**Biodegradation of Hydrocarbons (Oil Fuels) by** *Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Candida sp* **and**  *Aspergillus terreus* **by Isolated from the Coast Line of Arzew – Oran-Algeria**

Kheira Hammadi, Mahjouba Aznouz, Miloud Halbouche

Laboratory of PAA Faculty SNV, Abdelhamid Ben Badis Mostaganem University Algeria

#### **Abstract**

Among many refineries are located along the coast of Algeria, the refinery of Arzew in the northwest of Algeria is the subject of our study. Since always the sea was the universal receptacle of pollution by hydrocarbons negatively modified the natural balance of the aquatic environment and can give many problems for the environment. Our study aimed on the biodegradation as a natural elimination of these pollutants and used as control of this pollution. The aim of this work is the study of marine pollution by physical; chemical and biological methods. The species of *Pseudomonas aeruginosa, :Candida petrolium* and *Aspergillus terreus* isolated from the sea water of three stations port from Hyproc, fishing port and Marsa el Hajadj showed their capacity of adaptation and assimilation of strong concentration of the hydrocarbons oil Arabian light and crude oil of Hassi Messoud 10% in a natural environment and 3% in a synthetic medium , their roles of transformation and degradation of the crude oil of Hassi Messoud and the petrol of the Arabian light.

**Keywords:** Bioterioration, crude oil;light arab oil; Pseudomonas aeruginosa; Candida sp, Aspergillus terreus

## **1. Introduction**

The rejection of hydrocarbons (HC) of oil-bearing origin in the environment constitutes one of the most alarming phenomena of pollution in the sense that these HC are toxic for the man, fauna and flora (Belhaj and *al.*, 2000).

The elimination of the oil in marine environment requires the intervention of the various biotic and abiotic factors. Among these factors; the biological breakdown by the micro-organisms and in particular the bacteria is the natural process most important in depletion of maritime environment. Consequently, mechanisms of the biological breakdown of the substances tankers (linear alkanes, phénylalcanes, cycloalcanes, hydrocarbons polycyclic and polyaromatic) by the marine bacteria (Soltani, 2010).

Metabolic reactions of the bacteria and other micro-organisms which are naturally present in the seamen circles are usually called mechanisms of biological breakdown.

According to several authors, metabolic ways of degradation by stocks of Pseudomonas sp. were the first studied ways and are very known (Sutherland and *al.*, 1995).

© 2012 Hammadi et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The objective of this study is the insulation of the micro-organisms marinades able to eliminate the oil substances or in the event of waste from an industrial complex (Andrade, 2001; Cardoso da Silva. and *al.*, 2003).

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**)**

The potential of degradation is given thanks to the analyzes the rate of CO2 release in the medium by the relationship between the quantity of substrate consumed in the tests and that presents

The output of mineralization is the relationship between the numbers of moles of carbons re-

Measurement was taken each 4 days for one 20 days period, and this technique based on the method of Warburg and calculates the carbonization gas rate of them according to Waes (1971)

*Vg273 Vf <sup>T</sup> KCO*

*Vg* Representing the difference, in µl, between the total volume of the pressure gauge and the bottle and

13, 6 <sup>760</sup> <sup>10000</sup> 1,033

rate is deferred in the Graph .On notices after the incubation period, that the

is increasing according to time for each pure population of the microorgan-

*Po*

*+ a*

in the water, which is of 0.759 with 25° C; the manometer

:

rate which is in direct contribution with the

2

*h* Representing the modification in mm of the open arms of the pressure gauge

*α* Representing the solubility of CO2 in the solutions, in ul CO2/ul solution

solution was the known solution of Brodie with density 1.033, so that *P0*

*P0* Representing the standard pressure expressed according to the manometer solution

*Po* = × =

*=*

in the abiotic witnesses in each 4 days of the incubation period 20 days.

**5.2. Determination the rate of mineralization (CO2**

*X* Representing the quantity of gas in µl (0° C, 760 m Hg)

*Vf* Representing the quantity in µl, of liquid in the bottle

*T* Representing 273 + the temperature of operation (27° C)

the number of µl of liquid of the bottle

isms, the results showed an increase in the CO2

reduction in the rate of the oil crude and light arab oil.

*KCO2* Representing the constant of the bottle

The value used was the value of CO2

**6. Results**

The produced CO2

production of CO2

**5. Analytical method**

leased in the form of CO2.

the formula was used for calculations.

**5.1. Potential of degradation**

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

<sup>95</sup> ISALS

## **2. Material and methods**

To appreciate the phenomenon of the biodegradation of hydrocarbons in sea water we prepared a culture medium by natural sea water for that a source of carbon was selected as well as a microbial population.

#### **2.1. Sampling sources**

It is natural sea water taken in a not polluted zone. A quantity of one liter is filtered on Whatman paper. At summer then added of ammonium chloride (2 g/l) as source of nitrogen and sodium phosphate (0.1 g/l) as source of phosphorus. To agitate this medium magnetically. To preserve at 4° C with the darkness for one month. The pH is adjusted to 8 (Boutefnoucht and *al.*, 2009).

According to Boutefnoucht and *al.* (2009) the source of carbon added in the middle of culture is a derivative of the crude oil (Arabian light) of Arzew "Oran".

## **3. Determination the microbial biodegradable**

The source of carbon is a light fraction oil, a bacterial;yeast and fungi species would be able with it to only degrade this source of carbon in the Oil "Arabian Light", it is what directed us with the insulation and the purification of various stocks starting from our studies microbiological of the 3 stations and to test them on the oil crude.

The bacteria;yeast and fungi used for the inoculation of our test come from our insulation and identification with tests bacteriological first part of our experimental of 3 stations.

## **4. Experimental device**

Technique used in our experimental and based known the manometer technique of the apparatus of Warburg . For each culture to be tested one needs 14 bottle of Warburg for pipe side, clean and dry: for each of the 12 substrates, like endogenous witness and the last like barometric witness thermo. Each bottle of Warburg with pipe has three compartments: the principal compartment, a compartment with pipe and a central tank.


To measure the reagents and to introduce them into the compartments of each bottle, as follows:

## **5. Analytical method**

#### **5.1. Potential of degradation**

The potential of degradation is given thanks to the analyzes the rate of CO2 release in the medium by the relationship between the quantity of substrate consumed in the tests and that presents in the abiotic witnesses in each 4 days of the incubation period 20 days.

#### **5.2. Determination the rate of mineralization (CO2 )**

The output of mineralization is the relationship between the numbers of moles of carbons released in the form of CO2.

Measurement was taken each 4 days for one 20 days period, and this technique based on the method of Warburg and calculates the carbonization gas rate of them according to Waes (1971) the formula was used for calculations.

$$KCO\_2 = \frac{\frac{V \text{g} \cdot 273}{} + Vfa}{Po}$$


The value used was the value of CO2 in the water, which is of 0.759 with 25° C; the manometer solution was the known solution of Brodie with density 1.033, so that *P0* :

$$Po = 760 \times \frac{13,6}{1,033} = 100000$$

#### **6. Results**

The produced CO2 rate is deferred in the Graph .On notices after the incubation period, that the production of CO2 is increasing according to time for each pure population of the microorganisms, the results showed an increase in the CO2 rate which is in direct contribution with the reduction in the rate of the oil crude and light arab oil.

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to release decreases with time before 12 days for *Aspergillus terreus* 

Arabian light oil /12 days) for *Candida petrolium*, and (35.62 µl Oil; 28.99 µl Arabian light oil /12 days) for , and weak for *Pseudomonas aerugenosa* with (13.78 µl crude oil; 5.72 µl arabiant light/12

The oil carbon very quickly mineralizes by report Arabian light according to our results for the different microorganisms.In the 16 days have observed one followed by increase in the rate of

[1] Andrade, M.L., Reyzabal, M.L., Marcet, P., Montero, J.M., 2001. Industrial Impact on Marsh Soils

[2] Belhaj A., Elmerich C., Ismaili M., Zouhdi M., Hajjam Z., Assafi M., Alaoui M.A., 2000. Bacilles à gram positif : identification et potentiel de biodégradation des hydrocarbures. Biologie

[3] Boutefnouchet N., Bouzerna N. et Chettibi H., 2009. Biodégradation des hydrocarbures en eau de

[4] Cardoso da Silva J.R., G., Carlos, E., de Carvalho Lange, I., 2003. Hydrogeology of study of mangrove area around Guanabara bay, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Unuaro do Instito de Geociencias,

[5] Cerniglia, C.E. (1992). Biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. *Biodeg*. 3:351-368. [6] Hanson KG. Desal JD.Desai, AJ (1993) :Arapid and simple screening technique for a potential of

[7] Junior,SJ;Adreano,pm and Dejaniora(2009): Biodegradation of biodiesiel by C.viswanathii;African

[8] PirolloMPS.Mariano AP.Lovagio RB ;Costa SGVAO.Walter V,Housanmann R Contiero J (2008):Biosulfactant synthes by P. aeruginosa LBI isolatedfrom a hydrocarbon contaminated siteJ.

[9] Soltani M., 2010. Distribution lipidique et voies métaboliques chez quatre bactéries Gramnégatives hydrocarbonoclastes. Variation en fonction de la source de carbone. These de doctorat

[10] Sutherland, J.B; Raffi, F; Khan, A. A. and Cerniglia, C.E. (1995). Mechanisms of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Degradation. In Microbial Transformation and degradation of toxic

organic chemicals. Edited by Young, L.L and C.E. Cerniglia. Wiley-Liss. New York. [11] Waes G., 1971. La production d'acide carbonique par les ferments lactiques. Le Lait, 51, 123.

mer : Cas de la Naphta B. Scientific Study & Research, Vol VII : 1582-540X

crude oil degrading microorganisms ; Biothnol;Techniques; 7.745-746

release by to 30.55 µl for (*Pseudomonas aeurogenosa* ), and an absence of the release of CO2 for

days) and this quantity CO2

Infectiologie, VI (1).

2003,26, 92.

(*Aspergillus terreus* and *Candida petrolium* ).

at the Bahia Blanca Ria, J. Envir. Quality, 31, 532.

journal of biothechnology Vol 8(12);pp2774-2778.

Appl.Microbiol.106;1484-1490

université de paris 6.

CO2

**9. References**

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<sup>97</sup> ISALS

**Fig 1.** The concentration of CO2 (µl) released by *P.aeruginosa*; *C.petrolium* and *A.terreus*

#### **7. The biodegradability test of DCPIP indicator**

The biodegradability of the microorganisms was verified using the technique based on the rodox indicator 2,6-dichlorophenol indophenol (DCPIP) (Hanson et al 1993).

The principal of this technique is that during the microbial oxidation of the carbon source ,electrons are transferred to electron acceptors by incorporating an electron acceptor such DCPIP to the culture medium; the ability of the microorganisms to utilize the substrate by observing the color change of DCPIP from blue (oxidized) to colorless (reduced) This technique was used by pirollo et al 2008

The time to decolorization of the DCPIP indicator was registered of each microorganism Pseudomonas aerugenosa was 8hours .Candida petrolium 12 hours and Aspergillus terreus in 17 hours. we have noticed during the experiment no decolorization of the substrate controles (Without inoculums) or of the inoculums controls(without oils)was observed, similar results were found by junior et al 2009.

#### **8. Discussion**

From the graph we noticed a difference in rate of mineralization both have substance by the rate of CO2 to release by *Pseudomonas aerugenosa .Candida petrolium* and *Aspergillus terreus*, it reaches 35.62 µl for *Aspergillus terreus*. after 12 days of incubation; according to Cerniglia (1992) that the metabolic way of degradation of Naphthalene by *Aspergillus terreus* and utilizes a dioxygenase which oxidizes one of the benzene cycles to form a cis-dihydrodiol. Clear mineralization is regular positive in the suspensions after one 12 days and 16 days period; the metabolic ways of degradation by stocks of *Aspergillus terreus* . Were the first studied ways and are much known. The contribution of oil biological breakdown causes significant increase in the rate of mineralization of carbon by report the, which rises with (28.99 µl crude oil; 28.6 µl for Arabian light oil /12 days) for *Candida petrolium*, and (35.62 µl Oil; 28.99 µl Arabian light oil /12 days) for , and weak for *Pseudomonas aerugenosa* with (13.78 µl crude oil; 5.72 µl arabiant light/12 days) and this quantity CO2 to release decreases with time before 12 days for *Aspergillus terreus*  The oil carbon very quickly mineralizes by report Arabian light according to our results for the different microorganisms.In the 16 days have observed one followed by increase in the rate of CO2 release by to 30.55 µl for (*Pseudomonas aeurogenosa* ), and an absence of the release of CO2 for (*Aspergillus terreus* and *Candida petrolium* ).

## **9. References**


International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

**Economic Impact of Lake Edku Pollution**

and the expected production under these conditions in 2015.

rehabilitate of the lake. The objectives of this study are:

4. expected production of lake Edko under the pollutio

Economics and Agribusiness Dept., Faculty of Agricalture, Alexandria University, Egypt

Edku lake lay on the west branch of rashid, 40 km from Alexandria governorate, the lake relate to northern side of the western Mediterranean Sea through Almadia Bogaz. As for the sources of water supply is from salt and fresh water. This paper aims to shed light on the effect of Edku lake pollution and compute the effect on lake pollution on income and Maximum sustainable yield

**Keywords**: Edko lake-fish production-impact of pollution- Maximum sustainable yield-Egypt

In the last two decades several studied has been carried out on the lake Edko pollution. Most of these studied concerned with the technical component of that pollution i.e. toxicity, water quality and effect on biological conditions. Nevertheless a very few studies has concerned with the economic aspects of the fishery pollution. None of the published studies had concerned with the

As the welfare of both economy-and individuals is the end purpose of the sustainable development, Socio-economic aspects should be considered by every plan for the development and

2. To define and compute the prevailing output-input relationships under pollution.

Data required was collected from the fish statistical reports of the national institute of oceanography and fisheries, central agency for public Mobilization and statistics and from published

Descriptive statistical analysis was carried out to identify the pollution effect on production, Labor and capital. The Econometric analysis was utilized to identify and compute the output-input relationship. The ordinary least squares (OLS) was the method of parameters estimation. The study has utilized the descriptive as well as the quantitative methods in the analysis. The simple as well as the multiple regressions have been used to estimate the functions. Different functional

3. To define and measure the economic impact of the lake pollution on income.

1. To investigate the effect of the pollution on production and productivity.

papers and studies on Lake Edko pollution. Data collected the period 1985-2010.

