**1. Introduction**

Over the past 50 years, ecosystems have changed more rapidly than at any other period of human history [1]. Considerable portions of the world's thirteen terrestrial biomes are being converted to less ecologically diverse ecosystems [2]. Such a high degree of conversion is leading to extensive changes in biodiversity composition and ecological processes, which results in the diminishing of the ecosystem services that help sustain biological diversity and human populations [3].

Estimates of current extinction rates are several magnitudes above average extinction rates through geological time [4]. Some biologists suggest that a sixth mass extinction is underway, but there is large uncertainty in estimates of global extinction rates [5]. Recently, however, there has been considerable evidence for widespread loss of species at the local and regional level. Studies have shown that the loss of biodiversity at this level has led to the simplification of ecosystem function and resilience [6], and is altering key process important to productivity and sustainability of Earth's ecosystems.

Biodiversity is considered to provide a range of services of varying values to humanity [7] associated with the normal functioning of both their individual components and different combinations of these components in integrated functional ecological systems (Figure 1).The type and level of service inevitably varies among ecosystems but each one can contribute significantly depending on type and their degree of intactness. As the human population increases so do the demands on most ecosystem services provided by indigenous ecosystems, but their ability to provide these services generally decreases with increasing degradation of

© 2014 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Prioritising Land-Use Decisions

Emily S. Weeks1, Norm Mason2 , Anne-Gaelle

Over the past 50 years, ecosystems have Considerable portions of the world's thirteen ecosystems [2]. Such a high degree of conversion ecological processes, which results in the diminishing

Estimates of current extinction rates are several Some biologists suggest that a sixth mass extinction rates [5]. Recently, however, there and regional level. Studies have shown that function and resilience [6], and is altering key

Biodiversity is considered to provide a range

can contribute significantly depending on type

important and should be an integral component

1National Land Resource Centre

New Zealand

New Zealand

2Landcare Research

1. Introduction

human populations [3].

Biodiversity Protection in Productive

Decisions for the Optimal Delivery of Ecosystem

Ecosystem Services and

human history [1]. ecologically diverse

biological diversity and

biodiversity composition and

through geological time [4]. in estimates of global of species at the local simplification of ecosystem of Earth's ecosystems.

associated with the normal components in integrated ecosystems but each one population increases so do provide these services with increased human related ecosystems is most

of ecosystems [14, 15].

concludes with recommendations for future research.

**2. Linking biodiversity to ecosystem services**

as a method to design policies that maximize benefits from the sustainable management of ecosystems. Yet despite this level of attention, understanding of the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem function is far from complete and is biased towards a small number

Prioritising Land-Use Decisions for the Optimal Delivery of Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity Protection in…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58255

3

The following chapter provides an overview of some the research completed over the last decade for ecosystem services and biodiversity protection. It discusses the general question of how best to allocate land use (or prioritise decisions) to ensure optimal delivery of both ecosystem services and biodiversity protection in productive landscapes. The first section explores the links between biodiversity and ecosystem function and then discusses the role of biodiversity in productive landscapes. This is followed by a brief overview of the different tools currently available that aim to prioritise land-use decisions based on the optimal delivery of ecosystem services and/or biodiversity protection within productive landscapes. The last section highlights challenges and opportunities for multi-objective land-use planning and

Although there are good estimates of society's willingness to pay for various non-marketed ecosystem services, as yet there is no universally accepted framework for assigning values to biological diversity. One of the most useful frameworks to value biodiversity divides direct and indirect use values. Direct-use values can be readily calculated by observing the activities of representative groups of people, by monitoring collection points for natural production, and by examining import and export statistics. Indirect-use values are harder to measure. They are based on the indirect benefits people gain from biological diversity such as ecosystem

productivity, water purification, climate regulation, eco-tourism, and recreation [16].

role [6]. In most cases many species are critical for a range of ecosystem functions.

