**3. Major findings and management status**

India has a long history of conservation and sustainable use of natural resources and over a period of time has developed a stable organizational structure for environment protection. Conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity has been integrated into national decision making through:


India's strategies for conservation and sustainable utilization of biodiversity in the past have comprised providing special status and protection to biodiversity – rich areas by declaring them as National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Biosphere Reserves, ecologically fragile and sensitive areas, off loading pressure from reserve forests adopting by alternative measures for fuel wood and fodder by afforestation of degraded areas and wastelands, creation of *ex-situ* conservation facilities such as gene banks etc.

**7.** Involvement of institutions of State governments in the broad scheme of the implemen‐ tation of the Biological Diversity Act through constitution of committees (NBA, 2004).

Ecosystem Biodiversity of India http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58431 253

In order to conserve variability within and among different species in its authority Protected Areas (PAs) have been established for coordinated conservation of ecological units and corridors with multilateral cooperation of the neighbouring nations. There are different types of PAs like Biosphere Reserve (BR), National Parks (NPs), Wildlife Sanctuaries (WLS),

Different workers have carried out isolated work on evaluation of genetic conservation of forest trees and woody species in the country. Nageswara Rao *et al.* (2001) assessed the genetic diversity parameters of Sandal (*Santalum album*) populations of peninsular India and suggest‐ ed that *in-situ* conservation of Sandal genetic resources to be focused at populations and sites in the Deccan plateau. Similarly, Ravikanth *et al.* (2001) mapped the genetic diversity of rattans in central Western Ghats and suggested to have conservation stands at three sites in southern Western Ghats. Anandarao (2003) and Tikader *et al*. (2001) studied the germplassm of different species of *Morus* and identified diverse populations in different locations in Andamans, North-East India. Padmini *et al.* (2001) analysed Genetic diversity of *Phyllanthus emblica* in forests of South India and identified different locations with high diversity for *in-situ* conservation. However, these findings couldn't be utilized fully as certain identified sites fall outside the already established PAs. Vasudeva *et al* (2002) studied the available population of *Semecarpus kathalekanensis,* an Endangered tree and its diversity in Myristica swamp in Karnataka and

Biosphere Reserve is an international conservation designation given by UNESCO under its Programme on Man and the Biosphere (MAB). According to "The Statutory Framework of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves," biosphere reserves are created to promote and demonstrate a balanced relationship between humans and the biosphere. Under article 4, biosphere reserves must "encompass a mosaic of ecological systems," and thus consist of combinations of terrestrial, coastal, or marine ecosystems. In India there are 15 biosphere reserves with total area of 58,645 sq.km (MoEF, 2009) (Table 5). They encompass one or more

A network of 667 PAs has been established, extending over 157826.773 sq. kms. (4.80 % of total geographic area of the country), comprising 102 National Parks, 514 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 47 Conservation Reserves and 4 Community Reserves. The State / Union Territory wise details of PAs in the country with extent are given in (Table 5.). The protected areas in India are mainly meant for large mammals, birds and some specific conservation dependant flagship species. However, when the whole habitat or ecosystems are protected, whole forest biodiversity also enjoys the protection. Some protected areas have also been designated recently for the conservation of certain plant species, considering their importance. They are Kurinjimala

**3.3. Conservation of forest biodiversity in protected areas**

Conservation Reserves (CR) and Community Reserves (Com.R).

suggested the requirement of special *in-situ* conservation measures.

**3.4. Biosphere Reserves, National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries**

protected areas like National Parks, sanctuaries or conservation reserves.

Although there were several Acts existed in India for ensuring conservation of biodiversity, the International Convention on Biological Diversity that came in to effect in 1993 and the Biodiversity Act, 2002 enacted by the Indian Parliament subsequently gave impetus to the conservation efforts in the country.

#### **3.1. The Convention on Biological Diversity**

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a landmark in the environment and devel‐ opment field, as it envisages for the first time a comprehensive rather than a sectoral approach to the conservation of Earth's biodiversity and sustainable use of biological resources. It was in the year 1984 that the need to have in place a global convention on biological diversity started gaining momentum. In response to it, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in the year 1987 recognized the need to streamline international efforts to protect biodiversity. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was negotiated and signed by nations at the UNCED Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro in Brazil in June 1992. The Convention came into force on December 29, 1993. India became a Party to the Convention in 1994. At present, there are 175 Parties to this Convention (NBA, 2004).

The main objectives of the Convention are:


#### **3.2. Biological Diversity Act, 2002**

The Central Government has brought Biological Diversity Act, 2002 with the following salient features:-


**7.** Involvement of institutions of State governments in the broad scheme of the implemen‐ tation of the Biological Diversity Act through constitution of committees (NBA, 2004).

#### **3.3. Conservation of forest biodiversity in protected areas**

sensitive areas, off loading pressure from reserve forests adopting by alternative measures for fuel wood and fodder by afforestation of degraded areas and wastelands, creation of *ex-situ*

Although there were several Acts existed in India for ensuring conservation of biodiversity, the International Convention on Biological Diversity that came in to effect in 1993 and the Biodiversity Act, 2002 enacted by the Indian Parliament subsequently gave impetus to the

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a landmark in the environment and devel‐ opment field, as it envisages for the first time a comprehensive rather than a sectoral approach to the conservation of Earth's biodiversity and sustainable use of biological resources. It was in the year 1984 that the need to have in place a global convention on biological diversity started gaining momentum. In response to it, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in the year 1987 recognized the need to streamline international efforts to protect biodiversity. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was negotiated and signed by nations at the UNCED Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro in Brazil in June 1992. The Convention came into force on December 29, 1993. India became a Party to the Convention in 1994. At present, there are

**•** Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources.

The Central Government has brought Biological Diversity Act, 2002 with the following salient

**1.** To regulate access to biological resources of the country with the purpose of securing equitable share in benefits arising out of the use of biological resources and associated

**4.** To secure sharing of benefits with local people as conservers of biological resources and holders of knowledge and information relating to the use of biological resources.

