no information for other *Moringa* species [34, 40-41, 44-45]. The flavonoid profile was found to be quite complex and was predominated by flavonol glycosides (glucosides, rutinosides and malonylglucosides of quercetin, kaempferol and isorhamnetin). The predominant core aglycones are flavonols: quercetin > kaempferol > isorhamnetin. The leaves had the highest and most complex flavonoid contents, and no flavanoids were detected in roots or seeds. The antioxidant activity of leaves from *M. oleifera* was shown to be very high due to the high concentrations of polyphenolics [46-47]. Therefore *M. oleifera* tissues could be an important dietary source of antioxidant polyphenolics.

OMe)

OMe)

OEt)

OEt)

**Phenolics** 

OMe)

OEt)

**Phenolics** 

OH) (F13)

**Phenolics** 

OH) (F13)

OH) (F13)

(F8)

(F8)

(F8)

5-Caffeoylquinic acid (50CQA) (Chlorogenic acid) **Major flavonoids** (K = Kaempferol, Q = Quercetin) K 3-O-Rutinoside ((R3 =-GlcRha, R3' = H & R4' = OH) (F7) K 3-O-Glucoside (R3 = -Glc, R3' = H, R4' = OH) (F9) K 3-O-(6"-Malonylglucoside) (R3 = -GlcMalm R3' = H, R4' =

5-Caffeoylquinic acid (50CQA) (Chlorogenic acid) **Major flavonoids** (K = Kaempferol, Q = Quercetin) K 3-O-Rutinoside ((R3 =-GlcRha, R3' = H & R4' = OH) (F7) K 3-O-Glucoside (R3 = -Glc, R3' = H, R4' = OH) (F9) K 3-O-(6"-Malonylglucoside) (R3 = -GlcMalm R3' = H, R4' =

Q 3-O-Rutinoside (R3 = -GlcRha, R3' & R4' = OH) (F4) Q 3-O-Glucoside (R3 = -Glc, R3' & R4' = OH) (F6) Q 3-O-(6"-Malonylglucoside) (R3 = -GlcMal, R3' & R4' = OH)

5-Caffeoylquinic acid (50CQA) (Chlorogenic acid) **Major flavonoids** (K = Kaempferol, Q = Quercetin) K 3-O-Rutinoside ((R3 =-GlcRha, R3' = H & R4' = OH) (F7) K 3-O-Glucoside (R3 = -Glc, R3' = H, R4' = OH) (F9) K 3-O-(6"-Malonylglucoside) (R3 = -GlcMalm R3' = H, R4' =

Q 3-O-Rutinoside (R3 = -GlcRha, R3' & R4' = OH) (F4) Q 3-O-Glucoside (R3 = -Glc, R3' & R4' = OH) (F6) Q 3-O-(6"-Malonylglucoside) (R3 = -GlcMal, R3' & R4' = OH)

Q 3-O-Rutinoside (R3 = -GlcRha, R3' & R4' = OH) (F4) Q 3-O-Glucoside (R3 = -Glc, R3' & R4' = OH) (F6) Q 3-O-(6"-Malonylglucoside) (R3 = -GlcMal, R3' & R4' = OH)

Guevara et al. [48] isolated eight compounds from the seeds of *M. oleifera* namely, O-ethyl-4- (α-L-rhamnosyloxy)-benzyl carbamate, 4-(α-L-rhamnosyloxy-benzyle isothiocyanate, niazi‐ micin, niazirin, β-stiosterol, glycerol-1-(9-octadecanoate), 3-O-(6'-O-oleoyl-β-dglucopyranosyl)-βsitosterol and β-sitosterol-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside. 4-(α-L-rhamnosyloxybenzyle isothiocyanate, niazimicin and β-sitosterol-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside showed significant inhibitory activity against Epstein-Barr virus-early antigen (EBV-EA) and niazimi‐ cin in particular was found to have potent antitumor promoting acitivity in vivo in the twostage carcinogenesis in mouse skin. They proposed that niazimicin could be a potent chemopreventive agent in chemical carcinogenesis. Beta-sitosterol acts against some form of cancer and was found to reduce the growth of prostate and colon cancer cells. Other medical benefits of beta-sitosterol are boosting of immune defense, anti-inflammatory, normalising blood sugar, healing of ulcers and alleviating cramps.

