**2. Literature review**

Biological diversity refers to variety within the living world, and is commonly used to describe the number, variety and variability of living organisms. Thus, biodiversity is the variation of taxonomic life forms within a given ecosystem, biome or for the entire Earth. It is often used as a measure of the health of biological systems.

The term 'Biodiversity', a contraction of the term 'biological diversity' was first coined by Walter Rosen in the 1986 Forum on Biodiversity (Wilson 1988). The term biodiversity entails more than just the accumulation of species. The 1992 United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro defined 'biodiversity' as "the variability among living organisms from all sources, including, 'inter alia', terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems" (UNEP 1992). This comes closest thing to a single legally accepted definition of biodiversity and also the definition adopted by the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The concept of biodiversity involves an "understanding that all organisms interact, like a web of life, with every other element in their local environment" (SCBD 2010).

An estimated 1.7 million species have been described to date although estimates for the total number of species existing on earth at present vary from five million to nearly 100 million. However, biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth. It is consistently richer in the tropics and in other localized regions. Forests are more biologically diverse than any other land-based ecosystem, and contain more than two-thirds of the world's terrestrial species (ibid).

(Source: Rodgers and Panwar, 1988)

**Figure 1.** Biogeographic zones in India

bioclimatically defined zones.

Indian region has over 130,000 species of plants and animals which have been scientifically documented. The country has been referred to as one of the top mega diversity region of the globe with only 2.5% of the global land area. Of the 34 globally identified biodiversity hotspots, India harbours four hotspots, i.e., Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Sundaland. The richness of the biodiversity of the region is largely due to the occurrence of rich diversity of species, genetic and ecological variabilities in different biogeographically and

Ecosystem Biodiversity of India http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58431 235

In terms of plant diversity, India ranks tenth in the world and fourth in Asia. India represents nearly 11% of the world's known floral diversity with over 45,500 plant species. The richness

Endemism pertains to the restricted distribution of the flora and fauna. The probable causes for same are geographical isolation, land degradation, close and distinct ecosystem like mountain and oceanic systems etc. About 11,058 species are endemic to Indian region, 6,200 of which belong to flowering plants alone. Eastern Himalaya and north-eastern region (about 2,500 species), peninsular India including western and Eastern Ghats (about 2,600 species), north-western Himalaya (about 800 species) and Andaman & Nicobar Islands (about 250

of Indian plant species as compared to the world is shown in Table 1.

#### **2.1. India – A megadiverse country with diverse landscape**

India is situated north of the equator between 66°E to 98°E and 8°N to 36°N. The varied edaphic, climatic and topographic conditions have resulted in a wide range of ecosystems and habitats such as forests, grasslands, wetlands, coastal and marine ecosystems, and deserts. The mountainous region covers an area close to 100 mha, arid and semi-arid zones are spread over 30 mha and the coastline is about 8000 km long (MoEF 2009). India represents: (i) Two 'Realms' the Himalayan region represented by Palearctic Realm and the rest of the sub-continent represented by Malayan Realm; (ii) Five Biomes e.g. Tropical Humid Forests; Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests (including Monsoon Forests); Warm Deserts and Semi-deserts; Coniferous Forests; Alpine Meadows; and (iii) Ten biogeographic zones and Twenty-seven biogeographic provinces(ibid).

(Source: Rodgers and Panwar, 1988)

conservation in the country. In this paper the intrinsic nature of biodiversity and multi‐ ple nature of its stakeholder are explored in order to explore the inextricable link be‐ tween human welfare and conservation biodiversity. The paper is a compendium of practice, a synthesis of insights into biodiversity conservation related research and

Biological diversity refers to variety within the living world, and is commonly used to describe the number, variety and variability of living organisms. Thus, biodiversity is the variation of taxonomic life forms within a given ecosystem, biome or for the entire Earth. It is often used

The term 'Biodiversity', a contraction of the term 'biological diversity' was first coined by Walter Rosen in the 1986 Forum on Biodiversity (Wilson 1988). The term biodiversity entails more than just the accumulation of species. The 1992 United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro defined 'biodiversity' as "the variability among living organisms from all sources, including, 'inter alia', terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems" (UNEP 1992). This comes closest thing to a single legally accepted definition of biodiversity and also the definition adopted by the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The concept of biodiversity involves an "understanding that all organisms interact, like a web of life, with every other element in their local environment" (SCBD 2010).

An estimated 1.7 million species have been described to date although estimates for the total number of species existing on earth at present vary from five million to nearly 100 million. However, biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth. It is consistently richer in the tropics and in other localized regions. Forests are more biologically diverse than any other land-based

India is situated north of the equator between 66°E to 98°E and 8°N to 36°N. The varied edaphic, climatic and topographic conditions have resulted in a wide range of ecosystems and habitats such as forests, grasslands, wetlands, coastal and marine ecosystems, and deserts. The mountainous region covers an area close to 100 mha, arid and semi-arid zones are spread over 30 mha and the coastline is about 8000 km long (MoEF 2009). India represents: (i) Two 'Realms' the Himalayan region represented by Palearctic Realm and the rest of the sub-continent represented by Malayan Realm; (ii) Five Biomes e.g. Tropical Humid Forests; Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests (including Monsoon Forests); Warm Deserts and Semi-deserts; Coniferous Forests; Alpine Meadows; and (iii) Ten biogeographic zones and Twenty-seven biogeographic

ecosystem, and contain more than two-thirds of the world's terrestrial species (ibid).

**2.1. India – A megadiverse country with diverse landscape**

technology in the country, and a source of ideas for way forward.

**2. Literature review**

234 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

provinces(ibid).

as a measure of the health of biological systems.

Indian region has over 130,000 species of plants and animals which have been scientifically documented. The country has been referred to as one of the top mega diversity region of the globe with only 2.5% of the global land area. Of the 34 globally identified biodiversity hotspots, India harbours four hotspots, i.e., Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Sundaland. The richness of the biodiversity of the region is largely due to the occurrence of rich diversity of species, genetic and ecological variabilities in different biogeographically and bioclimatically defined zones.

In terms of plant diversity, India ranks tenth in the world and fourth in Asia. India represents nearly 11% of the world's known floral diversity with over 45,500 plant species. The richness of Indian plant species as compared to the world is shown in Table 1.

Endemism pertains to the restricted distribution of the flora and fauna. The probable causes for same are geographical isolation, land degradation, close and distinct ecosystem like mountain and oceanic systems etc. About 11,058 species are endemic to Indian region, 6,200 of which belong to flowering plants alone. Eastern Himalaya and north-eastern region (about 2,500 species), peninsular India including western and Eastern Ghats (about 2,600 species), north-western Himalaya (about 800 species) and Andaman & Nicobar Islands (about 250 species) are the areas rich in endemic plants. Endemism in different plant groups of India is given in Table 2.

**S. N. Plant group Total number of species in India Nos. of Endemic Species %** *Angiosperms* 17527 6200 35.3% *Gymnosperms* 67 7 14.9% *Pteridophytes* 1200 193 16.0% *Bryophytes* 2500 629 25.1% *Lichens* 2223 527 23.7% *Fungi* 14500 3500 24.0% *Algae* 7175 1925 26.8%

Ecosystem Biodiversity of India http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58431 237

**Table 2.** Endemism in different plant groups of India showing high % of endemism to emphasize need of

As per the IUCN Red List (2008), India has 246 globally threatened floral species, which constitute approximately 2.9% of the world's total number of threatened floral species (8457). Distribution of various IUCN threat categories of Indian plants as compared to global trends

India is endowed with vast forest resources. Forests play a vital role in social, cultural, economic and industrial development of the country and in maintaining its ecological balance. The forest resources are storehouse of biodiversity. Other land use practices are benefitted by forests. Realizing the crucial role of forests in maintaining the ecological balance and socioeconomic development, the National Forest Policy, 1988 aims at maintaining a minimum of

(Source: Botanical Survey of India, 2009)

is given in Figure 3 and 4.

**2.2. Forest biodiversity**

**Figure 3.** Indian plants – representation in IUCN threat categories

conservation

(Source: http://www.conservation.org)



**Table 1.** Number of species in major groups of plants and microorganisms in relation to same at international level showing extent of diversity


**Table 2.** Endemism in different plant groups of India showing high % of endemism to emphasize need of conservation

As per the IUCN Red List (2008), India has 246 globally threatened floral species, which constitute approximately 2.9% of the world's total number of threatened floral species (8457). Distribution of various IUCN threat categories of Indian plants as compared to global trends is given in Figure 3 and 4.

**Figure 3.** Indian plants – representation in IUCN threat categories

#### **2.2. Forest biodiversity**

species) are the areas rich in endemic plants. Endemism in different plant groups of India is

**Plant groups No. of species % of India to the world**

**Table 1.** Number of species in major groups of plants and microorganisms in relation to same at international level

**India World**

Virus/Bacteria 850 8,050 10.6 Algae 7175 40,000 17.9 Fungi 14,500 72,000 20.1 Lichens 2223 13,500 16.4 Bryophytes 2500 14,500 17.2 Pteridophytes 1,200 10,000 12.0 Gymnosperms 67 650 10.3 Angiosperms 17,527 2,50,000 7.0

given in Table 2.

