**4. Conservation and management**

Conservation biology is an integrated, multidisciplinary scientific field that has developed in response to the challenge of preserving species and ecosystems. Valued ecosystem components in the Arabian Gulf are facing several challenges due to habitat destruction, fragmentation, degradation and pollution. These are reflected in the decline in regional coral reefs due to natural and anthropogenic stressors, the loss of prime mudflats and mangroves swamps and seagrass beds due to intensive dredging and reclamation activities and anthropogenic effluents. Therefore, effective conservation and management of marine ecosystems in the Arabian Gulf is becoming an urgent need in order to protect and sustain these vulnerable ecosystems. Additionally, effectively managed ecosystems provide a range of essential environmental services that contribute to economic, social and cultural aspirations in the Arabian Gulf (Al-Cibahy et al., 2012). This section therefore suggests conservation approaches and management strategies that might contribute to the protection of the fragile marine ecosystems in the Arabian Gulf, including marine protected areas, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), environmental regulations, ecological restoration, and environmental monitoring and scientific research.

susceptible to anthropogenic threats due to coastal developments and pollution from a variety of land-based sources. Further, this area provides economic, touristic, cultural and educational

The archipelago of Hawar Islands, which is located in the Gulf of Bahrain, is characterized by varied coastal habitats, including muddy, sandy, and rocky shores as well as saline wetlands known locally as 'sabkha'. These islands are surrounded by shallow waters, which promote the growth of extensive seagrass beds and algal mats. These habitats support large populations of dugongs, green turtles and dolphins (Preen, 2004). Additionally, Hawar Islands provide undisturbed habitats for a variety of avian fauna. These islands host the largest breeding colonies of the endemic Socotra Cormorant (*Phalacrocorax nigrogularis*) in the world, with a winter population of 200,000 individuals (King, 1999). Due to the remarkable diversity in habitats and their associated fauna and flora, Hawar Islands were declared nationally as a wildlife sanctuary in 1996, and internationally as a Ramser site (convention on wetlands of

Designation and implementation of MPAs are arguably critical for the protection of naturally stressed coastal and marine ecosystems in the Arabian Gulf. Toward this, about 38 officially

Lavieren et al., 2011). However, number and coverage of MPAs may not provide an indication of the effectiveness of these MPAs in achieving their conservation goals (Chape et al., 2005). Van Lavieren and Klaus, (2013) evaluated the management effectiveness of MPAs in the Arabian Gulf and revealed variable levels of performance. Several weaknesses in the MPAs in the Arabian Gulf were identified, notably the limitation in regulation enforcement, the lack of management plans, and the weak communication with local stakeholders, traditional com‐

Local communities are recognized as the key focus for the success of conservation initiatives (Kideghesho et al., 2007). Public understanding, support and participation are important for the success of marine protected areas as a conservation management tool (Jameson et al., 2002). This could be promoted through reviving the concept of 'Hima' in the Arabian Gulf. Hima is considered a community based environmental resource management system that could help in building understanding and acceptance of protected areas and promoting the need to conserve and use marine resources wisely (Knight et al., 2011; Van Lavieren et al., 2011).

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a systematic process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the environmental consequences of a proposed project on the biological and physical environments. EIA aims at integrating environmental considerations in the decision-making system, minimizing or avoiding adverse impacts, protecting natural systems and their ecological processes, and implementing principles of sustainable develop‐

EIA is considered a standard tool for decision-making in most countries throughout the world. It ensures that authorities are provided with necessary knowledge relating to any likely

munities, and local marine resource users (Van Lavieren and Klaus, 2013).

have been established in the Arabian Gulf (Van

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benefits to the local people in the Arabian Gulf.

international importance) in 1997.

designated MPAs covering around 18,180 km2

**4.2. Environmental Impact Assessment**

ment (Glasson et al., 2005).

#### **4.1. Marine protected areas**

A marine protected area (MPA) is defined by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as "any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment" (Dudley, 2008).

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are globally recognized as the most important tool for in situ conservation (Chape et al., 2005). MPAs contribute significantly to both preservation and conservation of genetic characteristics, species, habitats and cultural diversity in coastal and marine environments. They can help in preventing or reducing the ongoing declines in marine biodiversity, habitats and fisheries productivity. MPAs can also improve ecosystem functions and services through maintaining ecological structure and processes that support economic and social uses of marine resources (Agardy, 1994). Additionally, MPAs can contribute towards climate change adaptation by protecting ecosystem resilience and protecting essential ecosystem services (McLeod et al., 2009).

