**Monitoring Land Use/Cover Changes Using Different Change Detection Techniques (Case Study: Falavarjan Area, Isfahan, Iran)**

Maliheh Alsadat Madanian, Alireza Soffianian and Sima Fakheran\*

Department of Natural Resources, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran \* Corresponding author, E-mail address: fakheran@cc.iut.ac.ir

#### **Abstract**

Land use/cover change mapping is one of the basic tasks for environmental monitoring and management. In recent years, a variety of change detection techniques have been developed. This research compares three change detection techniques, including image differencing, image rationing, and image regression to study land use/cover changes in Falavarjan /Iran. The data sources used in this study were Landsat Multi-Spectral Scanner (MSS) and AWiFS images taken in September 1972, and September 2008, respectively. First, images were geometrically and radiometrically corrected. The root mean square (RMSe) obtained 0.5 pixels for each images. The Three change detection methods were performed. Then, a supervised maximum likelihood classification was used as a crossclassification to detect "from-to" change which allowed to assess the accuracy of each change detection technique. Based on accuracy assessment, the image differencing method was the most accurate one with an overall accuracy of 85% in detecting land use/cover changes in Falavarjan area. This was followed by the image rationing technique with an accuracy of 84%.

**Keywords:** Change detection, Image differencing, Image rationing, Post-classification.

## **1. Introduction**

Change detection is the process of identifying differences in the state of an object or phenomenon by observing it at different times [1]. A variety of algorithms have been developed for change detection including, image overlay, image differencing, image regression, image rationing, vegetation index differencing, principal components analysis, spectral/temporal classification, postclassification comparison, change vector analysis, and background subtraction [1,2].

Among the different change detection techniques, image differencing, image rationing, image regression and change vector analysis (CVA) are widespread [3-6]. In theses algorithms, selecting threshold is necessary to determine the changed areas. Petit et al. (2001) found the combination of image differencing and post-classification was better than the only single method in determining "from–to" change in south-eastern Zambia [7]. Berberoglu and Akin (2009) and Prakash and Gupta (1998) compared different change detection methods. They found that each algorithm have its own merits and advantages [8,9]. Angelici et al. (1977) applied the difference of band ratio data and a threshold method to separate change and no change areas [10]. Jensen and Toll

© 2012 Madanian et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

(1982) and Chavez and Mackinnon (1994) found the usefulness of visible red band data in change detection analysis in both vegetated and urban environments [11,12]. Ridd and Liu (1998) applied four change detection algorithms, including image differencing, regression method, tasselled cap transformation, and Chi-square transformation for urban land-use change detection in the Salt Lake Valley area. They indicated that the regression of TM band 3 was the most accurate for detecting changes [13].

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Radiometric normalization was necessary to reduce differences because of atmospheric or a sensor variation between the two dates. In this paper, the images were radiometrically normalized

In order to detect land cover changes, three common methods, Image differencing, Image ration-

Image differencing was applied with each of different bands. The four difference images (Dif1, Dif2, Dif3, Dif4) were created by subtracting the 1972 image from the 2008 image. In this method, digital numbers in the resultant difference image are often considered to be normally distributed where pixels with small change are observed around the mean. Pixels which have been changed largely are distributed in the tails of histogram [1]. For image rationing, the bands were rationed for each image pair on a pixel-by-pixel basis and four change images (Ratio1, Ratio2, Ratio3, Rati4) were produced. The assumption in the image regression technique is that the later image is a linear function of the earlier image. The MSS band 2 was considered as the independent variable and the AWiFS band 3 was taken to be the dependent variable. It was observed a linear relationship between these two images. Then, the predicted image and the base image were sub-

Threshold levels, ranging from 0.1 to 3.0 standard deviations from the mean, were tested on the change images in order to determine the optimal threshold values. Consequently, 1*σ* was identified as the most accurate one among others as determined from the aerial photographs and ground data. Then, the change images were reclassified into two classes. The value '0' was

Post-classification comparison is an important method in improving the quality of classifications [15-17]. A supervised maximum likelihood classification method was performed for 1972 and 2008 to classify land cover in the study area. Four land use/cover classes including river, bare land, agriculture and urban were observed. This method provides a "from-to" matrix of change

information. The change category is divided into five subcategories as shown in Table 1.

0 No Change

 **Category From (1972) To (2008)**

 Agriculture Bare Land Agriculture Urban Bare Land Urban Bare Land Agriculture

based on the method developed by Markham and Barker (1986) [14].

*2.3.1. Producing change images with three techniques* 

**2.3. Change detection**

tracted from each other.

*2.3.3. Classification*

*2.3.2. Optimal threshold determination* 

assigned for 'no change' areas and '1' for change areas.

**Table 1.** Categories of land use /cover change (1972-2008)

ing, Image regression were applied.

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This research compares three techniques, including image differencing, image rationing and image regression to evaluate the most accurate one for change detection in the study area.

## **2. Methodology**

#### **2.1. Study area and data**

The study area is Falavarjan area in western part of Isfahan city, which covers approximately 17550.6 ha (Fig.1). It is located in 32°29'-32°37'N and 51°20'-51°35'E. Falavarjan city, located in the center of the study area, is on the bank of Zayandehrud River. Zayandehrud River emanates from Zardkuh Mountain and flows in eastern Falavarjan. The climate is hot and dry with an average temperature of about 16.4°C and average annual rainfall of 162 mm/year. The study area includes agricultural fields, Zayandehrud River, bare lands and urban areas.

In the present study, Landsat Multi-Spectral Scanner image (MSS) 4, 1972 and high spatial resolution (56m) Indian remote sensing satellite (IRS-P6) AWiFS sensor data acquired on September, 2008 were used to detect changes over a period of 36 years.

#### **2.2. Image pre-processing**

The images were geometrically corrected and geocoded to the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system using 20 ground control points (GCPs). Resampling was applied using a nearest neighbor method. Root mean square (RMS) error obtained 0.5 pixels for each image. Radiometric normalization was necessary to reduce differences because of atmospheric or a sensor variation between the two dates. In this paper, the images were radiometrically normalized based on the method developed by Markham and Barker (1986) [14].

#### **2.3. Change detection**

In order to detect land cover changes, three common methods, Image differencing, Image rationing, Image regression were applied.

#### *2.3.1. Producing change images with three techniques*

Image differencing was applied with each of different bands. The four difference images (Dif1, Dif2, Dif3, Dif4) were created by subtracting the 1972 image from the 2008 image. In this method, digital numbers in the resultant difference image are often considered to be normally distributed where pixels with small change are observed around the mean. Pixels which have been changed largely are distributed in the tails of histogram [1]. For image rationing, the bands were rationed for each image pair on a pixel-by-pixel basis and four change images (Ratio1, Ratio2, Ratio3, Rati4) were produced. The assumption in the image regression technique is that the later image is a linear function of the earlier image. The MSS band 2 was considered as the independent variable and the AWiFS band 3 was taken to be the dependent variable. It was observed a linear relationship between these two images. Then, the predicted image and the base image were subtracted from each other.

#### *2.3.2. Optimal threshold determination*

Threshold levels, ranging from 0.1 to 3.0 standard deviations from the mean, were tested on the change images in order to determine the optimal threshold values. Consequently, 1*σ* was identified as the most accurate one among others as determined from the aerial photographs and ground data. Then, the change images were reclassified into two classes. The value '0' was assigned for 'no change' areas and '1' for change areas.

#### *2.3.3. Classification*

Post-classification comparison is an important method in improving the quality of classifications [15-17]. A supervised maximum likelihood classification method was performed for 1972 and 2008 to classify land cover in the study area. Four land use/cover classes including river, bare land, agriculture and urban were observed. This method provides a "from-to" matrix of change information. The change category is divided into five subcategories as shown in Table 1.


**Table 1.** Categories of land use /cover change (1972-2008)

#### **2.4. Accuracy assessment**

In order to assess change detection accuracy, an error matrix and a kappa analysis were utilized. The error matrix is the most common method for accuracy assessment [18]. To properly generate the error matrix, Ground data set, air photos and field survey records and RGB composites were used.

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s accuracy, the percent correctly classified for each category, is listed in Table

2. For change type 1, agriculture to bare land, the highest accuracies are from the image differencing and image rationing. For category 2, agriculture to urban, the best result is from the image differencing and image rationing, too. For category 3, bare land to urban, image differencing is the best with an accuracy of 15.44%. For category 4, bare land to agriculture, image differencing at 55.5% is the best, followed by image rationing at 55.23% and image regression at 50.55%. It is observed that the results of image differencing and image regression techniques are very similar. Image regression technique identified all of the categories of change with the least accuracy.

Categories of land use/cover change

Image differencing 93.1 79.81 15.44 55.5 Image rationing 91.81 77.32 8.84 55.3 Image regression 87.93 76.5 14.6 50.50

**Table 2.** Producer's accuracies of the change images for detecting four kinds of land cover/use change

Change detection algorithms have long attracted the attention of the researchers and scientists. In recent years, a variety of approaches have been applied for the monitoring land use/cover change. Each method has some advantages and disadvantages. Many factors such as selection of suitable change detection approach, suitable band and optimal threshold, may affect the success

This research aimed to examine the utility of three techniques, including image differencing, image rationing and image regression in detecting land use /cover changes from 1972 to 2008. Among the different bands, the MSS band 2 and the AWiFS band 3 had the highest accuracies. The optimal threshold was 1 standard deviation from the mean. Results showed that the image differencing and image regression techniques had the highest accuracy in separating change and no change areas. However, these techniques cannot provide a complete matrix of change detection. Therefore, the post-classification method was performed in order to provide details about the nature of changes. In fact, the combination of image differencing, image rationing and image regression with post classification was used. It showed that this technique can provide better

[1] Singh, A., 1989. Digital change detection techniques using remotely sensed data. *International* 

[2] Jensen, J. R., 1983. Urban/suburban land use analysis. *Manual Remote Sensing*, 2: 1571-1666.

This project was supported by a grant from Iran National Science Foundation.

1(%) 2 (%) 3 (%) 4 (%)

Based on producer'

Change detection techniques

**4. Conclusion**

of a classification [19,20].

**5. Acknowledgments**

**6. References**

change detection results than simple method.

*Journal of Remote Sensing*, 10, 989-1003.

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## **3. Results**

#### **3.1. Change detection**

For accuracy assessment, changed and unchanged pixels were cross-tabulated against the resultant images derived from the different algorithms. Overall accuracies were calculated by dividing the total number of correctly classified pixels to the total number of pixels. Accuracy of change images were estimated at change/no change level. At level change/no change detection the overall accuracies were 85.02% (image differencing), 84.13% (image rationing) and 75.46% (image regression), respectively.

The result from the image differencing and image rationing techniques were very similar (Fig.2). These methods were very effective in separating change from no-change with the visible bands. The MSS band 2 and the AWiFS band 3 had the best accuracies. Therefore, the changed images derived from these bands are more practical than the others for change detection in this study area.

Because the image differencing, image rationing and image regression methods do not provide the detail information about the kinds of land cover change, the outcome of post-classification was crossclassified with the each three techniques to identify "from-to" change and to assess the accuracy of the three change images in detecting the four kinds of change (table 2).

**Fig 2.** Change images derived from the (a) image differencing, (b) image rationing and (c) image regression.

Based on producer' s accuracy, the percent correctly classified for each category, is listed in Table 2. For change type 1, agriculture to bare land, the highest accuracies are from the image differencing and image rationing. For category 2, agriculture to urban, the best result is from the image differencing and image rationing, too. For category 3, bare land to urban, image differencing is the best with an accuracy of 15.44%. For category 4, bare land to agriculture, image differencing at 55.5% is the best, followed by image rationing at 55.23% and image regression at 50.55%. It is observed that the results of image differencing and image regression techniques are very similar. Image regression technique identified all of the categories of change with the least accuracy.


**Table 2.** Producer's accuracies of the change images for detecting four kinds of land cover/use change

### **4. Conclusion**

Change detection algorithms have long attracted the attention of the researchers and scientists. In recent years, a variety of approaches have been applied for the monitoring land use/cover change. Each method has some advantages and disadvantages. Many factors such as selection of suitable change detection approach, suitable band and optimal threshold, may affect the success of a classification [19,20].

This research aimed to examine the utility of three techniques, including image differencing, image rationing and image regression in detecting land use /cover changes from 1972 to 2008. Among the different bands, the MSS band 2 and the AWiFS band 3 had the highest accuracies. The optimal threshold was 1 standard deviation from the mean. Results showed that the image differencing and image regression techniques had the highest accuracy in separating change and no change areas. However, these techniques cannot provide a complete matrix of change detection. Therefore, the post-classification method was performed in order to provide details about the nature of changes. In fact, the combination of image differencing, image rationing and image regression with post classification was used. It showed that this technique can provide better change detection results than simple method.

### **5. Acknowledgments**

This project was supported by a grant from Iran National Science Foundation.

#### **6. References**


[3] Woodwell, G.M., R.A. Houghton, T.A. Stone and A.B. Park, 1986. Changes in the area of forests in Rondonia, Amazon Basin, measured by satellite imagery. In: Trabalka, J.R., Reichle, D.E. (Eds.), The Changing Carbon Cycle: A Global Analysis. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 242-257.

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**Demand for Gasoline in United Arab Emirates**

Agribusiness and Consumer Sciences Department, United Arab Emirates University, UAE

year, the estimated confidence interval of gasoline demand amount grew wide.

from oil is a major funding source for the UAE economy[2].

Despite being ranked30thworld high in terms of the HDI, the demand for gasoline in the UAE is increasing every year, aided by a very high per-capita income that ranks UAE as high as 6th in the world. The number of autos operating in the country is almost approaching the number of population causing carbon dioxide emissions to be alarming. The demand for gasoline in UAE was analyzed by utilizing log-log and ARIMA models for the 1995-2012 period and forecasted up to the year 2020. In the log-log model, quantity demanded of gasoline was regressed on its own price, population, and per-capita income, number of vehicles in UAE, HDI, and a lagged dependent variable. Results showed that population, real income per capita, and number of vehicles had positive impacts on gasoline consumption. On the other hand, real gasoline prices, human development index (HDI), and lagged dependent variable had negative effects on the demand for gasoline. Forecasting analysis showed that gasoline demand for the years following 2012 wills not significantly change. However, because of high standard deviation for each additional

**Keywords:** Gasoline Consumption, Log-Log Model, ARIMA Model, Human Development In-

United Arab Emirates (UAE) is made up of seven emirates; namely, Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al-Quain, Ras Al-Khaimah, and Al-Fujairah. UAE is a member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Its GDP per capita was estimated at \$39,623 in 2011. The population of the country is nearly 8.1 million and its human development index (HDI) is a very high 0.846 (30th world rank) [1]. The country is considered one of the world's major oil producers ranking 6thworldwide in terms of proven oil reserves and 7thin terms of natural gas reserves. Revenues

The country, however, suffers from high carbon dioxide rates in its air because of excessive use of petroleum products, mainly gasoline, and natural gas[3]. The main objective of this study is to analyze the demand for gasoline in UAE and to identify the factors that affect its consumption. In addition, the paper aimed at obtaining a clue on the future demand for this important product

Price elasticity of gasoline demand has been one of the most analyzed topics in energy studies. Havranek, Irsova, & Janda[4]conducted a quantitative survey to determine the elasticity report-

Meena Al-Mansoori, Aydin Basarir, and Sherin Sherif

**Abstract**

dex (HDI), UAE

**1. Introduction**

**2. Literature Review**

© 2012 Al-Mansoori et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

provided the original work is properly cited.

through forecasting. Based on the results obtained, suggestions are lined up.

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## **Demand for Gasoline in United Arab Emirates**

Meena Al-Mansoori, Aydin Basarir, and Sherin Sherif

Agribusiness and Consumer Sciences Department, United Arab Emirates University, UAE

#### **Abstract**

Despite being ranked30thworld high in terms of the HDI, the demand for gasoline in the UAE is increasing every year, aided by a very high per-capita income that ranks UAE as high as 6th in the world. The number of autos operating in the country is almost approaching the number of population causing carbon dioxide emissions to be alarming. The demand for gasoline in UAE was analyzed by utilizing log-log and ARIMA models for the 1995-2012 period and forecasted up to the year 2020. In the log-log model, quantity demanded of gasoline was regressed on its own price, population, and per-capita income, number of vehicles in UAE, HDI, and a lagged dependent variable. Results showed that population, real income per capita, and number of vehicles had positive impacts on gasoline consumption. On the other hand, real gasoline prices, human development index (HDI), and lagged dependent variable had negative effects on the demand for gasoline. Forecasting analysis showed that gasoline demand for the years following 2012 wills not significantly change. However, because of high standard deviation for each additional year, the estimated confidence interval of gasoline demand amount grew wide.

**Keywords:** Gasoline Consumption, Log-Log Model, ARIMA Model, Human Development Index (HDI), UAE

## **1. Introduction**

United Arab Emirates (UAE) is made up of seven emirates; namely, Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al-Quain, Ras Al-Khaimah, and Al-Fujairah. UAE is a member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Its GDP per capita was estimated at \$39,623 in 2011. The population of the country is nearly 8.1 million and its human development index (HDI) is a very high 0.846 (30th world rank) [1]. The country is considered one of the world's major oil producers ranking 6thworldwide in terms of proven oil reserves and 7thin terms of natural gas reserves. Revenues from oil is a major funding source for the UAE economy[2].