**5.** Conservation and development of areas of importance from the standpoint of biological

**3.** To respect and protect knowledge of local communities related to biodiversity;

diversity by declaring them as biological diversity heritage sites.

conservation facilities such as gene banks etc.

**3.1. The Convention on Biological Diversity**

175 Parties to this Convention (NBA, 2004).

The main objectives of the Convention are:

**•** Sustainable use of the components of biodiversity and

knowledge relating to biological resources.

**6.** Protection and rehabilitation of threatened species.

**2.** Conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.

**•** Conservation of biological diversity

**3.2. Biological Diversity Act, 2002**

features:-

conservation efforts in the country.

252 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

In order to conserve variability within and among different species in its authority Protected Areas (PAs) have been established for coordinated conservation of ecological units and corridors with multilateral cooperation of the neighbouring nations. There are different types of PAs like Biosphere Reserve (BR), National Parks (NPs), Wildlife Sanctuaries (WLS), Conservation Reserves (CR) and Community Reserves (Com.R).

Different workers have carried out isolated work on evaluation of genetic conservation of forest trees and woody species in the country. Nageswara Rao *et al.* (2001) assessed the genetic diversity parameters of Sandal (*Santalum album*) populations of peninsular India and suggest‐ ed that *in-situ* conservation of Sandal genetic resources to be focused at populations and sites in the Deccan plateau. Similarly, Ravikanth *et al.* (2001) mapped the genetic diversity of rattans in central Western Ghats and suggested to have conservation stands at three sites in southern Western Ghats. Anandarao (2003) and Tikader *et al*. (2001) studied the germplassm of different species of *Morus* and identified diverse populations in different locations in Andamans, North-East India. Padmini *et al.* (2001) analysed Genetic diversity of *Phyllanthus emblica* in forests of South India and identified different locations with high diversity for *in-situ* conservation. However, these findings couldn't be utilized fully as certain identified sites fall outside the already established PAs. Vasudeva *et al* (2002) studied the available population of *Semecarpus kathalekanensis,* an Endangered tree and its diversity in Myristica swamp in Karnataka and suggested the requirement of special *in-situ* conservation measures.

#### **3.4. Biosphere Reserves, National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries**

Biosphere Reserve is an international conservation designation given by UNESCO under its Programme on Man and the Biosphere (MAB). According to "The Statutory Framework of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves," biosphere reserves are created to promote and demonstrate a balanced relationship between humans and the biosphere. Under article 4, biosphere reserves must "encompass a mosaic of ecological systems," and thus consist of combinations of terrestrial, coastal, or marine ecosystems. In India there are 15 biosphere reserves with total area of 58,645 sq.km (MoEF, 2009) (Table 5). They encompass one or more protected areas like National Parks, sanctuaries or conservation reserves.

A network of 667 PAs has been established, extending over 157826.773 sq. kms. (4.80 % of total geographic area of the country), comprising 102 National Parks, 514 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 47 Conservation Reserves and 4 Community Reserves. The State / Union Territory wise details of PAs in the country with extent are given in (Table 5.). The protected areas in India are mainly meant for large mammals, birds and some specific conservation dependant flagship species. However, when the whole habitat or ecosystems are protected, whole forest biodiversity also enjoys the protection. Some protected areas have also been designated recently for the conservation of certain plant species, considering their importance. They are Kurinjimala


society. The Sacred groves are patches of natural vegetation, which are protected through some religious faiths and they exist throughout India. They shelter many economically important, medicinal, endemic, rare and endangered species. The extent of sacred groves varies from

the entire country, experts estimate the total number of sacred groves in India could be in the range of 100,000 – 150,000. As per some reports, India is having 13270 sacred groves (Malhotra

*et al*. 2001; Kunhikannan and Gurudev Singh, 2005; Warrier *et al*. 2008) (Table 6).

**Conser. Reserves (CR)**

Andhra Pradesh 6 21 0 0 275068 13006.514 4.73

Assam 5 18 0 0 78438 3909.80 4.98 Bihar 1 12 0 0 94163 3187.33 3.39 Chhattisgarh 3 11 0 0 135194 6382.27 4.79 Goa 1 6 0 0 3702 754.91 20.39 Gujarat 4 23 1 0 196024 17323.48 8.83 Haryana 2 8 2 0 44212 348.84 0.75 Himachal Pradesh 5 32 0 0 55673 10016.85 17.99 Jammu & Kashmir 4 15 34 0 222235 11688.36 5.26 Jharkhand 1 11 0 0 79714 2182.14 2.74 Karnataka 5 22 2 1 191791 6482.52 3.38 Kerala 6 16 0 1 38863 2382.52 6.13 Madhya Pradesh 9 25 0 0 308252 10814.76 3.51 Maharashtra 6 35 1 0 307690 15429.75 5.02 Manipur 1 1 0 0 22327 224.4 1.01 Meghalaya 2 3 0 0 22429 301.68 1.35 Mizoram 2 8 0 0 21081 1240.75 5.89 Nagaland 1 3 0 0 16579 222.35 1.34 Orissa 2 18 0 0 155707 7959.85 5.11 Punjab 0 12 1 2 50362 344.72 0.68 Rajasthan 5 25 3 0 342239 9548.60 2.79 Sikkim 1 7 0 0 7096 2183.10 30.76 Tamil Nadu 5 21 1 0 130058 3829.82 2.95

. Although, there has been no comprehensive study on the Sacred groves of

**Community reserve (Com.R)**

2 10 0 0 83743 9778.57 11.68

**Area of state (sq km)** **Total Area covered (sq km)**

**% of protected area in State**

Ecosystem Biodiversity of India http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58431 255

1m2 to 1000000 m2

**State/Union Territories**

Arunachal Pradesh

**National Parks (NP)** **Wildlife Sanctuaries (WS)**

**Table 5.** Biosphere Reserves in India encompass a mosaic of ecological systems consist of combinations of terrestrial, coastal, or marine ecosystems

National Park, in Idukki district, Kerala for *Strobilanthes;* the *Rhododendron* Sanctuary at Singba in Sikkim, the *Nepenthes* Sanctuary at Jarain in Meghalaya and the Orchid Sanctuary at Sessa in Arunachal Pradesh.