Various relevant international conventions including Convention on Biological Diversity, Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention), and World Heritage Convention serve to advance the number and coverage of MPAs worldwide (Green et al., 2011). Similarly, regional conventions may promote the conservation benefits of marine protected areas in the Arabian Gulf. For instance, the Convention on the Conservation of Wildlife and their Natural Habitats in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates) provides the basis for integrating protected areas into national and regional environmental strategies and polices (GCC, 2010). This convention aims to effectively conserve ecosystems and wildlife habitats. It is also concerned with the protection of threatened species on a regional levels, especially when the distribution of these species exceed the international borders of two or more neighboring countries or when these species migrate across the boundaries of the member states.

The coastal and marine areas extended from Gulf of Bahrain to the United Arab Emirates have been identified as a potential transboundary marine protected area (Knight et al., 2011). These areas are shared by four countries (Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, and United Arab Emirates) and characterized by high levels of species and habitat diversity.

Higher priority of conservation is typically given for areas that characterized by distinctive‐ ness, endangerment, and utility features (Primack, 2010). These characteristics are reflected on the proposed transboundary marine protected area. This area supports distinctive species, population and habitats, including vulnerable mega-fauna such as dugongs, turtles and dolphins, and ecological complex of seagrass beds, coral reefs and fisheries. However, it is susceptible to anthropogenic threats due to coastal developments and pollution from a variety of land-based sources. Further, this area provides economic, touristic, cultural and educational benefits to the local people in the Arabian Gulf.

The archipelago of Hawar Islands, which is located in the Gulf of Bahrain, is characterized by varied coastal habitats, including muddy, sandy, and rocky shores as well as saline wetlands known locally as 'sabkha'. These islands are surrounded by shallow waters, which promote the growth of extensive seagrass beds and algal mats. These habitats support large populations of dugongs, green turtles and dolphins (Preen, 2004). Additionally, Hawar Islands provide undisturbed habitats for a variety of avian fauna. These islands host the largest breeding colonies of the endemic Socotra Cormorant (*Phalacrocorax nigrogularis*) in the world, with a winter population of 200,000 individuals (King, 1999). Due to the remarkable diversity in habitats and their associated fauna and flora, Hawar Islands were declared nationally as a wildlife sanctuary in 1996, and internationally as a Ramser site (convention on wetlands of international importance) in 1997.

Designation and implementation of MPAs are arguably critical for the protection of naturally stressed coastal and marine ecosystems in the Arabian Gulf. Toward this, about 38 officially designated MPAs covering around 18,180 km2 have been established in the Arabian Gulf (Van Lavieren et al., 2011). However, number and coverage of MPAs may not provide an indication of the effectiveness of these MPAs in achieving their conservation goals (Chape et al., 2005).

Van Lavieren and Klaus, (2013) evaluated the management effectiveness of MPAs in the Arabian Gulf and revealed variable levels of performance. Several weaknesses in the MPAs in the Arabian Gulf were identified, notably the limitation in regulation enforcement, the lack of management plans, and the weak communication with local stakeholders, traditional com‐ munities, and local marine resource users (Van Lavieren and Klaus, 2013).

Local communities are recognized as the key focus for the success of conservation initiatives (Kideghesho et al., 2007). Public understanding, support and participation are important for the success of marine protected areas as a conservation management tool (Jameson et al., 2002). This could be promoted through reviving the concept of 'Hima' in the Arabian Gulf. Hima is considered a community based environmental resource management system that could help in building understanding and acceptance of protected areas and promoting the need to conserve and use marine resources wisely (Knight et al., 2011; Van Lavieren et al., 2011).

#### **4.2. Environmental Impact Assessment**

Arabian Gulf (Al-Cibahy et al., 2012). This section therefore suggests conservation approaches and management strategies that might contribute to the protection of the fragile marine ecosystems in the Arabian Gulf, including marine protected areas, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), environmental regulations, ecological restoration, and environmental

A marine protected area (MPA) is defined by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as "any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment" (Dudley, 2008).

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are globally recognized as the most important tool for in situ conservation (Chape et al., 2005). MPAs contribute significantly to both preservation and conservation of genetic characteristics, species, habitats and cultural diversity in coastal and marine environments. They can help in preventing or reducing the ongoing declines in marine biodiversity, habitats and fisheries productivity. MPAs can also improve ecosystem functions and services through maintaining ecological structure and processes that support economic and social uses of marine resources (Agardy, 1994). Additionally, MPAs can contribute towards climate change adaptation by protecting ecosystem resilience and protecting essential

Various relevant international conventions including Convention on Biological Diversity, Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention), and World Heritage Convention serve to advance the number and coverage of MPAs worldwide (Green et al., 2011). Similarly, regional conventions may promote the conservation benefits of marine protected areas in the Arabian Gulf. For instance, the Convention on the Conservation of Wildlife and their Natural Habitats in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates) provides the basis for integrating protected areas into national and regional environmental strategies and polices (GCC, 2010). This convention aims to effectively conserve ecosystems and wildlife habitats. It is also concerned with the protection of threatened species on a regional levels, especially when the distribution of these species exceed the international borders of two or more neighboring

countries or when these species migrate across the boundaries of the member states.

and characterized by high levels of species and habitat diversity.