The country, however, suffers from high carbon dioxide rates in its air because of excessive use of petroleum products, mainly gasoline, and natural gas[3]. The main objective of this study is to analyze the demand for gasoline in UAE and to identify the factors that affect its consumption. In addition, the paper aimed at obtaining a clue on the future demand for this important product through forecasting. Based on the results obtained, suggestions are lined up.

## **2. Literature Review**

Price elasticity of gasoline demand has been one of the most analyzed topics in energy studies. Havranek, Irsova, & Janda[4]conducted a quantitative survey to determine the elasticity report-

© 2012 Al-Mansoori et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

ed for various time periods. By using a mixed-effects multilevel meta-regression it is found that while the long run elasticity of gasoline demand reached−0.31; the short-run elasticity reached only -0.09. By using household-level data, Kayser[5] realized a close relationship between household's car-portfolio and gasoline demand decisions. Since there was only short-run price and income elasticities in gasoline demand, gasoline tax was not likely to result in large decreases in gasoline consumption.

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Nations Development Program (UNDP)[1]. In order to get real value of per capita income and

Since the emphasis was on gasoline demand elasticity, the log-log model seemed to be the most

Where the annual amount of gasoline demanded is, stands for the independent variables such as per capita real income, population of the country, the real price of gasoline per gallon, Human Development Index, and lagged values of demand for gasoline. The last term of the equation, , is error term which assumed to have "0" expected value and variance. The calculated elasticity of gasoline demand ( ) in such a model is constant. That is why the equa-

In addition, a forecasting of the demand for gasoline for the next 8 years until 2020 was made. The reason for choosing just 8 years was because of having relatively short time series data and the need to obtain more meaningful estimation. The forecasting of gasoline demand was done by conducting a simple time series model in which the demand for gasoline was regressed on

Where is time which takes value of "0" for the base year and increases by "1" for each ad-

In addition to the simple time series model given in equation 2, an autoregressive integrated moving-average model (ARIMA) was used to forecast the demand for gasoline in UAE. The ARIMA model includes autoregressive (AR), moving average (MA) and nonstationary integrated (I) time series models. That is why the model is more efficient than the AR, MA, and I; and provides more reliable results[17].FollowingJudge, et al., [16]the ARIMA model can be written

By using the Box-Jenkins methodology with equation 3, forecasted future values of gasoline demand could be obtained. The Box-Jenkins methodology is more useful for short term forecasting[17]. Since we relatively have short term predictions, the methodology could be said to be

The data used in this study coveredthe 1995-2012 periods. The variables and their coding in re-

Demand for Gasoline (=LNGASDMD): is the total annual quantity demanded of gasoline in

gasoline prices, the variables have been deflated by the consumer price index (2000=100).

appropriate one to use. Following Judge, et al.,[16] the model could be written as follows;

tion can be named as constant elasticity model, which is very convenient for economists.

time as follows;

as follows;

appropriate.

UAE.

ditional year up to the end of time period.

Where order is for AR, is order for MA part of equation 3.

gression analysis could be briefly explained as follows:

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(1)

(2)

(3)

Lise and Van Montfort [6] used a cointegration analysis to unfold the linkage between energy consumption and GDP for Turkey with annual data over the period 1970–2003. Results showed energy saving would not harm economic growth in the country. Nugroho et al.,[7]developed a model of household energy consumption based on in-home and out-home activities.It is found that household vehicle fuel consumption was mostly dominated by the use of cars in Jakarta. Model showed positive influence of vehicle fuel consumption on in-home energy consumption. Sene[8] estimated the aggregate demand for gasoline in Senegal from 1970 to 2008. Results indicated to having short run elasticity smaller than long-run elasticity and that gasoline demand was inelastic with respect to both price and income for both the short and long runs. Shittu et al.[9] examined a cross-section survey of 90 Nigerian households in estimating a system of energy demand equations and elasticities. Income, household ownership of electrical/electronic appliances and automobiles, and household head's age showed significant influence on the relative shares of some of the seven energy commodities in household budgets. Demand for petrol, diesel, and domestic gas were income elastic. Wadud et al. [10]used more flexible semiparametric techniques in studying USA gasoline demand. It is shown that price responses vary with demographic variables such as income, multiple vehicles holding, and presence of multiple wage earners in rural or urban residential locations. Households' responses to a price change decreased with higher income. Dilaver[11] estimated an industrial electricity demand function for Turkey by applying the structural time series technique to annual data over the period 1960 to 2008. Results suggested that output and real electricity prices had an important role to play in driving Turkish industrial electricity demand. The output and price elasticities were estimated to be with low values of 0.15 and −0.16, respectively. In addition to the above, there have been a lot of energy demand studies in the literature. However, the researchers were not aware of any studies that have been conducted in the UAE on the subject matter. In addition, the researchers were unaware of any gasoline-demand study which used HDI in demand analysis. Forecasting has rarely been used in gasoline demand studies. The study in hand took into consideration some of the shortcomings of the published research to cover the topic in the UAE from a socioeconomic perspective.

#### **3. Data and Methods**

As a result of the unavailability of UAE monthly or quarterly time series data, annual data was used for this study. Further, appropriate data could not be found before 1995. Consequently, the series was taken after 1995 until first 5 months of 2012. Some of the published data for 2011 and 2012 were estimates of the sources.

The data was collected from different sources such as UAE National Statistical Bureau (UAENSB) [12], Gulf Corporation Council (GCC)[13],Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)[14],U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)[3], International Energy Agency (IEA)[15], and United Nations Development Program (UNDP)[1]. In order to get real value of per capita income and gasoline prices, the variables have been deflated by the consumer price index (2000=100).

Since the emphasis was on gasoline demand elasticity, the log-log model seemed to be the most appropriate one to use. Following Judge, et al.,[16] the model could be written as follows;

$$
\log Y\_{\mathbf{t}} = \beta\_0 + \beta\_K \log X\_{\mathbf{t}K} + \varepsilon\_{\mathbf{t}} \tag{1}
$$

Where the annual amount of gasoline demanded is, stands for the independent variables such as per capita real income, population of the country, the real price of gasoline per gallon, Human Development Index, and lagged values of demand for gasoline. The last term of the equation, , is error term which assumed to have "0" expected value and variance. The calculated elasticity of gasoline demand ( ) in such a model is constant. That is why the equation can be named as constant elasticity model, which is very convenient for economists.

In addition, a forecasting of the demand for gasoline for the next 8 years until 2020 was made. The reason for choosing just 8 years was because of having relatively short time series data and the need to obtain more meaningful estimation. The forecasting of gasoline demand was done by conducting a simple time series model in which the demand for gasoline was regressed on time as follows;

$$Y\_{\mathbf{t}} = \beta\_0 + \beta\_1 \mathbf{t} + \varepsilon\_{\mathbf{t}} \tag{2}$$

Where is time which takes value of "0" for the base year and increases by "1" for each additional year up to the end of time period.

In addition to the simple time series model given in equation 2, an autoregressive integrated moving-average model (ARIMA) was used to forecast the demand for gasoline in UAE. The ARIMA model includes autoregressive (AR), moving average (MA) and nonstationary integrated (I) time series models. That is why the model is more efficient than the AR, MA, and I; and provides more reliable results[17].FollowingJudge, et al., [16]the ARIMA model can be written as follows;

$$Y\_t = \mathcal{S} + \theta\_1 \mathbf{y}\_{t-1} + \dots + \theta\_p \mathbf{y}\_{t-p} + e\_t + a\_1 e\_{t-1} + \dots + a\_q e\_{t-q} \tag{3}$$

Where order is for AR, is order for MA part of equation 3.

By using the Box-Jenkins methodology with equation 3, forecasted future values of gasoline demand could be obtained. The Box-Jenkins methodology is more useful for short term forecasting[17]. Since we relatively have short term predictions, the methodology could be said to be appropriate.

The data used in this study coveredthe 1995-2012 periods. The variables and their coding in regression analysis could be briefly explained as follows:

Demand for Gasoline (=LNGASDMD): is the total annual quantity demanded of gasoline in UAE.

Income (=LNINC) :is per capita real income.

Population (=LNPOP): is the annual total population of the country.

Price (=LNPRICE): is real price of gasoline per gallon.

HDI (=LNHDI): is human development index of UAE.

CARS (=LNCARS): is the total number of passenger cars in the country for a given year.

LNGASD-1: is the lagged value of quantity demanded of gasoline.

#### **4. Results**

In this paper, mainly two different analyses were conducted. The first one was the utilization of log-log model for estimating UAE demand for gasoline by using time series data covering the years from1995 to 2012. The second analysis was forecasting the amount of gasoline that will be demanded for the next 8 years by using simple time series and ARIMA models.

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**Standard Error**

The second step was to forecast the demand for gasoline for the next 8 years. The results of simple time series and ARIMA models are given in Tables 2 and 3. The results of the simple time series model showed that the quantity demanded of gasoline increases by 1745.54 thousand barrels for

 36639.2177 3042.5505 30675.9283 - 42602.5070 36639.6372 4263.3769 28283.5721 - 44995.7024 36639.6295 5205.9406 26436.1735 - 46843.0855 36639.6297 6002.2611 24875.4141 - 48403.8452 36639.6297 6704.6597 23498.7382 - 49780.5212 36639.6297 7340.1488 22253.2024 - 51026.0570 36639.6297 7924.8412 21107.2264 - 52172.0329 36639.6297 8469.2639 20040.1775 - 53239.0818

**Table 3.** Forecasting of UAE Gasoline Demand for Next 8 Years Using ARIMA (Thousand Barrels per Year)

The results of ARIMA model are given in Table 3. The first 3 rows in column 2 are the average gasoline demand for a five-year period. The following row in the same column is the average for 3 years. The forecasted values for gasoline demand are given starting from the year 2013. The forecasted values arevery close to each other and for the majority of years are almost the same. Because of high standard deviation, confidence intervals are getting larger values for each ad-

In this study, the demand for gasoline in the UAE, an oil producing country, has been analyzed. Having positive effects of income, population growth, and number of vehicles and negative effects of the prices on gasoline demand was expected. On the other hand, the negative effect of HDI on the demand for gasoline consumption was considerably important. HDI is an indicator of the country's development. So as the country develops, the awareness of negative impacts of gasoline on the environment is realized. This result is in favor of sustainable development

petroleum were 75.7208 Million Metric Tons in 2009. The country is one of the leading economies

and decrease demand for gasoline in the UAE will help enhancing sustainable development.

emission. Developing policies to increase environmental awareness

**Forecasted Demand for Gasoline**

each additional year, as indicated in Table 2.

**Demand for Gasoline**

**Variable Observed** 

1995-1999 11325.86 2000 -2004 19913.06 2005-2009 29851.59 2010-20012 35425.09

ditional year of forecasting.

which suffer a lot from CO2

**5. Summary and Conclusion**

concept. According to the international energy agency, CO2

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

**95% Confidence Interval for Forecasted Demand** 

emissions from the consumption of

<sup>165</sup> ISALS


**Table 1.** Estimation Results of UAE Gasoline Demand

The regression results of the log-log model for gasoline demand model are given in Table 1. Results showed that the estimated coefficients (which are at the same time elasticities) are mostly significant on their effects on the quantity demanded of gasoline as anticipated. As per capita income, population of the country and the numbers of cars increase the quantity demanded of gasoline increases as well. On the other hand, as real price per gallon of gasoline, HDI, and the gasoline demand for the previous year increase the quantity demanded of gasoline decreases as expected, as well.


**Table 2.** Forecasting of UAE Gasoline Demand for the Next 8 Years Using Simple Time Series Model (Thousand Barrels per Year)

R2 =0.97, F Ratio = 467.26 The second step was to forecast the demand for gasoline for the next 8 years. The results of simple time series and ARIMA models are given in Tables 2 and 3. The results of the simple time series model showed that the quantity demanded of gasoline increases by 1745.54 thousand barrels for each additional year, as indicated in Table 2.


**Table 3.** Forecasting of UAE Gasoline Demand for Next 8 Years Using ARIMA (Thousand Barrels per Year)

The results of ARIMA model are given in Table 3. The first 3 rows in column 2 are the average gasoline demand for a five-year period. The following row in the same column is the average for 3 years. The forecasted values for gasoline demand are given starting from the year 2013. The forecasted values arevery close to each other and for the majority of years are almost the same. Because of high standard deviation, confidence intervals are getting larger values for each additional year of forecasting.

## **5. Summary and Conclusion**

In this study, the demand for gasoline in the UAE, an oil producing country, has been analyzed. Having positive effects of income, population growth, and number of vehicles and negative effects of the prices on gasoline demand was expected. On the other hand, the negative effect of HDI on the demand for gasoline consumption was considerably important. HDI is an indicator of the country's development. So as the country develops, the awareness of negative impacts of gasoline on the environment is realized. This result is in favor of sustainable development concept. According to the international energy agency, CO2 emissions from the consumption of petroleum were 75.7208 Million Metric Tons in 2009. The country is one of the leading economies which suffer a lot from CO2 emission. Developing policies to increase environmental awareness and decrease demand for gasoline in the UAE will help enhancing sustainable development.

#### **6. References**

[1] UNDP. Human Development Index [Online]. Available: http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/ profiles/ARE.html

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

**Selective Catalytic Reduction of NO with** 

**Supported Transition Metal Oxide Catalysts**

Department of Applied Chemistry & Chem. Eng., Faculty of Chemistry, University of Tabriz,

A series of transition metal oxides (Co, Cr, Mn, Fe and Cu) promoted H-ZSM-5 catalysts were prepared by wet impregnation method using dilute soltions of metal nitrate precursors. These were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). XRD and SEM images approved that the formed metal species are in the nanometer size range and well dispersed. The catalytic activity of these materials was evaluated for the selective catalytic

results revealed that the catalytic activity of Cu-ZSM-5 for NO removal was about 80% at 300 °C, which was the best among various promoted oxides. Then effect of catalyst preparation param-

**Keywords:** ZSM-5, transition metal oxides, nitric oxide (NO), selective catalytic reduction (SCR)

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) remain a major source of air pollution. They contribute to photochemical smog, acid rain, ozone depletion, and greenhouse effects. Nearly all NOx (95%) derives from transportation (49%) and power plants (46%) [1]. Due to the increasing threat of NOx to our survival, many approaches have been developed to reduce its emission, among which selective catalytic reduction technique (SCR) is proven to be an effective way compared with other NOx abatement technologies, such as nonselective catalytic reduction technique, storage, and thermal

bons like methane, ethane and propylene but ammonia is still found to be a suitable reductant for NO in the presence of oxygen, in spite of being difficult to handle, because ammonia reacts

In the past few decades, the backbone of SCR technology is the development of SCR catalysts such as noble metals, supported metal oxides, zeolites and others [3, 4]. The conversion efficiencies of NOx in the catalytic reactions depend mostly on the supports and the nature of active sites. Therefore, the choices of supports and catalysts are especially important [5]. Zeolite-based SCR catalysts have received a great deal of attention because of their high activity for the reduction of

without consuming an excess O2

, D. Salari, P. Nakhostin Panahi, S. M. Mousavi

**Ammonia over Nanostructure H-ZSM-5** 

A. Niaei\*

Tabriz, Iran,

**Abstract**

\*Corresponding author, Email: niaei@yahoo.com

eters for Cu-ZSM-5 optimum catalyst was studied.

reduction (SCR) of NO with NH3

selectively with NOx to produce N2

**1. Introduction**

© 2012 Niaei et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the

[2].

original work is properly cited.

decomposition. The most common reductants for SCR are ammonia, urea, CO, H2

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

as reductant in the presence of excess oxygen (5 vol.%). The

<sup>167</sup> ISALS

and hydrocar-


## **Selective Catalytic Reduction of NO with Ammonia over Nanostructure H-ZSM-5 Supported Transition Metal Oxide Catalysts**

A. Niaei\* , D. Salari, P. Nakhostin Panahi, S. M. Mousavi

Department of Applied Chemistry & Chem. Eng., Faculty of Chemistry, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran,

\*Corresponding author, Email: niaei@yahoo.com

#### **Abstract**

A series of transition metal oxides (Co, Cr, Mn, Fe and Cu) promoted H-ZSM-5 catalysts were prepared by wet impregnation method using dilute soltions of metal nitrate precursors. These were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). XRD and SEM images approved that the formed metal species are in the nanometer size range and well dispersed. The catalytic activity of these materials was evaluated for the selective catalytic reduction (SCR) of NO with NH3 as reductant in the presence of excess oxygen (5 vol.%). The results revealed that the catalytic activity of Cu-ZSM-5 for NO removal was about 80% at 300 °C, which was the best among various promoted oxides. Then effect of catalyst preparation parameters for Cu-ZSM-5 optimum catalyst was studied.

**Keywords:** ZSM-5, transition metal oxides, nitric oxide (NO), selective catalytic reduction (SCR)

## **1. Introduction**

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) remain a major source of air pollution. They contribute to photochemical smog, acid rain, ozone depletion, and greenhouse effects. Nearly all NOx (95%) derives from transportation (49%) and power plants (46%) [1]. Due to the increasing threat of NOx to our survival, many approaches have been developed to reduce its emission, among which selective catalytic reduction technique (SCR) is proven to be an effective way compared with other NOx abatement technologies, such as nonselective catalytic reduction technique, storage, and thermal decomposition. The most common reductants for SCR are ammonia, urea, CO, H2 and hydrocarbons like methane, ethane and propylene but ammonia is still found to be a suitable reductant for NO in the presence of oxygen, in spite of being difficult to handle, because ammonia reacts selectively with NOx to produce N2 without consuming an excess O2 [2].