#### **3.5. Conservation of forest biodiversity outside protected areas**

In addition to the PAs, there are several other means of *in-situ* conservation like Sacred Groves (SG), Gene Pool Conservation Areas (GPCA), Seed Production Areas (SPAs) Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas (MPCA) and Permanent Preservation Plots (PPP).

#### **3.6. Sacred groves**

Conservation of habitats and individual species has been practiced in India since time immemorial. Concern for nature conservation is deeply embedded in the multiracial Indian society. The Sacred groves are patches of natural vegetation, which are protected through some religious faiths and they exist throughout India. They shelter many economically important, medicinal, endemic, rare and endangered species. The extent of sacred groves varies from 1m2 to 1000000 m2 . Although, there has been no comprehensive study on the Sacred groves of the entire country, experts estimate the total number of sacred groves in India could be in the range of 100,000 – 150,000. As per some reports, India is having 13270 sacred groves (Malhotra *et al*. 2001; Kunhikannan and Gurudev Singh, 2005; Warrier *et al*. 2008) (Table 6).


National Park, in Idukki district, Kerala for *Strobilanthes;* the *Rhododendron* Sanctuary at Singba in Sikkim, the *Nepenthes* Sanctuary at Jarain in Meghalaya and the Orchid Sanctuary at Sessa

**Table 5.** Biosphere Reserves in India encompass a mosaic of ecological systems consist of combinations of terrestrial,

In addition to the PAs, there are several other means of *in-situ* conservation like Sacred Groves (SG), Gene Pool Conservation Areas (GPCA), Seed Production Areas (SPAs) Medicinal Plant

Conservation of habitats and individual species has been practiced in India since time immemorial. Concern for nature conservation is deeply embedded in the multiracial Indian

**3.5. Conservation of forest biodiversity outside protected areas**

**S.No. Name Area of Biosphere**

254 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

10 Nilgiri 5520.4 1986

**(sq km)**

4 Dibru-Saikhowa 765.00 1997 Assam

 Gulf of Mannar 10500.00 1989 Tamil Nadu Khangchenjunga 2619.92 2000 Sikkim Manas 2837.00 1989 Assam Nanda Devi 5860.69 1988 Uttaranchal

11 Nokrek 820.00 1988 Meghalaya 12 Pachmarhi 4926.00 1999 Madhya Pradesh

13 Simlipal 4374.00 1994 Orissa 14 Sunderbans 9630.00 1989 West Bengal 15 Kachcha 12454 Gujarat

<sup>1</sup> Achanakmar-Amarkantak 3835.51 <sup>2005</sup> Madhya Pradesh &

2 Agasthyamalai 3500.36 2001 Tamilnadu & Kerala 3 Dehang-Debang 5111.5 1998 Arunachal Pradesh

5 Great Nicobar 885.00 1989 Andaman and Nicobar

**Date of establishment State**

Chhattishgarh

Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and

Karnataka

Conservation Areas (MPCA) and Permanent Preservation Plots (PPP).

in Arunachal Pradesh.

coastal, or marine ecosystems

Total

(Source: MoEF, 2009)

**3.6. Sacred groves**


ed as GPCAs and issued guidelines for identification and mapping of GPCAs in the State

Ecosystem Biodiversity of India http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58431 257

**S. No. State No. of Sacred Groves**

**Table 7.** Status of Sacred Groves in India harbouring original and pristine vegetation and biodiversity of area

With an aim to improve the productivity and profitability of planting forest species and offering an attractive land use option, many SFDs have established Seed Production Areas, in collaboration with various research organizations, for different forest species. Such SPAs act as means of conservation of Forest Genetic Resources, especially of forest plantation species of high commercial value. Species wise list and total area under SPAs are given in Table 8.

**3.8. Seed Production Areas (SPAs)**

 Andhra Pradesh 800 Arunachal Pradesh 58 3 Assam 40 Chhattisgarh 600 Gujarat 29 Haryana 248 Himachal Pradesh 5000 Jharkhand 21 Jammu & Kashmir 150 Karnataka 1424 Kerala 3500 Maharashtra 1600 Manipur 365 Meghalaya 79 Orissa 322 Pondicherry 108 Rajasthan 9 Sikkim 56 Tamil Nadu 499 Uttarakhand 1 Utter Pradesh 6 West Bengal 670 **Total 15585**

(KFD, 2005) (Table 7).

(Source: MoEF, 2012)

**Table 6.** State-wise details of the Protected Area Network of the country for conservation of certain plant species, mammals and birds

A recent study conducted by (Sambandan and Dhatchanamoorthy, 2012) on the floristic composition of angiosperms occurring in a sacred grove of 0.2 ha area, located in Karaikal area of the UT of Puducherry brought out presence of 59 plants species of flowering plants coming under 55 genera and 30 families. They also found that, many rural people in the district were using the plants from the sacred groves to cure many common diseases. They suggested that, this kind of degraded sacred groves should be immediately restored or regenerated using appropriate technologies and by creating awareness among the rural people regarding the importance of sacred grove and its conservation.