The coastal and marine areas extended from Gulf of Bahrain to the United Arab Emirates have been identified as a potential transboundary marine protected area (Knight et al., 2011). These areas are shared by four countries (Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, and United Arab Emirates)

Higher priority of conservation is typically given for areas that characterized by distinctive‐ ness, endangerment, and utility features (Primack, 2010). These characteristics are reflected on the proposed transboundary marine protected area. This area supports distinctive species, population and habitats, including vulnerable mega-fauna such as dugongs, turtles and dolphins, and ecological complex of seagrass beds, coral reefs and fisheries. However, it is

monitoring and scientific research.

310 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

ecosystem services (McLeod et al., 2009).

**4.1. Marine protected areas**

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a systematic process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the environmental consequences of a proposed project on the biological and physical environments. EIA aims at integrating environmental considerations in the decision-making system, minimizing or avoiding adverse impacts, protecting natural systems and their ecological processes, and implementing principles of sustainable develop‐ ment (Glasson et al., 2005).

EIA is considered a standard tool for decision-making in most countries throughout the world. It ensures that authorities are provided with necessary knowledge relating to any likely significant effects of a proposed project on the environment prior to the decision-making process. The integration of environmental considerations may result in a rational and struc‐ tured decision-making process that maintains a balance of interest between the development action and the environment (Glasson et al., 2005). EIA minimizes or avoids the adverse effects of a proposed development on the environment by addressing effective designs, alternatives, mitigations, cumulative impacts, and monitoring (Cooper and Sheate, 2002).

allocated sites of their projects were already impacted or degraded due to surrounding existing and ongoing projects (Naser, 2012b). Therefore, maintaining sustainable use of coastal and marine natural resources in the Arabian Gulf requires measures to holistically address the interactions among the several reclamation and dredging activities and their additive and

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Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), a tool to integrate environmental considerations into decision-making, may contribute toward achieving environmentally sound and sustain‐ able development. SEA is defined as the process of evaluating the environmental consequences of proposed policies, plans and programmes, and addressing them into higher-level decisionmaking systems (Lamorgese and Geneletti, 2013). SEA has emerged as an important element in environmental decision-making process in developed countries, including Europe and North America. However, SEA is still relatively new or need to be introduced in the Arabian

The need for a more strategic approach to environmental assessment in the Arabian Gulf can be illustrated by reference to coastal developments that associated with dredging and recla‐ mation. The project-level EIA has been criticized for failing to ensure adequate considerations for potentially severe indirect, cumulative and synergistic environmental impacts on coastal

Several reclamation and dredging activities are increasingly taking place within a relatively small geographical range on coastlines of the Arabian Gulf countries, which could have several cumulative consequences on the coastal and marine environments. SEA has the potential to promote sustainable development in coastal and marine environments through identifying cumulative impacts of exiting or planned projects, investigating feasible alternatives to coastal developments, and implementing effectively mitigation and compensation measures (Duisk

SEA also has the advantages of integrating the coastal concerns into planning policies, facilitating consultation between various organizations as well as the public. Additionally, SEA can identify social, economic, and environmental issues associated with coastal develop‐ ment in the Arabian Gulf, and subsequently assist in the implementation of an important

Nonetheless, similar to many countries in the world (Liou and Yu, 2004), there are difficulties and challenges associated with the implementation of SEA in the Arabian Gulf. These include introducing and enforcing SEA law provisions, producing SEA related guidelines, clarifying administrative and procedural responsibilities of concerned bodies in SEA, institutionalizing

Environmental legislations related to pollution prevention and biodiversity protection in the Arabian Gulf are based on a range of national laws and regulations as well as regional and international agreements. Nationally, there are several framework laws with respect to protecting the wildlife and their environment and combating environmental pollution in each

cumulative impacts on valued ecosystem components.

Gulf countries (Rachid and El-Fadel, 2013).

and marine ecosystems (Naser et al., 2008).

principle of sustainability (Barker, 2006).

networks, and encouraging public participation.

**4.3. National, regional and international environmental regulations**

et al., 2006).

Since the early stages of incorporating EIA in The National Environmental Policy Act in 1969, in the USA, considerations to protect ecosystems and biodiversity of natural resources and habitats have been an integrated part of the EIA process (Gontier et al., 2006).

EIA is one of the frequently used approaches in coastal planning and management (Kay and Alder, 2005). It is considered as an effective tool to minimize anthropogenic impacts and to induce the implementation of protection measures of coastal environment. The importance of EIA in protecting biodiversity and promoting the sustainable use of coastal and marine resources is represented in its fundamental role as a process for predicting the environmental effects of projects or programmes in coastal and marine areas. Therefore, EIA can be used to ensure that necessary measures needed to protect biodiversity and its sustainable use are addressed in the process of development planning (Khera & Kumar, 2010).