In the past few decades, the backbone of SCR technology is the development of SCR catalysts such as noble metals, supported metal oxides, zeolites and others [3, 4]. The conversion efficiencies of NOx in the catalytic reactions depend mostly on the supports and the nature of active sites. Therefore, the choices of supports and catalysts are especially important [5]. Zeolite-based SCR catalysts have received a great deal of attention because of their high activity for the reduction of

© 2012 Niaei et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

NOx. Some of the extensively studied metal cations exchanged into zeolites to prepare lean NOx catalysts include Co, Pt, Pd, Fe, Ni, and Cu [6].

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

zeolites were pretreated with Ar at 150°C in order to eliminate possible compounds adsorbed on the zeolite surface. After this pretreatment, the reactor was cooled to 100°C and activity tests were performed from 100 to 400°C with a step of 100°C. The concentration of N2 (as selective product) in the outlet of the reactor was measured by a gas chromatograph (shimadzu) equipped with a

Figure 1 shows the XRD patterns of the series H-ZSM-5 and M-ZSM-5 (M = Cu, Mn, Fe, Co,...). XRD patterns of the prepared samples M-ZSM-5 are similar to that of H-ZSM-5 which suggests that the original structure of H-ZSM-5 is not destroyed during the process of impregnation and calcination. All The characteristic peaks of HZSM-5 were observed in impregnated ZSM-5 samples. XRD peaks remain sharp and intense for M-ZSM-5, but a slight decrease in intensity of main peaks can be observed. This reveals a decrease in crystallinity of catalysts compared to H-ZSM-5. Decreases of peaks intensity imply the entrance of metal species into the channels. Also there is not any other peak in XRD patterns of M-ZSM-5 catalysts compared to XRD pattern of H-ZSM-5 indicating that metal species (i.e. oxide, cations,…) are well dispersed through the

Figure 2 shows SEM micrographs of H-ZSM-5 and M-ZSM-5 (M = Cu, Mn, Fe, Co,...) catalysts. This figures indicates the formation small size of metal particles, the high dispersion on support and the uniform size distributionin in M-ZSM-5 catalysts that increase activity. Also SEM images

thermal conductivity detector (TCD) with Molecular sieve column to separate N2

**3. Results and Discussion**

zeolites structure.

**3.1. Characterization of catalysts**

approved the nanostructure of catalysts (<100 nm).

**Figure 1.** XRD of parent H-ZSM-5 and M-ZSM-5 (M = Mn, Cr , Fe,…)

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

<sup>169</sup> ISALS

and N2

O.

In the present study we have screened a number of transition metal oxides (Co, Cr, Mn, Fe and Cu) supported on H-ZSM-5 for SCR of NO with NH3 . The objectives of this work are to compare the activity of various metals (Cu, Mn, Fe, Co,...) loaded on H-ZSM-5 and carry out the reaction selectively in a wide temperature range. The prepared catalysts were thoroughly characterized by various physicochemical techniques. Among various catalysts, the Cu-ZSM-5 catalyst showed very promising catalytic activity for SCR of NO with NH3 by exhibiting high conversions over a wide temperature window and the reaction was highly selective in the presence of oxygen.

#### **2. Experimental**

#### **2.1. Catalysts Preparation**

H-ZSM-5 obtained from Zeochem Int with SiO2 /Al2 O3 = 50was used for preparation of the catalysts. The properties of H-ZSM-5 are listed in Table 1. All catalysts were prepared through incipient wetness impregnation method. The aim of this procedure is to deposit metal oxide on the zeolite surface, whereas a proton exchange is not explicitly intended and with this technique an accurate load of metal is adjusted. The precursors of different metals were Cu(NO3 ) 2 .3H2 O, Co(NO3 ) 2 , Cr(NO3 ) 2 , Fe(NO3 ) 2 , and Mn(NO3 ) 2 , and the total metal content was kept at 5 wt%. The prepared catalysts were dried in an oven at 100°C overnight and then calcined at 500°C for 4 h in the air; under these conditions complete decomposition of metal nitrate into metal oxide occurs.

#### **2.2. Catalysts characterization**

#### *2.2.1. X-ray diffraction (XRD)*

The structure of the catalysts were analysed by powder XRD at room temperature with a D500 Siemens diffract meter using CuKα radiation (λ= 1.54050 Å). The X-ray tube was operated at 35 kV and 30 mA and the X-ray pattern was scanned with a step size of crystallites sizes of 0.016° (2θ) from 5 to 50° (2θ) and counting time of 1 s per step.

#### *2.2.2. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)*

SEM images for H-ZSM-5 and M-ZSM-5 (M= Co, Cr, Mn, Fe and Cu) were obtained using SEM model EQ-CL 1 instrument to observe particle size and surface homogeneity.

#### **2.3. Catalytic activity measurement**

Catalysts activities in NOx reduction were studied at atmospheric pressure in a fixed bed reactor. The reactor consisted of a 0.9 cm i.d. glass tube was located inside in a furnace which was electrically heated. The reactant gas feed, consisting of NO (1000 ppm), NH3 (1000 ppm), O2 (5 vol%) and Ar as balanced gas, was mixed in a mixing chamber and introduced to the reactor at a total flow rate of 200 ml/min. In each run, 0.2 g of the catalyst powder was dispread between quartz wool plugs, yielding a gas hourly space velocity (GHSV) of 12000 h-1. Before starting each run, zeolites were pretreated with Ar at 150°C in order to eliminate possible compounds adsorbed on the zeolite surface. After this pretreatment, the reactor was cooled to 100°C and activity tests were performed from 100 to 400°C with a step of 100°C. The concentration of N2 (as selective product) in the outlet of the reactor was measured by a gas chromatograph (shimadzu) equipped with a thermal conductivity detector (TCD) with Molecular sieve column to separate N2 and N2 O.

## **3. Results and Discussion**

#### **3.1. Characterization of catalysts**

Figure 1 shows the XRD patterns of the series H-ZSM-5 and M-ZSM-5 (M = Cu, Mn, Fe, Co,...). XRD patterns of the prepared samples M-ZSM-5 are similar to that of H-ZSM-5 which suggests that the original structure of H-ZSM-5 is not destroyed during the process of impregnation and calcination. All The characteristic peaks of HZSM-5 were observed in impregnated ZSM-5 samples. XRD peaks remain sharp and intense for M-ZSM-5, but a slight decrease in intensity of main peaks can be observed. This reveals a decrease in crystallinity of catalysts compared to H-ZSM-5. Decreases of peaks intensity imply the entrance of metal species into the channels. Also there is not any other peak in XRD patterns of M-ZSM-5 catalysts compared to XRD pattern of H-ZSM-5 indicating that metal species (i.e. oxide, cations,…) are well dispersed through the zeolites structure.

Figure 2 shows SEM micrographs of H-ZSM-5 and M-ZSM-5 (M = Cu, Mn, Fe, Co,...) catalysts. This figures indicates the formation small size of metal particles, the high dispersion on support and the uniform size distributionin in M-ZSM-5 catalysts that increase activity. Also SEM images approved the nanostructure of catalysts (<100 nm).

**Figure 1.** XRD of parent H-ZSM-5 and M-ZSM-5 (M = Mn, Cr , Fe,…)

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

**Figure 3.** NO to N2 conversion as a function of temperature on M-ZSM-5 (M= Fe, Cr, Co, Mn and Cu)

Cu-ZSM-5 showed more activity than other catalysts thus we focus additional studies on Cu-ZSM-5. To further improve the performance of the Cu-ZSM-5 catalyst, the composition of the catalyst was optimized by varying Cu loading and calcinations temperature. Figure 4 compares the NO conversion to N2 as a function of temperature over Cu-ZSM-5 catalysts with different loading (1, 3, 5, 7, 9 wt.%). The result indicates that below 5wt.%, increasing Cu content in Cu-ZSM-5 resulted in an increase in conversion but Further increase in Cu content was found to

loading in this study. The low activity in Cu-ZSM-5 with loading of 1 and 3 wt.% can be attributed to low quantity copper oxide species. A decrease in conversion with an increase in Cu content after that was attributed to excessive metal agglomeration leading to the formation of larger metal particle also further loading of copper causes to block the pores and active sites of zeolite,

**Figure 4.** NO to N2 conversion as a function of temperature on Cu-ZSM-5 with different Cu loadings.

**3.3. Catalytic activity of Cu-ZSM-5 catalysts with various Cu-loadings**

catalysts.

weaken the NO conversion to N2

leading to decrease the catalytic activity of catalyst [8].

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

, therefore Cu loading of 5 wt.% was found to be the optimum

<sup>171</sup> ISALS

**Figure 2.** SEM images of (a): parent H-ZSM-5 and (b): Fe-ZSM-5 (c): Mn-ZSM-5 (d): Cr-ZSM-5 (e)Cu-ZSM-5 (f): Co-ZSM-5

## **3.2. Effects of different metals for NH3 – SCR activity**

Catalytic activity results for NO conversion to N2 of NH3 – SCR reaction over H-ZSM-5 and various transition metal oxides supported on H-ZSM-5 are presented in Figure 3. No obvious NO conversion was observed over pure H-ZSM-5 support up to 300ºC. When the transition metal oxide phases were introduced, the catalytic activities were enhanced significantly over the whole range of temperature investigated. For all catalysts, NO conversion increased with increasing temperature and all catalysts were highly selective. Under identical operating conditions Cu-ZSM-5 showed excellent performance giving 80% NO conversion at 300°C, which was the best among catalysts. High activity for Cu-ZSM-5 also were shown by sultana et al. [7], who reported high selective and activity for Cu/NaZSM-5 and Cu/HZSM-5 in NOx reduction by NH3 .

**Figure 3.** NO to N2 conversion as a function of temperature on M-ZSM-5 (M= Fe, Cr, Co, Mn and Cu) catalysts.

#### **3.3. Catalytic activity of Cu-ZSM-5 catalysts with various Cu-loadings**

Cu-ZSM-5 showed more activity than other catalysts thus we focus additional studies on Cu-ZSM-5. To further improve the performance of the Cu-ZSM-5 catalyst, the composition of the catalyst was optimized by varying Cu loading and calcinations temperature. Figure 4 compares the NO conversion to N2 as a function of temperature over Cu-ZSM-5 catalysts with different loading (1, 3, 5, 7, 9 wt.%). The result indicates that below 5wt.%, increasing Cu content in Cu-ZSM-5 resulted in an increase in conversion but Further increase in Cu content was found to weaken the NO conversion to N2 , therefore Cu loading of 5 wt.% was found to be the optimum loading in this study. The low activity in Cu-ZSM-5 with loading of 1 and 3 wt.% can be attributed to low quantity copper oxide species. A decrease in conversion with an increase in Cu content after that was attributed to excessive metal agglomeration leading to the formation of larger metal particle also further loading of copper causes to block the pores and active sites of zeolite, leading to decrease the catalytic activity of catalyst [8].

**Figure 4.** NO to N2 conversion as a function of temperature on Cu-ZSM-5 with different Cu loadings.

#### **3.4. Effect of calcination temperature on the catalytic activity Cu-ZSM-5**

Figure 5 shows the NO conversion to N2 as a function of temperature over 5 wt.% Cu-ZSM-5 at different calcination temperatures. The result indicates that the calcination temperature influenced the SCR activity. From figure 6 we can see that the catalyst calcinated at 550°C had the highest activity. The NO conversion over Cu-ZSM-5 catalysts decreased in the order of Cu-ZSM-5 (550)> Cu-ZSM-5 (500)> Cu-ZSM-5 (600)> Cu-ZSM-5 (650) Cu-ZSM-5 (450)> Cu-ZSM-5 (400). Different calcination temperatures result in different oxidation states of copper, so the calcination temperature affects the activity and selectivity of SCR of NO by NH3 . Further increase in calcination temperature above 600°C caused decreasing NOx conversion. This can be due to the sintering to some extent at high calcinations temperature [9].

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[3] javad amanpour .2011. Catalytic reduction of NOx over active carbon coated with Cupper and

[4] masood samandari.2011. Optimization of properation condition of some transition metal nanocatalyst based on active carbon in NOx catalytical reduction. MSc Thesis, Faculty of

[5] Kui-Hao Chuang , Zhen-Shu Liu , Yu-Hao Chang , Chi-Yuan Lu , Ming-Yen Wey. 2010. Study of SBA-15 supported catalysts for toluene and NO removal: the effect of promoters (Co, Ni, Mn,

[6] M. Mečárová N.A. Miller, N.C. Clark, K.C. Ott, T. Pietraß. 2005. Selective catalytic reduction of NOx with ammonia on gallium-exchanged ferrierites. Applied Catalysis A: General. (282) : P.

[7] Asima Sultana, Tetsuya Nanba, Masaaki Haneda, Hideaki Hamad. 2009. SCR of NOx with NH3 over Cu/NaZSM-5 and Cu/HZSM-5 in the presence of decane. Catalysis Communications (10)

[8] Niaei Aligholi, Salari Dariush, Hosseini Seyed Ali, Khatamian Masumeh, Jodaei Azadeh. 2009. Catalytic Combustion of Ethyl Acetate Over Nanostructure Cobalt Supported ZSM-5 Zeolite

[9] Azadeh Jodaei, Aligholi Niaei†, and Darush Salari. 2011. Performance of nanostructure Fe-Ag-ZSM-5 catalysts for the catalytic oxidation of volatile organic compounds: Process optimization

Vanadium. MSc Thesis, Faculty of chemistry, Tabriz University, Tabriz, Iran.

chemistry, Tabriz University, Tabriz, Iran.

Ce). Reac Kinet Mech Cat (99) : p. 409–420.

Catalysts. Chinese Journal of Chemistry, (27): p.1—10.

using response surface methodology. Korean J. Chem. Eng.

267–272.

:p. 1859–1863.

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<sup>173</sup> ISALS

#### **4. Summary and conclusion**

This study confirmed higher catalytic activity of M-ZSM-5 (M = Co, Cr, Mn, Fe and Cu) for the selective catalytic reduction (SCR) of NO with NH3 as reductant and revealed that introduction of metal ions onto ZSM-5 caused improvement in catalytic activity of M-ZSM-5 catalysts compared to parent HZSM-5, which confirms catalytic role of metal ions for selective catalytic reduction. Under identical operating conditions Cu-ZSM-5 showed excellent performance giving 80% NO conversion at 300°C, which was the best among catalysts. Also, It was concluded that Cu loading of 5 wt.% be the optimum loading and catalyst calcinated at 550°C had the highest activity in this study.

#### **5. References**


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1 Environmental Sciences Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University, G.C., Evin, Tehran-Iran,

This paper assessed the impacts of watershed programs (WPs) on agro-ecosystemsin Hamedan Province, Iran. This study's methodology was based on criteria for the comparison of agroecosystems with and without WPs and nine indicators was selected to assess the sustainability impacts. The results revealed that WPs have contributed in raising the stability, productivity and relative acceptability of the agro-eco-system by improving the indicators for ecological sustainability,generating a better benefit-cost ratio and promoting the quality of life and access to public services for farmers in agro-ecosystems with a project. However, the involvement of stakeholders in program implementation and monitoring has reduced. At the end, we recommend demand-

driven WPs rather than supply driven ones to be increase the social acceptability of WPs.

Concern about widespread soil degradation and scarce, poorly managed water resources has led to the spread of watershed management investment throughout Iran (Golrang et al., 2006). Despite the growing importance of watershed projects as an approach to rural development and natural resource management, to date there has been relatively little research on their impacts. So, despite the high political priority of the sustainable management of the country's land and water resources in Iran and elsewhere, the contribution of these projects to equity, the quality of life, and perceived wellbeing of rural community seems more uncertain (Ahmadvand and Karami, 2009). Therefore, research is needed to ensure that new projects supply agro-ecosystem sustainability.In order to obtain spatially and temporally acceptable indicators here, in view of biophysical and socio-economic conditions in the study area in the previous studies (Farshad and Zinck, 2001; Ali-Beigi and Baboli, 2008; Hayati and Karami, 2007; Ireavani and Darban-astaneh, 2004; Shahi et al., 2009; Hashemi et al., 2010; Hosseini et al., 2007; Allahyari, 2010; Ahmadvand et al., 2009; and Veisi et al., 2012) 9 indicators representing ecological, economic and social impacts

**Keywords:** Assessment, Agricultural Sustainability, Watershed Programs, Iran

2 Agronomy and Plant Breeding Department, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Iran

\*Corresponding author, Phone: +982122431971, Email: hveisi@gmail.com

, Hadi Veisi1,\*, and Mohammad Ebrahim Rezai<sup>2</sup>

**Sustainability Impact Assessment** 

**of Watershed Programs** 

Korous Khoshbakht<sup>1</sup>

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction** 

of watershed projects were selected.

© 2012 Khoshbakht et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

provided the original work is properly cited.