Niaziridin and niazirin are present in leave and pods, respectively and are not detected in the bark of *M. oleifera*. Relatively higher amount of niazirin is present in leaves in comparison to the pods, while niaziridin content was about three times higher in the pods than the leaves [49]. Niaziridin rich fraction of *M. oleifera* pods enhances the bioactivity of commonly used antibi‐ otics such as rifampicin, tetracycline and ampicillin against gram positive and negative bacteria and also facilitates the absorption of drugs, vitamins and nutrients through the gastrointestinal membrane thus increasing their bio-availability [50]. Therefore, niaziridin can be used in combination therapy with drugs and nutrients resulting in reduced drug associated toxicity, reduced cost and duration of chemotherapy [49]. Hence, fruits of *M. oleifera* contain antitumor and anti-inflammatory compounds of the glycoside type (i.e. niazirin, niazimicin, niazicin A).

3-Caffeoylquinic acid (3-CQA) (Neochlorogenic acid) All tissues except the

3-Caffeoylquinic acid (3-CQA) (Neochlorogenic acid) All tissues except the

3-Caffeoylquinic acid (3-CQA) (Neochlorogenic acid) All tissues except the

O

O

OH

HO O

OH

OH

HO O

HO O

R4'

R4'

R3'

R3

R4'

R3'

R3'

R3

R3

O

roots, pods and seeds

roots, pods and seeds

roots, pods and seeds

[41]

[48]

**Phytochemical Structure Location Ref.**

S-Glucose

OH

O

O

O

OH

Polyphenolic compounds exist widely in the plant kingdom and are used in humans to modulate lipid peroxidation involved in atherogenesis, thrombosis and carinogenesis due to their antioxidant activity and anti-inflammatory action [40, 51]. Both aqueous and acetone extracts of *M. oleifera* leaves have potent antioxidant activities; however, Moyo et al. [52] reported higher values of phenols, flavonoids, flavonol and proanthocyanidins in acetone extract of *M. oleifera* leaves than the aqueous extract. Similar observation was reported by other researchers [40, 46, 53-54]. The ability of the extracts to adsorb and neutralise free radicals or decompose peroxides are attributed to the synergistic effect of phenolic compounds in the *M. oleifera*. The redox properties, presence of conjugated ring struc‐

HO <sup>O</sup>

R2O OR1 O

R2O OR1 O

K H <sup>+</sup> 3C

Phytochemical Structure Location Reference

NOSO3 - K+

3-Caffeoylquinic acid (3-CQA) (Neochlorogenic acid) All tissues except the

H3C R3O

R3O

All tissues except the roots, pods and seeds

roots, pods and seeds

Leaves and pods Roasted seeds

All tissues except the

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57338

roots

S-Glucose

S-Glucose

R4'

R3'

R3

NOSO3 - K+

Nutritional, Therapeutic, and Prophylactic Properties of *Vigna subterranea* and *Moringa oleifera*

NOSO3 -

X

Roots

[41]

[41]

[48]

197

Niazirinin (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CN Niazimin A/B (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CH2-

Niazinin A/B (R1 = R2 = R3 = H, X = CH2-NH-

Niazicin A/B (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CH2-NH-

Niazimicin (R1 = R2 = R3 = H, X = CH2-NH-

Niaziminin A/B (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CH2-

3-Caffeoylquinic acid (3-CQA) (Neochlorogenic

5-Caffeoylquinic acid (50CQA) (Chlorogenic

K 3-O-Rutinoside ((R3 =-GlcRha, R3' = H & R4' =

K 3-O-Glucoside (R3 = -Glc, R3' = H, R4' = OH)

K 3-O-(6"-Malonylglucoside) (R3 = -GlcMalm

Q 3-O-Rutinoside (R3 = -GlcRha, R3' & R4' =

Q 3-O-Glucoside (R3 = -Glc, R3' & R4' = OH) (F6) Q 3-O-(6"-Malonylglucoside) (R3 = -GlcMal, R3'