#### **3.7. Gene Pool Conservation Areas**

Gene pool conservation is necessary for human welfare. Several species have become extinct and some others are already threatened and may become extinct if appropriate measures for their conservation are not taken. Some State Forest Departments like Kerala, Tamilna‐ du and West Bengal have initiated establishment of Gene Pool Conservation Areas (GPCA) for providing specific protection to certain areas through participatory approaches, involving local people. The Govt. of Kerala has identified some of the areas to be protect‐



**Table 7.** Status of Sacred Groves in India harbouring original and pristine vegetation and biodiversity of area

#### **3.8. Seed Production Areas (SPAs)**

**State/Union Territories**

Andaman & Nicobar

Dadra & Nagar Haveli

(Source: MoEF, 2012)

mammals and birds

importance of sacred grove and its conservation.

**3.7. Gene Pool Conservation Areas**

**National Parks (NP)**

256 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

**Wildlife Sanctuaries (WS)**

**Conser. Reserves (CR)**

Tripura 2 4 0 0 10486 603.62 5.76 Uttar Pradesh 1 23 0 0 240926 5711.00 2.37 Uttaranchal 6 6 2 0 53485 7376.33 13.79 West Bengal 5 15 0 0 88752 2896.53 3.26

Chandigarh 0 2 0 0 114 26.009 22.81

Daman & Diu 0 1 0 0 112 2.18 1.95 Delhi 0 1 0 0 1483 27.82 1.88 Lakshadweep 0 1 0 0 32 0.01 0.031 Pondicherry 0 1 0 0 493 3.90 0.79 Total 47 4 4.80

**Table 6.** State-wise details of the Protected Area Network of the country for conservation of certain plant species,

A recent study conducted by (Sambandan and Dhatchanamoorthy, 2012) on the floristic composition of angiosperms occurring in a sacred grove of 0.2 ha area, located in Karaikal area of the UT of Puducherry brought out presence of 59 plants species of flowering plants coming under 55 genera and 30 families. They also found that, many rural people in the district were using the plants from the sacred groves to cure many common diseases. They suggested that, this kind of degraded sacred groves should be immediately restored or regenerated using appropriate technologies and by creating awareness among the rural people regarding the

Gene pool conservation is necessary for human welfare. Several species have become extinct and some others are already threatened and may become extinct if appropriate measures for their conservation are not taken. Some State Forest Departments like Kerala, Tamilna‐ du and West Bengal have initiated establishment of Gene Pool Conservation Areas (GPCA) for providing specific protection to certain areas through participatory approaches, involving local people. The Govt. of Kerala has identified some of the areas to be protect‐

**Community reserve (Com.R)**

9 96 0 0 8249 1543.33 18.71

0 1 0 0 491 92.16 18.77

**Area of state (sq km)** **Total Area covered (sq km)**

**% of protected area in State**

> With an aim to improve the productivity and profitability of planting forest species and offering an attractive land use option, many SFDs have established Seed Production Areas, in collaboration with various research organizations, for different forest species. Such SPAs act as means of conservation of Forest Genetic Resources, especially of forest plantation species of high commercial value. Species wise list and total area under SPAs are given in Table 8.


**Species (scientific name) Purpose for establishing**

*Taxus baccata*

*Terminalia belerica*

*Pterospermum acerifolium*

*Haldinia cordifolia, Albizzia procera, Shorea robusta, Diospyros embroptria,* **conservation unit**

*Pinus caribaea* Seed production 2 6.00 *Pinus kesiya* Seed production 1 15.00 *Pinus patula* Seed production 1 1.50 *Pinus roxburghii* Seed production 17 215.00 *Pinus wallichiana* Seed production 5 87.00 *Prosopis cineraria* Seed production 1 10.00 *Pterocarpus dalbergioides* Seed production 1 29.11 *Pterocarpus marsupium* Seed production 5 57.00 *Pterocarpus santalinus* Seed production 2 32.40 *Rhododendron arboreum* Seed production 1 0.50 *Santalum album* Seed production 6 32.60 *Schleichera oleosa* Seed production 1 5.00 *Semicarpus anacardium* Seed production 1 186.00 *Shorea robusta* Seed production 9 501.80 *Sterculia villosa* Seed production 1 4.00 *Swietenia mahogany* Seed production 1 10.00 *Tamarindus indica* Seed production 1 5.00 *Tectona grandis* Seed production 223 6014.34 *Terminalia alata* Seed production 6 51.74 *Terminalia bellirica* Seed production 1 67.00 *Terminalia chebula* Seed production 1 5.00 *Vateria indica* Seed production 1 4.00 *Xylia xylocarpa* Seed production 1 33.00 *Ziziphus mauritiana* Seed production 2 14.50

Conservation of threatened

species endemic to Kumaon hills

To preserve an area of primeval fresh water swamp forest.

To maintain this interesting group of kanakchampa trees in perpetuity and study the natural succession in this type of forest.

*Shorea robusta* To preserve high quality sal crop.6 75

*Dalbergia sissoo* To study natural succession. 2 2

**Table 8.** Target forest species as Forest Genetic Resources in *in situ* conservation programmes/ units.

species

*Tachycarpus takil* Conservation of rare palm

**Number of populations**

16 89

1 10

4 57

1 3.7

**or stands conserved Total Area (Ha)**

Ecosystem Biodiversity of India http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58431 259