Additionally, EIA involves in facilitating consultation between various stakeholders as well as the public, considering alternatives for projects and locations, ensuring early identification of potential effects on coastal and marine environments, and implementing mitigation and compensation measures (Badr et al, 2004). Consequently, an effective EIA can contribute to the protection of biodiversity and to the sustainable use of coastal and marine environments in the Arabian Gulf.

Recognizing the role of EIA in protecting environment from degradation and pollution associated with rapid economic developments, Arabian Gulf countries have adopted EIA in their environmental policies (El-Fadl and El-Fadel, 2004). Coastal development projects, including reclamation and dredging activities, are required to be subjected to EIA in the Arabian Gulf. However, effectiveness of EIA in coastal and marine environments is constrain‐ ed by many factors that are also common in many other regions in the world. These include lack of adequate legal and regulatory frameworks, limited public participation, inadequate guidelines on procedural EIA, and lack of provisions related to cumulative impacts and strategic environmental assessment (Van Lavieren et al., 2011; Naser, 2012b).

Multiple anthropogenic stressors can lead to cumulative impacts on marine ecosystems (Crain et al., 2008). Coastlines of the Arabian Gulf are witnessing a rapid increase in the number and scale of coastal developments. The negative effects of these several separate developments may synergistically combine, additively or multiplicatively, to destroy biodiversity and marine ecosystems in the Arabian Gulf.

Planning of dredging and reclamation activities is typically carried out in the Arabian Gulf at a project-by-project basis, without assessing environmental impacts strategically. This approach may ignore the cumulative impacts of coastal reclamation on the valued ecosystem components in the Arabian Gulf. For instance, several reviewed EIA reports indicated that the allocated sites of their projects were already impacted or degraded due to surrounding existing and ongoing projects (Naser, 2012b). Therefore, maintaining sustainable use of coastal and marine natural resources in the Arabian Gulf requires measures to holistically address the interactions among the several reclamation and dredging activities and their additive and cumulative impacts on valued ecosystem components.

significant effects of a proposed project on the environment prior to the decision-making process. The integration of environmental considerations may result in a rational and struc‐ tured decision-making process that maintains a balance of interest between the development action and the environment (Glasson et al., 2005). EIA minimizes or avoids the adverse effects of a proposed development on the environment by addressing effective designs, alternatives,

Since the early stages of incorporating EIA in The National Environmental Policy Act in 1969, in the USA, considerations to protect ecosystems and biodiversity of natural resources and

EIA is one of the frequently used approaches in coastal planning and management (Kay and Alder, 2005). It is considered as an effective tool to minimize anthropogenic impacts and to induce the implementation of protection measures of coastal environment. The importance of EIA in protecting biodiversity and promoting the sustainable use of coastal and marine resources is represented in its fundamental role as a process for predicting the environmental effects of projects or programmes in coastal and marine areas. Therefore, EIA can be used to ensure that necessary measures needed to protect biodiversity and its sustainable use are

Additionally, EIA involves in facilitating consultation between various stakeholders as well as the public, considering alternatives for projects and locations, ensuring early identification of potential effects on coastal and marine environments, and implementing mitigation and compensation measures (Badr et al, 2004). Consequently, an effective EIA can contribute to the protection of biodiversity and to the sustainable use of coastal and marine environments

Recognizing the role of EIA in protecting environment from degradation and pollution associated with rapid economic developments, Arabian Gulf countries have adopted EIA in their environmental policies (El-Fadl and El-Fadel, 2004). Coastal development projects, including reclamation and dredging activities, are required to be subjected to EIA in the Arabian Gulf. However, effectiveness of EIA in coastal and marine environments is constrain‐ ed by many factors that are also common in many other regions in the world. These include lack of adequate legal and regulatory frameworks, limited public participation, inadequate guidelines on procedural EIA, and lack of provisions related to cumulative impacts and

Multiple anthropogenic stressors can lead to cumulative impacts on marine ecosystems (Crain et al., 2008). Coastlines of the Arabian Gulf are witnessing a rapid increase in the number and scale of coastal developments. The negative effects of these several separate developments may synergistically combine, additively or multiplicatively, to destroy biodiversity and

Planning of dredging and reclamation activities is typically carried out in the Arabian Gulf at a project-by-project basis, without assessing environmental impacts strategically. This approach may ignore the cumulative impacts of coastal reclamation on the valued ecosystem components in the Arabian Gulf. For instance, several reviewed EIA reports indicated that the

mitigations, cumulative impacts, and monitoring (Cooper and Sheate, 2002).

habitats have been an integrated part of the EIA process (Gontier et al., 2006).

addressed in the process of development planning (Khera & Kumar, 2010).

strategic environmental assessment (Van Lavieren et al., 2011; Naser, 2012b).

in the Arabian Gulf.