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

<sup>175</sup> ISALS

## **Sustainability Impact Assessment of Watershed Programs**

Korous Khoshbakht<sup>1</sup> , Hadi Veisi1,\*, and Mohammad Ebrahim Rezai<sup>2</sup>

1 Environmental Sciences Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University, G.C., Evin, Tehran-Iran, 2 Agronomy and Plant Breeding Department, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Iran \*Corresponding author, Phone: +982122431971, Email: hveisi@gmail.com

#### **Abstract**

This paper assessed the impacts of watershed programs (WPs) on agro-ecosystemsin Hamedan Province, Iran. This study's methodology was based on criteria for the comparison of agroecosystems with and without WPs and nine indicators was selected to assess the sustainability impacts. The results revealed that WPs have contributed in raising the stability, productivity and relative acceptability of the agro-eco-system by improving the indicators for ecological sustainability,generating a better benefit-cost ratio and promoting the quality of life and access to public services for farmers in agro-ecosystems with a project. However, the involvement of stakeholders in program implementation and monitoring has reduced. At the end, we recommend demanddriven WPs rather than supply driven ones to be increase the social acceptability of WPs.

**Keywords:** Assessment, Agricultural Sustainability, Watershed Programs, Iran

## **1. Introduction**

Concern about widespread soil degradation and scarce, poorly managed water resources has led to the spread of watershed management investment throughout Iran (Golrang et al., 2006). Despite the growing importance of watershed projects as an approach to rural development and natural resource management, to date there has been relatively little research on their impacts. So, despite the high political priority of the sustainable management of the country's land and water resources in Iran and elsewhere, the contribution of these projects to equity, the quality of life, and perceived wellbeing of rural community seems more uncertain (Ahmadvand and Karami, 2009). Therefore, research is needed to ensure that new projects supply agro-ecosystem sustainability.In order to obtain spatially and temporally acceptable indicators here, in view of biophysical and socio-economic conditions in the study area in the previous studies (Farshad and Zinck, 2001; Ali-Beigi and Baboli, 2008; Hayati and Karami, 2007; Ireavani and Darban-astaneh, 2004; Shahi et al., 2009; Hashemi et al., 2010; Hosseini et al., 2007; Allahyari, 2010; Ahmadvand et al., 2009; and Veisi et al., 2012) 9 indicators representing ecological, economic and social impacts of watershed projects were selected.

© 2012 Khoshbakht et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

## **2. Methods**

A causal comparative method was used to understand better the sustainability impacts of the WPs at Gonbad-chai watershed. Two villages – Gonbad-chai and Tahon-abad – were meant to be the beneficiaries of the WPs and so they were included in the study as villages of agro-ecosystem with the watershed program. The villages of Bagche, Sabz-abad and Gorgoz also were selected as the villages in agro-ecosystem without WPs that located in the same watershed basin as the watershed project villages; have similar cultural and social characteristics; and be relatively close to the villages with WPs. Face-to-face interviews were used to collect data with the aid of a questionnaire containing open and closed questions. The sample size for the household survey was determined by using the formula given by Cochran (1977). Altogether, 69 households were surveyed from an agro-ecosystem with WPs and 67 from an agro-ecosystem without WPs, representing above one-third of the households of each area. The social impact items were categorized according to three social criteria. They include: quality of life (7 items); access to public services (6 items); social capital and social structure (6 items). The economic impact item was marginal cost-benefit ratio. The ecological impact items were categorized into five ecological criteria as follows: crop management (10 items), biodiversity (5 items), soil health (9 items), hydrological processes (2 items) and energy (5 items) (Table 2). Weighting the data was undertaken using conjoint analysis such as Sydorovych and Wossink (2008) and the data were standardized; the weight of each indicator is shown in Table 1. A 'T' test was employed to test the differences between agroecosystems with and without WPs.

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

**Watershed projects**

**SD\* Average SD\* Average**

with the findings of Ahmadvand and Karami (2009), and in contrast with the results of Brouwer and Van Ek (2004) which who concluded that the new policy of water management in The Neth-

**Cost-benefit ratio**: Comparison of the cost-benefit ratio showed significant difference (T=7.05; P<0.001) between agro-ecosystems with (X= 65.34) and without WPs (X=49.15). In other words, the marginal cost–benefit ratio was raised in agro-ecosystem with WPs. The patterns of these findings are congruent with recent development efforts in rural Iran, such as those described by Ahmadvand and Karami (2009), Golrag et al. (2006), Parizanganeh et al. (2008) and Sadeghi et

**Crop management**: Comparison of crop management showed strategies significant difference (T= 2.35; P< 0.05) between agro-ecosystems with (X=46.06) and without WPs (X=43.90). It seems that improvements in farm management practices are the effect of an increase in economic power, better access to agricultural experts and an increase in knowledge and education. The status indicator has not been reported in other studies, but some components of the indicator, such as

**Biodiversity:** The above facts clearly indicate that the WPs altered the land use system in favour of hourticultural crops, mostly fruits. The findings susggested that there was significant difference in agro-ecosystem with (X=61.74) and without WPs (X= 41.86) with regard to access to pub-

erlands improved the social capital of farmers.

al. (2003).

structure

**3.2. Impacts of WPs across the economic criteria**

**Table 1.** Comparing the sustainability criteria and the weight of each indicator

**Weight** 

**indicators Indicators Without With**

Quality of life .069 40.81 8.43 43.07 8.09 -1.597 .113 Access to public services .084 38.53 11.78 47.87 10.98 -4.786 .000 Social capital and social .070 78.57 10.77 72.69 14.71 2.654 .009

Cost-benefit ratio .015 49.15 13.09 65.34 13.67 -7.050 .000 Crop management .019 43.90 5.46 46.06 5.24 -2.351 .020 Biodiversity .045 46.86 20.76 61.74 17.74 -4.486 .000 Soil health .108 54.63 6.85 58.76 5.72 -3.821 .000 Hydrological processes .091 44.13 6.63 54.27 14.89 -5.104 .000 Energy .064 55.90 9.95 69.21 11.17 -7.333 .000

**3.3. Impacts of WPs across the ecological criteria**

farm size, agree with the results of the study of Parizanganeh et al. (2008).

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**P T**

#### **3. Results**

#### **3.1. Impacts of the WPs across the social criteria**

**Quality of life**: The analysis of the impact of WPs on rural quality of life indicated that there were no significant differences in quality life between agro-ecosystems with ( X= 43.07) and without WPs ( X= 40.81, T = 1.59; P> 0.05). It is concluded that the respondents in villages with WPs believed their quality of life has improved. This is somewhat congruent with the findings of Ahmadvand and Karami (2009), regarding the impact of sustainable land and water resources management on the quality of life of the rural community. However this result is opposite to the causal conclusions of Kerr and Chung (2001), which expressed that landless people felt harmed by the projects, but to create jobs for these people in the study area is different from the results.

**Access to public services:** Equality of access to public and support services can ensure social stability and encourage farmers to improve production while conserving resources (Dang, 2001). The findings suggested that there was a significant difference between agro-ecosystems with (X= 47.87) and without WPs (X = 38.53) with regard to access to public services (T=4.79; P<0.001). Increase in access to public services in agro-ecosystem with WPs is relation to the distance between this villages and urban areas. The status indicator has not been reported in other studies.

**Social capital:** Comparison of social capital showed significant difference (T=2.65; P<0.01) between agro-ecosystems with (X= 72.69) and without WPs (X = 78.57). The respondents in agroecosystem with WPs perceived that their social capital had declined. These results are consistent


**Table 1.** Comparing the sustainability criteria and the weight of each indicator

with the findings of Ahmadvand and Karami (2009), and in contrast with the results of Brouwer and Van Ek (2004) which who concluded that the new policy of water management in The Netherlands improved the social capital of farmers.

#### **3.2. Impacts of WPs across the economic criteria**

**Cost-benefit ratio**: Comparison of the cost-benefit ratio showed significant difference (T=7.05; P<0.001) between agro-ecosystems with (X= 65.34) and without WPs (X=49.15). In other words, the marginal cost–benefit ratio was raised in agro-ecosystem with WPs. The patterns of these findings are congruent with recent development efforts in rural Iran, such as those described by Ahmadvand and Karami (2009), Golrag et al. (2006), Parizanganeh et al. (2008) and Sadeghi et al. (2003).

#### **3.3. Impacts of WPs across the ecological criteria**

**Crop management**: Comparison of crop management showed strategies significant difference (T= 2.35; P< 0.05) between agro-ecosystems with (X=46.06) and without WPs (X=43.90). It seems that improvements in farm management practices are the effect of an increase in economic power, better access to agricultural experts and an increase in knowledge and education. The status indicator has not been reported in other studies, but some components of the indicator, such as farm size, agree with the results of the study of Parizanganeh et al. (2008).

**Biodiversity:** The above facts clearly indicate that the WPs altered the land use system in favour of hourticultural crops, mostly fruits. The findings susggested that there was significant difference in agro-ecosystem with (X=61.74) and without WPs (X= 41.86) with regard to access to public services(T=2.35; P< 0.05). This confi rmed with the fi ndings of Palanisami and Kumar (2009) and Singh and Prakash (2010).

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The analysis showed that the impacts and benefits of the watershed program were significantly greater in those agro-ecosystems with WPs as compared to agro-ecosystems without WPs. Based on the findings of this study, it can be said that WPs have contributed to raising the stability of the agro-eco-system by improving the ecological sustainability indicators such as biodiversity, soil health, hydrological process, energy use and crop management. This is in accordance with the conclusions obtained by Joshi et al. (2008) who cited that a watershed program provides multiple benefits in terms of conserving soil and water resources. This finding also verifies the conclusions of Altieri (2009) who stated that the farmer can increase the stability of the agro-ecosystem by adopting key ecological management practices. In terms of economic efficiency, WPs generated a better benefit-cost ratio. Following Joshi et al. (2008) and Sreedevi et al. (2006), it can be concluded that the watershed program is a vehicle of development to raise farm productivity, so that investing in a watershed program will increase good net present value and internal rate of returns, while maintaining a good environment and soil –to- water balance in the watershed. Concerning social indicators, in agreement with the conclusions of Ahmadvand and Karmai (2009), the findings indicated that the projects had negative impacts on farmers' participation and it had positive impacts on quality of life and access to public services for farmers in agro-ecosystems with a project. Thus, projects initiated in the study area to improve the conditions of rural communities in dry regions appear to be socio-economically acceptable but socio-culturally undesirable. According to these findings, although increased income from agriculture alongside better access to public services enabled farmers to improve their standard of living; their level of participation declined. These findings are contrary to expectations that the project would have positive social impacts on rural communities. We interpret this anomaly with regard to the fact that this generation of WPs in the study area was supply-driven, so that government officials identified locations and decided on various activities for the implementation of WPs (Sreedevi et al., 2006). In contrast, Joshi et al. (2008) asserted that important conditions of people's participation are related to (1) demand-driven watershed projects rather than supply driven ones, (2) involvement of all stakeholders in program implementation and monitoring and (3) decentralization of the

[1] M. Golrag , J.Ghoddosi, M.Mashayekhi. Socio-economic and environmental impact assessment of watershed management plans (Case study: plan, organize Znjanrvd ). *Geog. Res*. 2006, 21 (4):

[2] M.Ahmadvand, E. Karami. A social impact assessment of the floodwater spreading project on the Gareh-Bygone plain in Iran: A causal comparative approach. *Env. Impact Asses. Rev*. 2009, 29:

[3] A.Farshad, A.J. Zinck. Assessing agricultural sustainability using the six-pillar model: Iran as case study, in: Gliessman, S.R. (Ed), *Agroecosystem sustainability: developing practical strategies*. CRC

[4] A. Ali-Beigi, M. Baboli. Evaluation of the Agricultural Sustainability of irrigated wheat farmers

Press LLC, Boca Raton, London, New York and Washington, D.C. 2001, pp. 137-151.

of Sarpol-Zahab: application of DSR. Model. *Iran J Agric Res*. 2008, 39(1): 111-122.

**4. Conclusions**

decision-making process.

**5. References** 

93-110.

126–136.

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<sup>179</sup> ISALS

**Soil health:** The analysis of the eff ect of WPs on soil health indicated that there were signifi cant diff erences in soil health between agro-ecosystem with (X=58.76) and without WPs (X=54.63, T=3.82; P<0.001).This was in agreement with the fi ndings of Palanisami and Suresh Kumar (2009), who noted the positive impact of a watershed management project to protect, fertility and organic matt er in the soil.

**Hydrological processes**: Bett er-performing projects have been based on promoting communities' traditional water harvesting and conservation practices (Sharma, 2003: 76). The fi ndings suggested that there was a signifi cant diff erence in agro-ecosystems with (X = 54.27) and without WPs (X = 44.13) with regard to hydrological processes (T=5.10; P<0.001). Also, improvement in hydrological conditions also conforms to the results of studies Ahmadvand and Karami (2009) and Palanisami and Suresh Kumar (2009).

**Energy:** Comparison of energy showed a signifi cant diff erence (T=7.33; P<0.001) between agroecosystems with (X=69.21) and without WPs (X=55.90). Improved energy indicators were seen, thus increasing yield, reducing energy used for pumping water and use of surface water for irrigation. The status indicator has not been reported in other studies.

In order to achieve an adequate integration and synthesis of the results, on AMOEBA diagram was used (Lopez-Ridaura et al., 2002). This diagram shows, in qualitative terms, to what extent the objective has been met for each indicator and it enables a simple, yet comprehensive, graphical comparison to be made of the advantages and limitations of WPs under evaluation (Fig. 1). Comparing the results of agro-ecosystems with and without project revealed that project had negative impacts on some social criteria, including development of social capital and social structure. Also, the project had a positive impact on indicators of access to public services, rural and agricultural economic conditions, crop management procedures and conservation of community resources, such as the conservation of biodiversity and water resources.

**Fig 1.** Integration of sustainability indicators for two agro-ecosystems using an AMOEBA diagram

## **4. Conclusions**

The analysis showed that the impacts and benefits of the watershed program were significantly greater in those agro-ecosystems with WPs as compared to agro-ecosystems without WPs. Based on the findings of this study, it can be said that WPs have contributed to raising the stability of the agro-eco-system by improving the ecological sustainability indicators such as biodiversity, soil health, hydrological process, energy use and crop management. This is in accordance with the conclusions obtained by Joshi et al. (2008) who cited that a watershed program provides multiple benefits in terms of conserving soil and water resources. This finding also verifies the conclusions of Altieri (2009) who stated that the farmer can increase the stability of the agro-ecosystem by adopting key ecological management practices. In terms of economic efficiency, WPs generated a better benefit-cost ratio. Following Joshi et al. (2008) and Sreedevi et al. (2006), it can be concluded that the watershed program is a vehicle of development to raise farm productivity, so that investing in a watershed program will increase good net present value and internal rate of returns, while maintaining a good environment and soil –to- water balance in the watershed. Concerning social indicators, in agreement with the conclusions of Ahmadvand and Karmai (2009), the findings indicated that the projects had negative impacts on farmers' participation and it had positive impacts on quality of life and access to public services for farmers in agro-ecosystems with a project. Thus, projects initiated in the study area to improve the conditions of rural communities in dry regions appear to be socio-economically acceptable but socio-culturally undesirable. According to these findings, although increased income from agriculture alongside better access to public services enabled farmers to improve their standard of living; their level of participation declined. These findings are contrary to expectations that the project would have positive social impacts on rural communities. We interpret this anomaly with regard to the fact that this generation of WPs in the study area was supply-driven, so that government officials identified locations and decided on various activities for the implementation of WPs (Sreedevi et al., 2006). In contrast, Joshi et al. (2008) asserted that important conditions of people's participation are related to (1) demand-driven watershed projects rather than supply driven ones, (2) involvement of all stakeholders in program implementation and monitoring and (3) decentralization of the decision-making process.

#### **5. References**


[5] D.Hayati, A. Karami. Knowledge structures that influence the sustainability of farming and cropping systems (case study in Fars Province). *Agri. Sci. Nat. Resour*. 2007, 3 (2): 21-33.

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watershed management programmes and projects. *Proc. the Asian Regional Workshop, Kathmandu,* 

[23] J P.Koshi, A.K. Jha, P.Wani Suhas, T.K. Sreedevi, F.A. Shaheen, Impact of Watershed Program and Conditions for Success: A Meta-Analysis Approach. *Global Theme on agro-ecosystems Report no. 46*, international Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh,

[24] M.A.Altieri, P. Koohafkan, *Enduring Farms: Climate Change*, Smallholders and Traditional

[25] T.K.Sreedevi, S.P.Wani, R.Sudi, Patel, M.S., T.Jayesh, S.N.Singh, T. Shah. On-site and Off-site Impact of Watershed Development: A Case Study of Rajasamadhiyala, Gujarat, India. *Global Theme on Agro-ecosystems Report no. 20*, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid

[22] J. Lopez, J.Scott. *Social structure*. Open University Press, Buckingham, 2000.

Farming Communities. Third World Network, Malaysia, 2008.

Tropics, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India, 2006, p. 44.

*Nepal*, 2003, pp. 69-77.

India, 2008, pp. 502-324.

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watershed management programmes and projects. *Proc. the Asian Regional Workshop, Kathmandu, Nepal*, 2003, pp. 69-77.