El-Tatawy Nashwa

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

social effects of the lake pollution.

**2. Material and methods**

© 2012 Nashwa; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the

original work is properly cited.

forms have been estimated using static as well Double Exponential Smoothing.

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

<sup>99</sup> ISALS

## **Economic Impact of Lake Edku Pollution**

## El-Tatawy Nashwa

Economics and Agribusiness Dept., Faculty of Agricalture, Alexandria University, Egypt

#### **Abstract**

Edku lake lay on the west branch of rashid, 40 km from Alexandria governorate, the lake relate to northern side of the western Mediterranean Sea through Almadia Bogaz. As for the sources of water supply is from salt and fresh water. This paper aims to shed light on the effect of Edku lake pollution and compute the effect on lake pollution on income and Maximum sustainable yield and the expected production under these conditions in 2015.

**Keywords**: Edko lake-fish production-impact of pollution- Maximum sustainable yield-Egypt

## **1. Introduction**

In the last two decades several studied has been carried out on the lake Edko pollution. Most of these studied concerned with the technical component of that pollution i.e. toxicity, water quality and effect on biological conditions. Nevertheless a very few studies has concerned with the economic aspects of the fishery pollution. None of the published studies had concerned with the social effects of the lake pollution.

As the welfare of both economy-and individuals is the end purpose of the sustainable development, Socio-economic aspects should be considered by every plan for the development and rehabilitate of the lake. The objectives of this study are:


## **2. Material and methods**

Data required was collected from the fish statistical reports of the national institute of oceanography and fisheries, central agency for public Mobilization and statistics and from published papers and studies on Lake Edko pollution. Data collected the period 1985-2010.

Descriptive statistical analysis was carried out to identify the pollution effect on production, Labor and capital. The Econometric analysis was utilized to identify and compute the output-input relationship. The ordinary least squares (OLS) was the method of parameters estimation. The study has utilized the descriptive as well as the quantitative methods in the analysis. The simple as well as the multiple regressions have been used to estimate the functions. Different functional forms have been estimated using static as well Double Exponential Smoothing.

## **3. The impact of pollution on production**

The historical data on production is graphically represented in Figure (1). The data can be distinguished into three time periods. The first from 1985 to 1992 reflects a slow decreasing trend of production. The second from 1993 to 2003 reflecting an increasing trend and the period from 2004 to 2010 this reflects a dramatically decreasing production trend.

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

Productivity is a measurement of efficiency which affects profitability. Total factor productivity refers the amount of production to all factors of production (Land, Area, Capital...). Partial factor productivity refers production to only one of the factors of production. Due to lack on proper data needed for computing total factor productivity, only partial productivities are computed. Table (2) summarizes the descriptive statistics of this productiveness. it is clear to notice the de-

clining of the three partial productivities particularly from 1997 to 2010.

Labor Productivity

Minimum (ton) 2.13 6.35 1.21 Maximum (ton) 3.67 10.99 1.93 Mean (ton) 2.68 8.14 1.55 Standard deviation 0.42 1.19 0.23 Coefficient of variation 15.68 14.62 14.84

**Source**: computed from: CAPMAS, annual fishery statistics, and National institute of oceanography and fisheries,

The Maximum Labor productivity (i.e. per capita production) amounted to 3.67 ton in 2001. The minimum was 2.13 in 1998. The Maximum per boat production (capital productivity) amounted to 10.99 ton in the same year 2001 and only 6.35 ton in 1998. The maximum production per

Of the lake reached 1.93 ton in 2001 and only 1.21 ton in 2008. The previous result confirms the detraction of the lake productivity due to the increasing pollution particularly in the last decade.

In spite of declining of production and productivity the fishery, particularly in the last ten years, the labor and capital (the number of boats) in the fishery has taken a rapidly increasing trend.

1 log Y = 8.35 + 0.73 log L 0.19 4.04\*

2 log Y = 7.22+ 0.88 log C 0.27 5.75\*\*

3 log Y = 6.60 + 1.443 log L – 0.55 Lon C 0.22 2.83\*

**The equation R-2 F**

**5. The relationship between production, Labor and Capital**

( 2.01)\*

(2.4)\*\*

(1.20) (-0. 49)

\* significant at the (0.1) probability level. \* \*significant at the (0.05) probability level

**Table 3.** The relationship between production, Labor and Capital

Number between bracts are the t values

**4. The development of productivity**

**Table 2.** Descriptive Statistics for productiveness

Annual fishery estimation reports.

Hectare.

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

Capital Productivity <sup>101</sup> ISALS

Hectare Productivity

**Fig 1.** Production trend of lake Edko

Table (1) shoes the descriptive statistics of the previous three periods. The statistics reflects the features of every period. The overall trend of production during the hall period (1985-2010) can be represented by the following equation:

> Y = 2627.72 + 1028.19 t – 35.24 t2 (8.67) \*\*\*, (8.27) \*\*\* R-2=0.77, F=37.75\*\*\*

Where: Y: production T: time ( ) \*\*\*: t values significant at (0.01) level.


**Table 1.** Main statistics of the three time periods of production

**Source**: computed from: Central Agency for public Mobilization and statistics (CAPMAS) annual fishery statistics.

## **4. The development of productivity**

Productivity is a measurement of efficiency which affects profitability. Total factor productivity refers the amount of production to all factors of production (Land, Area, Capital...). Partial factor productivity refers production to only one of the factors of production. Due to lack on proper data needed for computing total factor productivity, only partial productivities are computed. Table (2) summarizes the descriptive statistics of this productiveness. it is clear to notice the declining of the three partial productivities particularly from 1997 to 2010.


#### **Table 2.** Descriptive Statistics for productiveness

**Source**: computed from: CAPMAS, annual fishery statistics, and National institute of oceanography and fisheries, Annual fishery estimation reports.

The Maximum Labor productivity (i.e. per capita production) amounted to 3.67 ton in 2001. The minimum was 2.13 in 1998. The Maximum per boat production (capital productivity) amounted to 10.99 ton in the same year 2001 and only 6.35 ton in 1998. The maximum production per Hectare.

Of the lake reached 1.93 ton in 2001 and only 1.21 ton in 2008. The previous result confirms the detraction of the lake productivity due to the increasing pollution particularly in the last decade.

## **5. The relationship between production, Labor and Capital**

In spite of declining of production and productivity the fishery, particularly in the last ten years, the labor and capital (the number of boats) in the fishery has taken a rapidly increasing trend.


**Table 3.** The relationship between production, Labor and Capital

Number between bracts are the t values

\* significant at the (0.1) probability level. \* \*significant at the (0.05) probability level

Technique was utilized to estimate the quantitative relationships between production & labor and capital for the period 1997-2010. Results or shown in Table (3).

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**Deviation from base year (ton)**

**Fig 1.** Map of northern lake (Edko)

**Source**: Computed from: CAPMAS, annual fishery statistics, and National institute of oceanography and fisheries,

**Economy Losses Value ( 1000\$)\***

sand ton, the value of this loss will reach 244 Million dollar at current prices in 2010.

Edku lake was one of the richest lakes fish in Egypt ,especially marine fish , accounted for its contribution to Egyptian fish production about 3.5%during 1985,as a result of exposure to the pollution problem and constrains in production ,this ratio reached about 1%in 2010, so that this paper aims to shed light on the effect of Edku lake pollution and compute the effect on lake pollution on income and Maximum sustainable yield and the expected production under this conditions in 2015 to identify the constrains and problems that led to this decline and to development of fish production of

**Year Production**

**Table 5.** National welfare losses due to lake pollution

\*Deviation from base year X average price per ton

Annual fishery estimation reports.

**(ton)**

**7. Summary and conclusion**

Edko lake.

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

<sup>103</sup> ISALS

Equation (1) and (2) characterize one input-output relationship. The coefficients of labor (L) and No. of boats (C) are negative. This means that the marginal product as well as the elasticity is negative. In another word, the value of marginal product is actually less than the opportune cost of labor and capital. It can be concluded that under prevailing conditions of the fishery if labor and capital is reduced the production would not decrease. Equation (3) is a two input-output relationship. Although the equation represents positive Marginal product of labor, however it is not statistically significant, therefore it was interpreted.

> Y =10.73 - 0.003 F (-2.17)\*\* R-2=0.18 , F=4.72\*\*

**Where: Y** : production (catch)F : effort( number of boats) ( )\*\* : t values significant at (0.05) level.

Maximum Sustainable yield(MSY) will be 9594 ton and it was not happened in this period ,and Maximum Effort which make this Sustainable yield will be 2104 boats.

The study has been estimated fish production using static as well Double Exponential Smoothing as seen in table (4).


**Table 4.** expectation of fish Production , and the number of boats in lake edko

**Source**: computed from: CAPMAS, annual fishery statistics, and National institute of oceanography and fisheries, Annual fishery estimation reports.

#### **6. Economic impact of the lake pollution**

The losses due to pollution can be measured the difference between the maximum value of production before pollution and the yearly values after pollution.

The Maximum production during the period 1997-2010 was 10784 ton in 1997. The minimum o the other hand was 5886 tons in 2008. Therefore 1997 were considered as a base year (minimum pollution). Table (4) represents the economy losses due pollution during 1997-2010. The economy losses amounted to 6.70 Million dollar in 2007. The economy losses reached 6.70 Million dollar at current prices in 2007. The whole losses during the period 1997-2010 reached 42 Million dollar. The expected economy losses will reach 6916 ton, the value of this loss will reach9.31 Million dollar at current prices in 2010. The whole losses during the period 2012-2015 will reach18.11 thousand ton, the value of this loss will reach 244 Million dollar at current prices in 2010.

#### **7. Summary and conclusion**

Edku lake was one of the richest lakes fish in Egypt ,especially marine fish , accounted for its contribution to Egyptian fish production about 3.5%during 1985,as a result of exposure to the pollution problem and constrains in production ,this ratio reached about 1%in 2010, so that this paper aims to shed light on the effect of Edku lake pollution and compute the effect on lake pollution on income and Maximum sustainable yield and the expected production under this conditions in 2015 to identify the constrains and problems that led to this decline and to development of fish production of Edko lake.

**Fig 1.** Map of northern lake (Edko)


**Table 5.** National welfare losses due to lake pollution

\*Deviation from base year X average price per ton

**Source**: Computed from: CAPMAS, annual fishery statistics, and National institute of oceanography and fisheries, Annual fishery estimation reports.

#### **8. References**


International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

**Nitrate Removal from Water Using Synthesis** 

1 Environmental Sciences Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University, G.C., Tehran, Iran

This study was conducted to investigate chemical reduction efficiency of nitrate by synthesis nanoscale zero-valent iron (NZVI) in aqueous solution, under aerobic condition. TEM image shows synthesis nano zero-valent iron has a size in the range of 40–150nm. Experimental results suggest that the reduction efficiency of nitrate decreased quickly with increasing initial pH value from 4 to 10 increased considerably with the increasing dosage of nanoscale zero-valent iron from 0.25 to 1gl-1 and did not vary much with initial nitrate concentration changing from 30 to 50 mg l-1 (NO-


Nowadays, regarding to increasing demand on safe drinking water, removal of widespread pollutants such as nitrate is creating a significant challenge in water treatment industry. Anthropogenic sources such as nitrogen fertilizer, nitrogen pesticides and industrial waste effluent discharge account for most nitrate contamination of ground and surface waters [1]. Elevated nitrate concentrations in drinking water supplies present a potential risk to public health. In infants NO3

ing to cyanosis in babies under six month old [2]. A research conducted by Mayo Clinic Center in Minnesota also showed that drinking tap water with a high concentration of nitrate would have a higher risk of causing bladder cancer and ovary cancer [3]. Therefore many countries have regulated the concentration of nitrate in drinking water. In the US, EPA established a maximum

Current technology to remove nitrate from water include ion exchange, reverse osmosis, biological denitrification and chemical reduction [3]. Among different water treatment methods, using nano materials such as nano zero-valent iron as a new method has a good potential for removal of nitrate. Researchers have studied the use of zero-valent iron in halogenated organics, azoaromatic nitroaromatics and the treatment of different kinds of compounds such as inorganic compounds like heavy metals [5]. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the use of zero-valent

, which combine with hemoglobin in the blood to form methemoglobin lead-


2 Faculty of Nuclear Engineering and Physics, Amirkabir University, Tehran, Iran \* Corresponding author, Tel.: + 98-021-77273165, Email: sh.zia@mail.sbu.ac.ir

**Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron (NZVI)**

Shima Ziajahromi1,\*, Ali Daryabeigi Zand<sup>1</sup>

reached 80% in 60 min with nano zero-valent dosage of 1.0gl<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

**Keywords:** nitrate, water, iron nanoparticles.

contaminant level (MCL) of 10mg/L NO3

**Abstract**

3

**1. Introduction** 

is reduced to NO2

olds for NO3

© 2012 Ziajahromi et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,


provided the original work is properly cited.