**Table 5.** Phytochemicals found in *M. oleifera1*

Major flavonoids (K = Kaempferol, Q =

NH-CO-OEt)

**Table 5** Phytochemicals found in *M. oleifera<sup>1</sup>*

Benzylglucosinolate (Glucotropaeolin)

**Glucosinolates** 

(C=S)-OMe)

 4-O-(-L-Rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzylglucosinolate (Glucomoringin) (G2) (R1, R2, R3 = H)

benzylglucosinolate (G3-G5) (R1 & R2 = H, R3 = Ac; R1

4-O-(-L-Rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzylisothiocyanate (R1 =

Niazimin A/B (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CH2-NH-CO-OEt) Niazinin A/B (R1 = R2 = R3 = H, X = CH2-NH-(C=S)-OMe) Niazicin A/B (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CH2-NH-(C=S)-

Niazimicin (R1 = R2 = R3 = H, X = CH2-NH-(C=S)-OEt) Niaziminin A/B (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CH2-NH-(C=S)-

**4-Hydroxybenzylglucosinolate (Sinalbin)** 

4-O-(-L-Acetyl-rhamnopyranosyloxy)-

(C=S)-OMe)

(C=S)-OEt)

**Hydrolysis Products & Related Derivatives** 

& R3 = H, R2 = Ac; R1 = Ac; R2 & R3 = H)

acid)

R2 = R3 = H, X = N = C = S) Niazirin (R1 = R2 = R3 = H, X = CN) Niazirinin (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CN

OMe)

OEt)

**Phenolics** 

OH) (F13)

(F8)

acid)

Quercetin)

OH) (F7)

OH) (F4)

(F9)

5-Caffeoylquinic acid (50CQA) (Chlorogenic acid) **Major flavonoids** (K = Kaempferol, Q = Quercetin) K 3-O-Rutinoside ((R3 =-GlcRha, R3' = H & R4' = OH) (F7) K 3-O-Glucoside (R3 = -Glc, R3' = H, R4' = OH) (F9) K 3-O-(6"-Malonylglucoside) (R3 = -GlcMalm R3' = H, R4' =

Q 3-O-Rutinoside (R3 = -GlcRha, R3' & R4' = OH) (F4) Q 3-O-Glucoside (R3 = -Glc, R3' & R4' = OH) (F6) Q 3-O-(6"-Malonylglucoside) (R3 = -GlcMal, R3' & R4' = OH)

> & R4' = OH) (F8) 1Source: [34]

R3' = H, R4' = OH) (F13)

NH-(C=S)-OEt) **Phenolics**

[41]

[41]


**Table 5.** Phytochemicals found in *M. oleifera1*

Guevara et al. [48] isolated eight compounds from the seeds of *M. oleifera* namely, O-ethyl-4- (α-L-rhamnosyloxy)-benzyl carbamate, 4-(α-L-rhamnosyloxy-benzyle isothiocyanate, niazi‐ micin, niazirin, β-stiosterol, glycerol-1-(9-octadecanoate), 3-O-(6'-O-oleoyl-β-dglucopyranosyl)-βsitosterol and β-sitosterol-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside. 4-(α-L-rhamnosyloxybenzyle isothiocyanate, niazimicin and β-sitosterol-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside showed significant inhibitory activity against Epstein-Barr virus-early antigen (EBV-EA) and niazimi‐ cin in particular was found to have potent antitumor promoting acitivity in vivo in the twostage carcinogenesis in mouse skin. They proposed that niazimicin could be a potent chemopreventive agent in chemical carcinogenesis. Beta-sitosterol acts against some form of cancer and was found to reduce the growth of prostate and colon cancer cells. Other medical benefits of beta-sitosterol are boosting of immune defense, anti-inflammatory, normalising blood