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**Ecotourism Planning of Murat Mountain** 

2 Department of Landscape Architecture, Aggriculture Faculty, Ege University, Izmir

In today's life, people are tightening urban environments and search of recreation in natural habitat that turning to mountainous areas and natural resources for tourism activities. Mountain areas with a wide variety of use options for different users these areas of the state makes a focal point for tourism. In this study were investigated original natural and cultural values of Murat Dagi and the immediate surroundings where geographical located in Usak and Kutahya cities. For the ecotourism of the existing and improved features of the area were included of high potential for tourism activities. The environmentally sensitive tourism development and tourism potential of the area and immediate surroundings to the suggestions were made ensure the

**Keywords:** Ecotourism, alternative tourism, mountain tourism, sustainable development, Murat

Difficult with each passing day ecological conditions in urban areas directs the movement of people and ecotourism. These movements, especially in tourism as the activities carried out in regions rich in natural and cultural values. These visits are not for people just to rest and have fun at the same time developing person's thoughts, providing socialization, enhance awareness of nature, is in the form of visits, including cultural activities. Thus, for natural area tourism activities and resources of significant interest

Protection of natural and cultural values, tourism, preserve, evaluate, and play a leading role in the promotion. However, uncontrolled tourism, bringing with it a steadily growing interest in the fields of the original nature, mountainous areas of natural and cultural values is corrupt. Long-term attractiveness and diversity of the mountains, resources, stable, based on prudent and sustainable management. Therefore, the management of mountainous areas, requests for tourists, local people's needs and the need to ensure a sustainable balance between conservation of natural resources [1]. Alternative to natural and cultural resource values of Murat Mountain is a significant potential for tourism.

1 Department of Tourism Guide, Tourism Faculty, Konya University, Konya

\*Corresponding author, Email: dincabdurrahman@hotmail.com,

**(Usak, Kutahya/Turkey)**

Tel:+903323238220/5453, Fax: +903323238225

sustainable development of rural areas.

Dagi (Usak, Kutahya/Turkey).

**Abstract**

**1. Input**

in recent years.

Abdurrahman Dinc1,\*, Nurhan Kocan<sup>2</sup>

© 2012 Dinc and Kocan.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

provided the original work is properly cited.

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## **Ecotourism Planning of Murat Mountain (Usak, Kutahya/Turkey)**

Abdurrahman Dinc1,\*, Nurhan Kocan<sup>2</sup>

1 Department of Tourism Guide, Tourism Faculty, Konya University, Konya 2 Department of Landscape Architecture, Aggriculture Faculty, Ege University, Izmir \*Corresponding author, Email: dincabdurrahman@hotmail.com, Tel:+903323238220/5453, Fax: +903323238225

#### **Abstract**

In today's life, people are tightening urban environments and search of recreation in natural habitat that turning to mountainous areas and natural resources for tourism activities. Mountain areas with a wide variety of use options for different users these areas of the state makes a focal point for tourism. In this study were investigated original natural and cultural values of Murat Dagi and the immediate surroundings where geographical located in Usak and Kutahya cities. For the ecotourism of the existing and improved features of the area were included of high potential for tourism activities. The environmentally sensitive tourism development and tourism potential of the area and immediate surroundings to the suggestions were made ensure the sustainable development of rural areas.

**Keywords:** Ecotourism, alternative tourism, mountain tourism, sustainable development, Murat Dagi (Usak, Kutahya/Turkey).

#### **1. Input**

Difficult with each passing day ecological conditions in urban areas directs the movement of people and ecotourism. These movements, especially in tourism as the activities carried out in regions rich in natural and cultural values. These visits are not for people just to rest and have fun at the same time developing person's thoughts, providing socialization, enhance awareness of nature, is in the form of visits, including cultural activities. Thus, for natural area tourism activities and resources of significant interest in recent years.

Protection of natural and cultural values, tourism, preserve, evaluate, and play a leading role in the promotion. However, uncontrolled tourism, bringing with it a steadily growing interest in the fields of the original nature, mountainous areas of natural and cultural values is corrupt. Long-term attractiveness and diversity of the mountains, resources, stable, based on prudent and sustainable management. Therefore, the management of mountainous areas, requests for tourists, local people's needs and the need to ensure a sustainable balance between conservation of natural resources [1]. Alternative to natural and cultural resource values of Murat Mountain is a significant potential for tourism.

© 2012 Dinc and Kocan.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

However, to avoid damage to the structure of ecological tourism, is an absolute must operate within the plan. Murat Mountain surroundings with the aim of this study demonstrate the potential of ecotourism, tourism planning and emphasize the necessity of sustainable development.

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

The potential that exists to protect nature and take advantage of the maximum level, improving the offer to benefit future generations, do not conflict with each other, basing it on a plan it is possible to determine the usage options [4]. Ecology, sustainable use of natural and cultural resource values are increasing, the need for basic land use planning. This obligation, which continued to increase pressures on natural and cultural environment (land speculation, population growth, environmental degradation, inadequate legal and clearances, improper resource management, etc.). Has become a necessity due to [5]. Important criteria for use of natural and cultural areas, and determination of the planning and promotion, tourism potential and the development of these regions provides an opportunity for economic development of rural areas [6]. One of the most important source of tourism values of the local culture. Crafts and foods, such as peculiar to the region by increasing the demand for local products as a means to protect the local culture, take on

Murat Mountain and vicinity workspace and material creates. Area of natural and cultural elements carry with attractive features is the potential for tourism and recreation activities. In this study, pre-made materials to help research, domestic and foreign sources and internet data used to establish the relevant literature. To investigate the structure of the natural and cultural areas of field observations made at different times, area photos and on-site evaluations have been taken. Topographic map of the area and the data obtained from field studies revealed the potential for ecotourism Murat Mountain. And sustainable development in light of the evaluations under the

Murat Mountain and the surrounding area has a history older. The old name of Murat Dağı Ddymus. MÖ.1200 'lü years later the Phrygians in Macedonia has experienced with the Byzantine Empire Period. Murat Mountain Germiyanoğulları Turks, and later the Ottoman Empire upon has taken place in the territory. Murat Dagi in the name of the hero of the Murat Gazi \ martyred 1313 from falling. National Park is within the eastern extensions of the mountain, the Commander in Chief. Murat has been fighting in the War of Independence in 1922 foothills [8]. **Geographical Features:** Murat Mountain, Aegean Region, Department of Domestic Gediz Basin is located in western Anatolia. Kütahya and Usak Usak province in the southern parts of Muratdagi forming the boundary between the northern sections remain within the boundaries of the city of. The study area-29057'38'' 29046'50'' 38049'54''-38055'02'' east longitude and is situated between north latitudes Kütahya [9]. In General, a Northwest-Southeast direction, extending East of the Başkomutanlık National Park, to the West of Mount Murat Gediz Valley and to the South of the mountain, and the Valley of Banaz Çayı Şaphane Elmadag Mountain is located in

an important task [7].

**2. Material Method**

**3. Findings**

proposals have been made for the use of ecotourism.

**3.1. Murat Mountain Location and limits**

the North with the Skillet (Figure 1).

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#### **1.1. Ecotourism and Mountain Tourism**

Removed from the influence of contemporary living and urban ecosystems in time living with nature, human beings found in nature, but it belongs at every opportunity created by nature, if only temporarily, returning to break [2]. Mountains, water, energy, agriculture, forestry and tourism activities are important resources in terms of biodiversity has a key role to. Mountain tourism in mountainous environment, having the cares of beaches and mountain resorts, including recreation and tourism movement. Mountain tourism capital of the mountain and nature itself. The mountains, rocky, forested, mountain ecosystems and water of various qualities, including areas for different activities, allowing each season. Recreation and tourism activities in the purpose of vacation, as well as migration of health tourism in these areas, nature studies, nature and winter sports training is also widely used for such purposes. Usually the mountains from a height of 800 meters above sea level to 2000 meters altitude ranging from the healthy generation and protection of human health to climate areas are attractive places. Heights of 1650-3000 meters in the mountain, winter sports, and sports fields daily heights of 1600-2000 meters, 2000- 3000 meters, the planned residential areas, and thus the heights of the mountain is high up in each of the different alternatives are awarded for a tourism activity [3].

Today, tourism and increase the variety of tourism activities and tourism, countries have made steps to extend the season to be benefited from the mountain and winter tourism facilities have engaged effectively. In 2002, the United Nations by the "World Year of Mountains" were announced. Mountaineering, consisting of only the top of a mountain or a rock face climbing but hiking, mountain sports, camping, wildlife viewing, such as a wide range, covering the various activities. Mountain tourism is an activity that can be places where people live close to the environment such as the activities with accommodation in remote areas is carried out in [1]. Positive effects on human health, clean air and microclimate in mountainous areas is a natural demand for the environment increases. Will be possible with ecotourism planning in order to meet this demand.

#### **1.2. Tourism Planning and Sustainable Development**

Increasing environmental awareness of the changing trends in world tourism and the development of natural areas, tourism activities necessitate a controlled manner. Tourism planning a rational relationship between requirements and organizes the resources for such purposes. Tourism planning purposes this. relationship between rational resources requirements Ensuring the sustainable use of natural and cultural resources to the evaluation of the physical planning decisions in the field of ecological planning strategies.

The potential that exists to protect nature and take advantage of the maximum level, improving the offer to benefit future generations, do not conflict with each other, basing it on a plan it is possible to determine the usage options [4]. Ecology, sustainable use of natural and cultural resource values are increasing, the need for basic land use planning. This obligation, which continued to increase pressures on natural and cultural environment (land speculation, population growth, environmental degradation, inadequate legal and clearances, improper resource management, etc.). Has become a necessity due to [5]. Important criteria for use of natural and cultural areas, and determination of the planning and promotion, tourism potential and the development of these regions provides an opportunity for economic development of rural areas [6]. One of the most important source of tourism values of the local culture. Crafts and foods, such as peculiar to the region by increasing the demand for local products as a means to protect the local culture, take on an important task [7].

## **2. Material Method**

Murat Mountain and vicinity workspace and material creates. Area of natural and cultural elements carry with attractive features is the potential for tourism and recreation activities. In this study, pre-made materials to help research, domestic and foreign sources and internet data used to establish the relevant literature. To investigate the structure of the natural and cultural areas of field observations made at different times, area photos and on-site evaluations have been taken. Topographic map of the area and the data obtained from field studies revealed the potential for ecotourism Murat Mountain. And sustainable development in light of the evaluations under the proposals have been made for the use of ecotourism.

## **3. Findings**

#### **3.1. Murat Mountain Location and limits**

Murat Mountain and the surrounding area has a history older. The old name of Murat Dağı Ddymus. MÖ.1200 'lü years later the Phrygians in Macedonia has experienced with the Byzantine Empire Period. Murat Mountain Germiyanoğulları Turks, and later the Ottoman Empire upon has taken place in the territory. Murat Dagi in the name of the hero of the Murat Gazi \ martyred 1313 from falling. National Park is within the eastern extensions of the mountain, the Commander in Chief. Murat has been fighting in the War of Independence in 1922 foothills [8].

**Geographical Features:** Murat Mountain, Aegean Region, Department of Domestic Gediz Basin is located in western Anatolia. Kütahya and Usak Usak province in the southern parts of Muratdagi forming the boundary between the northern sections remain within the boundaries of the city of. The study area-29057'38'' 29046'50'' 38049'54''-38055'02'' east longitude and is situated between north latitudes Kütahya [9]. In General, a Northwest-Southeast direction, extending East of the Başkomutanlık National Park, to the West of Mount Murat Gediz Valley and to the South of the mountain, and the Valley of Banaz Çayı Şaphane Elmadag Mountain is located in the North with the Skillet (Figure 1).

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**Vegetation:** The vegetation is different from the northern and southern slopes. Northern slopes of the Black Sea or the European-humid and semi-humid forests of Siberia, biogeography, dry forests of the southern slopes of the Iran-Turan seen biogeography. 22 000 34 000 hectares and hectares of forested Muratdagi high forest, 12 000 hectares of forest is damaged or coppice form. The study area in terms of elevation-climate zones 3 major red pine (900-1150), Larch (1150-1550), Scotch Pine (1600-1750) and two intermediate Red Pine+Larch, and Larch+yellow pine(1550- 1600m) divided into generation. Type of climate transition Murat Mountain ensured that type of climate is very rich in endemic species. Taksondan 114 were grown in 890 endemic for Turkey. 3 One of these species (*Alyssum davisiasum*, *Verbascum coropifolium*, *Sedum hispanicum*) Murat

Murat Mountain, with the decision of the Council of Ministers No. 11 608 dated 18.03.1987 "Tourism Center" has been announced. Ottoman history dating back to 1450 meter high mountain is located in the hot springs. The total flow of spring water 45.26 l / s, the temperature is 29-50 0C sulfate, calcium, magnesium and contains bromide. Kocahamam, Hacethane, Sarıkız, five baths are available with the name of Governor and Scabies Bath. The center of the spa 18 bungalows, 154 rooms, 13 apartments, 80 wooden houses 616 beds, 2 baths, 2 swimming pool, guest house and conference center with 15 beds serving 200-bed camp. According to the records more than 15000 visitors per year of thermal tourism center, and visitors coming for tourist purposes' type have been the residence of Murat Mountain is an area rich in permanent and seasonal water sources. Murat Mountain is the source of three major rivers. An important source of the rivers for water-based tourism activities. Value as a major tourist flows through the northeast part of the Badger Creek Kesiksöğüt Pınarı'ndan source of the water, forms a part of the source of the Gediz River flows towards the northwest. Menderes River in the south of the mountain, the source of

They are created by splitting the beds of rivers waterfalls deep in the field (Gürlü Dere) important elements of the landscape. Near the summit of the mountain formed part of a circus element in lakes is a major tourist attraction, especially Lake Lamb. Initially, caused by thermal tourism Murat Mountain and then in a large pine forests because of the rich vegetation and clean air has become the center of mountain tourism plays an important role. Gökoluk Murat Mountain tourism center, Municipal, Dokuzçam, Cherry and the ability to stay on the plateau is called Kıcıroğlu. Tourism around the yellow flowers close to the center, İkizce, Arif Tosun, there are

Murat Mountain in winter other climatic charm. Plateau and Ridge Söbealan Karakötek length, width, ideal for winter tourism in terms of examination. Changes in climatic conditions within short distances seen Murat Mountain. This area has made a rich floristic cover. Areas in the Mediterranean, Black Sea and is a land climate, plant species. Space enthusiasts have flocked especially in spring and summer herbs. Tepelene Baklan Pine hill south of the so-called black pine (Pinus nigra) are memorial trees. Memorial tree 11 meters long, 3.05

**3.2. Potential for Tourism and Ecotourism Events Murat Dagi**

Mountain endemic for [12].

the River of Tepelene [8].

plateaus Söbealan and other so-called Karaağıl [10].

meters in diameter, a large tree is 500 years old.

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**Figure 1.** Murat Mountain location (taken from www.dogadernegi.org )

**Geomorphological Features:** Murat Mountain geomorphological high mountainous areas, valleys and low plains can be considered. Average of Murat Mountain is located on a plateau of the Inner Western Anatolia between 1000-1250 m. Creates the highest point of the mountain, 2309 m and Kartaltepe. Mountains; Kırkpınar T (2218 m), Öküzkayası T (2213 m), Tinaz T (2097 m), Çatmalmezar T (1990 m), Kazıkbatmaz T (1857 m) the high peaks are also available. The average height of 1586 m and geomorphological aspects are of a high mountainous terrain [10]. Faults is limited to the northern edge of the upper part of Muratdagi flattened, and this has led to separation of the plains and plateau areas in the form of steep slopes. Field BAF (Western Anatolian Fault) line is located within the earthquake zone is present. Circus in the higher parts of the mountain lakes (Lake location, Lamb Lake) were also observed.

**Climate Features:** Muratdagi continental climate, with some features of the transition climate of Mediterranean and Black Sea climate type. Due to its geographical position and topographical characteristics of the study area in summer and winter seasons remain under the influence of different pressure centers. Winters are cold, depending on the rainfall seen in the frontal activity, cool and wet summers than in the Mediterranean climate, the climate characteristics of the transition is observed [8]. Which is closest to the mountain meteorological stations (Usak, Kutahya and Gediz) analyzed data from an annual average temperature values were determined to be between 10.5 to 12.3 0C. Soaring heights of Mount Murat is estimated that this value falls to C 3-4. Field is exposed to winds, especially in the northern sector. During the summer winds called etesian effect. Ranged between 534-571 mm of annual rainfall of the area in the northern slopes are much higher than the amount of rainfall [11].

**Hydrography:** Murat Mountain is located within three major river catchment. Gediz Basin in western and northwestern parts of the field (Murat River) eastern and northeastern parts of the Sakarya River Basin (Badger Creek) in the southern parts of Great Menderes Basin (Great Menderes River) enters into. There are five lakes around Mount Murat [8].

**Vegetation:** The vegetation is different from the northern and southern slopes. Northern slopes of the Black Sea or the European-humid and semi-humid forests of Siberia, biogeography, dry forests of the southern slopes of the Iran-Turan seen biogeography. 22 000 34 000 hectares and hectares of forested Muratdagi high forest, 12 000 hectares of forest is damaged or coppice form. The study area in terms of elevation-climate zones 3 major red pine (900-1150), Larch (1150-1550), Scotch Pine (1600-1750) and two intermediate Red Pine+Larch, and Larch+yellow pine(1550- 1600m) divided into generation. Type of climate transition Murat Mountain ensured that type of climate is very rich in endemic species. Taksondan 114 were grown in 890 endemic for Turkey. 3 One of these species (*Alyssum davisiasum*, *Verbascum coropifolium*, *Sedum hispanicum*) Murat Mountain endemic for [12].