236 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

(Source: http://www.conservation.org)

**Figure 2.** Global biodiversity hotspots

(Source: BSI, 2009)

showing extent of diversity

India is endowed with vast forest resources. Forests play a vital role in social, cultural, economic and industrial development of the country and in maintaining its ecological balance. The forest resources are storehouse of biodiversity. Other land use practices are benefitted by forests. Realizing the crucial role of forests in maintaining the ecological balance and socioeconomic development, the National Forest Policy, 1988 aims at maintaining a minimum of

**Figure 4.** Plants – global representation in IUCN threat categories

33% of country's geographical area under forest and tree cover. Currently, total forest cover of India is 692,027 km2 which forms 21.05% of the geographical area of the country (FSI 2011). The state of Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover (77,700 km2 ) in the country followed by Arunachal Pradesh (67,410 km2 ), Chhattisgarh (55,674 km2 ), Maharashtra (50,646 km2 ) and Orissa (48,903 km2 ) in terms of percentage of forest cover with respect to total geographical area.

(Source: FSI 2001)

**Figure 6.** Forest cover map of India

The forests in the country have been classified into 16 major types and 251 subtypes by Champion and Seth (1968) on the basis of climatic and edaphic features. Forest Survey of India has mapped forest types of India, based on Champion and Seth classification on 1:50,000 scale.

Ecosystem Biodiversity of India http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58431 239

Distribution of diverse forest types across the country is presented in Table 3.

**Figure 5.** Forest cover of India

(Source: FSI 2001)

33% of country's geographical area under forest and tree cover. Currently, total forest cover of India is 692,027 km2 which forms 21.05% of the geographical area of the country (FSI 2011).

), Chhattisgarh (55,674 km2

) in terms of percentage of forest cover with respect to total geographical

) in the country followed

) and

), Maharashtra (50,646 km2

The state of Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover (77,700 km2

**Figure 4.** Plants – global representation in IUCN threat categories

by Arunachal Pradesh (67,410 km2

238 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

Orissa (48,903 km2

**Figure 5.** Forest cover of India

area.

**Figure 6.** Forest cover map of India

The forests in the country have been classified into 16 major types and 251 subtypes by Champion and Seth (1968) on the basis of climatic and edaphic features. Forest Survey of India has mapped forest types of India, based on Champion and Seth classification on 1:50,000 scale. Distribution of diverse forest types across the country is presented in Table 3.


The Indian Himalayan flora represents 71 endemic genera and 32% endemic species. The families such as Tetracentraceae, Hamamelidaceae, Circaeasteraceae, Butomaceae, and Stachyuraceae are endemic families of flowering plants. Over 90% of the species in the family Berberidaceae and Saxifragaceae are endemic to the Himalaya, several of the species are disjunct elements of phytogeographical significance. A large number of orchids, many

Except perhaps in the higher elevations of Himalayas and in the more arid parts of Tahr Desert, the natural vegetation of India is essentially arboreal. It is conifers in the Himalayas, which generally resemble that from the north. The most conspicuous trees here are *Shorea robusta, Dipterocarpus tuberculatus, Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia catechu* and *Acacia nilotica*, ssp Indigenous palms like *Corypha, Phoenix sylvestris* and *Borassus flabellifer* as well as Bamboos are common here. Tree ferns are abundant in the forests of Eastern Himalays. The occurrence of *Rhododen‐ dron*, an Ericaceae member of high altitude, both in the Himalayas and in the Western Ghats is phytogeographically interesting. The tropical humid elements in the Western Himalays is represented by the Malesian-Deccanian-Pre Himalayan forms such as *Terminalia bellirica, Bombax ceiba*, *Toona cilitata, Syzygium cumini, Lagerstroemia* spp., *Daphniphyllum* spp. and *Shorea robusta*. The tropical semi-arid elements are represented by *Woodfordia* spp., *Dalbergia sissoo*

The evergreen forests in the Eastern Himalays consist of tree species such as *Aesculus panduana, Artocarpus chamba* (*A. chaplasha*), *Michelia chmapaca, Cinnamomum* spp., *Schima wallichii* and *Dillenia indica*. The common Bamboo seen here is *Dendrocalamus hamiltonii*. The Savannas in this part of the Himalays are usually moist and consist of trees like *Albizia procera, Bischofia javanica* and *Bombax*. The vegetation in the lower region is dominated by broad leaved species of Oaks such as *Quercus lamellosa*, *Q. lineate, Michelia daltsopa* (*M. excelsa*), *Pyrus* spp., *Symplo‐*

In Indo-Pacific region Thar desert ecoregion is considered the world's seventh largest desert. The eco-region lies to the west of Aravalli Range and characterized by extreme climate with

Flora of Indian desert consists of approximately 700 species (352 genera and 87 families including solitary gymnosperm family). 37 genera and 63 species are exotic to the region. A large number of plants species found in the Thar Desert are known to be endemic (Khan and Frost 2001). High endemism and the occurrence of a large number of sub-species provide evidence of high phylogenetic plasticity and intense speculation on account of extreme dynamics of the ecological conditions, and the recent geological, physiographic, topographical those of the Sahara (Quezel 1965). The plant taxa endemic to the Thar Desert include 23 species and 14 sub-species, forming 6.4 percent of the recorded total. High endemism and the occurrence of a large number of subspecies provide evidence of high phylogenetic plasticity. A complex of extreme environmental factors, the dynamics of the ecological conditions, recent geological, physiographic and topographical changes, can induce speciation. The proportion

C during the summer. Rainfall in such

Ecosystem Biodiversity of India http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58431 241

representing neoendemic taxa occur in Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.

and *Lannea coromandelica*.

**ii. Desert region**

region ranges between 100-150 mm.

*cos* spp., *Eurya* spp., *Meliosma* spp., and *Castanopsis* spp.

temperature touching subzero in winters and nearly 50o

**Table 3.** Percentage of total forest cover in different forest type groups supporting harbouring diverse life forms

Forests are one of the most biologically rich terrestrial systems with diversity in their forest types. These types provide habitats for plants, animals and micro-organisms, and harbour the vast majority of the world's terrestrial species. Furthermore, forest biodiversity is interlinked to a web of other socio-economic factors, providing an array of goods and services that range from timber and non-timber forest resources to mitigating climate change and genetic resources. At the same time, forests provide livelihoods for people worldwide and play important economic, social, and cultural roles in the lives of many indigenous communities. Therefore, forests and forest biological diversity are innately linked to ecosystem and human well-being.

#### **2.3. Salient features of India's forest phytodiversity**

#### **i. The Himalayas**

Himalayas-one of the largest and youngest mountain chains in the world-cover roughly 10% of India total land surface. Variations in terms of its size, climate and altitudinal ranges have created environments unique and characteristic to this region only. The diverse climate and the varied environmental conditions of Himalayas support diverse habitat and ecosystems with equally diverse life forms.

The Indian Himalayan flora represents 71 endemic genera and 32% endemic species. The families such as Tetracentraceae, Hamamelidaceae, Circaeasteraceae, Butomaceae, and Stachyuraceae are endemic families of flowering plants. Over 90% of the species in the family Berberidaceae and Saxifragaceae are endemic to the Himalaya, several of the species are disjunct elements of phytogeographical significance. A large number of orchids, many representing neoendemic taxa occur in Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.

Except perhaps in the higher elevations of Himalayas and in the more arid parts of Tahr Desert, the natural vegetation of India is essentially arboreal. It is conifers in the Himalayas, which generally resemble that from the north. The most conspicuous trees here are *Shorea robusta, Dipterocarpus tuberculatus, Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia catechu* and *Acacia nilotica*, ssp Indigenous palms like *Corypha, Phoenix sylvestris* and *Borassus flabellifer* as well as Bamboos are common here. Tree ferns are abundant in the forests of Eastern Himalays. The occurrence of *Rhododen‐ dron*, an Ericaceae member of high altitude, both in the Himalayas and in the Western Ghats is phytogeographically interesting. The tropical humid elements in the Western Himalays is represented by the Malesian-Deccanian-Pre Himalayan forms such as *Terminalia bellirica, Bombax ceiba*, *Toona cilitata, Syzygium cumini, Lagerstroemia* spp., *Daphniphyllum* spp. and *Shorea robusta*. The tropical semi-arid elements are represented by *Woodfordia* spp., *Dalbergia sissoo* and *Lannea coromandelica*.

The evergreen forests in the Eastern Himalays consist of tree species such as *Aesculus panduana, Artocarpus chamba* (*A. chaplasha*), *Michelia chmapaca, Cinnamomum* spp., *Schima wallichii* and *Dillenia indica*. The common Bamboo seen here is *Dendrocalamus hamiltonii*. The Savannas in this part of the Himalays are usually moist and consist of trees like *Albizia procera, Bischofia javanica* and *Bombax*. The vegetation in the lower region is dominated by broad leaved species of Oaks such as *Quercus lamellosa*, *Q. lineate, Michelia daltsopa* (*M. excelsa*), *Pyrus* spp., *Symplo‐ cos* spp., *Eurya* spp., *Meliosma* spp., and *Castanopsis* spp.

#### **ii. Desert region**

**Sl.No Group % of Forest Cover**

**Table 3.** Percentage of total forest cover in different forest type groups supporting harbouring diverse life forms

Forests are one of the most biologically rich terrestrial systems with diversity in their forest types. These types provide habitats for plants, animals and micro-organisms, and harbour the vast majority of the world's terrestrial species. Furthermore, forest biodiversity is interlinked to a web of other socio-economic factors, providing an array of goods and services that range from timber and non-timber forest resources to mitigating climate change and genetic resources. At the same time, forests provide livelihoods for people worldwide and play important economic, social, and cultural roles in the lives of many indigenous communities. Therefore, forests and forest biological diversity are innately linked to ecosystem and human

Himalayas-one of the largest and youngest mountain chains in the world-cover roughly 10% of India total land surface. Variations in terms of its size, climate and altitudinal ranges have created environments unique and characteristic to this region only. The diverse climate and the varied environmental conditions of Himalayas support diverse habitat and ecosystems

1. Group1- Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest 2.92 2. Group2- Tropical Semi –Evergreen Forest 13.79 3. Group3- Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest 19.73 4. Group 4-Littoral and Swamp Forest 0.69 5. Group5- Tropical Dry Deciduous 41.87 6. Group 6-Tropical Thron Forest 2.25 7. Group 7- Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest 0.13 8. Group 8- Subtropical Broadleaved Hill Forest 2.69 9. Group 9 Subtropical Pine Forest 2.63 10 Group 10- Subtropical Dry Evergreen Forest 0.03 11 Group 11- Montane Wet Temperate Forest 0.69 12 Group 12- Himalayan Moist Temperate Forest 4.12 13 Group13- Himalayan Dry Temperate Forest 0.84 14 Group 14,15 ,16- Sub Alpine and Alpine Forest 2.55 15 Plantation/TOF 5.07

240 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

(Source: FSI 2011)

well-being.