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

and Meysam Khanizadeh<sup>2</sup>

and pHin4, in room temperature.

<sup>105</sup> ISALS

.


## **Nitrate Removal from Water Using Synthesis Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron (NZVI)**

Shima Ziajahromi1,\*, Ali Daryabeigi Zand<sup>1</sup> and Meysam Khanizadeh<sup>2</sup>

1 Environmental Sciences Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University, G.C., Tehran, Iran

2 Faculty of Nuclear Engineering and Physics, Amirkabir University, Tehran, Iran

\* Corresponding author, Tel.: + 98-021-77273165, Email: sh.zia@mail.sbu.ac.ir

#### **Abstract**

This study was conducted to investigate chemical reduction efficiency of nitrate by synthesis nanoscale zero-valent iron (NZVI) in aqueous solution, under aerobic condition. TEM image shows synthesis nano zero-valent iron has a size in the range of 40–150nm. Experimental results suggest that the reduction efficiency of nitrate decreased quickly with increasing initial pH value from 4 to 10 increased considerably with the increasing dosage of nanoscale zero-valent iron from 0.25 to 1gl-1 and did not vary much with initial nitrate concentration changing from 30 to 50 mg l-1 (NO-3 -N). With reductive denitrification of nitrate by nano zero-valent iron, the removal rate of nitrate reached 80% in 60 min with nano zero-valent dosage of 1.0gl<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> and pHin4, in room temperature.

**Keywords:** nitrate, water, iron nanoparticles.

## **1. Introduction**

Nowadays, regarding to increasing demand on safe drinking water, removal of widespread pollutants such as nitrate is creating a significant challenge in water treatment industry. Anthropogenic sources such as nitrogen fertilizer, nitrogen pesticides and industrial waste effluent discharge account for most nitrate contamination of ground and surface waters [1]. Elevated nitrate concentrations in drinking water supplies present a potential risk to public health. In infants NO3 is reduced to NO2 , which combine with hemoglobin in the blood to form methemoglobin leading to cyanosis in babies under six month old [2]. A research conducted by Mayo Clinic Center in Minnesota also showed that drinking tap water with a high concentration of nitrate would have a higher risk of causing bladder cancer and ovary cancer [3]. Therefore many countries have regulated the concentration of nitrate in drinking water. In the US, EPA established a maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 10mg/L NO3 -N for drinking water [4]. In Iran the regulatory thresholds for NO3 -N in drinking water sources are set as 10mg/L which is equivalent to 44.82 mg/L NO3 . Current technology to remove nitrate from water include ion exchange, reverse osmosis, biological denitrification and chemical reduction [3]. Among different water treatment methods, using nano materials such as nano zero-valent iron as a new method has a good potential for removal of nitrate. Researchers have studied the use of zero-valent iron in halogenated organics, azoaromatic nitroaromatics and the treatment of different kinds of compounds such as inorganic compounds like heavy metals [5]. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the use of zero-valent

© 2012 Ziajahromi et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

iron in the treatment of water containing nitrate. Previous studies have demonstrated that nitrate could be completely reduced by metallic iron under anoxic and aerobic conditions; furthermore, the major reduction product was ammonia [6,7]. Nano zero-valent iron in contrast with iron powder have some advantages of high specific surface area, high active surface, easily being sca- tered and so on, which lead to the increasing denitrification rate of nitrate [5]. In this paper, we studied the parameters which affect on the effectiveness of nitrate removal by synthesis iron nano particles. These parameters include pH, dosage of nanoscale Fe˚ and nitrate concentration. The Purpose of this study is to improve our understanding of denitrifcation condition by nanoscale Fe. International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

paratus at a mixing rate of 300 rpm. In each set of experiments the reaction vessels were removed one by one from the jar test apparatus at intervals of 10 min during the 60-min reaction. Periodically, 20ml of the aqueous solution passed through a 0.45 µm membrane filter to separate iron nanoparticles. The concentrations of unreacted nitrate (NO3) were determined by VIS spectrophotometer (VIS DR2800, HACH). The pH value was measured using pH meter (satorius-150).

In aqueous systems, zero-valent iron (Fe˚) is readily oxidized to ferrous ion (Fe+2) by many sub-

the following reaction [6], Eq(2). But Under aerobic conditions dissolved oxygen would play a role of the electron acceptor in the cathodic half-reaction. In this case, the primary reaction yields

The reaction and its mechanisms between nitrate and ZVI is a true redox reaction (Yang and Lee, 2005). Several studies have indicated the final products of chemical reduction of nitrate by ZVI

O→ 4Fe +2 + NH4

The particle size are determined by PHILIPS (EM208 S, the Netherlands), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) at 100 kV of acceleration voltage. Figure 1, shows TEM image of the synthesized nanoscale Feº. The particles are spherical with the size ranging from 60 to 120 nm in

depending on the experimental conditions [6,7,8]. But certainly, the main

**2.5. Mechanism of denitrification by nanoscale Fe0**

[8], Eq(3):

product of this reaction is ammonium [7], (Eq(4)):

4Fe˚ + NO3

reaction. Therefore, the overall process of corrosion in anaerobic Fe˚–H2

Fe˚ + 2H2

+ 7H2

+ 2H2

2Fe˚ +O2

stances. under anaerobic condition, H+

and not H2

or NH3

**3. Results and Discussion**

**3.1. Characterization of nanoscale Fe0**

**Fig 1.** TEM images of synthesis nanoscale Fe˚ particles

only OH-

could be N2

diameter.

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

is the only electron acceptor that will be involved in the

O→ Fe+2 + H2 +2OH- (2)

O→ 2Fe+2 +2OH- (3)

+ + 10OH- (4)

O system is described by

<sup>107</sup> ISALS

## **2. Materials and Methods**

#### **2.1. Chemicals and materials**

The following chemicals were purchased from Merck: NaBH4 (for synthesis), FeSO4 .7H2 O (98%), Methanol (99%), NaOH (99%), H2 SO4 (98%), KNO3 (98%). Nitrate reagent (Nitraver 5) was obtained from Hack company.

#### **2.2. Method for nanoscale Fe0 synthesis**

In a typical synthesis of Fe˚ Nanoparticles by borohydride reduction, 4.0g of FeSO4 ·7H2O was dissolved in 200mL of 30% methanol and 70% de-ionized water (v/v). The pH was adjusted to about 6.8 by 3.8M NaOH. Then 1.5 g of NaBH4 powder was dissolved in 10mL de-ionized water and the solution was added incrementally to the mixture in ultrasonic shaker at 25ºC temperature for 45 min After addition of all of the NaBH4 solution the mixture was stirred in jar test for another 45 min and then centrifuged for 15 min at 5000 rpm. The solid particles were washed at least three times with methanol and then dried for 4hr under vacuum condition, and then broken up with a spatula to form a fine black powder and immediately added to the aqueous solution to react with nitrate. The ferrous iron was reduced to zero-valent iron according to the following reaction Eq(1):

$$\text{Fe} \left( \text{H}\_2\text{O} \right)\_6 + 3\text{BH}\_4 + 3\text{H}\_2\text{O} \to \text{Fe}^\circ + 3\text{B(OH)}\_3 + 10.5\text{H}\_2\tag{1}$$

#### **2.3. Preparation of aqueous nitrate solution**

Different concentrations of nitrate in aqueous solution were prepared by dissolving desired quantities of KNO3 in de-ionized water. An initial concentration of 30mg/l NO3 -N (133 mg/l NO3 ) was used for studying the effects of pH and dosage of iron nanoparticles, whereas 50mg/l NO-3 -N (222 mg/l NO3 ) also was used for studying the effect of nitrate concentration on removal effectiveness.

#### **2.4. Experiments for chemical reduction of nitrate by iron**

Five hundred milliliter of aqueous nitrate solution of a selected concentration was first put in each of glass beakers for each set of experiments. Freshly prepared nanosized ZVI at arbitrary concentration (1, 0.5 or 0.2g/L) was added to each glass beaker. Chemical reduction of nitrate by nanosized ZVI at ambient temperature, and desired pH(4,7,10) and/or desired nitrate concentrations (30, 50 mg/l) were simultaneously conducted in various glass beakers using a jar test apparatus at a mixing rate of 300 rpm. In each set of experiments the reaction vessels were removed one by one from the jar test apparatus at intervals of 10 min during the 60-min reaction. Periodically, 20ml of the aqueous solution passed through a 0.45 µm membrane filter to separate iron nanoparticles. The concentrations of unreacted nitrate (NO3) were determined by VIS spectrophotometer (VIS DR2800, HACH). The pH value was measured using pH meter (satorius-150).

#### **2.5. Mechanism of denitrification by nanoscale Fe0**

In aqueous systems, zero-valent iron (Fe˚) is readily oxidized to ferrous ion (Fe+2) by many substances. under anaerobic condition, H+ is the only electron acceptor that will be involved in the reaction. Therefore, the overall process of corrosion in anaerobic Fe˚–H2 O system is described by the following reaction [6], Eq(2). But Under aerobic conditions dissolved oxygen would play a role of the electron acceptor in the cathodic half-reaction. In this case, the primary reaction yields only OH and not H2 [8], Eq(3):

$$\mathrm{Fe}^{\circ} + 2\mathrm{H}\_{2}\mathrm{O} \xrightarrow{\cdot} \mathrm{Fe}^{\circ 2} + \mathrm{H}\_{2} + 2\mathrm{OH}^{\cdot} \tag{2}$$

$$2\text{Fe}^{\circ} \text{ + O}\_{2} + 2\text{H}\_{2}\text{O} \rightarrow 2\text{Fe}^{2+} + 2\text{OH}^{\cdot} \tag{3}$$

The reaction and its mechanisms between nitrate and ZVI is a true redox reaction (Yang and Lee, 2005). Several studies have indicated the final products of chemical reduction of nitrate by ZVI could be N2 or NH3 depending on the experimental conditions [6,7,8]. But certainly, the main product of this reaction is ammonium [7], (Eq(4)):

$$4\text{Fe}^{\circ} + \text{NO}\_{3} + 7\text{H}\_{2}\text{O} \longrightarrow 4\text{Fe}^{\circ 2} + \text{NH}\_{4}^{\circ} + 10\text{OH}^{\circ}\tag{4}$$

#### **3. Results and Discussion**

#### **3.1. Characterization of nanoscale Fe0**

The particle size are determined by PHILIPS (EM208 S, the Netherlands), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) at 100 kV of acceleration voltage. Figure 1, shows TEM image of the synthesized nanoscale Feº. The particles are spherical with the size ranging from 60 to 120 nm in diameter.

**Fig 1.** TEM images of synthesis nanoscale Fe˚ particles

#### **3.2. Effect of Fe0 dosage on nitrate reduction by nanoscale Fe0**

Fe˚ dosage is a signifi cant variable parameter in nitrate reduction by nanoscale Feº. Since the denitrifcation of nitrate by Feº involves reaction at the metal surface, it was anticipated that the quantity of metal surface area should strongly infl uence the effi ciency of nitrate reduction. In this study we used three diff erent dosage of nanoscale Feº (0.2, 0.5, 1 g/L). As shown in fi gure 2, with the dosage increasing, the removal effi ciency of nitrate become higher and higher, In 0.2g/L Feº dosage, aft er 60 min nitrate removal effi ciency reached 57%, then increasing Fe dosage of 0.2 to 0.5, cause increasing effi ciency to 70% ,and fi nally in 1g/L dosage aft er 60min, nitrate removal reached near 80% . Therefore with increasing Fe˚ concentration, metal surface area also increased, and effi ciency of nitrate reduction will be increased [2,7,9].

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

**Fig 3.** Eff ect of initial pH on nitrate reduction by nanoscale Fe˚, T=20˚C, Fe˚= 1g/L, C0=30mg/l NO3-N, stirring

**− concentration on nitrate reduction by nanoscale Fe<sup>0</sup>**


denitrifi cation effi ciency by nanoscale Feº. Figure 4, shows the eff ect of nitrate concentrations on the nitrate removal by nanoscale Feº at initial acidic pH. The removal effi ciency of nitrate for

effi ciencies of nitrate for diff erent initial nitrate concentrations were close to each other, the fi nal effi ciency increased with the increase of the initial nitrate concentration. This fi nding is in accord

**Fig 4.** Eff ect of NO3−N initial concentration on nitrate reduction by nanoscale Fe˚, T=20˚C, Fe˚= 1g/L,

Two diff erent initial nitrate concentrations (30, 50 mg/L NO3

at 300rpm

**3.4. Effect of NO3**

30, 50 mg/L NO3

pHin= 4, stirring at 300rpm

with Alowitz et al and Liou et al [11,12].

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012


<sup>109</sup> ISALS

**Fig 2.** Eff ect of Fe˚ dosage on nitrate reduction by nanoscale Fe˚, *T*=20˚C, pHin= 4, *C*0=30mg/l NO3-N, stirring at 300rpm

#### **3.3. Effect of pH value on the reduction of nitrate by nanoscale Fe0**

In this study three diff erent pH value (4, 7, 10) were employed to study the eff ects of pH on nitrate reduction effi ciency by nanoscale Feº. Figure 3, shows the eff ect of initial pH value on the reduction of nitrate. The removal effi ciencies of nitrate decreased with the increasing initial pH value. When the initial pH was 4, about 80% of nitrate was reduced in 60 min, while the removal effi ciencies decreased to 70% and 64%, when the initial pH values were 7 and 10, respectively. This suggests that the reduction of nitrate could be well performed in acidic conditions. In fact, the reduction of nitrate proceeded on the surface of iron particles, lowing pH, would dissolve away ferrous hydroxide and other protective layers at the surface of nanosized Feº yielding more fresh reactive sites for chemical reduction of nitrate. Therefore, Based on the experimental results obtained, in general, the effi ciency of nitrate removal by nanosized ZVI increases as the system pH decreases. This fi nding is in accord with that of reported by Yang et al , Chen et al and Zhang et al [2,5,10].