#### **3.2. Potential for Tourism and Ecotourism Events Murat Dagi**

Murat Mountain, with the decision of the Council of Ministers No. 11 608 dated 18.03.1987 "Tourism Center" has been announced. Ottoman history dating back to 1450 meter high mountain is located in the hot springs. The total flow of spring water 45.26 l / s, the temperature is 29-50 0C sulfate, calcium, magnesium and contains bromide. Kocahamam, Hacethane, Sarıkız, five baths are available with the name of Governor and Scabies Bath. The center of the spa 18 bungalows, 154 rooms, 13 apartments, 80 wooden houses 616 beds, 2 baths, 2 swimming pool, guest house and conference center with 15 beds serving 200-bed camp. According to the records more than 15000 visitors per year of thermal tourism center, and visitors coming for tourist purposes' type have been the residence of Murat Mountain is an area rich in permanent and seasonal water sources. Murat Mountain is the source of three major rivers. An important source of the rivers for water-based tourism activities. Value as a major tourist flows through the northeast part of the Badger Creek Kesiksöğüt Pınarı'ndan source of the water, forms a part of the source of the Gediz River flows towards the northwest. Menderes River in the south of the mountain, the source of the River of Tepelene [8].

They are created by splitting the beds of rivers waterfalls deep in the field (Gürlü Dere) important elements of the landscape. Near the summit of the mountain formed part of a circus element in lakes is a major tourist attraction, especially Lake Lamb. Initially, caused by thermal tourism Murat Mountain and then in a large pine forests because of the rich vegetation and clean air has become the center of mountain tourism plays an important role. Gökoluk Murat Mountain tourism center, Municipal, Dokuzçam, Cherry and the ability to stay on the plateau is called Kıcıroğlu. Tourism around the yellow flowers close to the center, İkizce, Arif Tosun, there are plateaus Söbealan and other so-called Karaağıl [10].

Murat Mountain in winter other climatic charm. Plateau and Ridge Söbealan Karakötek length, width, ideal for winter tourism in terms of examination. Changes in climatic conditions within short distances seen Murat Mountain. This area has made a rich floristic cover. Areas in the Mediterranean, Black Sea and is a land climate, plant species. Space enthusiasts have flocked especially in spring and summer herbs. Tepelene Baklan Pine hill south of the so-called black pine (Pinus nigra) are memorial trees. Memorial tree 11 meters long, 3.05 meters in diameter, a large tree is 500 years old.

As an alternative to other types of tourism on Mount Murat is made; hiking, nature observation, plant / animal observation, mountain biking, rock climbing, paragliding, moto cross, horseback riding, fi shing, camping, picnicking, photo safari, nature photography, documentary shooting, scenic viewing, religious tourism (Murat Dede Mausoleum) such activities (Figure 2, 3).

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

In case of physical improvements and provide for tourism and conservation policies in the field of Murat Mountain will be a center for ecotourism, sustainable development, will provide the

Murat Mountain is an area up to now has succeeded in preserving the habitat of. However, the current situation in tourism development plan achieved. Tourist area of hardware and infrastructure, the necessary accommodation for organized tours, such as lack of food and beverage facilities include the physical deficiencies. Daily or weekend visitors picnic and camping environment pollution is waste. This issue is not enough supervision. It is not sufficient to control later in this topic. In addition, the lack of awareness of the protection of the field with the introduction of such problems. Field trips and nature walks suitable for tourism, local product outlets, cafes, restaurants, tea garden, tea house, living and recreation areas, kayakevleri, camping and picnic areas

Tourism management plan for tourism infrastructure, and the local people's support is required. The scope of the project; village units and sales of products grown locally established guidelines. Local people, lived through the region's natural and cultural values from all walks of life without losing the economic income would be the protector of these values. Documentary films and festivals should be done visually in the form of promotion. Space that makes it an attractive spa services. In order to use resources more efficiently the thermal rearrangement of the existing accommodation facilities in and near the modern way to bring sports facilities will be positive. Field is located near the villages, gardens and farm tourism for tourists from the area of a portion of the improvement can be edited. Walking on the route of tourists and villagers sell their interest in local products such as fruits and vegetables are an expression of this need. All of these natural and cultural resource values in the Inner Western Anatolia, Murat Mountain primarily a source

[1] Somuncu, M. 2004. Dağcılık ve Dağ Turizmindeki İkilem: Ekonomik Yarar ve Ekolojik Bedel.

[2] Özkan, M.B. 2002. Kırsal Rekreasyon Alan Planlaması. Ege Üniversitesi Ders Notları, S.52, İzmir. [3] Ülker, İ. 1992. Dağ Turizmi Planlama Yöntemleri, Yüksek Dağlarımız, Kayak Merkezleri. ISBN:

[4] Başal, M. 1998. Doğalgaz-Yapracık Tesisleri Alan Kullanım Planlaması. Ankara Üniversitesi,

[5] Yeşil, M. 2010. Tozanlı Havzası Tokat-Almus İlçesi Ekolojik Temelli Kırsal Peyzaj Planlaması.

[6] Mullens, J.B., Bristow, R.S. 2003. Overcomig The Nation's Best Landscaped Sewer Recreator's Perceptions of the Connecticut River. Journal of The American Water Resources

Ziraat Fakültesi Yayın No:1104, Bilimsel İnceleme ve Araştırmalar:602, Ankara.

Atatürk Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Doktora Tezi, S.193, Erzurum.

**4. Conclusions and Recommendations**

will be the charm and the space to portray the socio-cultural life.

of important alternative for the country.

975-7478-19-9, Ankara.

Association, P.7-15.

Coğrafi Bilimler Dergisi, Sayı:2, Cilt:1, S.1-21.

**5. References**

people of the region.

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**Figure 2.** Nomad life and nature walks in Murat Mountain

**Figure 3.** Nature photography and a picnic in Murat Mountain

Murat Mountain is also important for wildlife. Area suitable for hunting tourism nature. Spa 2 km far away from the speakers are producing farm lara. Murat Mountain animals are protected species of wildlife such as ott er and badger includes monitoring and research opportunities. Murat Mountain rocks formed in diff erent geological periods, a tourist att raction and has the geomorphologic structure of visual beauty. Geomorphology and geology is the structure of space-science education and as a practice fi eld for the potential. Murat Mountain and around the village sett lements on the plains there are under 1300 meters. Those of authentic village houses in the villages and sett lements in the forest farm tourism, farm tourism and provide opportunities for activities such as examination of the traditional ways of life. At these locations, the tarhana soup unique to the region, Gediz kebab, halvah, bending an important food for the tourism sector are foods such as pancakes. In addition, local craft s and gift market of products of wood, embroidery products.

## **4. Conclusions and Recommendations**

In case of physical improvements and provide for tourism and conservation policies in the field of Murat Mountain will be a center for ecotourism, sustainable development, will provide the people of the region.

Murat Mountain is an area up to now has succeeded in preserving the habitat of. However, the current situation in tourism development plan achieved. Tourist area of hardware and infrastructure, the necessary accommodation for organized tours, such as lack of food and beverage facilities include the physical deficiencies. Daily or weekend visitors picnic and camping environment pollution is waste. This issue is not enough supervision. It is not sufficient to control later in this topic. In addition, the lack of awareness of the protection of the field with the introduction of such problems. Field trips and nature walks suitable for tourism, local product outlets, cafes, restaurants, tea garden, tea house, living and recreation areas, kayakevleri, camping and picnic areas will be the charm and the space to portray the socio-cultural life.

Tourism management plan for tourism infrastructure, and the local people's support is required. The scope of the project; village units and sales of products grown locally established guidelines. Local people, lived through the region's natural and cultural values from all walks of life without losing the economic income would be the protector of these values. Documentary films and festivals should be done visually in the form of promotion. Space that makes it an attractive spa services. In order to use resources more efficiently the thermal rearrangement of the existing accommodation facilities in and near the modern way to bring sports facilities will be positive. Field is located near the villages, gardens and farm tourism for tourists from the area of a portion of the improvement can be edited. Walking on the route of tourists and villagers sell their interest in local products such as fruits and vegetables are an expression of this need. All of these natural and cultural resource values in the Inner Western Anatolia, Murat Mountain primarily a source of important alternative for the country.

#### **5. References**


[7] Tisdel, C. 1996. Ecotourism, Economics and the Environment: Observations from China. Journal of Travel Research, Volume:34, Issue:4, P.11-19.

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

**A GIS Based Digital Land Resources Framework** 

*Barada and Awaje Basin* is located in the southwest part of Syria and includes the capital of the country, the city of Damascus and its suburbs. It covers an area of approximately 8596

Population growth in the study area causes competition on land resources between different sectors and pressure on limited water resources. The national development plans aim to conserve arable lands, improve its productivity, and sustain the land and water resources. Therefore, providing accurate and integrated information about land resources is a must, especially with the accelerated progress of information technology. Such information would be the base for planning, decision making and research needs. Various available information and database systems were employed (e.g. ArcGIS, ERDAS IMAGINE and ENVI). Data of previous soil survey activities were the bases for the created GIS digital database. Soils survey maps (SCALE 1:100,000), were prepared as GIS ready maps. Urban settlements were updated using recent ETM+ and SPOT satellite images. An intensive field investigation was performed in the study region, with the purpose of representing the soil units and collecting ground control points and soil samples for laboratory analyses. The created digital land resources database was used to figure the distribution of soil units and to evaluate and map land suitability on the

It was found that the Aridsols soil order characterize most of the alluvial fan soils of Barada, while Inceptisols were found in the western plains and intermountain areas. The soil orders Entisols were found dominating the western mountain areas. The results showed that 28.6 % of the areas are classified as highly suitable for irrigated agricultural production, corresponding with Typic Haplocambids and Typic Haploxerepts soil sub-great group. The moderately suitable soils, exhibit 14.7 % of the areas. The marginally suitable soils represent 14.6 % of the areas. The not suitable soils dominate the soils of eastern lacustrine and desert deposits, representing 21.2 % of the areas. It could be pointed out that achieving such de-

 and constitutes a hydrologically closed basin. It has a far higher population density than any of the Syrian regions. The estimated population living within the borders of this

**for Optimal Soil Management in Barda and** 

Said Sawy, Ali Abdel-Hameed and Kais A. Sultan\*

\*Corresponding author, Tel.: + (201068527836), Email: kaissultan@hotmail.com

**Awaje Basin, Syria**

region is more than 4 millions.

bases of FAO, 1985 [1].

**Abstract**

km2

Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Egypt

© 2012 Sawy et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the

original work is properly cited.

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## **A GIS Based Digital Land Resources Framework for Optimal Soil Management in Barda and Awaje Basin, Syria**

Said Sawy, Ali Abdel-Hameed and Kais A. Sultan\*

Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Egypt \*Corresponding author, Tel.: + (201068527836), Email: kaissultan@hotmail.com

#### **Abstract**

*Barada and Awaje Basin* is located in the southwest part of Syria and includes the capital of the country, the city of Damascus and its suburbs. It covers an area of approximately 8596 km2 and constitutes a hydrologically closed basin. It has a far higher population density than any of the Syrian regions. The estimated population living within the borders of this region is more than 4 millions.

Population growth in the study area causes competition on land resources between different sectors and pressure on limited water resources. The national development plans aim to conserve arable lands, improve its productivity, and sustain the land and water resources.

Therefore, providing accurate and integrated information about land resources is a must, especially with the accelerated progress of information technology. Such information would be the base for planning, decision making and research needs. Various available information and database systems were employed (e.g. ArcGIS, ERDAS IMAGINE and ENVI). Data of previous soil survey activities were the bases for the created GIS digital database. Soils survey maps (SCALE 1:100,000), were prepared as GIS ready maps. Urban settlements were updated using recent ETM+ and SPOT satellite images. An intensive field investigation was performed in the study region, with the purpose of representing the soil units and collecting ground control points and soil samples for laboratory analyses. The created digital land resources database was used to figure the distribution of soil units and to evaluate and map land suitability on the bases of FAO, 1985 [1].

It was found that the Aridsols soil order characterize most of the alluvial fan soils of Barada, while Inceptisols were found in the western plains and intermountain areas. The soil orders Entisols were found dominating the western mountain areas. The results showed that 28.6 % of the areas are classified as highly suitable for irrigated agricultural production, corresponding with Typic Haplocambids and Typic Haploxerepts soil sub-great group. The moderately suitable soils, exhibit 14.7 % of the areas. The marginally suitable soils represent 14.6 % of the areas. The not suitable soils dominate the soils of eastern lacustrine and desert deposits, representing 21.2 % of the areas. It could be pointed out that achieving such de-

© 2012 Sawy et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

tailed digital land resources database for local administrations is a great step towards the implementation of sustainable development and management programs. It is characterized by its comprehensiveness, geographical accuracy and updatability. In the information technology, such data can be handled, enhanced and exchanged by different users and authorities. The most striking findings noticed was the urban encroachment on the account of most fertile soils; hence shrinkage in areas of high agricultural capabilities. On the other hand, urbanization doesn't extend largely to low capable land.

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lakes) draped over it.

**Fig 1.** Shows location of the study area. **Fig 2.** Shows a Digital Elevation Model of the study

The major part of study area lies in the transition zone between the arid climate on the plains to the moderate humid climate at the heights above 2000 m. The year is subdivided into seasons: - The dry summer season (from April to October) with high average monthly air temperatures from 25-27 Cº on the plains to 19 Cº and less at the heights above 2000 m; with a low precipitation


The soils of the drainage basins of the Barada and Awaje rivers relate to the soil-bioclimatic formation of cinnamon and low-alkaline, grey brown soils of a dry subtropic climate. Diversity of the relief, climatic, hydrogeological and other environmental conditions account for a mixed

Soil survey to a scale of (1:100,000) was performed by Leningrad State Institute for Design of Water Resources Development Projects (LENGIPROVODKHOZ) as part of the project of Water Resources Use in Barada and Awaje Basins For Irrigation of Crops (USSR, 1986). Soil survey covers 3408 km2 of the study area, a total of 556 soil observations pits and profiles were done. The soil maps exist as analogue format, the collected maps consist of two map sheets (sheet for soil mapping units and sheet for soil observation points) at scale of 1:100,000. Soil survey data were interpreted and classified according to Russian soil classification USSR. The soil maps of Barada and Awaje basin are the main materials collected and converted to the digital format. Satellite ETM+ image of 2006, a scene (Path174 / Row37), covering the whole basin, was collected and processed to be included in the GIS land resources database and be used in thematic mapping processes. The recent SPOT images of 2009 were obtained from General Organization of Remote Sensing (GORS) in Syria, and processed for updating different thematic maps and detecting changes in urban area. The Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) images of 30 pixel size resolution, in addition to driven Digital Elevation Module (DEM) for the study area and its surrounding were

cipitation (up to 80-90 % of the annual rate) and cold north-eastern winds.

rate and dry winds.

**2.2. Materials used**

character of the soil mantle of the area.

consulted to represent the area landscape [2] and [3].

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area along with vector data (river channels and

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**Keywords:** GIS, Remote Sensing, Soil Survey, Land Evaluation.

#### **1. Introduction**

Population increasing in the study area (*Barada and Awaje Basin)* caused competition on land resources between different sectors and pressure on limited water resources. The national development plans aim to conserve arable lands and to improve its productivity, Moreover to sustain the land and water resources. However, realizing these purposes requires availability of accurate documented data for integrated natural resources. Techniques of remote sensing and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) provide suitable means for inventory monitoring and documentation of natural resources, as they are characterized by satisfactory resolution and multi-spectrality. Also, distribution of the natural resources and detection of their changes are accessible by multi-temporal space data nature. The objectives of the former are to build database of available natural resources data and combine them into suitable format and make them ready for use by the land use planning recommendation component.

### **2. Material and methods**

#### **2.1. Study area**

*Barada and Awaje Basin* is located in the southwest part of Syria (a country in southwest Asia bordered by Turkey, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea) and includes the capital of the country, the city of Damascus and its suburbs (Fig.1). It covers an area of approximately 8596 km2 and constitutes a hydrologically closed basin (there is no excess water flowing out of the basin). It has a far higher population density than any of the Syrian regions. The estimated population living within the borders of this region is more than 4 millions. This basin is a rewarding subject for investigation, as it is a very heterogeneous landscape containing many different types of climates, topography, soil, vegetation and land uses. The drainage system of this basin is represented mainly by two rivers (*Barada River* and *Awaje River*) and a few valleys that have dry river beds filled with water only during the rainy season. There are also two dry lakes (*Al-Outaibe* and *Al-Haijaneh*) which are usually salty and drainless and only during the rainy season are covered by a thin layer of water. The topography is characterized by low mountain systems outlining the flat central Damascus depression with its lowest elevation point 600 above the sea level. Maximum height of the mountain is 2814 m (Fig.2).

**Fig 1.** Shows location of the study area. **Fig 2.** Shows a Digital Elevation Model of the study area along with vector data (river channels and lakes) draped over it.