The role of biodiversity in ecosystem function and services is widely debated. Most theoretical and empirical work on measuring this relationship has focused on the congruence between species richness and ecological function. Some studies have found a strong link between the two [8, 17], while others have found little evidence supporting these findings [19]. A review of existing studies illustrates that only a few empirical studies demonstrate improved function with high level of species richness [19]. This suggests changes in species evenness (relative abundance) may deserve greater attention than species richness [20]. Species evenness has a more immediate impact on ecosystems and in most services few dominant species play a major

Recent studies have found that certain biodiversity facets co-occur with ecosystem services [21–25]. Large ecosystems, e.g. grasslands, show a high overlap along with ecosystems that provide a range of services that could be used to justify conservation action [21]. There is also a positive relationship between many ecosystem services and high species richness illustrated in several studies that reveal a positive relationship between species richness and productivity [17, 25–27]. However, with some services, such as soil services, the relationship with species

are numbers of causes nitrogen deposition,

have changed more rapidly than at any other period of thirteen terrestrial biomes are being converted to less e conversion is leading to extensive changes in biodiversity diminishing of the ecosystem services that help sustain biological

several magnitudes above average extinction rates through extinction is underway, but there is large uncertainty in there has been considerable evidence for widespread loss of that the loss of biodiversity at this level has led to the simplification key process important to productivity and sustainability of

range of services of varying values to humanity [7] associated components and different combinations of these components The type and level of service inevitably varies among ecosystem type and their degree of intactness. As the human population

component of the planning of ecosystem management.

Gaelle E. Ausseil2 and Alexander Herzig2

Productive Landscapes

the system. This is generally associated with increased human population pressure. Under‐ standing this complex relationship in a particular ecosystem or related ecosystems is most important and should be an integral component of the planning of ecosystem management. the demands on most ecosystem services provided generally decreases with increasing degradation population pressure. Understanding this complex provided by indigenous ecosystems, but their ability to provide degradation of the system. This is generally associated with complex relationship in a particular ecosystem or related

Figure 1. The links between natural ecosystems and and human well-being adapted from Haines-Young et al. [7]. **Figure 1.** The links between natural ecosystems and human well-being adapted from Haines-Young et al. [7].

A global synthesis reveals that biodiversity of biodiversity loss and differences across ecosystems loss is a major driver of ecosystem change [6, 8]. There are ecosystems, including: land-use change, climate change, A global synthesis reveals that biodiversity loss is a major driver of ecosystem change [6, 8]. There are numbers of causes of biodiversity loss and differences across ecosystems, including: land-use change, climate change, nitrogen deposition, biotic exchanges, and atmospheric carbon dioxide changes [9]. Land-use change has been shown to be one of the leading causes of biodiversity loss in terrestrial ecosystems [3, 10, 11]. An increasing global population and greater demand for food, fodder, fibre and fuel has led to rapid changes in land-use patterns. Areas of low production value, once considered impervious to human activity, have increas‐ ingly become susceptible to intensive land-use changes [2, 12, 13].

There is growing evidence of disconnection or opposition between environmental conserva‐ tion and socio-economic development. In 2005, The Millennium Assessment showed that changes to ecosystems have contributed to human well-being and economic development, but this has been achieved at the expense of many ecosystem services, and increased poverty for some groups of people [1]. Furthermore, the degradation of ecosystem services could escalate during the first half of this century.

A global study, The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB, more information at http://www.teebweb.org/), recently revealed the global economic benefit of biodiversity and made the case for better natural resources management [10]. As part of the process, an Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES, www.ipbes.net) has been established as a follow-up initiative to the Millenium Ecosystem Assessment [1]. Since then, there has been significant interest in converting the concept of ecosystem services into practice, both as a rationale for conservation of biological diversity and

provide these services with increased human related ecosystems is most as a method to design policies that maximize benefits from the sustainable management of ecosystems. Yet despite this level of attention, understanding of the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem function is far from complete and is biased towards a small number of ecosystems [14, 15].

> The following chapter provides an overview of some the research completed over the last decade for ecosystem services and biodiversity protection. It discusses the general question of how best to allocate land use (or prioritise decisions) to ensure optimal delivery of both ecosystem services and biodiversity protection in productive landscapes. The first section explores the links between biodiversity and ecosystem function and then discusses the role of biodiversity in productive landscapes. This is followed by a brief overview of the different tools currently available that aim to prioritise land-use decisions based on the optimal delivery of ecosystem services and/or biodiversity protection within productive landscapes. The last section highlights challenges and opportunities for multi-objective land-use planning and concludes with recommendations for future research.