**Fig 3.** Eff ect of initial pH on nitrate reduction by nanoscale Fe˚, T=20˚C, Fe˚= 1g/L, C0=30mg/l NO3-N, stirring at 300rpm

#### **3.4. Effect of NO3 − concentration on nitrate reduction by nanoscale Fe<sup>0</sup>**

Two diff erent initial nitrate concentrations (30, 50 mg/L NO3 -N) were employed to study the denitrifi cation effi ciency by nanoscale Feº. Figure 4, shows the eff ect of nitrate concentrations on the nitrate removal by nanoscale Feº at initial acidic pH. The removal effi ciency of nitrate for 30, 50 mg/L NO3 -N reached 78.3% and 79.98 respectively aft er60 min. Though the fi nal removal effi ciencies of nitrate for diff erent initial nitrate concentrations were close to each other, the fi nal effi ciency increased with the increase of the initial nitrate concentration. This fi nding is in accord with Alowitz et al and Liou et al [11,12].

**Fig 4.** Eff ect of NO3−N initial concentration on nitrate reduction by nanoscale Fe˚, T=20˚C, Fe˚= 1g/L, pHin= 4, stirring at 300rpm

#### **4. Acknowledgements**

This work was supported by the Environmental laboratory of Sciences Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University. The author cordially appreciates the extensive and constructive comments made by Dr. Kassaee at Department of Chemistry, Tarbiat Modares University.

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

,

**To Review Climate Change Effects on Basic** 

, Zhirair Vardanian<sup>2</sup>

1 Yerevan State Agrinean University, Armenia and Expert of Forest, Range & Watershed

Human civilization was accompanied with the pollution, destruction of natural resources and biodiversity. The era of industrialization begins with emissions of carbon dioxide and other gases into the atmosphere. As researchers believe average temperatures of earth has increased over 74 %. Global warming causes droughts, rising of sea water level , penetrating saline water into freshwater resources, melting of polar ice, increasing of desertification trend and tropical diseases outbreak. Loss of biodiversity, reduction in forest production, changing of the border of farmlands and forests on high-latitude and wasting of semi-persistent of forest species are other consequences of the global warming. The effects of this phenomenon can be clearly seen in Zagros forests. According to studies done,Zagros region warming has lead to prolonged droughts period in the region. Besides, dusty storms and their sediments on the leaves can result in trees' tension and therefore their physiologic weakness which at least cause trees being attacked by wood eater beetles. Using superseded energies such as sun , wind and water , protection of forests and forest plantation with species having high potential of carbon sequestration as well as standardizing the transportation vehicles for economizing energy are some effective

, Mohsen Elahi<sup>4</sup>

2 Dept. of Yerevan State Agrinean University, Armenia 3 Science & Research Unit of Azad University, Tehran, Iran 4 Tarbiat Modares University of Noor-Mazandarn, Iran

**Zagros Forests)**

Majid Loghmanpour<sup>1</sup>

Management Organization

Hadi Kiadaliri<sup>3</sup>

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

**Resources (A Case Study of These Effects on** 

© 2012 Loghmanpour et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

provided the original work is properly cited.

The reduction of forest areas and their converting to deserts were the obvious impacts of human long settlement on the earth. This reduction was accelerated when men were living together and began to exploit the resources around him more and more. Nowadays, since this exploitation exceeds self- recovery of nature over the time, thus we witness more unbalanced situation than before. (Shamekhi, 2009). Continued environmental degradation resulted in more pollution and biodiversity loss On the other hand; public awareness leads to a movement for changing

strategies recommended for reducing the global warming effects.

**Keywords***:* Global warming, carbon dioxide, biodiversity loss, deforestation

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

<sup>111</sup> ISALS

#### **5. References**


## **To Review Climate Change Effects on Basic Resources (A Case Study of These Effects on Zagros Forests)**

Majid Loghmanpour<sup>1</sup> , Zhirair Vardanian<sup>2</sup> , Hadi Kiadaliri<sup>3</sup> , Mohsen Elahi<sup>4</sup>

1 Yerevan State Agrinean University, Armenia and Expert of Forest, Range & Watershed Management Organization

2 Dept. of Yerevan State Agrinean University, Armenia

3 Science & Research Unit of Azad University, Tehran, Iran

4 Tarbiat Modares University of Noor-Mazandarn, Iran

#### **Abstract**

Human civilization was accompanied with the pollution, destruction of natural resources and biodiversity. The era of industrialization begins with emissions of carbon dioxide and other gases into the atmosphere. As researchers believe average temperatures of earth has increased over 74 %. Global warming causes droughts, rising of sea water level , penetrating saline water into freshwater resources, melting of polar ice, increasing of desertification trend and tropical diseases outbreak. Loss of biodiversity, reduction in forest production, changing of the border of farmlands and forests on high-latitude and wasting of semi-persistent of forest species are other consequences of the global warming. The effects of this phenomenon can be clearly seen in Zagros forests. According to studies done,Zagros region warming has lead to prolonged droughts period in the region. Besides, dusty storms and their sediments on the leaves can result in trees' tension and therefore their physiologic weakness which at least cause trees being attacked by wood eater beetles. Using superseded energies such as sun , wind and water , protection of forests and forest plantation with species having high potential of carbon sequestration as well as standardizing the transportation vehicles for economizing energy are some effective strategies recommended for reducing the global warming effects.

**Keywords***:* Global warming, carbon dioxide, biodiversity loss, deforestation

## **1. Introduction**

The reduction of forest areas and their converting to deserts were the obvious impacts of human long settlement on the earth. This reduction was accelerated when men were living together and began to exploit the resources around him more and more. Nowadays, since this exploitation exceeds self- recovery of nature over the time, thus we witness more unbalanced situation than before. (Shamekhi, 2009). Continued environmental degradation resulted in more pollution and biodiversity loss On the other hand; public awareness leads to a movement for changing

© 2012 Loghmanpour et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

the current critical situation of natural resources and the issue of legislation and policy making to achieve more applied management regarding natural resources. Stockholm conference convened in June 5th1972 in Stockholm- the capital of Sweden – and attended by 1400 representatives from 113 countries offered new initiatives for protection of the environment. (Shamekhi, 2009). Twenty years later on June 5th 1992 and in Stockholm conference anniversary, a conference titled Environment and United Nations Development convened in Rio-de-Janeiro –Brasilia which addressed again the issue of environment protection. Simultaneously and immediately after the Rio Conference several international Conventions including the Convention of Climate Change were ratified. The convention was signed by majority of member countries participating in the conference, including Iran (Shamekhi 2009).

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

1998). The effects of global warming in lower latitudes in which temperature changes is less than the higher one , these effects occur in the form of the amount of humidity and its distribution. Changing of the place of natural growth of resistant forest species and loss of semi-resistant species are other impacts of global warming on forest ecosystems which result in abnormal growth of forest plants and reduction of production of primary and secondary forest products. Sea level rising will also result in degradation of mangrove.( Nezhat, Erfanifard 2009) . Meanwhile increasing of land temperature will lead early spring in the region and untimed melting of ices as well as drying of forest regions. Dried forest regions also increases contingency of forest fires. As it has been showed in table No. 1, the incidence of forest fires has been increased in Iran in 1985-1995.

Another important and devastating effect of global warming is increasing of the desertification process. Although it is difficult to specify the accurate contribution of climate change in desertification , but undoubtedly its role in intensifying severity of desertification which taken place through deduction of vegetation cover and agricultural productions as well as soil degradation and underground waters falling makes difficult the accessibility of sustainable development.

Increasing of the temperature in late winter and early spring in Saudi Arabia Peninsula caused to increasing of the temperature of the air near the soil surface. This situation will result in turbulence and wind blowing in lower layer of atmosphere and therefore dust entrance in to it( Abbassi ,RafieiEmam and Roohipour 2008). Satellite images of Middle East reveal that Rub'Al Khali the vast sandy desert of the world is the origin of this phenomenon. Most violent sandstorms which originated from this desert pass the Persian Gulf and smash west provinces of the country. The risen dust covers the leaves of quarks sp. and its combination with humidity arisen from transpiration of the foliages makes them as a firm material which stick hardly to the surface of the leaves in such a way that even wind can't remove them. Besides the sand storm phenomenon ,rainfall reduction and droughts, conscious and unconscious man made degradation such as subsoil plough aiming at dry farming which cuts the roots and forfeit the existent insufficient moisture of the region as well as animal grazing which prevents oaks' regeneration are the main factors of the weakness of Zagros Forests. At present, Zagros Forests with 5500 antiquity and 5 million hectares area as the main source of the water of the country have been threatened by Wood Eater Beetles species ( Azizkhani 2010). This is because drought tension results in the increasing of amino acid density of the plant and therefore pests uprising. As a general, water tensions have stunts the growth of the plant and therefore they are very sensitive to pests uprising. Moreover, the surface temperature of the plants under water tension usually is 2 ◦c to 4◦ c more than other plants and this itself leads to increasing of growth speed of the insects (Koochaki , Sharifi and Zand 1998). As mentioned before, flooding, water shortages, dusty storms, aging and persistency, lack of revitalization ,incomplete age pyramid are the elements of incidence of pests uprising and its intensification there to. (Azizkhani, 2010). In which, of course, climate change is the first chain of all mentioned factors of a cycle that man is the main reason himself.

**2.2. Warming and increasing trend of desertification:**

**3. A noticeable example of the effects of warming in Iran** 

(Akbari, Nasseri and AshgarTousi, 2009).

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

<sup>113</sup> ISALS

## **2. Methods and Procedures**

The effects of climate change have been reviewed in this article, using library and documentary studies as well as descriptive method. Excel software was used for analyzing the statistics and preparing diagrams. For obtaining metrological dates in this research, height from sea level and meteorological data of all stations of western provinces were studied at first and then the station which its height was near the mean height of all stations and had most meteorological data was selected and analyzed.

#### **2.1. Forest ecosystems and their impacts on global warming:**

Warming will cause forests of northern hemisphere move ahead to north pole which this phenomenon will cause people resort to farming of premature species and breed their animals in lands which were forests before , so changing of border of agriculture and forest affects the conservation policies because of undesirable conditions of land. It is obviously that desirable situations of high latitudes can't neutralize the effects of malfunction of middle latitudes.(Koochaki, Sharifi , Zand


**Table 1.** Sever forest fires of IRAN

1998). The effects of global warming in lower latitudes in which temperature changes is less than the higher one , these effects occur in the form of the amount of humidity and its distribution. Changing of the place of natural growth of resistant forest species and loss of semi-resistant species are other impacts of global warming on forest ecosystems which result in abnormal growth of forest plants and reduction of production of primary and secondary forest products. Sea level rising will also result in degradation of mangrove.( Nezhat, Erfanifard 2009) . Meanwhile increasing of land temperature will lead early spring in the region and untimed melting of ices as well as drying of forest regions. Dried forest regions also increases contingency of forest fires. As it has been showed in table No. 1, the incidence of forest fires has been increased in Iran in 1985-1995.

#### **2.2. Warming and increasing trend of desertification:**

Another important and devastating effect of global warming is increasing of the desertification process. Although it is difficult to specify the accurate contribution of climate change in desertification , but undoubtedly its role in intensifying severity of desertification which taken place through deduction of vegetation cover and agricultural productions as well as soil degradation and underground waters falling makes difficult the accessibility of sustainable development. (Akbari, Nasseri and AshgarTousi, 2009).

#### **3. A noticeable example of the effects of warming in Iran**

Increasing of the temperature in late winter and early spring in Saudi Arabia Peninsula caused to increasing of the temperature of the air near the soil surface. This situation will result in turbulence and wind blowing in lower layer of atmosphere and therefore dust entrance in to it( Abbassi ,RafieiEmam and Roohipour 2008). Satellite images of Middle East reveal that Rub'Al Khali the vast sandy desert of the world is the origin of this phenomenon. Most violent sandstorms which originated from this desert pass the Persian Gulf and smash west provinces of the country. The risen dust covers the leaves of quarks sp. and its combination with humidity arisen from transpiration of the foliages makes them as a firm material which stick hardly to the surface of the leaves in such a way that even wind can't remove them. Besides the sand storm phenomenon ,rainfall reduction and droughts, conscious and unconscious man made degradation such as subsoil plough aiming at dry farming which cuts the roots and forfeit the existent insufficient moisture of the region as well as animal grazing which prevents oaks' regeneration are the main factors of the weakness of Zagros Forests. At present, Zagros Forests with 5500 antiquity and 5 million hectares area as the main source of the water of the country have been threatened by Wood Eater Beetles species ( Azizkhani 2010). This is because drought tension results in the increasing of amino acid density of the plant and therefore pests uprising. As a general, water tensions have stunts the growth of the plant and therefore they are very sensitive to pests uprising. Moreover, the surface temperature of the plants under water tension usually is 2 ◦c to 4◦ c more than other plants and this itself leads to increasing of growth speed of the insects (Koochaki , Sharifi and Zand 1998). As mentioned before, flooding, water shortages, dusty storms, aging and persistency, lack of revitalization ,incomplete age pyramid are the elements of incidence of pests uprising and its intensification there to. (Azizkhani, 2010). In which, of course, climate change is the first chain of all mentioned factors of a cycle that man is the main reason himself.