**Species (scientific name) Purpose for establishing**

258 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

**conservation unit**

*Abies pindrow* Seed production 1 13.25 *Acacia catechu* Seed production 14 230.00 *Acacia nilotica* Seed production 7 87.00 *Acrocarpus fraxinifolius* Seed production 1 2.00 *Haldinia cordifolia* Seed production 1 255.00 *Aegle marmelos* Seed production 1 0.5 *Ailanthus excelsa* Seed production 1 10.00 *Ailanthus triphysa* Seed production 1 7.00 *Albizia amara* Seed production 1 2.00 *Amoora wallichii* Seed production 1 11.00 *Anogeissus latifolia* Seed production 5 57.00 *Artocarpus chaplasha* Seed production 1 2.00 *Artocarpus heterophyllus* Seed production 2 5.00 *Bombax cieba* Seed production 7 51.50 *Borassus flabellifer* Seed production 1 30.00 *Buchnania lanzan* Seed production 1 20.00 *Calophyllum inophyllum* Seed production 1 315.00 *Cedrus deodara* Seed production 6 86.8 *Chloroxylon swietenia* Seed production 1 10.00 *Chukrasia tabularis* Seed production 4 29.00 *Cupressus torulosa* Seed production 1 5.00 *Dalbergia latifolia* Seed production 5 37.30 *Dalbergia sissoo* Seed production 19 197.00 *Diospyros melanoxylon* Seed production 1 5.00 *Dipterocarpus macrocarpus* Seed production 5 39.00 *Dipterocarpus turbinatus* Seed production 1 2.00 *Ficus spp.* Seed production 2 8.00 *Garcinia indica* Seed production 1 78.00 *Gmelina arborea* Seed production 7 59.50 *Hardwickia binata* Seed production 7 80.40 *Hopea parviflora* Seed production 4 50.70 *Lagerstroemia lanceolata* Seed production 2 8.30 *Limonia acidissima* Seed production 2 3.50 *Madhuca longifolia var. latifolia* Seed production 1 10.00 *Michelia champaca* Seed production 1 1.00 *Mitragyna parvifolia* Seed production 1 5.00 *Morinda tinctoria* Seed production 1 10.00 *Morus laevigata* Seed production 1 1.00

**Number of populations**

**or stands conserved Total Area (Ha)**

**Table 8.** Target forest species as Forest Genetic Resources in *in situ* conservation programmes/ units.

#### **3.9. Preservation plots**

The Silvicultural conference held in 1929 recommended laying out of preservation plots in India, by selecting representative areas of major forest types and exceptional trees to be selected for permanent protection. Subsequently, 309 preservation plots were laid out throughout the country, 187 in natural forests and 122 in plantations covering a total area of about 8, 500 ha (Table 9.) In addition to this, 537 trees in various States were protected (Khullar, 1992).

biogeographic classification of India prepared for conservation and planning purposes and (c) Project Tiger areas, established in different parts of India. He concluded that such a network would complement the conservation zone of Biosphere Reserves and their conservation

Ecosystem Biodiversity of India http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58431 261

Plus tree selection is one of the methods to conserve diversity at species level. Plus tree is a phenotypically superior tree. Most of the tropical forest trees are out crossers and therefore, there is wide variability among individual trees of a particular species in terms of growth, form and wood characters. In some cases much of the variations may be genetic and in others environmental. It is the utilization part of gene conservation where individual selection and breeding within locally adapted provenance will provide additional improvement in selected characteristics. A list of superior phenotypes of different species (Emmanual *et al*. 1990)

*Acrocarpus fraxinifolius*-16, *Ailanthus grandis-18, Altangia excelsa 27, Neolamarkia*

*cadamba-08, Bombax ceiba-21, Canarium resiniferum-7, Cinnamomum cecidodaphne-4, Chukrasia tabularis-5, Dipterocarpus macrocarpus-39, Mesua ferrea-8, Michelia champaca-30, Phoebe goalparensis-21, Shorea assamica-27, Terminalia myriocarpa-28, Tectona grandis-2, Pinus roxburghii-4, Gmelina arborea-20.*

Himachal Pradesh *Pinus roxburghii*-47 high resin yielder and 59 for timber production.

Madhya Pradesh *Tectona grandis-360, Albizia procera-55, Azadirachta indica-200*

Tripura *Gmelina arborea-50, Shorea robusta-50, Tectona grandis-50.*

North eastern states *Gmelina arborea-119,Tectona grandis-46,Dipterocarps-93*

Rajasthan *Dalbergia sissoo-50, Azadirachta indica –350*

**Table 10.** Plus trees selected in different States for *in situ* conservation

Karnataka *Tectona grandis-50, Artocarpus heterophyllus-31, Phyllanthus emblica -11, Limonia acidissima-40, Ziziphus mauritiana-3, Syzygium cumini*-1

Kerala *Tectona grandis-29, Bombax ceiba-11, Santalum album*-3, *Azadirachta indica*-300

Maharashtra *Tectona grandis-33, Dalbergia sissoo-12, Bombax ceiba-1, Acacia catechu*-23.

Uttar Pradesh & Uttarakhand *Pinus roxburghii- 54* for tree form and *39* for high resin yield*, D. sissoo 302,*

capability into a much wider variety of forest types.

selected in different States is given in Table 10.

Andhra Pradesh *Tectona grandis*-75.

Manipur *Tectona grandis-25.* Tamil Nadu *Tectona grandis-*24.

Gujrat *Tectona grandis -63*

**State Species with number of trees**

**3.10. Plus trees**

Arunachal pradesh


**Table 9.** *In-situ* conservation and Status of preservation plots in India (1991) for observing and preserving the original vegetation and natural animals

Rodgers (1991) opined that, a network of forest preservation plots within a larger extent of natural forests, which covers the entire range of forest types in India could play a major role in national efforts to protect biodiversity. He pointed out the virtual lack of co-ordination of management efforts in maintaining the network of plots. He therefore advocated that there is need for extending the network of preservation plots to ensure that, it covers (a) the "Vegeta‐ tion Series" of vegetation mapping studies carried out by the French Institute, Puducherry (b) biogeographic classification of India prepared for conservation and planning purposes and (c) Project Tiger areas, established in different parts of India. He concluded that such a network would complement the conservation zone of Biosphere Reserves and their conservation capability into a much wider variety of forest types.