**i. The Himalayas**

with equally diverse life forms.

**2.3. Salient features of India's forest phytodiversity**

In Indo-Pacific region Thar desert ecoregion is considered the world's seventh largest desert. The eco-region lies to the west of Aravalli Range and characterized by extreme climate with temperature touching subzero in winters and nearly 50o C during the summer. Rainfall in such region ranges between 100-150 mm.

Flora of Indian desert consists of approximately 700 species (352 genera and 87 families including solitary gymnosperm family). 37 genera and 63 species are exotic to the region. A large number of plants species found in the Thar Desert are known to be endemic (Khan and Frost 2001). High endemism and the occurrence of a large number of sub-species provide evidence of high phylogenetic plasticity and intense speculation on account of extreme dynamics of the ecological conditions, and the recent geological, physiographic, topographical those of the Sahara (Quezel 1965). The plant taxa endemic to the Thar Desert include 23 species and 14 sub-species, forming 6.4 percent of the recorded total. High endemism and the occurrence of a large number of subspecies provide evidence of high phylogenetic plasticity. A complex of extreme environmental factors, the dynamics of the ecological conditions, recent geological, physiographic and topographical changes, can induce speciation. The proportion

of endemic plant species in the Indian desert is higher (6.4 percent) than that of the Sahara which has only 3 to 5 percent of endemic species (Gupta 1998). The Indian desert endemic flora includes: *Calligonum polygonoides* (Polygonaceae), *Prosopis cineraria* (Mimosaceae), *Acacia nilotica* (Mimosaceae), *Lasiurus sindicus* (Poaceae), *Cenchrus biflorus* (Poaceae), *Tecomella undulata* (Bignoniaceae), *Citrullus colocynthis* (Cucurbitaceae), *Anogeissuspendula* (Combreta‐ ceae), *Tamarix aphylla* (Tamaricaceae), *Salvadora oleoides* (Salvadoraceae),*Commiphora weightii* (Burseraceae), *Haloxylon salicornicum* (Chenopodiaceae), *Capparis decidua* (Capparaceae), *Sueda fructicosa* (Chenopodiaceae), *Aerva pseudotomentosa* (Amaranthaceae) *Crotolaria burhia* (Faba‐ ceae), *Leptadenia pyrotechnica* (Ascelpiadaceae).

Samati and Gogoi (2007) carried out a study for the documentation of the ethnobotanical wealth of Jaintia hills. Population expulsion and unemployment also compel people to exploit these SGs, leading to a rapid dwindling of many rare and threatened taxa of both plants and animals from the region. In this context he mentions that an extensive awareness programme is needed to educate the locals about SGs. The State Forest Department and MoEF can join hands with the local NGOs to create a network of all the SGs and bring them under statesponsored conservation programmes. The Tourism Department also should come forward to focus on SGs as a destination for tourists. The local community should be provided with adequate funds and the responsibility to manage the SGs. This will help in the protection of the SGs. Eco-restoration and afforestation programmes of the government conservation

Ecosystem Biodiversity of India http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58431 243

Deb et al (2008) stated that the areca-nut based traditional agroforests and the natural tropical rainforests have multi-layered vegetal structures with comparable tree density, but showed significant differences in soil nutrients and microbial biomass that recorded lower values in traditional agroforests as compared to the tropical forests. Nonetheless, the percentage contribution of soil microbial biomass, litter and fine roots to soil C was similar and competitive in traditional agroforests, but substantially lower than that in the tropical forests. Litter had a major role to play in soil nutrient turnover in tropical forests followed by soil microbes and fine roots. The traditional agroforesty systems studied are, however not well-managed, but when subjected to scientific management might prove to be a sustainable food production land use system in the hills and flood plains and consequently can potentially promote conservation

Deb and Sundriyal (2007) stated that small and medium size gaps had limited impacts on the species composition. Such gaps however are crucial for regeneration of top canopy as well as pioneer species and hence the important for maintaining species diversity in Namdapha National Park. As the gaps showed difference in species composition, it clearly illustrated that the plant species behavior in low-land tropical forest is independent of gap size and is mainly governed by availability of seeds at the time of creation of gaps. The information on the tree

Mishra *et al* 2005 conducted a study in a subtropical humid forest (sacred grove) at Mawnai, West Khasi hills district of Meghalaya. *Citrus medica* (Rutaceae), the dominant species, was the only species exhibiting random distribution. All other species showed contagious distribution. *Cryptocarya amygdalina*, family Lauraceae, was the co-dominant species. Lauraceae (17 species) was the species rich family in the grove and exhibited maximum tree density and basal area. However, generic composition was highest (9 genera) in the case of Euphorbiaceae, which is the co-dominant family in the grove. Majority of the families were represented by single genus and single species. Log-normal dominance-distribution curves at the levels of species and family, and wide girth structure signify the complexity and stability of the community.

The Western Ghats are the main peninsular hill range extending over 1400 Km, starting in the north from near the Tapti River and ending in the south near Kanyakumari. Undoubtedly it

species gap performance has implications for the management of the forest stand.

agencies should also include these degraded SGs.

and sustainability of the tropical forests.

**v. The Western Ghats**

The once glorious forests in this region stand, however degraded because of the biotic interference and comprise mostly of bushy, thorny plants. The common trees found are *Acacia nilotica*, ssp. *indica, Prosopis cineraria, Acacia senegal, Anogeissus latifolia, Syzygium cumini*, *Dalbergia sissoo, Albizia lebbeck, Boswellia serrata, Balanites aegyptiaca* (*B. roxburghii*), *Sterculia urens, Commiphora mukul* and *Acacia leucophloea*. *Prosopis chilensis* (*P. juliflora*) is extensively planted all over the plains.

Pandey *et al.* (1983) reported 41 and Sharma (1983) reported 106 rare, endangered and threatened (RET) taxa from Rajasthan. Pandey and Shetty (1985) listed RET taxa, whereas Singh (1985) dealt with threatened taxa and their scope of conservation. The present flora of Rajasthan has 2090 species belonging to 819 genera under 159 families of vascular plants (Shetty and Singh, 1987-1993). This included 63 RET taxa, reasons for their depletion and strategies for conservation as well as 45 species of crop and other cultivated plants having 66 species of their wild relatives. However, various researchers are working on under explored areas in search of new species and re-defining the status of RET species. According to Khan et al. (2003), Thar Desert has its own importance and specific characteristics with respect to endemic and medicinal plants. In this study forty-five plant species were considered to be rare and/or endangered and a large number of plants have been categorized as of economic importance and medicinal use. The high population of the region exerts pressure on the biological resources of the Thar Desert causing lack of sustainability and necessitates conser‐ vation of biodiversity actions.

### **iii. Gangetic Plain**

The forests of Gangetic Plain have largely been destroyed and in some tracts Sal forests are left. The Sal forests have species like *Terminalia elliptica* (*T. alata*), *Terminalia bellirica, Bauhinia* spp., *Syzygium cumini*, *Phyllanthus emblica* and *Woodfordia* sp. The mangrove forests of Sun‐ derbans have species like *Aechmanthera gossypina* (*Aegiceras majus*), *Cynometra iripa* (*C. mimo‐ soides*) and *Ceriops tagal* (*C. candolleana*).

#### **iv. North-east India**

In the north-east region, the tree flora is luxuriant, consisting of species like *Artocarpus chamba, Michelia champaca, Ficus elastica, Mesua ferrea, Alstonia scholaris, Pterygota alata, Morus macro‐ ura* (*M. laevigata*) and *Stereospermum chelonoides*. The common Bamboo available here is *Dendrocalamus hamiltonii*. The hill forests are dominated by *Alnus nepalensis, Rhododendron arboreum, Michelia champaca* and *Prunus* sp. The Pine forests are composed of *Pinus kesiya*.

Samati and Gogoi (2007) carried out a study for the documentation of the ethnobotanical wealth of Jaintia hills. Population expulsion and unemployment also compel people to exploit these SGs, leading to a rapid dwindling of many rare and threatened taxa of both plants and animals from the region. In this context he mentions that an extensive awareness programme is needed to educate the locals about SGs. The State Forest Department and MoEF can join hands with the local NGOs to create a network of all the SGs and bring them under statesponsored conservation programmes. The Tourism Department also should come forward to focus on SGs as a destination for tourists. The local community should be provided with adequate funds and the responsibility to manage the SGs. This will help in the protection of the SGs. Eco-restoration and afforestation programmes of the government conservation agencies should also include these degraded SGs.

Deb et al (2008) stated that the areca-nut based traditional agroforests and the natural tropical rainforests have multi-layered vegetal structures with comparable tree density, but showed significant differences in soil nutrients and microbial biomass that recorded lower values in traditional agroforests as compared to the tropical forests. Nonetheless, the percentage contribution of soil microbial biomass, litter and fine roots to soil C was similar and competitive in traditional agroforests, but substantially lower than that in the tropical forests. Litter had a major role to play in soil nutrient turnover in tropical forests followed by soil microbes and fine roots. The traditional agroforesty systems studied are, however not well-managed, but when subjected to scientific management might prove to be a sustainable food production land use system in the hills and flood plains and consequently can potentially promote conservation and sustainability of the tropical forests.