International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

[3] H. Ahmadi , Surveying the effective factors on desertification. JangalvaMarta' a quarterly

[4] H.R.Abbasi , A.RafieiEmam , and H. Roohipour .Analyzing the origin of dusts in Boushehr and Khozistan provinces using satellite images . JangalvaMarta' a quarterly published newsletter.

[5] Akbari , and M.Naseri Ashgar Tousi . To review the effects of climate change on desertification.

[7] M. R,Arefipour .To review the reasons of drought of oaks forests of Zagros. Research Institute

[9] T.Shamekhi .Rules and Regulations and Management of Natural Resources (Forests and

[10] T. Shamekh.Natural Resources Policies . Dr. Javanshir Education Center of Natural resources,

[8] N.Rahimi.Climate Change and its Environmental Effects .Akhavan Press center, 2004.

JangalvaMarta' a quarterly published newsletter. 2009, **83** : 48 – 52.

published newsletter. 2004 , **62** : 66 -70.

[6] M.R.Ardakani .Ecology, Tehran University Press, 2004.

Ranges). Tehran University Press, 2008.

2008,**78**: 48-51.

of Forest and Range. 2009.

Karaj, Iran, 2008.

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

<sup>115</sup> ISALS

**Table 2.** The increasing of mean temperature and reduction of forests areas in two western provinces of the country

## **4. Conclusion**


## **5. Some strategies for declining global warming:**


#### **6. References**


International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

**Rangeland Degredation and Its** 

Fatemeh Bateni, Sima Fakheran and Alireza Soffianian

Department of Natural Resources, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran

The quality of water in many regions of world are threatened by overuse, misuse and pollution, and it is increasingly recognized that water quality of rivers, streams and wetlands are strongly influenced by landscape characteristics of their watershed including landscape composition (i.e. land use/land cover types and their fractions) in uplands and the spatial configuration of these land use/land cover types. This study focuses on the effects of land cover changes on the water quality of Zayandehroud River. The main goal of this study was to quantify the change in rangelands and forests in Zayandehroud river basin, which suffered intense human interference, in a period of eleven years (1997–2008) and to evaluate how landscape patterns (including Number of Patches, Edge Density, Percentage of Rangelands and Forests) influence on the water quality

river. The results indicated that water quality were significantly correlated with both the proportions and configuration of Rangeland areas. Total edge of range land area had positive effects on

with water quality variables. Also PLAND and LPI metrics of range land had positive effect on

tion between water quality variables and proportion of Forest in Zayandehroud basin. Because Zayandehroud basin is located in a semi-arid area, where forests are very limited and are occurred only in small patches with low density. It was shown that degradation of range land lead in to degradation of water quality which highlights the importance of rangeland conservation in

**Keywords:** Land cover change, Rangeland, Forest, Landscape metrics, Water quality, Zayander-

The quality of water in many regions of world are threatened by overuse, misuse and pollution, and it is increasingly recognized that water quality of rivers, streams and wetlands are strongly influenced by landscape characteristics of the watersheds including landscape composition (i.e. land use/land cover types and their fractions) in uplands and the spatial configuration of these land use/land cover types. Many studies have shown that composition and spatial arrangement of landscapes within watersheds can account for the variability of nutrient concentration in

**Impacts on Water Quality in** 

**Zayandehroud River Basin** 

**Abstract**

indices (including BOD5, EC, NO3

water quality, especially on BOD5

water quality management at landscape scale.

decreasing nutrient (NO3

oud River

**1. Introduction** 

© 2012 Bateni et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the

, P and TDS) measured in 10 stations along the Zayandehroud

and EC. The proportion of rangeland was negatively correlated

, PO4) of water in this river. However, there was no significant correla-

original work is properly cited.

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## **Rangeland Degredation and Its Impacts on Water Quality in Zayandehroud River Basin**

Fatemeh Bateni, Sima Fakheran and Alireza Soffianian

Department of Natural Resources, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran

#### **Abstract**

The quality of water in many regions of world are threatened by overuse, misuse and pollution, and it is increasingly recognized that water quality of rivers, streams and wetlands are strongly influenced by landscape characteristics of their watershed including landscape composition (i.e. land use/land cover types and their fractions) in uplands and the spatial configuration of these land use/land cover types. This study focuses on the effects of land cover changes on the water quality of Zayandehroud River. The main goal of this study was to quantify the change in rangelands and forests in Zayandehroud river basin, which suffered intense human interference, in a period of eleven years (1997–2008) and to evaluate how landscape patterns (including Number of Patches, Edge Density, Percentage of Rangelands and Forests) influence on the water quality indices (including BOD5, EC, NO3 , P and TDS) measured in 10 stations along the Zayandehroud river. The results indicated that water quality were significantly correlated with both the proportions and configuration of Rangeland areas. Total edge of range land area had positive effects on water quality, especially on BOD5 and EC. The proportion of rangeland was negatively correlated with water quality variables. Also PLAND and LPI metrics of range land had positive effect on decreasing nutrient (NO3 , PO4) of water in this river. However, there was no significant correlation between water quality variables and proportion of Forest in Zayandehroud basin. Because Zayandehroud basin is located in a semi-arid area, where forests are very limited and are occurred only in small patches with low density. It was shown that degradation of range land lead in to degradation of water quality which highlights the importance of rangeland conservation in water quality management at landscape scale.

**Keywords:** Land cover change, Rangeland, Forest, Landscape metrics, Water quality, Zayanderoud River

## **1. Introduction**

The quality of water in many regions of world are threatened by overuse, misuse and pollution, and it is increasingly recognized that water quality of rivers, streams and wetlands are strongly influenced by landscape characteristics of the watersheds including landscape composition (i.e. land use/land cover types and their fractions) in uplands and the spatial configuration of these land use/land cover types. Many studies have shown that composition and spatial arrangement of landscapes within watersheds can account for the variability of nutrient concentration in

© 2012 Bateni et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

streams [2,4] Using landscape metrics for quantitative analysis of landscape pattern structure and its change have been widely adopted by landscape ecology researchers.

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river in Ghale shahrokh, Tanzimi Dam, Zama khan bridge, Kalle bridge, Dizicheh, Lenj, Mousiyan, Choum bridge, Ziyar bridge and Varzaneh. For 1997 and 2008 were obtained from theWater

Maps of forests and range land for study area were prepared using hybrid classification of multi-

Identification and quantification of nonpoint source pollution in a large basin like Zayanderoud basin are logistically challenging. Therefore, the Zayanderoud basin was divided into 10 distinct sub basins based on elevation and available hydrographical data, using Arc-SWAT extension in

Changes of landscape pattern can be detected and measured by landscape metrics which quantified and categorized complex landscapes into identifiable patterns. Various metrics, including: Edge Density (ED), Largest Patch Index (LPI) and Percentage of Landscape (PLAND) were calculated using Fragstat 3.3 [9] to quantify the landscape patterns changes

Pearson correlation test and regression analysis was applied to assess the relationship between landscape indices and water quality parameters in R 2.7.12(R Development Core Team 2007).

Table 1 shows the changes in landscape pattern which is calculated by landscape metrics in two

 **Figure 2.** Rangeland Edge Density (ED) in 1997 and 2008. Bold horizontal lines show the median, boxes

show the interquartile range, and the whiskers show the maximum and minimum values.

**2.2. Data collection and preparation** 

Organization and Environment organization of Iran.

**2.4. Quantifying landscape pattern changes**

temporal Landsat5 (ETM) images taken in September 1997 and 2008.

Water quality such as BOD5, EC, NO3

**2.3. Watershed delineation**

ArcGIS 9.3 [1,8].

in 1997–2008.

**3. Results** 

**2.5. Statistical analysis**

census dates (1997 and 2008).

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The main goal of this study was to quantify the change in rangelands and forest areas in Zayandehroud river basin in Isfahan province, Iran, in a period of eleven years (1997–2008) and to evaluate how landscape patterns influence on the Zayandehroud river water quality. Human activities such as urban development and intensification of agriculture, played an important role in the drastic change of rangeland and forest areas in recent decades, particularly in semi-arid areas in Iran. The rapidly increasing of water demand and water pollutions due to population growth, industrial and agricultural development around Zayandehroud river causing Zayanderoud water quality to severely downgrade over the past decades. Therefore, monitoring of Zayandehroud water quality is a critical issue, especially due to the concern that freshwater is a scare resource in this region of Iran. In this study we examined 1)whether there is a significant relationships between land cover changes and surface water quality in Zayandehroud watershed, 2) Whether landscape metrics are good indicators for predicting impacts of landscape structure on surface water quality, 3) which metrics can be more accountable in predicting water quality in the study area.

## **2. Methods**

#### **2.1. Study Area**

The Zayandehroud River is the most important river in central Iran which stretches over a length of 400 km, originating in the Zardkouh Mountain and ending in the Gavkhooni swamp after passing through the city of Isfahan. The Zayandehroud River basin has an area of 41,500 square kilometres, and an average rain fall of 130 millimeters. There are 2,700 square kilometres of irrigated land in the Zayandehroud River basin, with water derived from the nine main hydraulic units of the Zayandehroud River, wells, qanat and springs in lateral valleys. The location of the study area is shown in Figure.1 [7].

**Figure 1.** The location of Zayandehroud Basin in Iran

### **2.2. Data collection and preparation**

Water quality such as BOD5, EC, NO3 - and PO4 data for 10 sampling stations along Zayanderour river in Ghale shahrokh, Tanzimi Dam, Zama khan bridge, Kalle bridge, Dizicheh, Lenj, Mousiyan, Choum bridge, Ziyar bridge and Varzaneh. For 1997 and 2008 were obtained from theWater Organization and Environment organization of Iran.

Maps of forests and range land for study area were prepared using hybrid classification of multitemporal Landsat5 (ETM) images taken in September 1997 and 2008.

## **2.3. Watershed delineation**

Identification and quantification of nonpoint source pollution in a large basin like Zayanderoud basin are logistically challenging. Therefore, the Zayanderoud basin was divided into 10 distinct sub basins based on elevation and available hydrographical data, using Arc-SWAT extension in ArcGIS 9.3 [1,8].

## **2.4. Quantifying landscape pattern changes**

Changes of landscape pattern can be detected and measured by landscape metrics which quantified and categorized complex landscapes into identifiable patterns. Various metrics, including: Edge Density (ED), Largest Patch Index (LPI) and Percentage of Landscape (PLAND) were calculated using Fragstat 3.3 [9] to quantify the landscape patterns changes in 1997–2008.

#### **2.5. Statistical analysis**

Pearson correlation test and regression analysis was applied to assess the relationship between landscape indices and water quality parameters in R 2.7.12(R Development Core Team 2007).

## **3. Results**

Table 1 shows the changes in landscape pattern which is calculated by landscape metrics in two census dates (1997 and 2008).

 **Figure 2.** Rangeland Edge Density (ED) in 1997 and 2008. Bold horizontal lines show the median, boxes show the interquartile range, and the whiskers show the maximum and minimum values.


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managers in restoring the aquatic ecosystem but also for policy makers in evaluating alternate

[1] Meghan, B. R. and M. JoAnn, 2008. Long-Term Effects of Changing Land Use Practices on Surface Water Quality in a Coastal River and Lagoonal Estuary *,Environmental Management*, 44:505–523 [2] Cretaz, A. L., Barten, P. K. , *Land Use Effects on Streamflow and Water Quality in the Northeastern* 

[3] Caryn, E., 2004. Land Conservation: A Permanent Solution for Drinking Water Source Protection,

[4] Lee, S.W., S. Hwang and S.B. Lee, . 2009. Landscape ecological approach to the relationships of land use patterns inwatersheds to water quality characteristics*, Landscape and Urban Planning*,92:80–89

[5] Marker, J. and Y. Trevor, 2007. R. Fayed. Recognition of Biological Signal Mixed Based on Wavelet Analysis. In: Y. Jiang, et al (eds.). *Proc. of UK-China Sports Engineering Workshop*. Liverpool: World

[6] Griffith, J. A., 2005, Geographic techniques and recentapplications of remote sensingto landscape-

[7] Salemi, H.R, 2004, An overview of the Hydrology of the Zayandeh Rud Basin, Iran.", *Water and* 

[8] Royappan, M., 2001, "Survey of effect of change of land use to runoff by SWAT model in South

[9] McGarigal, K., 1995, *Fragstats: spatial pattern analysis program for quantifying landscape structure. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-351. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station,* 

[11] Tong, S.T and Y., Chen, 2002.Modeling the relationship between land use and surface water

[12] Collinge, S.K., 1996. Ecological consequences of habitat fragmentation: implications for landscape

[13] White, M.D. and K.A., Greer, 2006. The effects of watershed urbanization on the stream hydrology and riparian vegetation of Los Pe˜ nasquitos Creek, California. Landscape Urban

*[10]* Olsen, A. R., 2009, *Introduction to R Statistical Software*, wetern ecology division, corvalis.

U.S. Geological Survey, Trust for Publication Land, *Water Protection Series*. 56p.

water quality studies", *Water Air Soil Pollut*, 138**:** 181–197

land management decisions.

*United States*, CRC Press

Academic Union, pp. 1-8.

*Wastewater (Isfahan).* , 1(50): 2-13.

*Portland.*

Plan. 74, 125–138.

Africa", *Kentucky university*, Vol. 482, pp.

quality. J. Environ. Manage. 66 (4), 377–393.

architecture and planning. Landscape Urban Plan. 36, 59–77.