#### **3.10. Plus trees**

**3.9. Preservation plots**

260 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

vegetation and natural animals

The Silvicultural conference held in 1929 recommended laying out of preservation plots in India, by selecting representative areas of major forest types and exceptional trees to be selected for permanent protection. Subsequently, 309 preservation plots were laid out throughout the country, 187 in natural forests and 122 in plantations covering a total area of about 8, 500 ha (Table 9.) In addition to this, 537 trees in various States were protected (Khullar, 1992).

**Table 9.** *In-situ* conservation and Status of preservation plots in India (1991) for observing and preserving the original

Rodgers (1991) opined that, a network of forest preservation plots within a larger extent of natural forests, which covers the entire range of forest types in India could play a major role in national efforts to protect biodiversity. He pointed out the virtual lack of co-ordination of management efforts in maintaining the network of plots. He therefore advocated that there is need for extending the network of preservation plots to ensure that, it covers (a) the "Vegeta‐ tion Series" of vegetation mapping studies carried out by the French Institute, Puducherry (b)

**Natural Forests Plantations Total**

**State Number of preservation plots**

Andhra Pradesh 11 - 11 Arunachal Pradesh 1 - 1 Assam 9 1 10 Bihar 9 - 9 Gujarat 18 - 18 Haryana - - 0 Himachal Pradesh 6 6 12 Jammu & Kashmir 3 - 3 Karnataka 11 - 11 Kerala 8 43 51 Madhya Pradesh 28 - 28 Maharashtra 11 - 11 Manipur - - 0 Meghalaya 2 - 2 Nagaland - - 0 Orissa 6 - 6 Punjab - - 0 Rajasthan 3 - 3 Tamil Nadu 2 67 69 Union Territories - - 0 Uttar Pradesh 32 - 32 West Bengal 27 5 32 **Total 187 122 309** Plus tree selection is one of the methods to conserve diversity at species level. Plus tree is a phenotypically superior tree. Most of the tropical forest trees are out crossers and therefore, there is wide variability among individual trees of a particular species in terms of growth, form and wood characters. In some cases much of the variations may be genetic and in others environmental. It is the utilization part of gene conservation where individual selection and breeding within locally adapted provenance will provide additional improvement in selected characteristics. A list of superior phenotypes of different species (Emmanual *et al*. 1990) selected in different States is given in Table 10.


**Table 10.** Plus trees selected in different States for *in situ* conservation

#### **3.11. Conservation of Bamboo Genetic Resources**

India is the 2nd richest country in bamboo genetic resources. Large forest areas have been declared as National Bamboo Reserve and maintained. Considering the limitation in seed supply, vegetative methods for *ex situ* conservation and tissue culture work have been started in Asian countries. National Bamboo Mission has been launched by the Ministry of Agriculture for bringing more areas under bamboos. National Mission on Bamboo Applications (NMBA), focuses on Wood substitutes and composites, construction & structural applications, agroprocessing, machinery & process technologies, propagation & cultivation, industrial products and product applications in bamboos. A National Mission on Bamboo Technology and Trade Development was established, considering its role in rural economy and poverty alleviation and potential use in handicrafts and industrial development. A Bamboo Information Centre established at KFRI, Peechi disseminates information on 137 species of Indian bamboos (Table 10). To deal with the gregarious flowering of Muli bamboos (*Melocanna baccifera*) in N. E. States, 3 task forces on 'regeneration', 'harvesting and marketing' and 'rodent control' have been constituted.

#### **3.12. Mangrove Conservation Program**

Mangrove forests in India covers an area of 6,000 km2 and they shelter 59 plant species coming under 41 genera and 29 families. Taking into consideration the ecological and economic significance of Mangroves, the Ministry of Environment and Forests had launched a Scheme for Conservation and Management of Mangroves and Coral Reefs in 1986 with following objectives:-

country. A National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB) was established for co-ordination and implementation of policies relating to conservation, harvesting, cultivation, research and marketing of medicinal plants through 32 State Medicinal Plant Boards. At the national level 32 medicinal plant species have been selected for research and development. A network of 54 Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas (MPCAs)-"as forest gene bank sites" have been estab‐ lished by the State Forest Departments of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra (Ravikumar, 2010) in consultation with the Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT) and with the support of DANIDA, which harbour 45 percent of recorded populations of flowering medicinal plants of Peninsular India, including 70 percent of the red-listed species. To conserve wild germplasm, revitalize the indigenous health care and livelihood security, a UNDP-CCF-II project has been implemented in 9 states. A list

**Table 11.** State-wise list of Mangrove areas identified by MoEF, Govt. of India for Conservation and Management for

Mumbra-Diva, Vikroli, Shreevardhan, Vaitarna, Malvan and Vasai- Manori

Ecosystem Biodiversity of India http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58431 263

9. Maharashtra Achra-Ratnagiri, Devgarh-Vijay Durg, Veldur, Kundalika- Revdanda,

Certain tropical forest areas rich in diverse endemic species, which are on the verge of destruction, have been designated as 'Hot Spots'. The conservation of these areas is indispen‐ sable for the survival of these species. About 34 'Hot Spots' of biodiversity have been identified around the world. Among them four are in India-Eastern Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, and Sundaland located in Nicobar Islands. These 'Hot Spots' together have about 5330 endemic species including flowering plants, mammals, reptiles, amphibians

of MPCAs in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamilnadu is provided below in Table 12.

**3.14. Biodiversity Hotspots in India**

**SN State/ UT Mangrove Area**

2. Orissa Bhitarkanika, Mahanadi, Subernarekha, Devi and Dhamra

3. Andhra Pradesh Coringa, East Godavari and Krishna 4. Tamil Nadu Pichavaram, Muthupet and Ramnad

5. Andaman & Nicobar North Andamans and Nicobar

7. Karnataka Coondapur and Dakshin Kannada

10. Gujarat Gulf of Kutchh and Gulf of Khambat

1. West Bengal Sunderbans

6. Kerala Vembanad

8. Goa Goa

*in situ* conservation of costal vegetation

and butterflies (Ramakrishna, 2010).