312 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

marine ecosystems in the Arabian Gulf.

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), a tool to integrate environmental considerations into decision-making, may contribute toward achieving environmentally sound and sustain‐ able development. SEA is defined as the process of evaluating the environmental consequences of proposed policies, plans and programmes, and addressing them into higher-level decisionmaking systems (Lamorgese and Geneletti, 2013). SEA has emerged as an important element in environmental decision-making process in developed countries, including Europe and North America. However, SEA is still relatively new or need to be introduced in the Arabian Gulf countries (Rachid and El-Fadel, 2013).

The need for a more strategic approach to environmental assessment in the Arabian Gulf can be illustrated by reference to coastal developments that associated with dredging and recla‐ mation. The project-level EIA has been criticized for failing to ensure adequate considerations for potentially severe indirect, cumulative and synergistic environmental impacts on coastal and marine ecosystems (Naser et al., 2008).

Several reclamation and dredging activities are increasingly taking place within a relatively small geographical range on coastlines of the Arabian Gulf countries, which could have several cumulative consequences on the coastal and marine environments. SEA has the potential to promote sustainable development in coastal and marine environments through identifying cumulative impacts of exiting or planned projects, investigating feasible alternatives to coastal developments, and implementing effectively mitigation and compensation measures (Duisk et al., 2006).

SEA also has the advantages of integrating the coastal concerns into planning policies, facilitating consultation between various organizations as well as the public. Additionally, SEA can identify social, economic, and environmental issues associated with coastal develop‐ ment in the Arabian Gulf, and subsequently assist in the implementation of an important principle of sustainability (Barker, 2006).

Nonetheless, similar to many countries in the world (Liou and Yu, 2004), there are difficulties and challenges associated with the implementation of SEA in the Arabian Gulf. These include introducing and enforcing SEA law provisions, producing SEA related guidelines, clarifying administrative and procedural responsibilities of concerned bodies in SEA, institutionalizing networks, and encouraging public participation.

#### **4.3. National, regional and international environmental regulations**

Environmental legislations related to pollution prevention and biodiversity protection in the Arabian Gulf are based on a range of national laws and regulations as well as regional and international agreements. Nationally, there are several framework laws with respect to protecting the wildlife and their environment and combating environmental pollution in each country. These general environmental laws facilitate the implementation of related regional and international regulations and agreements (Khan and Price, 2002).

**4.4. Ecological restoration**

natural resources.

tems in Bahrain.

The Arabian Gulf is experiencing a substantial loss of productive habitat and ecosystem services (Price et al., 2012). Dredging and reclamation have transformed extensive coastal areas into artificial environments. Additionally, several types of pollution are contributing to ecosystem degradation. Ecological restoration is an approach that could help in minimizing

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Ecological restoration is described as an assisted recovery of degraded, damaged or destroyed ecosystems (Clewell and Aronson, 2006). Ecological restoration is increasingly playing an important role in conservation biology (Young, 2000). Ecological restoration provides the opportunity to conduct experiments to understand the structures and functions of ecosystems. Insight from such research can be invaluable for the conservation and the management of

Although marine restoration lags behind terrestrial and freshwater counterparts (Elliott et al., 2007), restoration activities are increasingly conducted in coastal and marine environments worldwide. Similarly, several restoration projects have been conducted in the Arabian Gulf (Weishar, 2008). Planting projects to restore mangrove ecosystems have been conducted in most of the Arabian Gulf countries. The success of planting mangroves depends critically on the topographical and hydrological conditions of the selected site, including low energy shorelines with stable and non-eroding soil, gentle slop, sufficient depth, quantity and quality

Successful establishments and growth of mangrove plants have been reported in Qatar (Abdel-Razik, 1990; Al-Khayat and Jones, 1999) and Kuwait (Bhat et al., 2004; Bhat and Suleiman, 2005; Al-Nafisi et al., 2009; Almulla, 2013). However, only limited success of mangrove plantation has been reported in a sheltered bay in Bahrain (Al-Sayed et al., 2008). Therefore, there is an urgent need to investigate alternatives to restore the critically threatened mangrove ecosys‐

Planting mangroves in suitable intertidal areas in the Arabian Gulf is considered a sound approach for increasing coastal and marine productivity and supporting a wide range of biodiversity. For instance, coastal areas associated with planted and natural mangroves along the Qatari coastline support similar levels macrobenthos diversity (Al-Khayat and Jones, 1999). Likewise, Al-Nafisi et al. (2009) reported positive impacts for planted mangroves on coastal environment in Kuwait. Therefore, ecological and environmental benefits provided by planted mangroves may contribute positively to enhancing the overall productively of coastal

Coral restoration could be carried out by creation of artificial reefs or translocation of healthy coral fragments to damaged reefs (Edwards and Gomez, 2007). Artificial reefs are frequently deployed in marine environment of the Arabian Gulf in an attempt to restore or enhance biodiversity and productivity of marine ecosystems. Generally, abundant and diverse communities of reef fish, coral and benthos organisms can develop on artificial structures (Feary et al., 2011). However, these communities may differ structurally and functionally from

of water entering the site, and the requirement of low-salinity water (Field 1998).

and marine environments in the Arabian Gulf (Almulla et al., 2013).

those in natural reefs (Burt et al., 2009).

or reversing the decline in ecosystem integrity in the Arabian Gulf.