The major part of study area lies in the transition zone between the arid climate on the plains to the moderate humid climate at the heights above 2000 m. The year is subdivided into seasons:



The soils of the drainage basins of the Barada and Awaje rivers relate to the soil-bioclimatic formation of cinnamon and low-alkaline, grey brown soils of a dry subtropic climate. Diversity of the relief, climatic, hydrogeological and other environmental conditions account for a mixed character of the soil mantle of the area.

#### **2.2. Materials used**

Soil survey to a scale of (1:100,000) was performed by Leningrad State Institute for Design of Water Resources Development Projects (LENGIPROVODKHOZ) as part of the project of Water Resources Use in Barada and Awaje Basins For Irrigation of Crops (USSR, 1986). Soil survey covers 3408 km2 of the study area, a total of 556 soil observations pits and profiles were done. The soil maps exist as analogue format, the collected maps consist of two map sheets (sheet for soil mapping units and sheet for soil observation points) at scale of 1:100,000. Soil survey data were interpreted and classified according to Russian soil classification USSR. The soil maps of Barada and Awaje basin are the main materials collected and converted to the digital format. Satellite ETM+ image of 2006, a scene (Path174 / Row37), covering the whole basin, was collected and processed to be included in the GIS land resources database and be used in thematic mapping processes. The recent SPOT images of 2009 were obtained from General Organization of Remote Sensing (GORS) in Syria, and processed for updating different thematic maps and detecting changes in urban area. The Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) images of 30 pixel size resolution, in addition to driven Digital Elevation Module (DEM) for the study area and its surrounding were consulted to represent the area landscape [2] and [3].

#### **2.3. Methodologies**

#### *2.3.1. Coding the Soil Units*

In order to input the soil maps in the geographic information database, it was necessary to codify the mapping units. The original map units classified according to Russian soil classification USSR [4]. Soil data was reclassified according to American Soil taxonomy USDA [5]. Coding the soil units ought to be indicative to the soil Taxonomy, properties, as well as the landscape.

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

laboratory analysis, following the laboratory methods manual [11]. The results of these analyses have been compiled in the database and then incorporated into the attribute tables of the digital

Soil Taxonomy has been used to classify the soils of the study area up to family and phases of families (Soil Survey Staff, 1999 and 2010). Soil Taxonomy is a hierarchical system of soil classification that identifies six levels. At the highest level, twelve orders are recognized worldwide, but only three have been recorded within the study area: Aridisols, Entisols, and Inceptisols. At the subsequent levels of classification eight suborders, fourteen great groups, and thirty subgroups have been recorded. The identified great groups and their coverage are: Haplocambids (comprising 34.7 % of the study area); Haplocalcids (2.9 %); Haplogypsids (2.7 %); Petrogypsids (2.19 %); Aquisalids (1.1 %); Haplosalids (1.85 %); Calcigypsids (0.77 %); Torriorthents (11.78 %); Torrifluvents (3.7 %); and Haploxerepts (11.88 %). Bedrock occupies about 18 % of the study area. Aridisols cover almost all of the central and eastern part of the basin where the annual precipitation drops below 250mm. In addition, Aridisols are characterized by an aridic (hot and dry) soil moisture regime, and they have light colour as there is not enough vegetation to add organic matter to the soil profile. Furthermore, they often accumulate calcium carbonate, gypsum, and

other materials that are readily leached from soils in more humid environments [13].

sols, they are still young soils and resemble very closely the parent material [14].

orders. Entisols cover the western north mountain in the study area.

example, the area of Damascus city in 1986 was 58.03 km2

the study area reaches to 100 % through 23 years (from 1986 to 2009).

Entisols are soils that have little or no indication of development of pedogenic horizons [5]. This soil order includes recently developed soils, which do not have the requirements of the other soil

Inceptisols are soils of semiarid to sub-humid environments that generally show only moderate degrees of soil weathering and development. Even though they are better developed than Enti-

The urban area, according to soil survey that performed in 1986, was occupying about 2.24 % of

124.49 km2, it is important to indicate that the extension of urban area especially Damascus city occupy the soils of alluvial fan that have high potential for agriculture. The urbanization rate in

Rating criteria (land use requirements for irrigated agriculture) were developed based on an international and regional review of the arid and semi-arid conditions prevailing in the neighbor-

satellite taken in October 2009, was occupying about 4.17 % of the study area (143.46 km2

**3.3. Land Suitability Classification of the Barada and Awaje soils for Irrigated** 

). Whereas, urban area, according to visual interpretation of Spot image

GIS soil maps [12].

**3.1. Soil Resources**

**3.2. Urban areas**

**Agriculture**

the study area (77.18 km2

**3. Results and discussions**

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). For

and the area of Damascus in 2009 was

#### *2.3.2. Satellite images processing*

Pre-processing activities were performed, to reduce some undesired variations/noises and to enhance other desired features. It commonly comprises a series of sequential operations, including radiometric correction or normalization, image registration, geometric correction, masking and image enhancement (e.g., for clouds, water, irrelevant features). Geometric rectification of the imagery was applied using ERDAS IMAGIN. This becomes especially important when scene to scene comparisons of individual pixels in applications such as change detection are being sought [6]. Image enhancement techniques (e.g. contrast stretching, Gray-level threshold, Level slicing, and spatial stretch) were tested to improve the visual interpretability of the used images by increasing the apparent distinction between the features.

#### *2.3.3. Building GIS database*

The digitizing specification of maps was defined according to the available themes. The different digital maps were corrected from different errors and edge-matched after the geo-referencing processes. Edge matching, as a spatial adjustment process that aligns features in adjacent map sheets, was performed according to Tomlin, 1990. This process was applied on the soil maps (scale 1: 100,000). The descriptive thematic data related to all layers were attached as additional attribute tables.

#### *2.3.4. Spatial adjustments*

It was noticed, after edge matching, that there is a kind of deviation (constant in many places in its direction and magnitude) between the produced maps and the well registered topographic ones as well as the satellite images of the study area. It was possible to attribute the deviation to two reasons; lack of coordinate system in some original map sheets and the rubber-sheeting accompanied the edge-matching task [7]. In order to overcome this problem another spatial adjustment (transformation) has been performed. Well registered topographic maps and accurately georeferenced satellite images have been used to perform the transformation process. The transformation tools of ArcGIS systems were found to be very effective in performing the spatial adjustment of the soil maps [8] and [9].

#### *2.3.5. Compilation of laboratory analysis results*

A number of 12 soil profiles, representing the soil units of the studied regions were morphologically described according to FAO [10]. A number of 56 disturbed soil samples were collected for laboratory analysis, following the laboratory methods manual [11]. The results of these analyses have been compiled in the database and then incorporated into the attribute tables of the digital GIS soil maps [12].

## **3. Results and discussions**

#### **3.1. Soil Resources**

Soil Taxonomy has been used to classify the soils of the study area up to family and phases of families (Soil Survey Staff, 1999 and 2010). Soil Taxonomy is a hierarchical system of soil classification that identifies six levels. At the highest level, twelve orders are recognized worldwide, but only three have been recorded within the study area: Aridisols, Entisols, and Inceptisols. At the subsequent levels of classification eight suborders, fourteen great groups, and thirty subgroups have been recorded. The identified great groups and their coverage are: Haplocambids (comprising 34.7 % of the study area); Haplocalcids (2.9 %); Haplogypsids (2.7 %); Petrogypsids (2.19 %); Aquisalids (1.1 %); Haplosalids (1.85 %); Calcigypsids (0.77 %); Torriorthents (11.78 %); Torrifluvents (3.7 %); and Haploxerepts (11.88 %). Bedrock occupies about 18 % of the study area.

Aridisols cover almost all of the central and eastern part of the basin where the annual precipitation drops below 250mm. In addition, Aridisols are characterized by an aridic (hot and dry) soil moisture regime, and they have light colour as there is not enough vegetation to add organic matter to the soil profile. Furthermore, they often accumulate calcium carbonate, gypsum, and other materials that are readily leached from soils in more humid environments [13].

Entisols are soils that have little or no indication of development of pedogenic horizons [5]. This soil order includes recently developed soils, which do not have the requirements of the other soil orders. Entisols cover the western north mountain in the study area.

Inceptisols are soils of semiarid to sub-humid environments that generally show only moderate degrees of soil weathering and development. Even though they are better developed than Entisols, they are still young soils and resemble very closely the parent material [14].

#### **3.2. Urban areas**

The urban area, according to soil survey that performed in 1986, was occupying about 2.24 % of the study area (77.18 km2 ). Whereas, urban area, according to visual interpretation of Spot image satellite taken in October 2009, was occupying about 4.17 % of the study area (143.46 km2 ). For example, the area of Damascus city in 1986 was 58.03 km2 and the area of Damascus in 2009 was 124.49 km2, it is important to indicate that the extension of urban area especially Damascus city occupy the soils of alluvial fan that have high potential for agriculture. The urbanization rate in the study area reaches to 100 % through 23 years (from 1986 to 2009).

#### **3.3. Land Suitability Classification of the Barada and Awaje soils for Irrigated Agriculture**

Rating criteria (land use requirements for irrigated agriculture) were developed based on an international and regional review of the arid and semi-arid conditions prevailing in the neighboring Countries. These include JAZPP project (2001) in Jordan [15]. Evaluation analysis preformed according to FAO (1985). These requirements were matched with land attributes that were derived from soil survey data using average and mode method which utilizes the soil map units and the observation points, (by averaging land characteristics within soil mapping units). Simple limitation method was used in suitability analysis. Suitability analysis was performed by using Arcview 3.2, Query comment (select by attribute). About 28 % of study area was classified highly suitable for irrigated agriculture (S1), 15 % of study area was classified moderately suitable (S2), 15 % of the study area classified as marginally suitable (S3), and 21 % of the study area classified not suitable for irrigated agriculture. Most of soils Typic Haplocambids and Typic Haploxerepts classified as highly suitable for agriculture production. Soil depth, Rocks outcrops, stones in the surface horizon, salinity are the most important limiting factors that lowering suitability classification of 20.9 %, 14.5 %, 8.1 % and 10.3 % of the study area respectively. Figure.3 shows distribution of suitability classes within the study area.

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

We thank the Syrian Ministry of Irrigation for providing reconnaissance soil map (scale:

[2] Dobos, E. Norman, B. Bruee, W. Luca, M. Chris, J. and Erika, M., 2002. "The Use of DEM and Satellite Images for Regional Scale Soil Database"17th World Congress of Soil Science (WCSS),

[3] NCSA (2005). "Extracting topographic features from shuttle radar topography mission (SRTM) Images" Technical Report, alg. 05-002, July 18, 2005, National Center for Supercomputing

[4] Shishov, L.L., Sokolov, I.A., 1990. In: Genetic classification of soils in the USSR. Soil classification.

[5] USDA (2006). "Keys to Soil Taxonomy" United State Department of Agriculture, Natural

[7] Boullie, F. (1978). Structuring cartographic data and spatial processes with the hypergraphbased data structure. In: First International Advanced study symposium on Topological Data Structures for Geographic Information Systems (ed. G. Dutton) Vol. 5. Laboratory for Computer

[8] Burrough, P.A. (1986). Principals of geographic Information Systems for land resources

[9] Tomlin, C. D. (1990). Geographic Information Systems and Cartographic Modeling. Prentice

[10] FAO (2006) FAO. "Guidelines for soil description" Fourth edition, FAO, Rome, ISBN 92-5-

[11] Soil Survey Staff. 2003. Keys to Soil Taxonomy. 9th ed. USDA Natural Resources Conservation

[12] Nguyen Quec Dinh (2001). Cave database development, spatial analysis and 3D visualization

[13] Edwards-Jones, G. (2001): Final Report on Agricultural Policy and the environment in Syria: An

[14] Harpstead, M.I. and Sauer, T.J. and Bennett, W.F. (2001): Soil science simplified. Wiley-Blackwell. [15] Hatten, C.J. and Taimeh, A.Y. 2001. Improvement of agricultural productivity in arid and semi-arid zones of Jordan. In A.Y. Taimeh and B.I. Hattar (eds). A Cooperative Project between Ministry of Agriculture and the European Union. Volume 1, Main Report. University of Jordan

with GIS – Case study in Son La (Vietnam).VUB, Master dissertation (unpubl.).

examination of impacts and suggestions for policy reform.

1:100.000). The comments of the editor and the referees are highly appreciated.

[1] FAO (1985). "Land evaluation for irrigated agriculture" soils bulletin 55, FAO, Rome.

Applications (NCSA), 605 East Springfield Avenue, Champaign, IL 61820.

USSR State Comm. For Environ. Protection, Moscow, pp. 77–93.

Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) tenth edition, 2006. [6] ERDAS, 1999 Practical excercises, University of Leicester, UK, 1999.

**5. Acknowledgements** 

14-21 August 2002, Bangkok, Thailand.

Graphics and Spatial Analysis, Harvard.

assessment. Clarendon, Oxford.

Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.

Service, Washington, DC.

Press, Amman, Jordan.

1055211.

**6. References** 

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

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**Fig 3.** Land suitability classification for irrigated agriculture.

#### **4. Conclusions**

It could be concluded that the creation of land resources database is rather important in documenting the environmental themes. Such documentation leads to data harmonization and maximization of its value. It also allows an easy data processing, and updating. The land resources databases are rather useful in elaborating site selection for sustainable development projects, in addition to decision support and early warning. Remote sensing, with its multi-concept approach, provides up-to-date information on different themes. Multi-dates images allow detecting the changes occurring in the different environmental conditions. Also, the multi spectral satellite images reflect the environmental elements characterized by a variety of spectral signature. Moreover, GIS and its integrated functional nature with remote sensing, facilitate the creation and developing land resources databases.

## **5. Acknowledgements**

We thank the Syrian Ministry of Irrigation for providing reconnaissance soil map (scale: 1:100.000). The comments of the editor and the referees are highly appreciated.

#### **6. References**


Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

**Efficacy of Different Plant Extracts Against** 

Department of Plant Protection Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Pakistan

Corresponding author, Tel.: + (+92-3332873033); fax: +(+92-222765300).

**Cauliflower**

E-mail address: janmarree@gmail.com

Jan M Mari

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

**Diamondback Moth,** *Plutella xylostella* **(L.) on** 

The results of studies on the efficacy of different bio-pesticides against 2nd and 3rd instar *Plutella xylostella* larvae on cauliflower under laboratory conditions were carried out in the Department of Entomology. After 24 h the neem extract was found to be the most effective treatment with maximum (14.67%) mortality followed by tobacco extract, datura, akk and control treatments it was 13.33,10, 11.33 and 0.67%, respectively. It is evident from the data that mortality of 2nd instar larvae after 48 hours was observed increasing with the rate of 23.33, 16.67, 12.67, 14 and 0.67% for neem, tobacco, datura, akk extract and control treatment, respectively. It can be also observed from the data that on 72 hours increasing trend was remained continue with maximum 32, 25.33, 16.66, 20.66 and 4% for neem, tobacco, datura, akk extract and control treatment, respectively. The reductions in mortality in 2nd instar larvae, among plant extracts were observed after 96 hours and it was 21.33, 18, 13.33, 16.66 and 4% when treated with neem, tobacco, datura, akk extract and control, respectively. It was concluded from the data that mortality of L3 after 48 hours was observed increasing with the rate of 20.66, 14, 11.33, 12 and 0.66% for neem, tobacco, datura, akk extract and control treatment, respectively and after 72 hours increasing trend was remained continue with maximum 26, 19.33, 14, 17.33 and 3.33% for neem, tobacco, datura, akk extract and control treatment, respectively. The reductions in mortality in L3, among plant extracts were observed after 96 h and it was 18, 16, 12, 15.33 and 4% when treated with neem, to-

> © 2012 Mari.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original

work is properly cited.

**Keywords:** efficacy, plant extracts, diamondback moth and cauliflower

The diamondback moth (DBM), *Plutella xylostella* (Linnaeus), is an important and multicultural pest that feeds exclusively on crucifers [1, 2]. It was [1] reported that in the tropics and subtropics region *P. xylostella* has become a common and a major obstacle in economic growth of cruciferous vegetables. Crucifers' grown-up in extensively hot and humid areas, where *P. xylostella* continues to cause severe loss and often causes a complete loss of the crop [3, 4 and 5]. It is the greatest threat to crucifer production in many parts of the world, sometime causing

bacco, datura, akk extract and control, respectively.

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## **Efficacy of Different Plant Extracts Against Diamondback Moth,** *Plutella xylostella* **(L.) on Cauliflower**

Jan M Mari

Department of Plant Protection Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Pakistan Corresponding author, Tel.: + (+92-3332873033); fax: +(+92-222765300). E-mail address: janmarree@gmail.com

#### **Abstract**

The results of studies on the efficacy of different bio-pesticides against 2nd and 3rd instar *Plutella xylostella* larvae on cauliflower under laboratory conditions were carried out in the Department of Entomology. After 24 h the neem extract was found to be the most effective treatment with maximum (14.67%) mortality followed by tobacco extract, datura, akk and control treatments it was 13.33,10, 11.33 and 0.67%, respectively. It is evident from the data that mortality of 2nd instar larvae after 48 hours was observed increasing with the rate of 23.33, 16.67, 12.67, 14 and 0.67% for neem, tobacco, datura, akk extract and control treatment, respectively. It can be also observed from the data that on 72 hours increasing trend was remained continue with maximum 32, 25.33, 16.66, 20.66 and 4% for neem, tobacco, datura, akk extract and control treatment, respectively. The reductions in mortality in 2nd instar larvae, among plant extracts were observed after 96 hours and it was 21.33, 18, 13.33, 16.66 and 4% when treated with neem, tobacco, datura, akk extract and control, respectively. It was concluded from the data that mortality of L3 after 48 hours was observed increasing with the rate of 20.66, 14, 11.33, 12 and 0.66% for neem, tobacco, datura, akk extract and control treatment, respectively and after 72 hours increasing trend was remained continue with maximum 26, 19.33, 14, 17.33 and 3.33% for neem, tobacco, datura, akk extract and control treatment, respectively. The reductions in mortality in L3, among plant extracts were observed after 96 h and it was 18, 16, 12, 15.33 and 4% when treated with neem, tobacco, datura, akk extract and control, respectively.

