**5. Conclusions**

**4.4. Accumulated cadmium, lead, silver and uranium ions may compete with essential**

them sticky, ready for clot. Sticky platelets may associate to proteins and form placks.

The food intake is not known for individual patients. In Finland cadmium uptake from food is about 5-10 µg/day, lead 20-66 µg /day, uranium and, silver was not mentioned [41]. In Sweden is reported cadmium uptake from wheat, rice, potatoes, root-crops 10-20 µg /day, lead 15-30 µg /day, uranium 1-4 µg /day, silver not indicated [42]. Cd uptake from nutrition may disturb the heme synthesis. Cadmium rich diet in Nigeria decreased Hb and erythrocyte counts in mice [43]. It cannot be excluded that cadmium, lead, silver, uranium contaminated food may accumulate in human erythrocytes and in similar manner decrease erythrocyte counts and hemoglobin synthesis. Smoker may have higher cadmium values in blood but there was no information about smoking habits. Elevated uranium in drinking water may damage the

In Finland some districts have drinking water with high uranium concentrations (> 100 µg/L) which together with cadmium, lead and silver may increase kidney damage and disturb erythrocyte metabolism. Uranium in the drinking water may explain the significant elevated

Implants may be a source of metal ion supply. Amalgam is an alloy which is not stable [2, 3, 46, 47, 48] (release mercury, silver). Guttapercha may sometime contain cadmium [2] but the released amount is not known for the examined patients. Mercury was not analyzed as mercury will associate strong to liver, kidney also to pituary, low mercury will be found in blood. Mercury has also capacity to displace secondary messenger e.g. Mg, Ca, Zn, Fe when

**4.6. Elemental profiles of erythrocytes as biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease by ICP-MS**

The early diagnosis of a neurological disease like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease is difficult. In Parkinson's disease about 25 % of the patients may get wrong diagnosis [49]. The present study indicate that the elemental profile of erythrocytes may be used as a support in the diagnosis and pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease. Changes in the elemental profile should be possible to identify earlier due to high sensitivity of ICP-MS. Monitoring elements in the erythrocytes may also be used to observe effects of applied pharmacy and effects on

**4.5. Sources of cadmium, lead, silver and uranium — Food and implants**

kidneys and increase protein loss in urine [44, 45].

not properly associated.

uranium concentrations of erythrocytes of Alzheimer patients.

Cadmium is known to compete with zinc in e.g. metallothionein (MT), carrier of zinc. Metal ions having higher affinity than zinc may interact with the binding sites in MT or other carrier. Lead and uranium ions is known to compete with calcium metabolism. Magnesium and calcium ions in calmodulin (calcium carrier) may be displaced by accumulated lead, cadmium, silver, uranium ions and release essential elements e.g. Mg, Ca, Zn. Release of secondary messenger e.g. Mg may disturb ATP metabolism, Ca may activate translocases flippases, floppases, scramblases and start apoptosis signals. Ca may also activate platelets and make

**elements in carrier systems**

410 Pharmacology and Nutritional Intervention in the Treatment of Disease

Monitoring changes of elements in the erythrocytes by ICP-MS may be used as an early biomarker of Alzheimer's disease and may support the pharmaceutical treatment. The accumulated lead, cadmium, silver and uranium may interfere with channel activities, have effects on apoptosis, react with secondary messenger and support pathophysiological processes.