Deb and Sundriyal (2007) stated that small and medium size gaps had limited impacts on the species composition. Such gaps however are crucial for regeneration of top canopy as well as pioneer species and hence the important for maintaining species diversity in Namdapha National Park. As the gaps showed difference in species composition, it clearly illustrated that the plant species behavior in low-land tropical forest is independent of gap size and is mainly governed by availability of seeds at the time of creation of gaps. The information on the tree species gap performance has implications for the management of the forest stand.

Mishra *et al* 2005 conducted a study in a subtropical humid forest (sacred grove) at Mawnai, West Khasi hills district of Meghalaya. *Citrus medica* (Rutaceae), the dominant species, was the only species exhibiting random distribution. All other species showed contagious distribution. *Cryptocarya amygdalina*, family Lauraceae, was the co-dominant species. Lauraceae (17 species) was the species rich family in the grove and exhibited maximum tree density and basal area. However, generic composition was highest (9 genera) in the case of Euphorbiaceae, which is the co-dominant family in the grove. Majority of the families were represented by single genus and single species. Log-normal dominance-distribution curves at the levels of species and family, and wide girth structure signify the complexity and stability of the community.

#### **v. The Western Ghats**

of endemic plant species in the Indian desert is higher (6.4 percent) than that of the Sahara which has only 3 to 5 percent of endemic species (Gupta 1998). The Indian desert endemic flora includes: *Calligonum polygonoides* (Polygonaceae), *Prosopis cineraria* (Mimosaceae), *Acacia nilotica* (Mimosaceae), *Lasiurus sindicus* (Poaceae), *Cenchrus biflorus* (Poaceae), *Tecomella undulata* (Bignoniaceae), *Citrullus colocynthis* (Cucurbitaceae), *Anogeissuspendula* (Combreta‐ ceae), *Tamarix aphylla* (Tamaricaceae), *Salvadora oleoides* (Salvadoraceae),*Commiphora weightii* (Burseraceae), *Haloxylon salicornicum* (Chenopodiaceae), *Capparis decidua* (Capparaceae), *Sueda fructicosa* (Chenopodiaceae), *Aerva pseudotomentosa* (Amaranthaceae) *Crotolaria burhia* (Faba‐

The once glorious forests in this region stand, however degraded because of the biotic interference and comprise mostly of bushy, thorny plants. The common trees found are *Acacia nilotica*, ssp. *indica, Prosopis cineraria, Acacia senegal, Anogeissus latifolia, Syzygium cumini*, *Dalbergia sissoo, Albizia lebbeck, Boswellia serrata, Balanites aegyptiaca* (*B. roxburghii*), *Sterculia urens, Commiphora mukul* and *Acacia leucophloea*. *Prosopis chilensis* (*P. juliflora*) is extensively

Pandey *et al.* (1983) reported 41 and Sharma (1983) reported 106 rare, endangered and threatened (RET) taxa from Rajasthan. Pandey and Shetty (1985) listed RET taxa, whereas Singh (1985) dealt with threatened taxa and their scope of conservation. The present flora of Rajasthan has 2090 species belonging to 819 genera under 159 families of vascular plants (Shetty and Singh, 1987-1993). This included 63 RET taxa, reasons for their depletion and strategies for conservation as well as 45 species of crop and other cultivated plants having 66 species of their wild relatives. However, various researchers are working on under explored areas in search of new species and re-defining the status of RET species. According to Khan et al. (2003), Thar Desert has its own importance and specific characteristics with respect to endemic and medicinal plants. In this study forty-five plant species were considered to be rare and/or endangered and a large number of plants have been categorized as of economic importance and medicinal use. The high population of the region exerts pressure on the biological resources of the Thar Desert causing lack of sustainability and necessitates conser‐

The forests of Gangetic Plain have largely been destroyed and in some tracts Sal forests are left. The Sal forests have species like *Terminalia elliptica* (*T. alata*), *Terminalia bellirica, Bauhinia* spp., *Syzygium cumini*, *Phyllanthus emblica* and *Woodfordia* sp. The mangrove forests of Sun‐ derbans have species like *Aechmanthera gossypina* (*Aegiceras majus*), *Cynometra iripa* (*C. mimo‐*

In the north-east region, the tree flora is luxuriant, consisting of species like *Artocarpus chamba, Michelia champaca, Ficus elastica, Mesua ferrea, Alstonia scholaris, Pterygota alata, Morus macro‐ ura* (*M. laevigata*) and *Stereospermum chelonoides*. The common Bamboo available here is *Dendrocalamus hamiltonii*. The hill forests are dominated by *Alnus nepalensis, Rhododendron arboreum, Michelia champaca* and *Prunus* sp. The Pine forests are composed of *Pinus kesiya*.

ceae), *Leptadenia pyrotechnica* (Ascelpiadaceae).

planted all over the plains.

242 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

vation of biodiversity actions.

*soides*) and *Ceriops tagal* (*C. candolleana*).

**iii. Gangetic Plain**

**iv. North-east India**

The Western Ghats are the main peninsular hill range extending over 1400 Km, starting in the north from near the Tapti River and ending in the south near Kanyakumari. Undoubtedly it is the most important topographic feature of peninsular India. It is more or less homogenous but biologically distinctive geographical zone with total area of about 1,60,000 sq. Km of which about one third is forests. It is known that 90% of the country's medicinal flora occurs in these forests.

The vegetation of the Western Ghats of the Malabar region is very rich and phytogeographi‐ cally interesting. The species occurring here show affinities with that of Sri Lanka and Malaysia. The region is also rich in endemic species. The conifer, *Nageia wallichiana (Podocarpus wallichianus),* confined to the hills of Tirunelveli and Southern Kerala is known only from

Ecosystem Biodiversity of India http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58431 245

The deciduous forests of Deccan have species like *Sterculia urens, Boswellia serrata* and *Cochlospermum religiosum*. The dry slopes have *Anogeissus latifolia, Ougenia oojeinensis, Lannea coromadelica, Cleistanthus collinus, Zizyphus xylopyrus, Buchanania* spp., *Terminalia* spp., *Bauhinia* spp., *Shorea* spp., Dalbergia spp., *Maduca longifolia*, var. *latifolia* (*Bassia latifolia*), *Diospyros* spp., *Pterocarpus marsupium*, *Pterocarpus santalinus*, *Eugenia* spp. and *Wendlandia thyrsoidea*. The areas of having black cotton soil are covered by *Capparis divaricata*, *Acacia nilotica*, ssp. *indica*, *Prosopis*

Except the more arid margins, the whole of Peninsular India was formerly densely forested, but at present only *Acacia* shrubs occur here. The thorn forests in the west, the closed monsoon forests of *Shorea* in Chota-Nagpur and the open deciduous forests in between are only relics.

The vegetation of Andaman Islands consist of Mangrove forests, Littoral forests, Evergreen forests, Deciduous forests and the hill forests on shallow soiled slopes of hills. The major tree species of the island are *Pterocarpus dalbergioides* (Andaman Padauk), *Thespesia populnea, Pongamia pinnata, Barringtonia* sp., *Erythrina indica, Calophyllum inophyllum, Gyrocarpus ameri‐ canus, Terminalia catappa, Rhizophora mucronata, Brugueira gymnorrhiza* and *Ceiops tagal* (Parkinson, 1923). The Andamans and the Nicobar Islands possess the best quality of mangrove forests. The total area estimated under mangrove vegetation in India is 4827 km2 and out of

the total mangrove area of the Indian territory) (Ramakrishana *et al.* 2010). There are 45 species

The distribution of different mangrove genera shows that the greatest number of genera and species occur along the shores of the Indian and Western Pacific oceans. The Indian mangorves comprise approximately 59 species of 41 genera, belonging to 29 families. Of these, 32 species belonging to 24 genera and 20 families are present along the west coast. There are about 21 mangrove species reported from Gujarat coast, 28 from Maharashtra, 20 from Goa, 21 from Karnataka, 14 from Kerala and 4 from Lakshadweep. The Arabian Sea coast is characterised by the typical funnel shaped estuaries of the major rivers like Narmada and Tapti and numerous small rivers. The entire west coast is thus dominated by estuarine backwater type of mangroves, unlike the deltaic mangroves of the east coast. Mangrove forests of the west coast are evergreen or deciduous, characterized by the presence of *Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata*, *Kandelia candel*, *Brugueira gymnorrhiza* and *Carallia brachiata*. *Sonneratia caseolaris* reported by Blatter in 1905 is fast disappearing from the west coast, while *S. apetala* is found

of mangroves, coming under 27 genera, represented in the island zone.

area of mangroves occurs in Andaman and Nicobar Islands (i.e. 20 per cent of

Burma and South East Asia.

*cineraria, Parkinsonia aculeata* and *Zizyphus mauritiana*.

**vi. Deccan Plataeu**

**vii. Andaman Islands**

**viii. Coastal zone and Lakshadweep**

this, 966 km2

The Western Ghats region is considered as one of the most important biogeographic zones of India as well as one of the 34 'Hot Spots' of biodiversity recognized in the world. About 1500 endemic species of dicotyledonous plants have been reported from the Western Ghats. It is one of the richest centers of endemism. Due to varied topography and micro-climatic regimes, some areas within the region are considered to be active zones of speciation. The region has 490 arborescent taxa, of which as many as 308 are endemics. 56 genera and 1500 species of flowering plants and 63% of India's evergreen forest plants are endemic to the Western Ghats.