**Keywords:** efficacy, plant extracts, diamondback moth and cauliflower

## **1. Introduction**

The diamondback moth (DBM), *Plutella xylostella* (Linnaeus), is an important and multicultural pest that feeds exclusively on crucifers [1, 2]. It was [1] reported that in the tropics and subtropics region *P. xylostella* has become a common and a major obstacle in economic growth of cruciferous vegetables. Crucifers' grown-up in extensively hot and humid areas, where *P. xylostella* continues to cause severe loss and often causes a complete loss of the crop [3, 4 and 5]. It is the greatest threat to crucifer production in many parts of the world, sometime causing

© 2012 Mari.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

more than 90% crop loss [6]. Pesticides have been the primary means to control *P. xylostella* for more than 40 years [7].

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

Bioassays were conducted with 2nd and 3rd instar larvae of *P. xylostella* on Chinese cabbage leaf discs. Test solutions were prepared in 98 ml distilled water with 2 ml pure extract as an additional surfactant. Each leaf disc (4.8 cm dia.) was immersed in a test solution for 10 s. For control, leaf disc were dipped in surfactant solution without any test solution. The leaf discs were placed in individual Petri dishes (5 cm dia.) containing a moistened filter paper and Five larvae (L2) were placed in each dish 6 replicates were made per treatment including the control. The mortality was assessed after 24, 48, 72 and 96 h. same procedure was used for L3. For all residual analysis

The regression analysis depicted that efficacy of extracts was less in initial hours against 2nd instar larvae and there was positive correlation between extracts efficacy with time intervals, it increased with increasing time and reached their highest on 72 hours. The regression model further indicated that the mortality reached their peak just few hours before 72 h on 67.58 h for neem followed by tobbaco, dhatora and akk it was 69.46, 69.68 and 68.61. R-squire of regression was about 0.75 for neem followed by tobbaco, dhatora and akk it was 0.49, 0.44 and 0.43, respectively.

The neem extract was found to be the most effective treatment with maximum (14.67%) mortality followed by tobacco extract, datura, akk and control treatments 13.33,10, 11.33 and 0.67%, respectively after 24 h. It is evident from the data that mortality of 2nd instar larvae after 48 hours was observed increasing with the rate of 23.33, 16.67, 12.67, 14 and 0.67% for neem, tobacco, datura, akk extract and control treatment, respectively. It was also observed from the data that on 72 hours increasing trend was remained continue with maximum 32, 25.33, 16.66, 20.66 and 4% for neem, tobacco, datura, akk extract and control treatment, respectively. The reductions in mortality in 2nd instar larvae, among plant extracts were observed after 96 hours and it was 21.33, 18, 13.33, 16.66

It revealed that 75, 49, 44 and 44% variation in mortality was counted by time interval.

and 4% when treated with neem, tobacco, datura, akk extract and control, respectively.

54, 19 and 52% variation in mortality was counted by time interval, respectively.

The regression analysis also depicted that efficacy of extracts was less in initial hours against 3rd instar larvae and reached their peak on 72 hours. The regression model further indicated that the mortality reached their peak just few hours before 72 h on 66.08 h for neem followed by tobbaco, dhatora and akk it was 73.68, 78.62 and 95.37. R-squire of regression was about 0.66 for neem followed by tobbaco, dhatora and akk it was 0.54, 0.19 and 0.52, respectively and it revealed that 66,

Extracts derived from various plant leaves affected the survival of 3rd instar during 24 hours. The neem extract was found to be the most effective treatment with maximum mortality (14.66%) followed by tobacco extract, datura, akk and control treatments 11.33,10, 11.66 and 0%,

**4.2. Effect of plant extracts on mortality of 3rd instar larvae**

**3. Leaf disc bioassay** 

**4. Results**

respectively (fig- 2).

data were corrected for mortality, using Abbott formula [11]

**4.1. Effect of different plant extracts on mortality of 2nd instar larvae**

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

<sup>201</sup> ISALS

Due to indiscriminate use of pesticides it has developed a resistance, now it has been very difficult to control his increasing population, particularly in Southeast Asia and the Far East [8, 9]. It is also time intensifying concerns about the long-term environmental impact of vegetable production, focusing particularly on the heavy use of pesticides with local health hazards, pesticide residues for consumers, the build-up of resistance and contamination of the environment. These problems have increased the interest in alternative control methods, such as integrated pest management (IPM), crop rotation and biological control [10]. New technologies, such as plant extract pesticides, are starting to overcome the problem of resistance. Keeping the view the work was done in laboratory and studies were carded out specifically to determine the effect of different plant extracts on survival of 2nd and 3rd instar larvae of *P. xylostella* on cauliflower

## **2. Material and Methods**

The present studies on the efficacy of different plant extracts against diamondback moth, *Plutella xylostella* (L.) on cauliflower under laboratory conditions were carried out in the Department of Entomology.

#### **2.1. Culture of the host**

*P. xylostella* adults were obtained from the laboratory of Agriculture Research Institute Tandojam to observe the efficacy of bio-pesticide on 2nd and 3rd instar larvae of *P. xylostella*. The Chinese cabbage leaves were boiled in a pan. The stock was used to soak parafilm which was then allowed to dry. This was placed inside a container ready for oviposition by adult Plutella. The adults were removed after 24 hours and the eggs given time to develop at 25 °C and 70% relative humidity. Upon hatching the first instar were transferred in screen cages (42cm X43cm X55cm) in laboratory room at a temperature of 25 (±5) 0 C. Their larvae were fed with Chinese cabbage leaves after emerging 2nd instar they were shifted to leaf discs in a 5 cm Petri dishes. Moist filter paper was laid underneath to the disc to delay desiccation. Four hundred µl of water applied to the filter paper to moisten it. Five larvae were placed into each Petri dish acting as one sample unit or replicate. Same procedure were used for 3rd instar

#### **2.2. Plant materials**

Extracts were prepared from 4 plants leaves of akk (*Calotropis procera*), datura or jimson weed (*Datura stamonium*), neem **(***Azadirachta indica* A. Juss**)** and tobacco (*N. tabacum*) were put in the local grinder (manually used). After that the extracts were set in the muslin cloth and squeezed them. The 100% of extracts preserved in well-cleaned bottles. Stock of distilled water was also obtained from local market for preparation of the solutions of suspension 2% solutions of extract were separately mixed with 98% distilled water of akk, datura, neem and tobacco respectively steeped in water.

## **3. Leaf disc bioassay**

Bioassays were conducted with 2nd and 3rd instar larvae of *P. xylostella* on Chinese cabbage leaf discs. Test solutions were prepared in 98 ml distilled water with 2 ml pure extract as an additional surfactant. Each leaf disc (4.8 cm dia.) was immersed in a test solution for 10 s. For control, leaf disc were dipped in surfactant solution without any test solution. The leaf discs were placed in individual Petri dishes (5 cm dia.) containing a moistened filter paper and Five larvae (L2) were placed in each dish 6 replicates were made per treatment including the control. The mortality was assessed after 24, 48, 72 and 96 h. same procedure was used for L3. For all residual analysis data were corrected for mortality, using Abbott formula [11]

## **4. Results**

#### **4.1. Effect of different plant extracts on mortality of 2nd instar larvae**

The regression analysis depicted that efficacy of extracts was less in initial hours against 2nd instar larvae and there was positive correlation between extracts efficacy with time intervals, it increased with increasing time and reached their highest on 72 hours. The regression model further indicated that the mortality reached their peak just few hours before 72 h on 67.58 h for neem followed by tobbaco, dhatora and akk it was 69.46, 69.68 and 68.61. R-squire of regression was about 0.75 for neem followed by tobbaco, dhatora and akk it was 0.49, 0.44 and 0.43, respectively. It revealed that 75, 49, 44 and 44% variation in mortality was counted by time interval.

The neem extract was found to be the most effective treatment with maximum (14.67%) mortality followed by tobacco extract, datura, akk and control treatments 13.33,10, 11.33 and 0.67%, respectively after 24 h. It is evident from the data that mortality of 2nd instar larvae after 48 hours was observed increasing with the rate of 23.33, 16.67, 12.67, 14 and 0.67% for neem, tobacco, datura, akk extract and control treatment, respectively. It was also observed from the data that on 72 hours increasing trend was remained continue with maximum 32, 25.33, 16.66, 20.66 and 4% for neem, tobacco, datura, akk extract and control treatment, respectively. The reductions in mortality in 2nd instar larvae, among plant extracts were observed after 96 hours and it was 21.33, 18, 13.33, 16.66 and 4% when treated with neem, tobacco, datura, akk extract and control, respectively.

#### **4.2. Effect of plant extracts on mortality of 3rd instar larvae**

The regression analysis also depicted that efficacy of extracts was less in initial hours against 3rd instar larvae and reached their peak on 72 hours. The regression model further indicated that the mortality reached their peak just few hours before 72 h on 66.08 h for neem followed by tobbaco, dhatora and akk it was 73.68, 78.62 and 95.37. R-squire of regression was about 0.66 for neem followed by tobbaco, dhatora and akk it was 0.54, 0.19 and 0.52, respectively and it revealed that 66, 54, 19 and 52% variation in mortality was counted by time interval, respectively.

Extracts derived from various plant leaves affected the survival of 3rd instar during 24 hours. The neem extract was found to be the most effective treatment with maximum mortality (14.66%) followed by tobacco extract, datura, akk and control treatments 11.33,10, 11.66 and 0%, respectively (fig- 2).

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

in the world [13, 14]. It was [14] observed that neem extracts can be successfully used as an excel-

In our studies the tobacco extracts were also found to be the most active against these larval instars, affecting their survival. The results supported by the findings of the earlier workers [12] they reported that the use of tobacco extract is effective for control of larval instar of diamond-

During the study it was observed that there is effect of akk extract on the survival of 2nd and 3rd instar larvae of diamondback moth. It is also in agreement with [15] who reported that leaf extract of *C. procera* decreased mosquito larvae population may be due to the different compounds

The study also indicate that dhatora extracts effect the activity of larval instars during the experiment conducted in the laboratory It is clearly proved by the researchers that dhatora plant extracts are less expensive and highly effective for the control of insect pests [16, 17]. The extract of *D. alba* could be used as an effective botanical insecticide to be included in the Integrated Pest

[1] Talekar, N. S, and A. M. Shelton, 1993. Biology, ecology, and management of the diamondback

[2] Idris, A. B, and E. Grafius, 1996. Effects of wild and cultivated host plants on oviposition, survival, and development of diamondback moth (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) and its parasitoid *Diadegma* 

[3] Sastrosiswojo, S, and S. M. Sastrodihardjo, 1986. Status of biological control of diamondback moth by introduction of parasitoid *Diadegma eucerophaga* in Indonesia. *In :* Talekar, N. S. & Griggs, T. D. (ecls.), Diamondback moth management: Proceedings of the first international workshop.

[4] Talekar, N. S., J. C. Yang, Liu, M. Y, and P. C, Ong, 1990. Use of parasitoids to control the diamondback moth, *Plutella xylosteUa.* In : Mochida, O., Kiritani, K., & Bay-Peterson, J. (eds.), The use of natural enemies to control agricultural pests., pp. 106-114. FFTC Book Series No. 40, Food

[5] Kibata, G.N., 1996. The diamondback moth: A problem pest of Brassica crops in Kenya. In: Sivapragasam, A., Kole, W.H., Hassan, A.K., Lim, G.S. (Eds.), The Management of diamondback moth and other crucifer pests. Proceedings of the third international workshop, Kuala Lumpur,

[6] Iqbal, M., R.H.J. Verkerk, M.J. Furlong, P.C. Ong, A.R. Syed, and D.J. Wright, 1996. Evidence for resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) subsp. Kurstaki HD-1,Bt subsp. Aizawai and Abamectin

[7] Syed, A.R., 1992. Insecticide resistance in diamondback moth in Malaysia. In: Talekar,N.S. (Ed.),Manageme nt of DBM and other Cruciferous Pests. Diamondback moth and Other Crucifer Pests: Proceedings of the Second International Workshop,Tainan, Taiwan,AVRDC.

pp. 185-194. Asian Vegetable Research and development Center, Shanhua, Taiwan.

and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region, Taipei, Taiwan.

in field populations of Plutella xylostella from Malaysia. Pestic. Sci. 48, 89–97.

lent substitute to synthetic insecticides.

present in the extract possessing different bioactivities.

moth. Annu. *Rev. Entomol.* 38, 275-301.

Management Programme for *P. americana* and other insect pests as well.

*insulare* (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae). *Environ. Entomol*. 25: 825–833.

back moth.

**6. References**

Malaysia. pp. 47–53.

Shanhua,Taiwan. pp. 437–442.

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**Fig 1.** Effi cacy of diff erent plant extracts against 2nd instar larvae on diff erent time intervals

**Fig 2.** Effi cacy of diff erent plant extracts against 3rd instar larvae on diff erent time intervals

#### **5. Discussion**

Diff erent plant extracts caused diff erent percentage of reductions of the target pest on diff erent time intervals. The present study showed that neem extracts found to be more eff ective control of 2nd and 3rd instar larvae of the of *P. xylostella* when compared with other plant extracts.

The results of our study, which suggest neem extract as a bett er pest control it is in accordance with previous studies, where neem extract marginally increased the mortality of *P. xylostella* larvae [12]. It is also reported by many researchers that neem extracts limiting diff erent pest species in the world [13, 14]. It was [14] observed that neem extracts can be successfully used as an excellent substitute to synthetic insecticides.

In our studies the tobacco extracts were also found to be the most active against these larval instars, affecting their survival. The results supported by the findings of the earlier workers [12] they reported that the use of tobacco extract is effective for control of larval instar of diamondback moth.

During the study it was observed that there is effect of akk extract on the survival of 2nd and 3rd instar larvae of diamondback moth. It is also in agreement with [15] who reported that leaf extract of *C. procera* decreased mosquito larvae population may be due to the different compounds present in the extract possessing different bioactivities.

The study also indicate that dhatora extracts effect the activity of larval instars during the experiment conducted in the laboratory It is clearly proved by the researchers that dhatora plant extracts are less expensive and highly effective for the control of insect pests [16, 17]. The extract of *D. alba* could be used as an effective botanical insecticide to be included in the Integrated Pest Management Programme for *P. americana* and other insect pests as well.

## **6. References**


[8] Talekar, **N. S,** and T. D. Griggs, 1986. Diamondback moth management: Proceedings of the first international workshop, Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Taiwan. 471 p.

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

**Toxic Effect of Fertilizers on Inferior Plants** 

1 Department of Biology,University of Mohammed Cherif Messaadia, Souk-Ahras, Algeria

The inopportune throws out of diverse substances in the atmosphere, constitutes without any doubt the obvious of environmental pollution by man. Among these substances, we are interested in the NPK (nitrate –phosphate-potassique).Nitrate fertilizers widely used in farming in our region - Annaba located in the eastern part of Algeria – and manufactured in the same region. In fact, the excessive fertilization, the intensive spreading of animal faeces and the industrial pollution are the accumulation sources of nitrate in vegetables, drilling and the underground waters. The treatment by NPK affect the respiratory metabolism of mosses as well as the measure of the consumption of the oxygen shous the abviousness contrasted with a dampening of respiration but also of the photosynthesis.The perturbation of the respiration and photosynthesis of mosses can explain the degradation of the plant material and the disappearance of certain species from

The effect of NPK indicate also the perturbation of enzymes antioxidants fonctions : GSH

**Keywords:** NPK, mosses, Cytotoxicity tests, respiratory and photosynthetic metabolism, Bio-

Bryophytes are particularly suitable organisms for the study of metal and organic pollutants. They owe this to their anatomical efficiency (high ratio surface / volume or surface area / mass, no waxy cuticle, of conducting vessels and real root system, easy to identify the annual growth) and physiological (photosynthetic activity continues at year round). They are therefore subject to the impact of pollutants in both dry depositions. Bioaccumulation of pollutants in plant species is an indicator of exposure. Indicators of effects of these pollutants can also be measured; they may be more defined, especially in the form of various biochemicals or physiological parameters

2 Laboratory of Cell Toxicology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Algeria

**Resed as Biological Models**

Fadila Khaldi1, 2, Houria Berrebbah<sup>2</sup>

3 University of Badji Mokhtar, Annaba, Algeria

markers; Antioxidant enzymes ,GSH,GST.

**Abstract**

our ecosystem.

**1. Introduction**

(biomarkers) [1].

and GST.

© 2012 Khaldi et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the

original work is properly cited.

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

and Med.Réda. Djebar<sup>3</sup>

<sup>205</sup> ISALS