Niaziridin and niazirin are present in leave and pods, respectively and are not detected in the bark of *M. oleifera*. Relatively higher amount of niazirin is present in leaves in comparison to the pods, while niaziridin content was about three times higher in the pods than the leaves [49]. Niaziridin rich fraction of *M. oleifera* pods enhances the bioactivity of commonly used antibi‐ otics such as rifampicin, tetracycline and ampicillin against gram positive and negative bacteria and also facilitates the absorption of drugs, vitamins and nutrients through the gastrointestinal membrane thus increasing their bio-availability [50]. Therefore, niaziridin can be used in combination therapy with drugs and nutrients resulting in reduced drug associated toxicity, reduced cost and duration of chemotherapy [49]. Hence, fruits of *M. oleifera* contain antitumor and anti-inflammatory compounds of the glycoside type (i.e. niazirin, niazimicin,

**Phytochemical Structure Location Ref.**

NOSO3 - K+

NOSO3 - K+

S-Glucose

Phytochemical Structure Location Reference

S-Glucose

NOSO3 - K+

S-Glucose

OH

O

K H <sup>+</sup> 3C

OH

OH

O

O

R2O OR1 O

O

O

R2O OR1 O

O

O

O

OH

HO O

OH

OH

HO O

HO O

R2O OR1 O

R2O OR1 O

R2O OR1 O

R2O OR1 O

K H <sup>+</sup> 3C

K H <sup>+</sup> 3C

All tissues except the

All tissues except the

All tissues except the

Leaves and pods Roasted seeds

Leaves and pods Roasted seeds

Leaves and pods Roasted seeds

roots, pods and seeds

roots, pods and seeds

roots, pods and seeds

[48]

[48]

[48]

[41]

[48]

[41]

[41]

roots

roots

roots

Roots

S-Glucose

S-Glucose

S-Glucose

S-Glucose

S-Glucose

NOSO3 - K+

S-Glucose

NOSO3 -

R4'

R4'

R3'

R3

R4'

R3'

R3'

R3

R3

O

NOSO3 - K+

NOSO3 - K+

NOSO3 -

NOSO3 -

X

X

X

Roots

All tissues except the

roots

Roots

Roots

Leaves and pods Roasted seeds

Phytochemical Structure Location Reference

Phytochemical Structure Location Reference

3-Caffeoylquinic acid (3-CQA) (Neochlorogenic acid) All tissues except the

3-Caffeoylquinic acid (3-CQA) (Neochlorogenic acid) All tissues except the

3-Caffeoylquinic acid (3-CQA) (Neochlorogenic acid) All tissues except the

H3C R3O

H3C R3O

H3C R3O

R3O

R3O

R3O

sugar, healing of ulcers and alleviating cramps.

196 Antioxidant-Antidiabetic Agents and Human Health

niazicin A).

**Glucosinolates**

**Table 5** Phytochemicals found in *M. oleifera<sup>1</sup>*

Benzylglucosinolate (Glucotropaeolin)

**Table 5** Phytochemicals found in *M. oleifera<sup>1</sup>*

**Table 5** Phytochemicals found in *M. oleifera<sup>1</sup>*

Benzylglucosinolate (Glucotropaeolin)

Benzylglucosinolate (Glucotropaeolin)

**4-Hydroxybenzylglucosinolate (Sinalbin)** 

**4-Hydroxybenzylglucosinolate (Sinalbin)** 

4-O-(-L-Acetyl-rhamnopyranosyloxy)-

4-O-(-L-Acetyl-rhamnopyranosyloxy)-

R2, R3 = H)

R2 = R3 = H, X = N = C = S) Niazirin (R1 = R2 = R3 = H, X = CN) Niazirinin (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CN

R2 = R3 = H, X = N = C = S) Niazirin (R1 = R2 = R3 = H, X = CN) Niazirinin (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CN

C = S)

R2 = R3 = H, X = N = C = S) Niazirin (R1 = R2 = R3 = H, X = CN) Niazirinin (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CN

OMe)

OMe)

OEt)

OEt)

**Phenolics** 

OMe)

OEt)

**Phenolics** 

OH) (F13)

**Phenolics** 

OH) (F13)

OH) (F13)

(F8)

(F8)

(F8)

& R3 = H, R2 = Ac; R1 = Ac; R2 & R3 = H)

4-O-(-L-Acetyl-rhamnopyranosyloxy)-

& R3 = H, R2 = Ac; R1 = Ac; R2 & R3 = H)