The Western Ghats forests are characterized by conditions of high humidity and temperature, favouring vigorous growth of trees that often attains a height of 60 m or more. The tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests are typically rain forests. Luxuriant vegetation in more or less virgin condition is a characteristic feature of the Malabar region of the Western Ghats. The region has tropical evergreen rain forests, mixed deciduous or monsoon forests and subtropical or temperate forests. Majority of the tree species in this region belong to the families like Dipterocarpaceae, Guttiferae, Myristicaceae, Tiliaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Annona‐ ceae, Anacardiaceae, Fabacae, Caesalpiniaceae, Mimosaceae, Meliaceae, Myrtaceae, Rutaceae, Rubiaceae, Sapotaceae, Urticaceae and Palmaceae. The tropical evergreen forests consists of tree species such as *Toona ciliata*, *Dysoxylum malabaricum, Vateria indica, Dipterocarpus indicus, Hopea parviflora*, *Hopea ponga*, *Cullenia exarillata, Artocarpus hirsuta*, *Vitex altissima, Hydnocarpus laurifolia*, *Humboldtia* spp., *Haldinia cordifolia* and *Garcicina* spp.

The mixed deciduous or monsoon forests consist of dominant tree species like *Terminalia elliptica* (*T. alata*), *T. paniculata, T. bellirica, T. chebula, Lagerstroemia* spp., *Dalbergia latifolia, Xylia xylocarpa, Pterospermum* spp., *Sterculia urens, S. guttata* and *Stereospermum* spp. The bamboos occurring commonly in this forests are *Bambusa bambos* and *Dendrocalamus strictus*.

The subtropical or temperate evergreen forests are commonly known as "Sholas" and they usually exist above an altitude of 1800 m. They are composed mainly of *Gordonia obtusa, Michelia nilagirica, Ternstroemia japonica, Syzgium mudagam, Eugenia* spp., *Meliosma simplicifolia, Symplocos cochinchinensis, Litsea coriacea, Litsea floribunda* and *Actinodaphne* spp. The flora of the Nilgiri hills are interesting, as it shows affinities with Assam flora and with that of the southern slopes of Himalayas. Shola forests in the mountain slopes with trees of *Rhododendron arbor‐ eum*, ssp. *nilagiricum*, *Turpinia nepalensis, Elaeocarpus serrtus, E. recurvatus* and *Viburnum* spp. are unique in composition.

Fresh water swamps with characteristic vegetation occur in the Malabar region of the Western Ghats, dominated by different species of *Myristica*. Therefore, they are also called as "Myristica Swamps". The Myristica species in the swampy areas produce "Knee roots" which are very unique. The Myristica swamps consist of species such as *Myristica fatua* var. *magnifica* (*M. magnifica*), *M. malabarica, M. dactyloides, M. beddomei, M. contorta* and *Knema attenuata*

The vegetation of the Western Ghats of the Malabar region is very rich and phytogeographi‐ cally interesting. The species occurring here show affinities with that of Sri Lanka and Malaysia. The region is also rich in endemic species. The conifer, *Nageia wallichiana (Podocarpus wallichianus),* confined to the hills of Tirunelveli and Southern Kerala is known only from Burma and South East Asia.

#### **vi. Deccan Plataeu**

is the most important topographic feature of peninsular India. It is more or less homogenous but biologically distinctive geographical zone with total area of about 1,60,000 sq. Km of which about one third is forests. It is known that 90% of the country's medicinal flora occurs in these

The Western Ghats region is considered as one of the most important biogeographic zones of India as well as one of the 34 'Hot Spots' of biodiversity recognized in the world. About 1500 endemic species of dicotyledonous plants have been reported from the Western Ghats. It is one of the richest centers of endemism. Due to varied topography and micro-climatic regimes, some areas within the region are considered to be active zones of speciation. The region has 490 arborescent taxa, of which as many as 308 are endemics. 56 genera and 1500 species of flowering plants and 63% of India's evergreen forest plants are endemic to the Western Ghats.

The Western Ghats forests are characterized by conditions of high humidity and temperature, favouring vigorous growth of trees that often attains a height of 60 m or more. The tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests are typically rain forests. Luxuriant vegetation in more or less virgin condition is a characteristic feature of the Malabar region of the Western Ghats. The region has tropical evergreen rain forests, mixed deciduous or monsoon forests and subtropical or temperate forests. Majority of the tree species in this region belong to the families like Dipterocarpaceae, Guttiferae, Myristicaceae, Tiliaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Annona‐ ceae, Anacardiaceae, Fabacae, Caesalpiniaceae, Mimosaceae, Meliaceae, Myrtaceae, Rutaceae, Rubiaceae, Sapotaceae, Urticaceae and Palmaceae. The tropical evergreen forests consists of tree species such as *Toona ciliata*, *Dysoxylum malabaricum, Vateria indica, Dipterocarpus indicus, Hopea parviflora*, *Hopea ponga*, *Cullenia exarillata, Artocarpus hirsuta*, *Vitex altissima, Hydnocarpus*

The mixed deciduous or monsoon forests consist of dominant tree species like *Terminalia elliptica* (*T. alata*), *T. paniculata, T. bellirica, T. chebula, Lagerstroemia* spp., *Dalbergia latifolia, Xylia xylocarpa, Pterospermum* spp., *Sterculia urens, S. guttata* and *Stereospermum* spp. The bamboos

The subtropical or temperate evergreen forests are commonly known as "Sholas" and they usually exist above an altitude of 1800 m. They are composed mainly of *Gordonia obtusa, Michelia nilagirica, Ternstroemia japonica, Syzgium mudagam, Eugenia* spp., *Meliosma simplicifolia, Symplocos cochinchinensis, Litsea coriacea, Litsea floribunda* and *Actinodaphne* spp. The flora of the Nilgiri hills are interesting, as it shows affinities with Assam flora and with that of the southern slopes of Himalayas. Shola forests in the mountain slopes with trees of *Rhododendron arbor‐ eum*, ssp. *nilagiricum*, *Turpinia nepalensis, Elaeocarpus serrtus, E. recurvatus* and *Viburnum* spp.

Fresh water swamps with characteristic vegetation occur in the Malabar region of the Western Ghats, dominated by different species of *Myristica*. Therefore, they are also called as "Myristica Swamps". The Myristica species in the swampy areas produce "Knee roots" which are very unique. The Myristica swamps consist of species such as *Myristica fatua* var. *magnifica* (*M.*

*magnifica*), *M. malabarica, M. dactyloides, M. beddomei, M. contorta* and *Knema attenuata*

occurring commonly in this forests are *Bambusa bambos* and *Dendrocalamus strictus*.

*laurifolia*, *Humboldtia* spp., *Haldinia cordifolia* and *Garcicina* spp.

are unique in composition.

forests.

244 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

The deciduous forests of Deccan have species like *Sterculia urens, Boswellia serrata* and *Cochlospermum religiosum*. The dry slopes have *Anogeissus latifolia, Ougenia oojeinensis, Lannea coromadelica, Cleistanthus collinus, Zizyphus xylopyrus, Buchanania* spp., *Terminalia* spp., *Bauhinia* spp., *Shorea* spp., Dalbergia spp., *Maduca longifolia*, var. *latifolia* (*Bassia latifolia*), *Diospyros* spp., *Pterocarpus marsupium*, *Pterocarpus santalinus*, *Eugenia* spp. and *Wendlandia thyrsoidea*. The areas of having black cotton soil are covered by *Capparis divaricata*, *Acacia nilotica*, ssp. *indica*, *Prosopis cineraria, Parkinsonia aculeata* and *Zizyphus mauritiana*.

Except the more arid margins, the whole of Peninsular India was formerly densely forested, but at present only *Acacia* shrubs occur here. The thorn forests in the west, the closed monsoon forests of *Shorea* in Chota-Nagpur and the open deciduous forests in between are only relics.

#### **vii. Andaman Islands**

The vegetation of Andaman Islands consist of Mangrove forests, Littoral forests, Evergreen forests, Deciduous forests and the hill forests on shallow soiled slopes of hills. The major tree species of the island are *Pterocarpus dalbergioides* (Andaman Padauk), *Thespesia populnea, Pongamia pinnata, Barringtonia* sp., *Erythrina indica, Calophyllum inophyllum, Gyrocarpus ameri‐ canus, Terminalia catappa, Rhizophora mucronata, Brugueira gymnorrhiza* and *Ceiops tagal* (Parkinson, 1923). The Andamans and the Nicobar Islands possess the best quality of mangrove forests. The total area estimated under mangrove vegetation in India is 4827 km2 and out of this, 966 km2 area of mangroves occurs in Andaman and Nicobar Islands (i.e. 20 per cent of the total mangrove area of the Indian territory) (Ramakrishana *et al.* 2010). There are 45 species of mangroves, coming under 27 genera, represented in the island zone.

#### **viii. Coastal zone and Lakshadweep**

The distribution of different mangrove genera shows that the greatest number of genera and species occur along the shores of the Indian and Western Pacific oceans. The Indian mangorves comprise approximately 59 species of 41 genera, belonging to 29 families. Of these, 32 species belonging to 24 genera and 20 families are present along the west coast. There are about 21 mangrove species reported from Gujarat coast, 28 from Maharashtra, 20 from Goa, 21 from Karnataka, 14 from Kerala and 4 from Lakshadweep. The Arabian Sea coast is characterised by the typical funnel shaped estuaries of the major rivers like Narmada and Tapti and numerous small rivers. The entire west coast is thus dominated by estuarine backwater type of mangroves, unlike the deltaic mangroves of the east coast. Mangrove forests of the west coast are evergreen or deciduous, characterized by the presence of *Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata*, *Kandelia candel*, *Brugueira gymnorrhiza* and *Carallia brachiata*. *Sonneratia caseolaris* reported by Blatter in 1905 is fast disappearing from the west coast, while *S. apetala* is found

only along the Maharashra coast. Species like *Ceriops decandra, Xylocarpus* spp., *Lumnitzera littoralis, Nypa fruticans, Phoenix paludosa* and *Cerbera manghas* are limited along the east coast. The species, which commonly occur and uniformly distributed along the east and west coast of India are *Rhizophora mucronata, R. apiculata, Ceriops tagal, Brugueira gymnorrhiza, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia apetala, Acanthus ilicifolius, Avicennia marina, A. officinalis, Excoecaria agallocha* and *Acrostichum aureum*. The east coast of India has deltaic type of mangroves and it covers about 70 percent of the total mangrove forested area in India (Deshmukh, 1991).