Several laws and regulations dealing with protection of environment and biodiversity have been developed in the countries of the Arabian Gulf. These national instruments include laws with respect to environment, exploitation and protection of living marine resources, protection of wildlife and natural environment, environmental quality standards, environmental assessment, prevention of oil pollution, banning of catching endangered species, and estab‐ lishment of marine protected areas. Although these national laws can, directly or indirectly, contribute to the protection of marine ecosystems in the Arabian Gulf, their effectiveness might be restricted by the lack of enforcement (Al-Awadhi, 2002).

Regionally, the Kuwait Regional Convention for Cooperation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution (Kuwait Convention), which was established in 1978, provides the basis for an integrated regional response to protecting biodiversity and combating pollution (Khan, 2008). The Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environ‐ ment (ROPME) was established under the Kuwait Convention to act as a focal point for regional cooperation (Khan and Price, 2002).

Currently, there are four Protocols under the Kuwait Convention; namely, protocol concerning regional cooperation in combating pollution by oil and other harmful substances in cases of emergency, protocol concerning marine pollution resulting from exploration and exploitation of continental shelf, protocol for the protection of the marine environment against pollution from land-based sources, and protocol on the control of marine transboundary movements and disposal of hazardous wastes. These protocols collectively address the pollution of marine environment and propose criteria for protection and management of ecosystems and marine resources (Khan and Price, 2002; Khan, 2008).

Internationally, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) provides a legal, scientific and practical mechanism for biodiversity conservation. The CBD requires member states to develop national strategies and action plans for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, integrate biodiversity into the relevant plans, programs and policies, identify activities likely to have significantly adverse impacts on biodiversity, develop a system of protected areas to conserve biodiversity, integrate consideration of conservation into national decision-making systems, and introduce environmental impact assessment to avoid or minimize adverse impacts of proposed projects on biodiversity.

Additionally, the Arabian Gulf countries have accepted or ratified several international agreements that can contribute to the protection of the coastal and marine environments. These include, among others, Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention), World Heritage Convention, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, International Maritime Organi‐ zation (IMO) conventions, CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). These international agreements provide mechanisms for dealing with many aspects and concerns relating to the marine environment, and consequently contributing to the protection and conservation of marine ecosystems in the Arabian Gulf.

#### **4.4. Ecological restoration**

country. These general environmental laws facilitate the implementation of related regional

Several laws and regulations dealing with protection of environment and biodiversity have been developed in the countries of the Arabian Gulf. These national instruments include laws with respect to environment, exploitation and protection of living marine resources, protection of wildlife and natural environment, environmental quality standards, environmental assessment, prevention of oil pollution, banning of catching endangered species, and estab‐ lishment of marine protected areas. Although these national laws can, directly or indirectly, contribute to the protection of marine ecosystems in the Arabian Gulf, their effectiveness might

Regionally, the Kuwait Regional Convention for Cooperation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution (Kuwait Convention), which was established in 1978, provides the basis for an integrated regional response to protecting biodiversity and combating pollution (Khan, 2008). The Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environ‐ ment (ROPME) was established under the Kuwait Convention to act as a focal point for

Currently, there are four Protocols under the Kuwait Convention; namely, protocol concerning regional cooperation in combating pollution by oil and other harmful substances in cases of emergency, protocol concerning marine pollution resulting from exploration and exploitation of continental shelf, protocol for the protection of the marine environment against pollution from land-based sources, and protocol on the control of marine transboundary movements and disposal of hazardous wastes. These protocols collectively address the pollution of marine environment and propose criteria for protection and management of ecosystems and marine

Internationally, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) provides a legal, scientific and practical mechanism for biodiversity conservation. The CBD requires member states to develop national strategies and action plans for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, integrate biodiversity into the relevant plans, programs and policies, identify activities likely to have significantly adverse impacts on biodiversity, develop a system of protected areas to conserve biodiversity, integrate consideration of conservation into national decision-making systems, and introduce environmental impact assessment to avoid or

Additionally, the Arabian Gulf countries have accepted or ratified several international agreements that can contribute to the protection of the coastal and marine environments. These include, among others, Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention), World Heritage Convention, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, International Maritime Organi‐ zation (IMO) conventions, CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). These international agreements provide mechanisms for dealing with many aspects and concerns relating to the marine environment, and consequently contributing to the protection and conservation of marine ecosystems in the Arabian Gulf.

and international regulations and agreements (Khan and Price, 2002).

be restricted by the lack of enforcement (Al-Awadhi, 2002).

regional cooperation (Khan and Price, 2002).