**Hydrolysis Products & Related Derivatives** 

**Hydrolysis Products & Related Derivatives** 

 4-O-(-L-Rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzylglucosinolate (Glucomoringin) (G2) (R1, R2, R3 = H)

**4-Hydroxybenzylglucosinolate (Sinalbin)** 

 4-O-(-L-Rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzylglucosinolate (Glucomoringin) (G2) (R1, R2, R3 = H)

benzylglucosinolate (G3-G5) (R1 & R2 = H, R3 = Ac; R1

 4-O-(-L-Rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzylglucosinolate (Glucomoringin) (G2) (R1, R2, R3 = H)

benzylglucosinolate (G3-G5) (R1 & R2 = H, R3 = Ac; R1

4-O-(α-L-Acetyl-rhamnopyranosyloxy) benzylglucosinolate (G3-G5) (R1 & R2 = H, R3 = Ac; R1 & R3 = H, R2 = Ac; R1 = Ac; R2 & R3 = H)

4-O-(-L-Rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzylisothiocyanate (R1 =

Niazimin A/B (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CH2-NH-CO-OEt) Niazinin A/B (R1 = R2 = R3 = H, X = CH2-NH-(C=S)-OMe) Niazicin A/B (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CH2-NH-(C=S)-

benzylglucosinolate (G3-G5) (R1 & R2 = H, R3 = Ac; R1

4-O-(α-L-Rhamnopyranosyloxy)-

4-O-(-L-Rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzylisothiocyanate (R1 =

& R3 = H, R2 = Ac; R1 = Ac; R2 & R3 = H)

**Hydrolysis Products & Related Derivatives** 

4-O-(-L-Rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzylisothiocyanate (R1 =

Niazimin A/B (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CH2-NH-CO-OEt) Niazinin A/B (R1 = R2 = R3 = H, X = CH2-NH-(C=S)-OMe) Niazicin A/B (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CH2-NH-(C=S)-

4-O-(α-L-Rhamnopyranosyloxy)-

Niazirin (R1 = R2 = R3 = H, X = CN)

Niazimicin (R1 = R2 = R3 = H, X = CH2-NH-(C=S)-OEt) Niaziminin A/B (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CH2-NH-(C=S)-

Niazimin A/B (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CH2-NH-CO-OEt) Niazinin A/B (R1 = R2 = R3 = H, X = CH2-NH-(C=S)-OMe) Niazicin A/B (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CH2-NH-(C=S)-

Niazimicin (R1 = R2 = R3 = H, X = CH2-NH-(C=S)-OEt) Niaziminin A/B (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CH2-NH-(C=S)-

Niazimicin (R1 = R2 = R3 = H, X = CH2-NH-(C=S)-OEt) Niaziminin A/B (R1 = R2 = H, R3 = Ac, X = CH2-NH-(C=S)-

5-Caffeoylquinic acid (50CQA) (Chlorogenic acid) **Major flavonoids** (K = Kaempferol, Q = Quercetin) K 3-O-Rutinoside ((R3 =-GlcRha, R3' = H & R4' = OH) (F7) K 3-O-Glucoside (R3 = -Glc, R3' = H, R4' = OH) (F9) K 3-O-(6"-Malonylglucoside) (R3 = -GlcMalm R3' = H, R4' =

5-Caffeoylquinic acid (50CQA) (Chlorogenic acid) **Major flavonoids** (K = Kaempferol, Q = Quercetin) K 3-O-Rutinoside ((R3 =-GlcRha, R3' = H & R4' = OH) (F7) K 3-O-Glucoside (R3 = -Glc, R3' = H, R4' = OH) (F9) K 3-O-(6"-Malonylglucoside) (R3 = -GlcMalm R3' = H, R4' =

Q 3-O-Rutinoside (R3 = -GlcRha, R3' & R4' = OH) (F4) Q 3-O-Glucoside (R3 = -Glc, R3' & R4' = OH) (F6) Q 3-O-(6"-Malonylglucoside) (R3 = -GlcMal, R3' & R4' = OH)

5-Caffeoylquinic acid (50CQA) (Chlorogenic acid) **Major flavonoids** (K = Kaempferol, Q = Quercetin) K 3-O-Rutinoside ((R3 =-GlcRha, R3' = H & R4' = OH) (F7) K 3-O-Glucoside (R3 = -Glc, R3' = H, R4' = OH) (F9) K 3-O-(6"-Malonylglucoside) (R3 = -GlcMalm R3' = H, R4' =