The TEEB study estimates that, on average, one hectare of tropical forest provides US\$ 6,120 per year in ecosystem services, such as watershed protection, climate regulation; soil stabili‐ zation, coastal protection, nutrient cycling, and carbon storage (Table 4). This also includes the numerous products from tropical forests, such as timber, wild food and non-timber forest products—rubber, oils and fibres that are economically important both locally and nationally in many tropical forest countries. Yet, only a fraction of this value is currently accounted for when we make economic decisions about the future of forests. The Green Economy Initiative of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and other efforts are now underway to improve the way we value and account for nature in our economic decision-making.

Ecosystem Biodiversity of India http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58431 247

Forests, with their rich biodiversity are essential for human livelihoods and for sustainable development. For example, fuel wood is the primary source of energy for heating and cooking for an estimated 2.6 billion people. The World Bank estimates that forests directly contribute to the livelihoods of some 90 per cent of the 1.2 billion people living in extreme poverty. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment also found that as many as 300 million people, many of them very poor, depend substantially on forest ecosystem services for their subsistence and survival. Many non timber forest products derived from forest biodiversity, such as wild cocoa, honey, gums, nuts, fruits, flowers, seeds, rattan, fungi and wild meat and berries are essential for the food, medicine and confectionary building material used by indigenous and local communities to sustain their way of life, including their cultural and religious traditions.

India has a huge population living close to the forest with their livelihoods critically linked to the forest ecosystem. There are around 1.73 lakh villages located in and around forests (MoEF, 2006). Though there is no official census figures for the forest dependent population in the country, different estimates put the figures from 275 million (World Bank, 2006) to 350-400 million (MoEF, 2009). People living in these forest fringe villages depend upon forest for a variety of goods and services which includes collection of edible fruits, flowers, tubers, roots and leaves for food and medicines; firewood for cooking (some also sale in the market); materials for agricultural implements, house construction and fencing; fodder (grass and leave) for livestock and grazing of livestock in forest; and collection of a range of marketable non-timber forest products. Therefore, with such a huge population and extensive dependence pattern, any over exploitation and unsustainable harvest practice can potentially degrade forest. Moreover, a significant percentage of the country's underprivileged population happened to be living in its forested regions (Saha and Guru, 2003). It has been estimated that more than 40 per cent of the poor of the country are living in these forest fringe villages (MoEF, 2006). Apart from this, a significant percentage of India's tribal population lives in these regions. Several field based studies have documented the adverse impact of such dependence pattern on the forest quality. The forest fringe communities not just collect these forest products for their own consumption but also for commercial sale, which fetch them some income. The income from sale of the forest products for households living in and around forest constitutes 40 to 60 per cent of their total income (Bharath Kumar *et al,* 2011; Sadashivappa *et al,* 2006; Mahapatra and Kant, 2005; Sills *et al,* 2003; Bahuguna, 2000). A study (Saha and Sundriyal,

**2.5. Support for people's livelihoods**

#### **2.4. Value of forest biodiversity**

Life has value and meaning beyond monetary measure, and so does biodiversity. While it is not really possible to put a monetary figure on the value of forests, it is now widely recognized that we need to improve the way our societies and economies account for ecosystem services. We often take these services for granted, such as the ability of the forest to filter water or produce oxygen. Human well-being depends on the goods and services provided by nature —Earth's "natural capital". Recent initiatives, such as the global study on 'The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity' (TEEB) have resulted in a better understanding of the economic value of forests and other ecosystems for societies.


**Table 4.** Values of ecosystem services in tropical forests for influencing economic decisions about the future of forests for Societies

The TEEB study estimates that, on average, one hectare of tropical forest provides US\$ 6,120 per year in ecosystem services, such as watershed protection, climate regulation; soil stabili‐ zation, coastal protection, nutrient cycling, and carbon storage (Table 4). This also includes the numerous products from tropical forests, such as timber, wild food and non-timber forest products—rubber, oils and fibres that are economically important both locally and nationally in many tropical forest countries. Yet, only a fraction of this value is currently accounted for when we make economic decisions about the future of forests. The Green Economy Initiative of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and other efforts are now underway to improve the way we value and account for nature in our economic decision-making.

#### **2.5. Support for people's livelihoods**

only along the Maharashra coast. Species like *Ceriops decandra, Xylocarpus* spp., *Lumnitzera littoralis, Nypa fruticans, Phoenix paludosa* and *Cerbera manghas* are limited along the east coast. The species, which commonly occur and uniformly distributed along the east and west coast of India are *Rhizophora mucronata, R. apiculata, Ceriops tagal, Brugueira gymnorrhiza, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia apetala, Acanthus ilicifolius, Avicennia marina, A. officinalis, Excoecaria agallocha* and *Acrostichum aureum*. The east coast of India has deltaic type of mangroves and it covers about 70 percent of the total mangrove forested area in India (Deshmukh, 1991).

Life has value and meaning beyond monetary measure, and so does biodiversity. While it is not really possible to put a monetary figure on the value of forests, it is now widely recognized that we need to improve the way our societies and economies account for ecosystem services. We often take these services for granted, such as the ability of the forest to filter water or produce oxygen. Human well-being depends on the goods and services provided by nature —Earth's "natural capital". Recent initiatives, such as the global study on 'The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity' (TEEB) have resulted in a better understanding of the economic

> **Value of Ecosystem Services (US\$/ha/year-2007 values) Average Maximum**

381 1171

**Table 4.** Values of ecosystem services in tropical forests for influencing economic decisions about the future of forests

**2.4. Value of forest biodiversity**

246 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

**Sl.No Ecosystem services**

**Provisioning services**

**Regulating services**

**Cultural services**

for Societies

Recreation and tourism

(Source: TEEB Climate Issues Update 2009)

opportunities

1.

value of forests and other ecosystems for societies.

1. Food 75 552 2. Water 143 411 3. Genetic resources 483 1756 4. Medicinal resources 181 562

1. Influence on air quality 230 449 2. Climate regulation 1965 3281 3. Water flow regulation 1360 5235 4. Waste treatment/ water purification 177 506 5. Erosion prevention 694 1084

**Total 6120** 16362

Forests, with their rich biodiversity are essential for human livelihoods and for sustainable development. For example, fuel wood is the primary source of energy for heating and cooking for an estimated 2.6 billion people. The World Bank estimates that forests directly contribute to the livelihoods of some 90 per cent of the 1.2 billion people living in extreme poverty. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment also found that as many as 300 million people, many of them very poor, depend substantially on forest ecosystem services for their subsistence and survival. Many non timber forest products derived from forest biodiversity, such as wild cocoa, honey, gums, nuts, fruits, flowers, seeds, rattan, fungi and wild meat and berries are essential for the food, medicine and confectionary building material used by indigenous and local communities to sustain their way of life, including their cultural and religious traditions.

India has a huge population living close to the forest with their livelihoods critically linked to the forest ecosystem. There are around 1.73 lakh villages located in and around forests (MoEF, 2006). Though there is no official census figures for the forest dependent population in the country, different estimates put the figures from 275 million (World Bank, 2006) to 350-400 million (MoEF, 2009). People living in these forest fringe villages depend upon forest for a variety of goods and services which includes collection of edible fruits, flowers, tubers, roots and leaves for food and medicines; firewood for cooking (some also sale in the market); materials for agricultural implements, house construction and fencing; fodder (grass and leave) for livestock and grazing of livestock in forest; and collection of a range of marketable non-timber forest products. Therefore, with such a huge population and extensive dependence pattern, any over exploitation and unsustainable harvest practice can potentially degrade forest. Moreover, a significant percentage of the country's underprivileged population happened to be living in its forested regions (Saha and Guru, 2003). It has been estimated that more than 40 per cent of the poor of the country are living in these forest fringe villages (MoEF, 2006). Apart from this, a significant percentage of India's tribal population lives in these regions. Several field based studies have documented the adverse impact of such dependence pattern on the forest quality. The forest fringe communities not just collect these forest products for their own consumption but also for commercial sale, which fetch them some income. The income from sale of the forest products for households living in and around forest constitutes 40 to 60 per cent of their total income (Bharath Kumar *et al,* 2011; Sadashivappa *et al,* 2006; Mahapatra and Kant, 2005; Sills *et al,* 2003; Bahuguna, 2000). A study (Saha and Sundriyal, 2012) on the extent of NTFP use in north east India suggest that the tribal communities use 343 NTFPs for diverse purposes like medicinal (163 species), edible fruits (75 species) and vege‐ tables (65 species). The dependence for firewood and house construction material is 100% and NTFPs contributed 19–32% of total household income for the communities under study (Saha and Sundriyal, 2012). Forests are not only a source of subsistence income for millions of poor households but also provide employment to poor in these hinterlands. This makes forests an important contributor to the rural economy in the forested landscapes in the country. The widespread poverty and lack of other income generating opportunities often make these people resort to over-exploitation of forest resources. The collection of firewood for sale in the market, though it is illegal, is also extensive in many parts of the forested regions in the country and constitutes the source of livelihood for 11 per cent of the population (IPCC, 2007). However, many other forest products have been sustainably harvested by local communities for many years, and are a constant source of household income.