**5. References** 

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**Table 1.** Comparison of landscape metrics in 1997 and 2008 in Zayandehroud river basin

The increase of built-up land and bare land accounted for the most obvious transformation in the study area. This increase was traced to the conversion from rangeland, which experienced the most drastic decrease by 20% in Zayandehroud basin, in a period of eleven years (1997–2008). The results also indicated that water quality were significantly correlated with both the proportions and configuration of Rangeland areas. However, there was no significant correlation between water quality variables and proportion of Forest in Zayandehroud basin. Total edge of range land area had positive effects on water quality, especially on BOD5 and Ec (p<0.01). In particular, concentrations of BOD5 and Ec were more likely to be high when range land areas in watersheds were fragmented into smaller patches. These results suggest that unregimented large rangelands in watersheds might reduce the concentrations of BOD5 and Ec in the river. Lee *et.al* also found a similar result about effect of range lands ED on water quality [4]. PLAND and LPI metrics of range land had also positive effect on decreasing nutrient (NO3 , PO4 ) of water in this river (p<0.05). It was shown that degradation of range land lead in to degradation of water quality which indicated the importance of rangeland conservation [4, 11], Thus, human land uses might degrade water quality not only by transforming natural areas into urban or agricultural areas generating pollutants and nutrients, but also by degrading the quality of remnant range land patches in watersheds with fragmented and isolated range land patches.

#### **4. Discussion and conclusion**

Many studies have reported that forest and vegetation cover like rangeland and forests play primary roles in protecting water quality in adjacent aquatic systems [4, 11, and 13]. Results of this study also revealed that the degradation of range land lead in to degradation of water quality which highlights the importance of rangeland conservation in water quality management at landscape scale. However, a significant relationship between Forest areas and water quality was not observed in this study, because the Zayanderoud basin is located in a semi-arid area of Iran, where forests are very limited and are occurred only in small patches with low density. Thus, in semi arid areas like Zayanderoud watershed, range lands conservations play more important role for management of water quality. Results of this study can be used in establishing and implementing effective water management at landscape scale, in this region. In addition, the information on the hydrologic effects of land use can provide guidelines, not only for resource managers in restoring the aquatic ecosystem but also for policy makers in evaluating alternate land management decisions.

#### **5. References**


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**Application of SWOT Analysis in Strategic** 

**Environmental Planning: A Case Study of** 

Hakimeh Khalifipour, Alireza Soffianaian, Sima Fakheran\*

SWOT analysis, which mainly analyzes the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of target object or place, is a useful method in strategic planning. Strategic planning is an extended tool for regional development and can be defined as a systematic form of preparing for change and for the future of a city. Urban planning is influenced by changes within internal and external operational environments. SWOT is a useful tool for analyzing internal and external factors. In this paper a SWOT analysis is done regarding the urban management approach for Isfahan City in Iran. Based on our findings the Location of city in country, Rich cultural history and civilization, Various historical attractions, The presence of Zayanderood river in Isfahan are the most strengths factors which can make great opportunities for tourist attractions, however the high rate of urban expansion and industrial development, increasing water demands and degrading Zyandehroud water quality, air pollution and heavy traffic, High rates of immigration to the city, Landuse/cover change and natural habitats fragmentation should be considered as weaknesses and threats for

**Keywords:** Environmental Planning, Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats, Isfahan

Strategic planning is an extended tool for regional development and can be defined as a systematic form of preparing for change and for the future of a city. Strategic planning takes into account the socio-economic and environmental context. Nowadays, Environmental analysis is a critical part of the strategic management planning process. Environmental Planning is the process of facilitating decision making to carry out development with consideration on the natural environmental, social, political, economic and governance factors and provides a holistic frame work to achieve sustainable outcomes [1]. Environmental planning with strategic approach is necessary as decision support tool and is a way to achieve sustainable development. Urban planning is influenced by changes within internal and external operational environments. SWOT the acronym standing for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats analysis is a useful tool for analyzing internal and external factors in order to attain a systematic approach and support for a decision situa-

Department of Natural Resources, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran

Corresponding Author, Email: fakheran@cc.iut.ac.ir

**Isfahan/ Iran**

strategic environmental planning.

**1. Introduction** 

\*

**Abstract**

© 2012 Khalifipour et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

provided the original work is properly cited.

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## **Application of SWOT Analysis in Strategic Environmental Planning: A Case Study of Isfahan/ Iran**

Hakimeh Khalifipour, Alireza Soffianaian, Sima Fakheran\*

Department of Natural Resources, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran

\* Corresponding Author, Email: fakheran@cc.iut.ac.ir

#### **Abstract**

SWOT analysis, which mainly analyzes the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of target object or place, is a useful method in strategic planning. Strategic planning is an extended tool for regional development and can be defined as a systematic form of preparing for change and for the future of a city. Urban planning is influenced by changes within internal and external operational environments. SWOT is a useful tool for analyzing internal and external factors. In this paper a SWOT analysis is done regarding the urban management approach for Isfahan City in Iran. Based on our findings the Location of city in country, Rich cultural history and civilization, Various historical attractions, The presence of Zayanderood river in Isfahan are the most strengths factors which can make great opportunities for tourist attractions, however the high rate of urban expansion and industrial development, increasing water demands and degrading Zyandehroud water quality, air pollution and heavy traffic, High rates of immigration to the city, Landuse/cover change and natural habitats fragmentation should be considered as weaknesses and threats for strategic environmental planning.

**Keywords:** Environmental Planning, Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats, Isfahan

## **1. Introduction**

Strategic planning is an extended tool for regional development and can be defined as a systematic form of preparing for change and for the future of a city. Strategic planning takes into account the socio-economic and environmental context. Nowadays, Environmental analysis is a critical part of the strategic management planning process. Environmental Planning is the process of facilitating decision making to carry out development with consideration on the natural environmental, social, political, economic and governance factors and provides a holistic frame work to achieve sustainable outcomes [1]. Environmental planning with strategic approach is necessary as decision support tool and is a way to achieve sustainable development. Urban planning is influenced by changes within internal and external operational environments. SWOT the acronym standing for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats analysis is a useful tool for analyzing internal and external factors in order to attain a systematic approach and support for a decision situa-

© 2012 Khalifipour et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

tion. SWOT analysis has been widely applied in the fields of land-resource planning, urban strategy planning, tourism planning, etc.

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

This research is descriptive – analytical study. For obtaining necessary information, required data have been collected through library-based studies and interviews with experts and prepared a questionnaire.This study is based on internal and external urban conservation factors. Internal factors can be classified as strengths (S) or weaknesses (W), and external factors can be

Internal and External factors were based on three dimensions of sustainable development (Eco-

The most important Internal and External factors based on three dimensions of sustainable de-

5 strength factors and 6 opportunity factors as advantages and 6 weakness factors and 7 threat

**Strength Weakness**

industry

years

(W1) Concentration of population (W2) Air pollution from vehicles and

increasing water demands W4)Successive droughts in recent

(W5) Inversion temperature

(W3)Shortage of water resources and

(W6)Heavy traffic of transport system

 **Fig 1.** Location of Isfahan Province in Iran

**3.2. Data Preparation and analysis**

classified as opportunities (O) or threats (T).

logical, socio-economic and cultural factors).

factors as constraints are facing Isfahan city.

and man-made

(Zayanderood river) (S5)Tourist attractions)

velopment, which were found for Isfahan City are listed in Table 1.

(S1) Special Location of city in country (S2) Rich cultural history and civilization (S3)Various historical attractions, natural

(S4) The presence of permanent rivers

**4. Results**

Internal factors

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Due to dramatic population growth in addition to industrial and agricultural development in Isfahan Province, the question to be answered is whether, in the future development could be sustainable. To answer this question, our planning schemes should be environmentally responsible toward the major elements of the environment. Assessment of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats to a city forms a basis for the preparation of a city strategic development plan. In this study, to highlight the Isfahan city constraints, future potentials and challenges a SWOT (strength, weakness, opportunity and threat) analysis has been used.

## **2. SWOT analysis**

A SWOT analysis is a technique commonly used to assist in identifying strategic direction for an organization or practice. SWOT model is a classic strategic analysis tool for strategic management, first proposed by Ken Andrews (Andrews, 1971). The benefits of such an analysis tool is that it can better balance all internal and external aspects of enterprises, ensuring that analysis is more comprehensive.The strengths and weaknesses of a system are determined by internal elements, whereas external forces dictate opportunities and threats. Strengths can be defined as any available resource that can be used to improve its performance. Weaknesses are flaws/shortcomings of any system that may cause to lose a competitive advantage, efficiency or financial resources [3,4].

## **3. Methods**

#### **3.1. Study area**

Isfahan city is the capital of Isfahan Province in center of Iran (Figure1). The city of Isfahan, accounted in 1996, for about 32.2 percent of the total population of the province and 43.4 percent of its urban population. Isfahan is also the third most populated city in the country.The total land area is 157,706 square kilometers. The city is located in the lush plain of the Zayandehrood River, at the foothills of the Zagros mountain range. Zayandehrood River, which is the most important river in central of Iran, divides Isfahan city into north and south parts. The Isfahan metropolitan area had a population of 1,791,069 in the 2010, the second most populous metropolitan area in Iran after Tehran [2]. Dramatic population growth in addition to industrial and agricultural development over the past decades, have resulted in the rapidly increasing pollutions and degrading environmental quality in Isfahan. More than 50 percent of major national industries, such as petrochemical and steel factories are located in Isfahan province, out of which about half of those industries are located near Isfahan city.

 **Fig 1.** Location of Isfahan Province in Iran

#### **3.2. Data Preparation and analysis**

This research is descriptive – analytical study. For obtaining necessary information, required data have been collected through library-based studies and interviews with experts and prepared a questionnaire.This study is based on internal and external urban conservation factors. Internal factors can be classified as strengths (S) or weaknesses (W), and external factors can be classified as opportunities (O) or threats (T).

Internal and External factors were based on three dimensions of sustainable development (Ecological, socio-economic and cultural factors).

### **4. Results**

The most important Internal and External factors based on three dimensions of sustainable development, which were found for Isfahan City are listed in Table 1.

5 strength factors and 6 opportunity factors as advantages and 6 weakness factors and 7 threat factors as constraints are facing Isfahan city.



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,

**Flood Disaster Management in South Africa:** 

Bongumusa M. Zuma1,2,\*, Catherine D. Luyt<sup>2</sup>

\*corresponding author, Email: bonga.zuma@gmail.com.

tel. 00-27-46-603-8825, fax 00-27-46-603-7506.

, Roman Tandlich<sup>2</sup>

Africa, tel. 00-27-46-622-2656, fax 00-27-46-603-7506, South Africa,

Tatenda Chirenda<sup>2</sup>

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

**Legislative Framework and Current Challenges**

1 Institute for Environmental Biotechnology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown 6140, South

2 Environmental Health and Biotechnology Research Group, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Rhodes University, Grahamstown 6140, South Africa,

In South Africa, the annual risk of flooding is 83.3 % and the population vulnerability is high due to economic factors and geographical location. Before 1994 the Civil Protection Act No. 67 of 1977 governed disaster management, but its framework was inadequate as demonstrated by 104 deaths in Lainsburg floods of 1981. Thus a major push came towards improvement of institutional capacity and the legislative framework to deal with disaster management after 1994. The 1996 Constitution of South Africa defined the law-making powers and the responsibilities at the national, provincial and local levels of government. The Disaster Management Act No. 57 of 2002 constitutes the institutional capacity at all levels of government. Response to flooding occurring between December 2010 and February 2011 is used to examine the functionality and drawbacks of the current disaster management system. Impacts included damages to drinking water infrastructure, potential for cholera outbreaks and material losses. The response was adequate at the national level, but district municipalities struggled due to skills shortages and lack of disaster management structures. Remedial strategies are proposed using the current novel legislative

South Africa has semi-arid to arid climate and a total land area of 1.2 million square kilometres [1]. It spans between latitudes of 35° and 22° South [2] with a population of 50.5 million inhabitants [3]. Around 38 % of the population is concentrated on 2 % of land area in mainly urban centres [4] and the growth of the urban population places excess pressure on public services [4]; [5]. This potentially decreases disaster resilience of households [6]. The country ranks among the bottom 30 nations from around the world with respect to the population's ability to provide satisfactory food and shelter at the household level and the Health Adjusted Life Expectancy stands currently at 48 years [7]. Vulnerability of the population is further indicated by the minimum living level [8]. Using the dependency ratios, the highest vulnerability is found in provinces of

> © 2012 Zuma et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the

original work is properly cited.

tools. Research into vulnerabilities and risk must be strengthened.

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**Table 1.** internal and external factors

#### **5. Conclusion**

In this paper a SWOT analysis was done regarding the urban management approach using the case of Isfahan City. As described, this research is being done with purpose of environmental management analysis in Isfahan based on internal and external factors and strategic planning tool (SWOT). Based on our findings the high rate of urban expansion and industrial development in Isfahan had a negative impact on most of the heritage and natural environment of the city. Controlling Urban and Population growth and industrial area expansion is a critical issue in Isfahan. Decreasing water demands and Improving Zyandehroud water quality as well as reducing environmental pollutions, improving linkages to city core with subway networks, and increasing public environmental awareness should be considered for strategic environmental planning.

#### **6. Acknowledgments**

This project was supported by a grant from Iran National Science Foundation.

#### **7. References**


## **Flood Disaster Management in South Africa: Legislative Framework and Current Challenges**

Bongumusa M. Zuma1,2,\*, Catherine D. Luyt<sup>2</sup> ,

Tatenda Chirenda<sup>2</sup> , Roman Tandlich<sup>2</sup>

1 Institute for Environmental Biotechnology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown 6140, South Africa, tel. 00-27-46-622-2656, fax 00-27-46-603-7506, South Africa,

\*corresponding author, Email: bonga.zuma@gmail.com.