314 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

resources (Khan and Price, 2002; Khan, 2008).

minimize adverse impacts of proposed projects on biodiversity.

The Arabian Gulf is experiencing a substantial loss of productive habitat and ecosystem services (Price et al., 2012). Dredging and reclamation have transformed extensive coastal areas into artificial environments. Additionally, several types of pollution are contributing to ecosystem degradation. Ecological restoration is an approach that could help in minimizing or reversing the decline in ecosystem integrity in the Arabian Gulf.

Ecological restoration is described as an assisted recovery of degraded, damaged or destroyed ecosystems (Clewell and Aronson, 2006). Ecological restoration is increasingly playing an important role in conservation biology (Young, 2000). Ecological restoration provides the opportunity to conduct experiments to understand the structures and functions of ecosystems. Insight from such research can be invaluable for the conservation and the management of natural resources.

Although marine restoration lags behind terrestrial and freshwater counterparts (Elliott et al., 2007), restoration activities are increasingly conducted in coastal and marine environments worldwide. Similarly, several restoration projects have been conducted in the Arabian Gulf (Weishar, 2008). Planting projects to restore mangrove ecosystems have been conducted in most of the Arabian Gulf countries. The success of planting mangroves depends critically on the topographical and hydrological conditions of the selected site, including low energy shorelines with stable and non-eroding soil, gentle slop, sufficient depth, quantity and quality of water entering the site, and the requirement of low-salinity water (Field 1998).

Successful establishments and growth of mangrove plants have been reported in Qatar (Abdel-Razik, 1990; Al-Khayat and Jones, 1999) and Kuwait (Bhat et al., 2004; Bhat and Suleiman, 2005; Al-Nafisi et al., 2009; Almulla, 2013). However, only limited success of mangrove plantation has been reported in a sheltered bay in Bahrain (Al-Sayed et al., 2008). Therefore, there is an urgent need to investigate alternatives to restore the critically threatened mangrove ecosys‐ tems in Bahrain.

Planting mangroves in suitable intertidal areas in the Arabian Gulf is considered a sound approach for increasing coastal and marine productivity and supporting a wide range of biodiversity. For instance, coastal areas associated with planted and natural mangroves along the Qatari coastline support similar levels macrobenthos diversity (Al-Khayat and Jones, 1999). Likewise, Al-Nafisi et al. (2009) reported positive impacts for planted mangroves on coastal environment in Kuwait. Therefore, ecological and environmental benefits provided by planted mangroves may contribute positively to enhancing the overall productively of coastal and marine environments in the Arabian Gulf (Almulla et al., 2013).

Coral restoration could be carried out by creation of artificial reefs or translocation of healthy coral fragments to damaged reefs (Edwards and Gomez, 2007). Artificial reefs are frequently deployed in marine environment of the Arabian Gulf in an attempt to restore or enhance biodiversity and productivity of marine ecosystems. Generally, abundant and diverse communities of reef fish, coral and benthos organisms can develop on artificial structures (Feary et al., 2011). However, these communities may differ structurally and functionally from those in natural reefs (Burt et al., 2009).

Translocations of healthy corals have been conducted in some cases in the Arabian Gulf to avoid their distraction by large-scale marine projects. For instance, around 4,500 coral colonies from pipeline corridors which would have been affected by proposed expansion projects were relocated to another suitable location in Qatar (O'Donovan and McDonald, 2008). However, the success of such environmental initiatives in protecting affected corals remains to be investigated. Coral culture and transplantation within the Arabian Gulf is proposed as a feasible approach to maintain coral populations and preserve their adaptive capacities to future thermal stress events due to climate change (Coles and Riegl, 2013).

A key research need for marine conservation is to understand the individual and cumulative impacts of human disturbances on marine ecosystems. Therefore, monitoring should also be extended to processes and activities that are likely to have significant adverse impacts on the

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Feary et al. (2013) identified research topics that are considered to be the highest priority areas for future coral reef research in the Arabian Gulf, which could be extend to the other valued ecosystem components. These research areas include marine protected areas development, biological and ecological processes structuring marine ecosystems, climate change impacts on ecology and biology of ecosystems, effects of anthropogenic activities on marine ecosystems, connectivity of coral reef communities, disease biology, economic evaluation of ecosystems functions and services, monitoring and ecological surveys of species and communities, coral reef restoration and management, and mechanisms governing ecosystems' resistance and adaptation to environmental extremes. Strengthening cooperation between national, regional and international universities and scientific institutions in field of environment and conser‐ vation could facilitate the development and implementation of long-term research pogroms