Q 3-O-Rutinoside (R3 = -GlcRha, R3' & R4' = OH) (F4) Q 3-O-Glucoside (R3 = -Glc, R3' & R4' = OH) (F6) Q 3-O-(6"-Malonylglucoside) (R3 = -GlcMal, R3' & R4' = OH)

Q 3-O-Rutinoside (R3 = -GlcRha, R3' & R4' = OH) (F4) Q 3-O-Glucoside (R3 = -Glc, R3' & R4' = OH) (F6) Q 3-O-(6"-Malonylglucoside) (R3 = -GlcMal, R3' & R4' = OH)

**Glucosinolates** 

**Glucosinolates** 

**Glucosinolates** 

Benzylglucosinolate (Glucotropaeolin)

**4-Hydroxybenzylglucosinolate (Sinalbin)**

benzylglucosinolate (Glucomoringin) (G2) (R1,

**Hydrolysis Products & Related Derivatives**

benzylisothiocyanate (R1 = R2 = R3 = H, X = N =

Polyphenolic compounds exist widely in the plant kingdom and are used in humans to modulate lipid peroxidation involved in atherogenesis, thrombosis and carinogenesis due to their antioxidant activity and anti-inflammatory action [40, 51]. Both aqueous and acetone extracts of *M. oleifera* leaves have potent antioxidant activities; however, Moyo et al. [52] reported higher values of phenols, flavonoids, flavonol and proanthocyanidins in acetone extract of *M. oleifera* leaves than the aqueous extract. Similar observation was reported by other researchers [40, 46, 53-54]. The ability of the extracts to adsorb and neutralise free radicals or decompose peroxides are attributed to the synergistic effect of phenolic compounds in the *M. oleifera*. The redox properties, presence of conjugated ring struc‐

tures and carboxylic group which can inhibit lipid peroxidation are responsible for its ability as free radical scavengers [55].

**5. Therapeutic and prophylactic properties of the crops**

into ways of encouraging more sustained production and use of BGN.

Besides the rich nutritional value of *M. oleifera* it has curative and prophylactic properties [24]. Almost all the parts (root, bark, gum, leaf, pods, flowers, seed and seed oil) of M. oleifera have been used for various ailments including the treatment of inflammation and infectious diseases along with cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, haematological, hepatorenal disorders, diabetes mellitus, CNS depressant, and for antifertility effect [40]. The plant has been used for the treatment of ascites, rheumatism and for the enhancement of cardiac function. The seed extract have been reported to be administered nasally in diseases like rhinitis and the dried seeds used successfully as an 'anti-allergic' agent by the Ayurvedic practitioners [60]. Mahajan [61] reported an antiarthritic activity of ethanolic extract of seeds of *M. oleifera* against chemical induced rheumatoid arthritis as well as an antiasthmatic activity against immune-mediated inflammatory responses in rat [62]. *M. oleifera* seed extract can act against CCl4-induced liver injury and fibrosis in rats by a mechanism related to its

The medicinal role of BGN is mainly based on information obtained from communities in several parts of Africa, where this crop is reportedly responsible and useful for treatment of various ailments. As a treatment for diarrhoea, a mixture of BGN and water from boiled maize are consumed. Raw BGN seeds are chewed and swallowed by pregnant women to alleviate the nausea associated with pregnancy [7]. The medicinal value of the crop have also been highlighted and reviewed by [59]. The following uses of BGN as traditional medicine have been noted by the authors (i) In several countries in sub-Saharan Africa, BGN plays an important role in the diets of especially young rural children as it helps in overcoming the protein deficiency Kwashiorkor; (ii) The Igbos tribe in Nigeria use the seeds for treatment of venereal diseases; (iii) To treat polymenorrhea it is recommended that BGN seeds be roasted before consumption; (iv) The water in which BGN seeds are boiled is used as treatment for internal bruising, and a mixture of water and crushed seeds are prescri‐ bed for treatment of cataracts; (v) BGN seeds have the highest concentration of soluble fibre as compared to other beans; this could contribute to the reduction of heart disease incidence and prevention of colon cancer; (vi) Surveys amongst local communities in northern Côte d'Ivoire revealed that the BGN seeds are mainly used for medical treatments as opposed to other parts of the plant. The seeds are used to treat anemia, ulcers (black BGN variety mixed with an unidentified plant) and menorrhagia during pregnancy (hemostatic drink prepared by a mixture of BGN flour and *Pupalia lappacea* (L.) Amaranthaceae dissolved in water). The traditional uses of BGN to treat several ailments are noteworthy, and present a gap for detailed study on the pharmaceutical value of the crop. This would provide yet another means of highlighting the potential of BGN as an underutilised legume and tap