This was launched in 1987 and 35 mangrove areas were identified for intensive conservation and management (Table 11). Financial support is given under Management Action Plans for raising mangrove plantations, protection, catchment area treatment, siltation control, pollution abatement, biodiversity conservation, sustainable resource utilization and creating awareness. A National Mangrove Genetic Resource Centre was established in Orissa, in the east coast of India, for conservation, afforestation and regeneration of mangrove species.

#### **3.13. Medicinal Plants Conservation Program**

India has probably the oldest, richest and most diverse cultural traditions in the use of medicinal plants. The total number of medicinal plant species recorded from India is about 7500 and still the health care system based on herbal medicine is very much prevalent in the


**Table 11.** State-wise list of Mangrove areas identified by MoEF, Govt. of India for Conservation and Management for *in situ* conservation of costal vegetation

country. A National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB) was established for co-ordination and implementation of policies relating to conservation, harvesting, cultivation, research and marketing of medicinal plants through 32 State Medicinal Plant Boards. At the national level 32 medicinal plant species have been selected for research and development. A network of 54 Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas (MPCAs)-"as forest gene bank sites" have been estab‐ lished by the State Forest Departments of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra (Ravikumar, 2010) in consultation with the Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT) and with the support of DANIDA, which harbour 45 percent of recorded populations of flowering medicinal plants of Peninsular India, including 70 percent of the red-listed species. To conserve wild germplasm, revitalize the indigenous health care and livelihood security, a UNDP-CCF-II project has been implemented in 9 states. A list of MPCAs in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamilnadu is provided below in Table 12.

#### **3.14. Biodiversity Hotspots in India**

**3.11. Conservation of Bamboo Genetic Resources**

262 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

constituted.

objectives:-

**3.12. Mangrove Conservation Program**

Mangrove forests in India covers an area of 6,000 km2

**•** Afforestation of degraded Mangrove areas

**•** Restoration of degraded Coral Reef areas

and the need for their conservation.

**3.13. Medicinal Plants Conservation Program**

India is the 2nd richest country in bamboo genetic resources. Large forest areas have been declared as National Bamboo Reserve and maintained. Considering the limitation in seed supply, vegetative methods for *ex situ* conservation and tissue culture work have been started in Asian countries. National Bamboo Mission has been launched by the Ministry of Agriculture for bringing more areas under bamboos. National Mission on Bamboo Applications (NMBA), focuses on Wood substitutes and composites, construction & structural applications, agroprocessing, machinery & process technologies, propagation & cultivation, industrial products and product applications in bamboos. A National Mission on Bamboo Technology and Trade Development was established, considering its role in rural economy and poverty alleviation and potential use in handicrafts and industrial development. A Bamboo Information Centre established at KFRI, Peechi disseminates information on 137 species of Indian bamboos (Table 10). To deal with the gregarious flowering of Muli bamboos (*Melocanna baccifera*) in N. E. States, 3 task forces on 'regeneration', 'harvesting and marketing' and 'rodent control' have been

under 41 genera and 29 families. Taking into consideration the ecological and economic significance of Mangroves, the Ministry of Environment and Forests had launched a Scheme for Conservation and Management of Mangroves and Coral Reefs in 1986 with following

**•** Conservation and protection from further degradation of the Mangrove Ecosystem;

**•** Maintenance of genetic diversity especially of the threatened and endemic species

India, for conservation, afforestation and regeneration of mangrove species.

**•** Creation of awareness among the people on importance of Mangrove/ Coral Reef Ecosystem

This was launched in 1987 and 35 mangrove areas were identified for intensive conservation and management (Table 11). Financial support is given under Management Action Plans for raising mangrove plantations, protection, catchment area treatment, siltation control, pollution abatement, biodiversity conservation, sustainable resource utilization and creating awareness. A National Mangrove Genetic Resource Centre was established in Orissa, in the east coast of

India has probably the oldest, richest and most diverse cultural traditions in the use of medicinal plants. The total number of medicinal plant species recorded from India is about 7500 and still the health care system based on herbal medicine is very much prevalent in the

and they shelter 59 plant species coming

Certain tropical forest areas rich in diverse endemic species, which are on the verge of destruction, have been designated as 'Hot Spots'. The conservation of these areas is indispen‐ sable for the survival of these species. About 34 'Hot Spots' of biodiversity have been identified around the world. Among them four are in India-Eastern Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, and Sundaland located in Nicobar Islands. These 'Hot Spots' together have about 5330 endemic species including flowering plants, mammals, reptiles, amphibians and butterflies (Ramakrishna, 2010).


The following are some of general criteria for identification of *in-situ g*enetic conservation

Ecosystem Biodiversity of India http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58431 265

Generally, it is true that *in-situ* conservation measures are preferred over *ex-situ* means, because of habitat specificity of constituent species; maintenance of diversity and provid‐ ing opportunities for evolutionary process to continue; endemic and threatened nature of some of the species; high cost factor and technological need involved in *ex-situ* conserva‐

**•** The greatest constraints to improving *in situ* conservation in the country are lack of scientific know-how, anthropogenic and biotic pressures like fire, grazing, encroachment and illicit

**•** Certain areas in the country are still unexplored, which need intensive exploratory survey.

**•** Conservation of FGR across the forest, including production forests and agro-forests, have

**•** Research is needed to identify the best combination of approaches (*in situ*, *ex situ* and *circa situ*) for species that are important for livelihoods and subsistence in areas of high diversity

*Ex-situ* conservation is the conservation of components of biological diversity outside their natural habitats (CBD, 1992). Plant species and varieties can be preserved under artificial conditions away from the places where they naturally grow. Ex-situ plant collections have a number of uses for conservation and development, including for the re-vitalization of plant populations and associated economies and cultures (Hamilton and Hamilton, 2006). The following are the techniques generally employed for ex-situ conservation (Table 13 &

The storage of seeds in seed banks has advantages for preserving species, but can only be used for species with seeds capable of remaining viable after long term storage (known as 'Ortho‐ dox' seeds). The typical techniques used for seed storage is to lower the moisture content of

C or lower.

not been developed for most of the species nor applied in India

seeds to 2-6 percent or less and reduce temperature to around 00

units:-

tion measures.

felling, to mention a few.

and/or high poverty.