Building capacity toward scientific research in the field of environment and conservation biology is important in order to effectively conserve and mange marine ecosystems in the Arabian Gulf. Therefore, there is a need for significant improvement in the number and quality

The Arabian Gulf is one of the world's most enclosed, small-scale marine environments. It is characterized by shallow depth and restricted water exchange with the wider Indian Ocean. The Arabian Gulf represents one of the harshest marine environments in the world due to marked fluctuations in seawater temperatures and high levels of salinities. These environ‐ mental extremes may interfere with normal functioning of marine ecosystems and affect physiological aspects of marine organisms and their diversity, abundance and spatial distri‐

The Arabian Gulf hosts some of the world's most critically endangered species such as dugongs, green and hawksbill turtles, and supports a variety of marine ecosystems, including seagrass bed, mangroves, coral reefs and mudflats that are uniquely adapted to environmental extremes. These ecosystems are under ever-increasing pressure from anthropogenic activities that are associated with the rapid economic, social and industrial developments in the Arabian

Marine environment of the Arabian Gulf is severely impacted. The coasts of the Arabian Gulf are witnessing rapid industrialization and urbanization that contribute to degradation of naturally stressed marine ecosystems. Coastal development associated with dredging and reclamation is particularly damaging to coastal and marine ecosystems. This is combined with

of programs related to marine sciences in the Arabian Gulf universities (Burt, 2013).

valued ecosystem components in the Arabian Gulf.

in the Arabian Gulf.

**5. Conclusions**

bution.

Gulf countries.

#### **4.5. Integrated environmental monitoring and scientific research**

Monitoring can be described as systemic observations and measurements of physical, chemical and biological variables to detect environmental changes over time (Lovett et al., 2007). Monitoring can provide decision makers with information on the state of biodiversity, and consequently, assist in identifying management goals and assessing priorities for conservation (Collen et al., 2013).

The key to protecting and managing biodiversity and marine resources is to characterize the structures of coastal and marine ecosystems (i.e. species and populations involved) and functions (i.e. flow of energy, growth and productivity). This could be achieved by adopting a holistic environmental monitoring approach that investigates, spatially and temporally, the physical, chemical and biological aspects of the valued ecosystem components in the Arabian Gulf (Naser, 2011a).

Several logistical and technical limitations may restrict the effectiveness of environmental monitoring in the Arabian Gulf. Van Lavieren and Klaus (2013) indicated that ecological monitoring and surveys in the Arabian Gulf are poorly designed and do not provide adequate information for decision-making systems.

Developing necessary plans and mechanisms for population and habitat conservation requires adequate knowledge and description of species. Therefore, there is a need to promote taxo‐ nomic research in the Arabian Gulf. Environmental impacts can be detected in a coarser level of taxonomic identification such as genus and family levels of biotic assemblages (Naser, 2010). However, effective conservation can only be achieved if the state of the environment is fully documented and understood, including species diversity. Therefore, it could be argued that while coarser taxonomic levels can be logistically useful in routine environmental monitoring, species-level is critically important to assess the biodiversity and to understand the structure and function of marine ecosystems in the Arabian Gulf.

Transboundary monitoring in the Arabian Gulf is needed to ensure that representatives of marine communities and habitats are included in the conservation measures. This could be addressed by increasing the cooperation between local and regional institutions and organi‐ zations concerned with ecological research and monitoring in the Arabian Gulf. The Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) may play an important role in strengthening the coordination of environmental monitoring and ecological surveys in the Arabian Gulf.

A key research need for marine conservation is to understand the individual and cumulative impacts of human disturbances on marine ecosystems. Therefore, monitoring should also be extended to processes and activities that are likely to have significant adverse impacts on the valued ecosystem components in the Arabian Gulf.

Feary et al. (2013) identified research topics that are considered to be the highest priority areas for future coral reef research in the Arabian Gulf, which could be extend to the other valued ecosystem components. These research areas include marine protected areas development, biological and ecological processes structuring marine ecosystems, climate change impacts on ecology and biology of ecosystems, effects of anthropogenic activities on marine ecosystems, connectivity of coral reef communities, disease biology, economic evaluation of ecosystems functions and services, monitoring and ecological surveys of species and communities, coral reef restoration and management, and mechanisms governing ecosystems' resistance and adaptation to environmental extremes. Strengthening cooperation between national, regional and international universities and scientific institutions in field of environment and conser‐ vation could facilitate the development and implementation of long-term research pogroms in the Arabian Gulf.

Building capacity toward scientific research in the field of environment and conservation biology is important in order to effectively conserve and mange marine ecosystems in the Arabian Gulf. Therefore, there is a need for significant improvement in the number and quality of programs related to marine sciences in the Arabian Gulf universities (Burt, 2013).