Nutritional, Therapeutic, and Prophylactic Properties of *Vigna subterranea* and *Moringa oleifera*

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57338

199

**5.1. Bambara groundnut**

**5.2.** *Moringa oleifera*

The aqueous extract of leaf (LE), fruit (FE) and seed (SE) of *M. oleifera* could significantly inhibit the OH-dependent damage of pUC18 plasmid DNA with an activity sequence of LE > FE > SE. Gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, ellagic acid, ferulic acid, kaempferol, querce‐ tin and vanillin were present in the extracts. The leaf extract was comparatively higher in total phenolics [105.04 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE/g)], total flavonoids [31.28 mg quercetin equivalents (QE/g)] and ascorbic acid (106.95 mg/100 g) with better antioxidant activity (85.8%), anti-radical power (74.3), reducing power [1.1 ascorbic acid equivalents (ASE/ml)], inhibition of lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, OH-induced deoxyribose degradation and scavenging power of superoxide anion and nitric oxide radicals than did the FE, SE and standard α-tocopherol [56]. Many gram negative bacteria such as *Erwinia carotovora*, *Enterobacter agglomerans*, *Chromobacterium violaceum* and *Pseudomonas aeruginosa* use N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs) signal molecules to monitor their own popula‐ tion density. At a threshold population density, AHLs interact with cellular receptors and trigger the expression of a set of target genes including virulence, antibiotic production, biofilm formation, bioluminescence, mobility and warming, in a process called "quorum sensing" (QS) [57]. The discovery of the QS system and its critical role in bacteria viru‐ lence and survival has revealed a novel way to attack and attenuate bacterial pathogenici‐ ty. The major advantage of this novel strategy for anti-infective therapy is that it circumvents the problem of antibiotic resistance, which is intimately connected to the use of convention‐ al antibacterial agents, as it specifically interferes with the expression of pathogenic traits rather than to impede growth of the bacteria. The efficacy and toxicity of previous reported QS blockers (halogenated furanones) have been important concerns. Hence, attention has been focused on identification of such QS blockers from natural and non-toxic sources for the development of novel non-antibiotic drugs for treating bacterial diseases in humans as well as in other animals. Singh et al. [56] reported that the leaf and the fruit extracts of *M. oleifera* inhibited violacein production, a QS-regulated behaviour in *Chromobacterium violaceum* 12472. This provides evidence on *M. oleifera* as natural antioxidant for its capacity to protect organism and cell from oxidative DNA associated with aging, cancer and denegerative diseases as well as inhibit lipid peroxidation and bacterial QS. Thus, *M. oleifera* may serve as an ideal ingredient for functional food, nutraceutical and bio-pharmaceuti‐ cal industries.

The seeds of *Moringa oleifera* contain 4 (α-L-Rhamnosyloxy) benzyl isothiocyanate and benzyl isothiocyanate. These are antimicrobial agents effective against several bacteria and fungi. The minimal bactericidal concentration in vitro is 40 μmol/l for *Mycobacterium phlei* and 56 μmol/l for *Bacillus subtilis* [58]. Singh et al. [10] identified ten phenolic compounds (gallic acid, pcoumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, protocatechuric acid, cinnamic acid, catechin, epica‐ techin, vanillin and quercetin) from defatted *M. oleifera* seed flour. These natural plant phenolics could be a good source of antioxidants and antimicrobials for food and pharma‐ ceutical industries.