**3.15. Ex-situ conservation**

14).

**•** Hot spot areas of biodiversity and endemism

Constraints and problems for in-situ conservation

**•** Representative forest plantations of valuable timber species

**•** Areas with high concentration of medicinal plants of conservation concern

**•** Representative and unique forest types

**Table 12.** Medicinal Plants Conservation Programme for *in situ* conservation of medicinal plants in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamilnadu

The following are some of general criteria for identification of *in-situ g*enetic conservation units:-


 Agumbe Karnataka BRT hills Karnataka Charmadi Karnataka Devimane Karnataka Devrayandurga Karnataka Karpakapalli Karnataka Kemmanagundi Karnataka Kollur Karnataka Kudremukh Karnataka Sandur Karnataka Savanadurga Karnataka Subramanya Karnataka Talacauvery Karnataka Athirapally Kerala Eravikulam Kerala Kulamavu Kerala Peechi Kerala Silent Valley Kerala Triveni Kerala Waynad Kerala Agasthiarmalai Tamilnadu Alagarkovil Tamilnadu Kodaikanal Tamilnadu Kodikaria Tamilnadu Kollihills Tamilnadu Kurumburam Tamilnadu Kutrallum Tamilnadu Mundanthurai Tamilnadu Petchiparai Tamilnadu Thaniparia Tamilnadu Thenmalai Tamilnadu Topslip Tamilnadu

264 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

**Table 12.** Medicinal Plants Conservation Programme for *in situ* conservation of medicinal plants in Karnataka, Kerala

and Tamilnadu


Generally, it is true that *in-situ* conservation measures are preferred over *ex-situ* means, because of habitat specificity of constituent species; maintenance of diversity and provid‐ ing opportunities for evolutionary process to continue; endemic and threatened nature of some of the species; high cost factor and technological need involved in *ex-situ* conserva‐ tion measures.

Constraints and problems for in-situ conservation


#### **3.15. Ex-situ conservation**

*Ex-situ* conservation is the conservation of components of biological diversity outside their natural habitats (CBD, 1992). Plant species and varieties can be preserved under artificial conditions away from the places where they naturally grow. Ex-situ plant collections have a number of uses for conservation and development, including for the re-vitalization of plant populations and associated economies and cultures (Hamilton and Hamilton, 2006). The following are the techniques generally employed for ex-situ conservation (Table 13 & 14).

The storage of seeds in seed banks has advantages for preserving species, but can only be used for species with seeds capable of remaining viable after long term storage (known as 'Ortho‐ dox' seeds). The typical techniques used for seed storage is to lower the moisture content of seeds to 2-6 percent or less and reduce temperature to around 00 C or lower.


**c.** Strategies and Actions for Wild biodiversity

the efficiency of management interventions

gaps and constraints are summarized below

fair sharing of benefits.

forests

knowledge gap.

ecological securities

biodiversity endpoints and ecosystems.

covering all the eco-regions of India.

to biodiversity and other resources.

addressed:

management and yield sustainable benefits to people

destruction of unique habitats and its need for monitoring

**d.** Involvement of stakeholders in biodiversity conservation through participatory forest

Ecosystem Biodiversity of India http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58431 267

**e.** Critical trends such as degradation/ fragmentation of habitat, extinction of species and

**f.** A possible REDD-mechanism (financial incentives for reducing emission from defores‐ tation and forest degradation) under the post-2012 framework of the Kyoto Protocol should consider effects on local communities and poor people, and survive to ensure a

**h.** Identification of indicator species for understanding ecosystem health so as to evaluate

**i.** Socio-economic variables and their interaction with biological component of various ecosystems with special attention to ethnology, tribal livelihood and dependence on

**ii. Gaps and Constraints:** There are numerous gaps and constraints, which hamper in

**a.** *Knowledge Gaps:* Knowledge and information gaps on biodiversity-related issues and solutions at local levels*.* There is international and regional cooperation in areas of

**b.** *Financial Gaps :* There is an urgent need for action and investment planning for the research activities of forestry sector. It is important to make simple and easy approachable rules and regulation for funding the project work related to biodiversity conservation and

**c.** *Research Gaps*: There is a considerable gap in our knowledge of the natural resources of India. There are three broad areas, related to knowledge and data gaps that need to be

**•** First, there is much to learn about the potential magnitude and rate of extinction of plant biodiversity at the regional and local levels, and subsequent impacts on the full range of

**•** Second, there is no consolidated handbook of proven biodiversity conservation techniques,

**•** Third, detailed analysis need to be developed for each of the priority climate change threats

undertaking research activities. These gaps and constraints are there in the forms of lack of knowledge, lack of technologies in developing countries, unavailability of finance, non-availability of relevant data, data non-accessibility, data organization constraints, lack of well framed and effective policy work etc. The details of these

**g.** Extent of invasion of Weeds and Invasive species in different Forest Types of India

**Table 13.** Techniques of *ex-situ* conservation (Hawkes *et al.* 2000)


**Table 14.** Techniques of *ex-situ* conservation (Hawkes *et al.* 2000)