The above explanation reveals that the area is unique to the region and hence requires special attention especially with respect of ecology of India. Hence laxity on our part in conserving the cultural and natural resources will put the area under severe thereat thereby exposing the

Ecosystem Biodiversity of India http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58431 249

Habitat destruction is identified as the main threat to biodiversity. Under diverse natural conditions, over a billion people in rural and urban areas live in harmony under a democratic system in India. Their pressing needs for food, fiber, shelter, fuel and fodder combined with compelling need for economic development exert enormous pressure on natural resources. With half the total land under agriculture, and approximately 23 or 20% per cent under forests, the protection of diverse habitats poses a formidable challenge. The loss and fragmentation of natural habitats affects all animal and plant species. We need to not only stop any further habitat loss immediately but also to restore a substantial fraction of the wilderness that has been depleted in the past. Various species of plants and animals are on the decline due to habitat fragmentation and over-exploitation, e.g. habitats of Great Indian Bustard in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan and of the Lion-tailed Macaque in Western Ghats. The major impact of developmental activities involves diversion of forest land. Since the enactment of Forest (Conservation) Act in 1980, about 14,997 development projects involving diversion of 11.40 lakh hectare forest area for non forestry uses, have been granted clearance. Against this

**2.7. Habitat fragmentation, degradation and loss, and shrinking genetic diversity**

diversion, Compensatory Afforestation has been stipulated over 12.10 lakh hectare.

Habitat fragmentation is also one of the primary reasons leading to cases of man animal conflict. Common property resources like pastures and village forests, which served as a buffer between wildlife habitat and agriculture, have been gradually encroached upon and converted into agricultural fields and habitation. Due to this, the villagers are brought into a direct conflict

Sacred groves (India has over 19,000 sacred groves) are also getting eroded or getting converted to plantations. Because there are several medicinal plants and wild relatives of crop plants occurring naturally in these areas, the sacred groves need to be conserved. Traditional norms and practices for conservation of neighborhood forest and common land are also diminishing, although certain rural and tribal communities continue to safeguard their biological resource base even at the cost of their livelihood and sustenance. Himalayan Forest Research Institute (HFRI), Shimla is in the process of documenting the sacred groves of Kullu Valley and it is proposed that such efforts are required to be replicated elsewhere in this part of the country. It is pertinent to add here that strengthening the database of sacred groves will usher in development of strong bonds between ecological and social ethos relevant to the society at last ultimately reflecting upon the conservation of biodiversity. The point gains significance here, because the areas under sacred groves, otherwise the property of local deity, are being encroached upon by the local population thereby creating loss of biodiversity (Horticulture is now being tried in these areas) on one hand and threatening the social ethos of the area on the

region to all sorts of ecological disasters.

with wild animals.

other.

#### **2.6. Threats to the biodiversity**

Threats to species are principally due to decline in the extent of their habitat, fragmentation of habitat, decline in habitats quality, shrinking genetic diversity; invasive alien species; declining forest resource base; climate change and desertification; over exploitation of resources; impact of development projects and impact of pollution. For terrestrial species decline habitat quality and quantity arise from conversion of forest and grasslands to agriculture, of natural forests into monoculture plantations and from grazing and firewood collection. In some areas, invasion of exotic species also results in habitat degradation. For aquatic and semi aquatic species, decline in habitat quality are due to diversion of ground and surface water resulting in drying of streams and other water bodies apart from siltation and pollution from pesticides. In this century, the Indian cheetah, Lesser Indian rhino, Pink-headed duck, and the Himalayan mountain quail are reported to have become extinct and several other species (39 mammals, 72 birds and 1,336 plants) are identified vulnerable or endangered.

The constraints and challenges to biodiversity conservation which flow inter alia from these threats include: biodiversity information base; implementation of Biological Diversity Act and safeguarding traditional knowledge; new and emerging biotechnologies; economic valuation and natural resource accounting; policy, legal and administrative measures; and institutional support. Taking clue from the preceding lines, the Cold Desert areas lie in the Trans-Himalayan zone and some species in the region those are endemic to Tibetan plateau and also include oasitic elements that comprises a variety of exotic as well as indigenous species. The area represents common herbaceous, shrubby and woody elements of temperate vegetation and alpine species also dot the region. The region is also a house of species growing in glacial moraines and also harbours threatened medicinal plants. Talking of faunal diversity this area harbours rare and endangered fauna pointed out earlier and avifauna endemic to the region or migrating adds to its uniqueness. Livestock rearing, agricultural & horticultural practices and mode of agro-forestry are entirely different and the people living here have succeeded in developing their own distinguish culture.

The above explanation reveals that the area is unique to the region and hence requires special attention especially with respect of ecology of India. Hence laxity on our part in conserving the cultural and natural resources will put the area under severe thereat thereby exposing the region to all sorts of ecological disasters.

#### **2.7. Habitat fragmentation, degradation and loss, and shrinking genetic diversity**

2012) on the extent of NTFP use in north east India suggest that the tribal communities use 343 NTFPs for diverse purposes like medicinal (163 species), edible fruits (75 species) and vege‐ tables (65 species). The dependence for firewood and house construction material is 100% and NTFPs contributed 19–32% of total household income for the communities under study (Saha and Sundriyal, 2012). Forests are not only a source of subsistence income for millions of poor households but also provide employment to poor in these hinterlands. This makes forests an important contributor to the rural economy in the forested landscapes in the country. The widespread poverty and lack of other income generating opportunities often make these people resort to over-exploitation of forest resources. The collection of firewood for sale in the market, though it is illegal, is also extensive in many parts of the forested regions in the country and constitutes the source of livelihood for 11 per cent of the population (IPCC, 2007). However, many other forest products have been sustainably harvested by local communities

Threats to species are principally due to decline in the extent of their habitat, fragmentation of habitat, decline in habitats quality, shrinking genetic diversity; invasive alien species; declining forest resource base; climate change and desertification; over exploitation of resources; impact of development projects and impact of pollution. For terrestrial species decline habitat quality and quantity arise from conversion of forest and grasslands to agriculture, of natural forests into monoculture plantations and from grazing and firewood collection. In some areas, invasion of exotic species also results in habitat degradation. For aquatic and semi aquatic species, decline in habitat quality are due to diversion of ground and surface water resulting in drying of streams and other water bodies apart from siltation and pollution from pesticides. In this century, the Indian cheetah, Lesser Indian rhino, Pink-headed duck, and the Himalayan mountain quail are reported to have become extinct and several other species (39 mammals,

The constraints and challenges to biodiversity conservation which flow inter alia from these threats include: biodiversity information base; implementation of Biological Diversity Act and safeguarding traditional knowledge; new and emerging biotechnologies; economic valuation and natural resource accounting; policy, legal and administrative measures; and institutional support. Taking clue from the preceding lines, the Cold Desert areas lie in the Trans-Himalayan zone and some species in the region those are endemic to Tibetan plateau and also include oasitic elements that comprises a variety of exotic as well as indigenous species. The area represents common herbaceous, shrubby and woody elements of temperate vegetation and alpine species also dot the region. The region is also a house of species growing in glacial moraines and also harbours threatened medicinal plants. Talking of faunal diversity this area harbours rare and endangered fauna pointed out earlier and avifauna endemic to the region or migrating adds to its uniqueness. Livestock rearing, agricultural & horticultural practices and mode of agro-forestry are entirely different and the people living here have succeeded in

for many years, and are a constant source of household income.

72 birds and 1,336 plants) are identified vulnerable or endangered.

developing their own distinguish culture.

**2.6. Threats to the biodiversity**

248 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

Habitat destruction is identified as the main threat to biodiversity. Under diverse natural conditions, over a billion people in rural and urban areas live in harmony under a democratic system in India. Their pressing needs for food, fiber, shelter, fuel and fodder combined with compelling need for economic development exert enormous pressure on natural resources. With half the total land under agriculture, and approximately 23 or 20% per cent under forests, the protection of diverse habitats poses a formidable challenge. The loss and fragmentation of natural habitats affects all animal and plant species. We need to not only stop any further habitat loss immediately but also to restore a substantial fraction of the wilderness that has been depleted in the past. Various species of plants and animals are on the decline due to habitat fragmentation and over-exploitation, e.g. habitats of Great Indian Bustard in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan and of the Lion-tailed Macaque in Western Ghats. The major impact of developmental activities involves diversion of forest land. Since the enactment of Forest (Conservation) Act in 1980, about 14,997 development projects involving diversion of 11.40 lakh hectare forest area for non forestry uses, have been granted clearance. Against this diversion, Compensatory Afforestation has been stipulated over 12.10 lakh hectare.

Habitat fragmentation is also one of the primary reasons leading to cases of man animal conflict. Common property resources like pastures and village forests, which served as a buffer between wildlife habitat and agriculture, have been gradually encroached upon and converted into agricultural fields and habitation. Due to this, the villagers are brought into a direct conflict with wild animals.

Sacred groves (India has over 19,000 sacred groves) are also getting eroded or getting converted to plantations. Because there are several medicinal plants and wild relatives of crop plants occurring naturally in these areas, the sacred groves need to be conserved. Traditional norms and practices for conservation of neighborhood forest and common land are also diminishing, although certain rural and tribal communities continue to safeguard their biological resource base even at the cost of their livelihood and sustenance. Himalayan Forest Research Institute (HFRI), Shimla is in the process of documenting the sacred groves of Kullu Valley and it is proposed that such efforts are required to be replicated elsewhere in this part of the country. It is pertinent to add here that strengthening the database of sacred groves will usher in development of strong bonds between ecological and social ethos relevant to the society at last ultimately reflecting upon the conservation of biodiversity. The point gains significance here, because the areas under sacred groves, otherwise the property of local deity, are being encroached upon by the local population thereby creating loss of biodiversity (Horticulture is now being tried in these areas) on one hand and threatening the social ethos of the area on the other.