2 Environmental Health and Biotechnology Research Group, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Rhodes University, Grahamstown 6140, South Africa, tel. 00-27-46-603-8825, fax 00-27-46-603-7506.

## **Abstract**

In South Africa, the annual risk of flooding is 83.3 % and the population vulnerability is high due to economic factors and geographical location. Before 1994 the Civil Protection Act No. 67 of 1977 governed disaster management, but its framework was inadequate as demonstrated by 104 deaths in Lainsburg floods of 1981. Thus a major push came towards improvement of institutional capacity and the legislative framework to deal with disaster management after 1994. The 1996 Constitution of South Africa defined the law-making powers and the responsibilities at the national, provincial and local levels of government. The Disaster Management Act No. 57 of 2002 constitutes the institutional capacity at all levels of government. Response to flooding occurring between December 2010 and February 2011 is used to examine the functionality and drawbacks of the current disaster management system. Impacts included damages to drinking water infrastructure, potential for cholera outbreaks and material losses. The response was adequate at the national level, but district municipalities struggled due to skills shortages and lack of disaster management structures. Remedial strategies are proposed using the current novel legislative tools. Research into vulnerabilities and risk must be strengthened.

## **1. Introduction**

South Africa has semi-arid to arid climate and a total land area of 1.2 million square kilometres [1]. It spans between latitudes of 35° and 22° South [2] with a population of 50.5 million inhabitants [3]. Around 38 % of the population is concentrated on 2 % of land area in mainly urban centres [4] and the growth of the urban population places excess pressure on public services [4]; [5]. This potentially decreases disaster resilience of households [6]. The country ranks among the bottom 30 nations from around the world with respect to the population's ability to provide satisfactory food and shelter at the household level and the Health Adjusted Life Expectancy stands currently at 48 years [7]. Vulnerability of the population is further indicated by the minimum living level [8]. Using the dependency ratios, the highest vulnerability is found in provinces of

© 2012 Zuma et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, the North-West and Limpopo [6]. There have been 77 flood disaster events in South Africa between 1980 and 2010 [9]. A total of 1068 lost their lives in floods with the maximum of 506 in 1987 [9]. Based on these statistics, the risk of a flood occurring in a given year can be calculated at 83.3 %. In the context of climate change, the above mentioned facts pose problems in disaster management. Therefore the current legislative framework, examples of responses to recent disaster and suggestions for improvement in flood disaster management are presented in this paper.

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DMA) [15]. All organs of state must submit disaster management plans to the NDMC according to the guidelines developed by the centre (see chapter 3 part 1 section 19 of DMA) [15]. Regular reviews and updates of these plans are mandatory and any update must be communicated to the NDMC [15]. The NDMC is preparing the GIS-linked and web-accessible indices to predict

Role of the Provincial government in disaster management by chapter 4 of the act; and it generally mirrors the structure and responsibilities of the national structures inside the particular province [15]. Premier of a given province puts one Provincial Minister in charge of disaster management in that province (see chapter 2 section 4 paragraph 1b; DMA, 2002). At the municipal level of local government, disaster management is governed by chapter 5 of DMA [15]. District municipalities must have a disaster management committee/centre, while local municipalities should appoint a disaster officer [12]. As with the provincial structures, the municipal disaster management structures and their responsibilities are analogical to the national counterparts, but have different jurisdictions. As of March 2011, most of the district and local municipalities from around South Africa have not yet implemented disaster management structures as mandated by the DMA [12]. The National Department of Water Affairs (DWA) is responsible for the management of the water resource over 49 % of the total land mass of South Africa, with special attention paid to the Vaal and Orange River systems [18]. Coordination of the activities during flood disasters takes places in a central command centre at the DWA, i.e. the Flood Room [18]. Management of flooding and overall quality of water resources has been conducted by the governmentallyfunded organisation such as Working for Wetlands and Working for Fire [19]. These decrease the

National Disaster Management Advisory Forum (NDMAF) is convened and appointed by the Minister in term of chapter 2 section 5 of the Disaster Management Act [15]. Mandatory members of the NDMAF include the Head of the NDMC who serves as Chair, high-ranking officials from all relevant government departments which are part of the IGCDM, municipal officials chosen by SALGA and representatives of provincial departments responsible for disaster management (see chapter 2 section 5 paragraph 1) [15]. Other members can be appointed by the National Minister of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs from the Chamber of Mines, the business community, trade unions and NGOs (see chapter 2 section 5 paragraph 1e) [15]. The NDMAF provides a platform for input from all stakeholders; and serves as a consulting and advisory panel to the Intergovernmental Committee on Disaster Management. This mandatory forum has been in existence since 2007 [20]. The national government published the Disaster Management Guidelines for Municipalities as the Government Gazette Notice as No. 1689 of 2005 [21]. These guidelines allow local government to set up volunteer units to assist with disaster management and govern the rules and scope of possible duties [21]. These pieces of legislation and structures defined in them provide an avenue for the participation of the NGOs in disaster management.

Between December 2010 and February 2011, widespread floods hit South Africa. The total damages were estimated at approximately 1.1 billion USD [22] with 103 fatalities occurring [16]. The

risks from floods.

risk of disease outbreaks during flooding.

**2.2. Involvement of Civil Society and NGOs**

**3. Flood disaster response in South Africa**

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

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## **2. National Disaster Management System of South Africa**

#### **2.1. Legal Framework**

Prior to 1994, disaster management activities were governed by the Civil Protection Act No. 67 of 1977 [10]. However, its framework proved inadequate as demonstrated by 104 deaths in Lainsburg floods of 1981 [11]. This resulted in the legislative and organisational efforts for system improvement and integration in disaster management. The 1996 Constitution of South Africa in Part A Schedule 4 defines that the role of the national, provincial governments and local governments [12]. The first integrated policy on disaster management was the Green Paper on Disaster Management which was published as an extension of the Civil Protection Act [13]. Next was the White Paper on Disaster Management which enshrines the cooperative, proactive and integrated approach to disaster risk management, training and awareness through participation of all relevant stakeholders [14]. Specific goals of the White Paper included creation of the National Disaster Management Centre, improvement of disaster prevention in the poor and disadvantaged areas, creation of an adequate funding system; and information channels to communities [14]. The guiding principles of disaster management were then summarised and responsibilities defined in the Disaster Management Act No. 57 of 2002 [15].

According to the DMA, President of the Republic of South Africa establishes the Intergovernmental Committee on Disaster Management (IGCDM) as stated in chapter 2 section 4 paragraph 1a [15]. According to chapter 1 section 3, the President appointed the Minister of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs to be in charge of the disaster management at the national government level [15]. Other members of the IGCDM include the National Ministers of Water and Environmental Affairs, Health, Defense, Finance, Presidency, Justice and Constitutional Development; Defence; Education; Police; Provincial Ministers in charge of disaster management; representatives of the South African Local Government Association (SALGA). The IGCDM is accountable to the cabinet which it advises on disaster management according to chapter 2 section 4 paragraphs 2 and 3 [15]. At present, a surrogate, namely Joint Disaster Management Committee covers the main responsibilities of the IGCDM [16]; [17].

The National Disaster Management Centre (NDMC) is established in terms of chapter 3 part 1 section 8 of DMA [15]. Its functions include monitoring of disasters, mobilisation of resources and coordination and response to disasters; maintaining a repository of information on disasters, and database of relevant stakeholders (see chapter 3 section 15 paragraph 1 of DMA) [15]. Section 20 in chapter 3 describes that role of the NDMC in prevention and mitigation of disasters [15]. The NDMC is required to publish annual reports on its activities and submit this to the Minister, who passes them onto the parliament within 30 days (according to chapter 3 part 1 section 24 of DMA) [15]. All organs of state must submit disaster management plans to the NDMC according to the guidelines developed by the centre (see chapter 3 part 1 section 19 of DMA) [15]. Regular reviews and updates of these plans are mandatory and any update must be communicated to the NDMC [15]. The NDMC is preparing the GIS-linked and web-accessible indices to predict risks from floods.

Role of the Provincial government in disaster management by chapter 4 of the act; and it generally mirrors the structure and responsibilities of the national structures inside the particular province [15]. Premier of a given province puts one Provincial Minister in charge of disaster management in that province (see chapter 2 section 4 paragraph 1b; DMA, 2002). At the municipal level of local government, disaster management is governed by chapter 5 of DMA [15]. District municipalities must have a disaster management committee/centre, while local municipalities should appoint a disaster officer [12]. As with the provincial structures, the municipal disaster management structures and their responsibilities are analogical to the national counterparts, but have different jurisdictions. As of March 2011, most of the district and local municipalities from around South Africa have not yet implemented disaster management structures as mandated by the DMA [12]. The National Department of Water Affairs (DWA) is responsible for the management of the water resource over 49 % of the total land mass of South Africa, with special attention paid to the Vaal and Orange River systems [18]. Coordination of the activities during flood disasters takes places in a central command centre at the DWA, i.e. the Flood Room [18]. Management of flooding and overall quality of water resources has been conducted by the governmentallyfunded organisation such as Working for Wetlands and Working for Fire [19]. These decrease the risk of disease outbreaks during flooding.

#### **2.2. Involvement of Civil Society and NGOs**

National Disaster Management Advisory Forum (NDMAF) is convened and appointed by the Minister in term of chapter 2 section 5 of the Disaster Management Act [15]. Mandatory members of the NDMAF include the Head of the NDMC who serves as Chair, high-ranking officials from all relevant government departments which are part of the IGCDM, municipal officials chosen by SALGA and representatives of provincial departments responsible for disaster management (see chapter 2 section 5 paragraph 1) [15]. Other members can be appointed by the National Minister of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs from the Chamber of Mines, the business community, trade unions and NGOs (see chapter 2 section 5 paragraph 1e) [15]. The NDMAF provides a platform for input from all stakeholders; and serves as a consulting and advisory panel to the Intergovernmental Committee on Disaster Management. This mandatory forum has been in existence since 2007 [20]. The national government published the Disaster Management Guidelines for Municipalities as the Government Gazette Notice as No. 1689 of 2005 [21]. These guidelines allow local government to set up volunteer units to assist with disaster management and govern the rules and scope of possible duties [21]. These pieces of legislation and structures defined in them provide an avenue for the participation of the NGOs in disaster management.

#### **3. Flood disaster response in South Africa**

Between December 2010 and February 2011, widespread floods hit South Africa. The total damages were estimated at approximately 1.1 billion USD [22] with 103 fatalities occurring [16]. The particular impacts included the following [18]: flooding of water pumping infrastructure in the provinces of the Free State, North-West and Kwazulu-Natal, waterborne diseases in the North-West Province, washing away of pump motors in the Free State Province, blockage in the pumping of raw water for treatment into the water treatment works in the Free State Province and the possibility of the cholera outbreak in the Limpopo Province. Dams at the main river systems in the country were reported to be 92-115 % of their capacity [18]. To deal with the floods and their impacts, the National Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs released 488 000 USD from the Ministry's Emergency Relief Fund to effectively manage dam levels; raise awareness and to funds to relief operations [22]. To address the humanitarian needs, the National Department of Social Development provided 43.2 million USD from the Social Relief of Distress fund, the Emergency Relief Fund, the Disaster Relief Fund and the National treasury allocation [22].

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

[3] Statistics South Africa. (SSA, 2011). Mid-year population estimates 2011. Statistical release P0302,

[4] South African Cities Network, the Department of Provincial and Local Government and The Presidency. (SACN, 2009). National Spatial Trends Overview. Available at: http://www.sacities. net/what/programmes-areas/inclusive/spatial/projects/659-spatial (website accessed on 30th

[5] Van Huyssteen, E., Oranje, M., Robinson, S., Makoni, E. (2009). South Africa's City Regions: A

[6] le Roux, A.; van Huyssteen, E. (2010). Socio-Economic Landscape: The South African Socioeconomic and Settlement Landscape, In: South Africa risk and vulnerability atlas; the South African National Department of Science and Technology Eds., CPD Print: Pretoria, South Africa,

[7] The Legatum Prosperity Index (LPI, 2011). Available at: http://www.prosperity.com/country.

[8] The Presidency of South Africa (2006). National Spatial Development Perspective. *The Presidency*,

[9] Prevention Web. (PRW, 2011). South Africa - Disaster Statistics. Available at: http://www. preventionweb.net/english/countries/statistics/?cid=160 (website accessed 10th November 2011).

[10] Civil Protection Act No. 67 of 1977 (Civil Protection Act, 1977). Enacted by Parliament of the

[11] South African Weather Disaster Information System. (SAWDIS, 2009). The Laingsburg Flood Disaster: January 1981. Available at: http://saweatherobserver.blogspot.com/2009/10/laingsburg-

[12] South African Local Government Association (SALGA, 2011). Disaster Risk Management Status

[13] Green Paper on Disaster Management in South Africa (GPDM, 1998). Available at: http://www. info.gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=68922 (website accessed on 10th November 2011). [14] South African Government Gazette Notice no. 23 of 1999 (WPDM, 1999). White Paper on Disaster

[15] Disaster Management Act no. 57 of 2002. Available at: http://www.mangaung.co.za/Legal-Services/Documents/Disaster%20Management%20Act.pdf (website accessed on 10th November

[16] Portfolio Committee on Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs (2011). Flooding Disaster Management: December 2010/ January 2011: Update by Deputy Minister of Cooperative Governance. *Minutes from the committee meeting held on 28th February 2011*, Parliament of South

[17] Portfolio Committee on Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs (2011). Flood Disaster Management; Local Government Municipal Systems Amendment Bill: Departmental briefing. *Minutes from the committee meeting held on 25th January 2011*, Parliament of South Africa, Cape

flood-disaster-january-1981.html (website accessed on 10th November 2011).