#### *2.7.1. Invasive alien species*

Among the major threats faced by native plant and animal species (and their habitats), the one posed by the invasive alien species is truly scaring since it is considered second only to that of the habitat loss. The major plant Forest Invasive Species (FIS) include *Lantana camara, Eupato‐ rium glandulosum, Parthenium species, Mimosa* species*, Eichhornia crassipes, Mikania micrantha, Ulex europaeus, Prosopis juliflora, Cytisus scoparius, Euphorbia royleana* etc. Alien aquatic weeds like water hyacinth and water lettuce are increasingly choking waterways and degrading freshwater ecosystems. Lantana and carrot grass cause major economic losses in many parts of India. Highly invasive climbers like *Chromolaena* and *Mikania* species have over-run the native vegetation in North-East Himalayan region and Western Ghats. Numerous pests and pathogens such as coffee berry borer, turnip stripe virus, banana bunchy top virus, potato wart and golden nematode have invaded agro-ecosystems becoming serious menace. HFRI, Shimla has identified some of the plant and insect species which though invasive have naturalized itself in the region thereby, posing a serious threat to the ecology. No particular attention to these invasive species have been paid over a period of time which had then resulted into the present alarming situation and all the countries have now converged over a single platform for fighting the menace caused by the same. Accordingly special efforts towards assessment of these invasive species are required to be made and if we fail in this direction it will lead to loss of endemic biodiversity on one hand and will expose the area to the exotic species on the other.

form of rain, snow etc. directly merges with the oceans without being utilized properly on their way. This certainly requires sincere thoughts/ efforts to harness it for the ultimate benefit

Ecosystem Biodiversity of India http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58431 251

In order to harmonize developmental activities with protection of environment, environmen‐ tal impact assessment (EIA) was made mandatory by the EIA Notification issued in 1994 for notified categories of developmental projects in the sectors of industry, thermal and nuclear power, mining, river valley and infrastructure projects. This Notification has been revised and notified on 14 September 2006 to make the EIA process more efficient, decentralized and transparent. What is required now is the effective implementation of these legislations by making it site and species specific. So that such plans become more relevant to the Environ‐ mentalists, implementers and managers. The issue gains significance in the state of Himachal Pradesh. Since large reservoirs are repeatedly coming over on the same river within a short distance and hence, are damaging the fragile ecology of Himalayas and directly impinging upon the loss of biodiversity. Large tunnel projects are also affecting the aquatic fauna-due to diversion of water through these tunnels especially during the winters when the water flow

Biodiversity in India is facing threat from various sources of pollution, both point and nonpoint, sources. The major threats are from improper disposal of municipal solid waste, inadequate sewerage, excessive use of chemical pesticides and continuous use of hazardous chemicals even where non-hazardous alternatives are available. New industrial processes are generating a variety of toxic wastes, which cannot be dealt with by currently available technology in the country. Besides, economic constraints and problems related to the indige‐

India has a long history of conservation and sustainable use of natural resources and over a period of time has developed a stable organizational structure for environment protection. Conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity has been integrated into national decision

**1.** Policy statements (e.g. National Forest Policy, National Conservation Strategy, National

**2.** Legislative measures (e.g. Environment (Protection) Act, Wildlife (Protection) Act, Biological Diversity Act, Environment Impact Assessment Notification, Coastal Regula‐

India's strategies for conservation and sustainable utilization of biodiversity in the past have comprised providing special status and protection to biodiversity – rich areas by declaring them as National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Biosphere Reserves, ecologically fragile and

of the mankind.

*2.7.3. Pollution*

making through:

in the rivers gets reduced considerably.

nization makes the substitution of these technologies difficult.

Wildlife Action Plan, Draft National Environment Policy.)

tion Zone Notification, Notifications on ecologically fragile areas)

**3. Major findings and management status**

#### *2.7.2. Impact of development projects*

India, with its large population, is poised for rapid economic growth. Large infrastructural and industrial projects, including highways, rural road network and the special economic zones (SEZs), are coming up. With cities and townships expanding often at the cost of agriculture, and agriculture expanding at the cost of tree cover, fresh threats to biodiversity are emerging. In addition, changing lifestyles of the people with rising incomes, in both rural and urban areas, are placing increasing demands on biodiversity.

No doubt that infrastructural development is essential for the welfare of human beings inhabiting the planet since; it brings more comfort to the society. However, it may specifically be mentioned over here that over utilization of the resources for substantial increase in the comforts is directly impinging upon the environmental health. Developmental activities no doubt, are essentially required for the larger interest of the human kind yet, over utilization of natural resources in the process certainly require a relook into some of the criterion otherwise required to be fitted in the process for sustainable development. The government machinery should therefore, be not averse to the development but should ask the implementers and managers to devise suitable strategies for paying required attention towards the development of issue based parameters for ultimate protection of the environment.

Many river valley projects are being implemented for the last 100 years or so all across the world. These projects besides providing safeguards against floods also provide electricity for increasing overall productivity of the region or of the country. Though efforts in the direction are still continuing, yet it is estimated that approximately 99 per cent of precipitation in the form of rain, snow etc. directly merges with the oceans without being utilized properly on their way. This certainly requires sincere thoughts/ efforts to harness it for the ultimate benefit of the mankind.

In order to harmonize developmental activities with protection of environment, environmen‐ tal impact assessment (EIA) was made mandatory by the EIA Notification issued in 1994 for notified categories of developmental projects in the sectors of industry, thermal and nuclear power, mining, river valley and infrastructure projects. This Notification has been revised and notified on 14 September 2006 to make the EIA process more efficient, decentralized and transparent. What is required now is the effective implementation of these legislations by making it site and species specific. So that such plans become more relevant to the Environ‐ mentalists, implementers and managers. The issue gains significance in the state of Himachal Pradesh. Since large reservoirs are repeatedly coming over on the same river within a short distance and hence, are damaging the fragile ecology of Himalayas and directly impinging upon the loss of biodiversity. Large tunnel projects are also affecting the aquatic fauna-due to diversion of water through these tunnels especially during the winters when the water flow in the rivers gets reduced considerably.

#### *2.7.3. Pollution*

*2.7.1. Invasive alien species*

250 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

other.

*2.7.2. Impact of development projects*

Among the major threats faced by native plant and animal species (and their habitats), the one posed by the invasive alien species is truly scaring since it is considered second only to that of the habitat loss. The major plant Forest Invasive Species (FIS) include *Lantana camara, Eupato‐ rium glandulosum, Parthenium species, Mimosa* species*, Eichhornia crassipes, Mikania micrantha, Ulex europaeus, Prosopis juliflora, Cytisus scoparius, Euphorbia royleana* etc. Alien aquatic weeds like water hyacinth and water lettuce are increasingly choking waterways and degrading freshwater ecosystems. Lantana and carrot grass cause major economic losses in many parts of India. Highly invasive climbers like *Chromolaena* and *Mikania* species have over-run the native vegetation in North-East Himalayan region and Western Ghats. Numerous pests and pathogens such as coffee berry borer, turnip stripe virus, banana bunchy top virus, potato wart and golden nematode have invaded agro-ecosystems becoming serious menace. HFRI, Shimla has identified some of the plant and insect species which though invasive have naturalized itself in the region thereby, posing a serious threat to the ecology. No particular attention to these invasive species have been paid over a period of time which had then resulted into the present alarming situation and all the countries have now converged over a single platform for fighting the menace caused by the same. Accordingly special efforts towards assessment of these invasive species are required to be made and if we fail in this direction it will lead to loss of endemic biodiversity on one hand and will expose the area to the exotic species on the

India, with its large population, is poised for rapid economic growth. Large infrastructural and industrial projects, including highways, rural road network and the special economic zones (SEZs), are coming up. With cities and townships expanding often at the cost of agriculture, and agriculture expanding at the cost of tree cover, fresh threats to biodiversity are emerging. In addition, changing lifestyles of the people with rising incomes, in both rural

No doubt that infrastructural development is essential for the welfare of human beings inhabiting the planet since; it brings more comfort to the society. However, it may specifically be mentioned over here that over utilization of the resources for substantial increase in the comforts is directly impinging upon the environmental health. Developmental activities no doubt, are essentially required for the larger interest of the human kind yet, over utilization of natural resources in the process certainly require a relook into some of the criterion otherwise required to be fitted in the process for sustainable development. The government machinery should therefore, be not averse to the development but should ask the implementers and managers to devise suitable strategies for paying required attention towards the development

Many river valley projects are being implemented for the last 100 years or so all across the world. These projects besides providing safeguards against floods also provide electricity for increasing overall productivity of the region or of the country. Though efforts in the direction are still continuing, yet it is estimated that approximately 99 per cent of precipitation in the

and urban areas, are placing increasing demands on biodiversity.

of issue based parameters for ultimate protection of the environment.

Biodiversity in India is facing threat from various sources of pollution, both point and nonpoint, sources. The major threats are from improper disposal of municipal solid waste, inadequate sewerage, excessive use of chemical pesticides and continuous use of hazardous chemicals even where non-hazardous alternatives are available. New industrial processes are generating a variety of toxic wastes, which cannot be dealt with by currently available technology in the country. Besides, economic constraints and problems related to the indige‐ nization makes the substitution of these technologies difficult.