Assessment at Municipalities in South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa.

Statistics South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa, pp. 18, 2011.

Call for Contemplation… and Action. *Urban Forum* 20(2): 175-194.

aspx?id=ZA (website accessed 9th November 2011).

Republic of South Africa, Cape Town, South Africa.

Management. Pretoria, South Africa.

Africa, Cape Town, South Africa.

Town, South Africa.

April 2012).

pp. 15-21.

2011).

Pretoria, South Africa.

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The Flood Assistance Scheme was activated by the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries; and 3.4 million USD was released for damage assessment and agricultural relief to farmers [17]. Departments of Public Works and Defence and Veterans Affairs built 12 low-cost bridges [22]. The IDT Programme has allocated 31.2 million USD for building of mud schools and road repair round the disaster affected areas [22]. The National Government Disease Outbreak Monitoring by the Department of Health was used to monitor drinking and surface water quality, while 18.8 million USD spent on emergency housing by the National Department of Human Settlements [22]. Therefore the national government response was deemed adequate. However, research into understanding the risks of flooding is still limited and must be strengthened [23]; [24]. Focus must be placed on investigating the risks and vulnerabilities during storm surges/ coastal flooding [25] and implications from the acid-mine drainage [23]. Dissemination of the disaster-related information must also be improved at the national level [25].

Major problems exist in disaster management at the local government level [16]. In 2011, 50 % of local municipalities in South Africa lacked the disaster management structures, while 68 % of local and 25 % of district municipalities did not have the disaster management advisory forums [12]. Disaster management roles were often assigned to existing civil defense structure in local municipalities [12]. Thus the fire-and-rescue services and police become overburdened, i.e. diminishing the efficiency of the flood response. At the same time, the stakeholder involvement was also not possible due to the lack of the advisory forums and volunteer units. Constitution of the mandatory disaster management structures must be made a priority by provincial and national governments. Training of local officials by SALGA and other relevant institutions will also have to be strengthened. Where this is not feasible the disaster management advisory forums and volunteer units should be established and made operational as a priority. Local municipalities have been urged to implement a variety of early warning systems for disasters [26].

#### **4. References**


[18] Maswuma, L. Z. (2011). Management of Floods / Disaster. *Presentation to the Portfolio Committee: Water & Environment*, Meeting took place on 21st February 2011, Parliament of South Africa, Cape Town, South Africa.

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

**A Probabilistic Model of Rainfall-Induced** 

Shallow land sliding is a stochastic process, and understanding what controls the return period is crucial for risk assessment. In this paper, we present the new probabilistic model to describe the long-term evolution of colluvial deposits through a probabilistic soil mass balance at a point. Further building blocks of the model are: an infinite-slope stability analysis; a more realistic description of hollow hydrology (hillslope storage Boussinesq model, HSB); and a statistical model relating intensity, duration, and frequency of extreme precipitation. Long term analysis of shallow landslides by the presented model illustrates that all hollows show a quite different behavior from the stability view point. In hollows with more convergence, landslide occurrence is limited by the supply of deposits (supply limited regime) or rainfall events (event limited regime) while hollows with low convergence degree are unconditionally stable regardless of the soil thickness or rainfall intensity. Overall, our results show that in addition to the effect of slope angle, plan shape (convergence degree) also controls the subsurface flow and this process affects the prob-

Recently D'Odorico and Fagherazzi [1] have presented a probabilistic model of rainfall-triggered shallow landslides in hollows and showed that landslide frequency is linked to the rainfall intensity-duration-frequency characteristics of the region. They developed a stochastic model that computes the temporal evolution of regolith thickness in a hollow and hollow hydrologic response to rainfall based on a steady-state kinematic wave model for subsurface flow. In this research, we will use some elements of this model (stochastic soil mass balance) to simulate the soil production (colluvial deposit) and soil erosion (landslide) in time for hollows with complex shapes. Although our model is similar to that presented by D'Odorico and Fagherazzi [1] in that it is a probabilistic model of rainfall-induced shallow landslides, there is an important difference. Convergent plan shapes or concave profile curvatures cause the kinematic wave model to perform relatively poorly even in steep slopes (Hilberts et al., [2]). Troch et al. [3] observed that hillslope plan shape rather than mean bedrock slope angle determines the validity of the kinematic wave approximation to describe the subsurface flow process along complex hillslopes. Therefore, incorporating a more realistic description of hollow hydrology in the stochastic landslide model is needed, as hollows are generally convergent and hollows with more convergence

**Shallow Landslides**

Faculty of Natural Resources, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran

ability distribution of landslide occurrence in different hollows.

**Keywords:** probabilistic model, shallow landslides, complex hollows

Ali Talebi

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction** 

© 2012 Talebi.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the

original work is properly cited.

have more potential for landslide occurrence.

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

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## **A Probabilistic Model of Rainfall-Induced Shallow Landslides**

## Ali Talebi

Faculty of Natural Resources, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran

#### **Abstract**

Shallow land sliding is a stochastic process, and understanding what controls the return period is crucial for risk assessment. In this paper, we present the new probabilistic model to describe the long-term evolution of colluvial deposits through a probabilistic soil mass balance at a point. Further building blocks of the model are: an infinite-slope stability analysis; a more realistic description of hollow hydrology (hillslope storage Boussinesq model, HSB); and a statistical model relating intensity, duration, and frequency of extreme precipitation. Long term analysis of shallow landslides by the presented model illustrates that all hollows show a quite different behavior from the stability view point. In hollows with more convergence, landslide occurrence is limited by the supply of deposits (supply limited regime) or rainfall events (event limited regime) while hollows with low convergence degree are unconditionally stable regardless of the soil thickness or rainfall intensity. Overall, our results show that in addition to the effect of slope angle, plan shape (convergence degree) also controls the subsurface flow and this process affects the probability distribution of landslide occurrence in different hollows.

**Keywords:** probabilistic model, shallow landslides, complex hollows

#### **1. Introduction**

Recently D'Odorico and Fagherazzi [1] have presented a probabilistic model of rainfall-triggered shallow landslides in hollows and showed that landslide frequency is linked to the rainfall intensity-duration-frequency characteristics of the region. They developed a stochastic model that computes the temporal evolution of regolith thickness in a hollow and hollow hydrologic response to rainfall based on a steady-state kinematic wave model for subsurface flow. In this research, we will use some elements of this model (stochastic soil mass balance) to simulate the soil production (colluvial deposit) and soil erosion (landslide) in time for hollows with complex shapes. Although our model is similar to that presented by D'Odorico and Fagherazzi [1] in that it is a probabilistic model of rainfall-induced shallow landslides, there is an important difference. Convergent plan shapes or concave profile curvatures cause the kinematic wave model to perform relatively poorly even in steep slopes (Hilberts et al., [2]). Troch et al. [3] observed that hillslope plan shape rather than mean bedrock slope angle determines the validity of the kinematic wave approximation to describe the subsurface flow process along complex hillslopes. Therefore, incorporating a more realistic description of hollow hydrology in the stochastic landslide model is needed, as hollows are generally convergent and hollows with more convergence have more potential for landslide occurrence.

© 2012 Talebi.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

To relax the KW assumptions, in this paper we substitute the linearized steady-state HSB model in the work of *D'Odorico and Fagherazzi* [1] for complex hollows (hollows with different length, slope angle and convergence degree). In fact, using an exponential width function, hollows with different convergence degree is presented and then for each hollow the critical soil depth, the minimum value of landslide-triggering saturated depth and the minimum rainfall intensity needed to trigger a landslide along hollow length are computed. Moreover, the temporal evolution of colluvium thickness is studied through a stochastic soil mass balance. Therefore, by considering the soil production function and hydrology condition in the different hollows, stability of each hollow is analyzed by the infinite slope stability method. Finally, the generalized model helps to investigate the relation between rainfall characteristics (intensity and duration), water table depth and slope stability of colluvial deposits in complex hollows.

#### **2. Model formulation**

#### **2.1. Hollow geometry**

We consider only hollows with moderate to steep slopes and shallow, permeable soils overlying a straight bedrock where subsurface storm flow is the dominant flow mechanism. Shallow soils are most prone to rain-induced landslides. It is assumed that the plan shape of the hollow can be described using an exponential width function:

$$\text{cov}(\mathbf{x'}) = \mathbf{w}\_{\boldsymbol{\beta}} e^{a\mathbf{x'}} \implies \mathbf{A} \ (\mathbf{x'}) \ = \frac{\mathbf{w}\_0}{a} \left( e^{a\mathbf{L'}} - e^{a\mathbf{x'}} \right) \tag{1}$$

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

In this study the slope stability model is based on a Mohr-Coulomb failure law applied to an infinite planar slope. The failure condition can be expressed as (e.g. *Montgometry and Dietrich* [5],

where g*sat* and g*w* are the specific weights of saturated soil and water respectively, b is the bedrock

By solving Equation (3) for h' the minimum value of landslide-triggering saturated depth (hcr)

tan tan cos

with both h' and D' (deposit thickness) being measured perpendicularly to the bedrock.

sat t

g j g j b

When the soil depth (D') is equal to hcr, the critical soil depth or immunity depth (Dcr) is given

tan cos cos t( ) an tan *t*

In the case of relatively steep slopes (b > f), hcr decreases linearly (i.e. stability decreases) with an increase of soil depth D' (see Equation (4)). The soil depth Dmax for which shallow landsliding can

> ( ) *max* cos tan tan *t*

Hillslope hydrological response has traditionally been studied by means of hydraulic groundwater theory (*Troch et al.*, [3]). In many regions, groundwater flow is the main source of streamflow between rainfall events. The basic macroscopic equation describing the movement of water

Troch et al. [3]) reformulated the continuity and Darcy equations in terms of storage along the hillslope, which leads to the hillslope storage Boussinesq (HSB) equation for subsurface flow in

tan <sup>1</sup>

= − ′ <sup>+</sup>

*w sat*

occur without saturated throughflow (corresponding to hcr=0) is (*Iida*, [6]):

*sat* <sup>c</sup> <sup>D</sup>

hillslopes. Extending Brutsaert's [7]) analysis, they linearized this equation as:

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ <sup>2</sup> 2 *S S <sup>S</sup> K U Nw*

*t x x*

in the soil is known as the three-dimensional Richards' equation.

<sup>c</sup> <sup>D</sup>

w w <sup>c</sup> h D <sup>g</sup> <sup>b</sup>

**2.2. Hollow stability Hollow stability**

1994; *D'Odorico and Fagherazzi*, [1]):

slope angle, f is the soil repose angle, c*<sup>t</sup>*

as follows

can be obtained as (*D'Odorico and Fagherazzi*, [1]):

cr

*cr*

**2.3. Hollow Hydrology** 

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

is the soil cohesion and h' is the saturated water depth,

(4)

g j b g b b <sup>j</sup> <sup>=</sup> + − (5)

g b b j <sup>=</sup> <sup>−</sup> (6)

′ ′ ′ = + <sup>+</sup> ′ ′ (7)

<sup>135</sup> ISALS

(3)

where *w* is the hollow width (deposits) along the *X'* direction, *X'* is the distance from the outlet of hollow parallel to bedrock), *w0* is the hollow width at the outlet, *A* is the hollow area, *L'* is the hollow length and *a* is a plan shape parameter. Allowing this plan shape parameter to assume either a positive, zero, or negative value, one can define several basic geometric relief forms: *a>0* for convergent, *a<0* for divergent and *a=0* for parallel shapes. As hollows are generally convergent, we will assume a wide range of positive numbers for convergent hollows.

As the purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of hollow geometry and hydrology on landslide probability, we employ the subsurface flow similarity parameter for complex hollows proposed by *Berne et al.* [4] . This dimensionless parameter, the hillslope Péclet number, is defined for subsurface flow as the ratio between the characteristic diffusive time and the characteristic advective time, taken from the middle of the hillslope:

$$Pe = \left(\frac{L'}{2\,pD'}\right)\tan\,\mathbf{b} - \left(\frac{aL'}{2}\right) \tag{2}$$

where *p* is a linearization parameter, *D*'is the soil depth and b is the bedrock slope angle. As can be seen, *Pe* is a function of three independent dimensionless groups: *L'/(2pD')*, tan b and ; *aL' /2; L'/(2pD')* represents the ratio of the half length and the average depth of the aquifer (related to the hollow hydrology), and tan b and *aL'/2* define the hollow geometry.

#### **2.2. Hollow stability Hollow stability**

In this study the slope stability model is based on a Mohr-Coulomb failure law applied to an infinite planar slope. The failure condition can be expressed as (e.g. *Montgometry and Dietrich* [5], 1994; *D'Odorico and Fagherazzi*, [1]):

$$\mathbf{g}\_{sat}D'\sin b = \mathbf{c}\_{\mathfrak{r}} + \mathbf{(g\_{sat}D'\cos b \ -g\_{\mathfrak{v}}\ \mathit{h}'\cos b\mathbf{j})\tan} \tag{3}$$

where g*sat* and g*w* are the specific weights of saturated soil and water respectively, b is the bedrock slope angle, f is the soil repose angle, c*<sup>t</sup>* is the soil cohesion and h' is the saturated water depth, with both h' and D' (deposit thickness) being measured perpendicularly to the bedrock.

By solving Equation (3) for h' the minimum value of landslide-triggering saturated depth (hcr) can be obtained as (*D'Odorico and Fagherazzi*, [1]):

$$\mathbf{h}\_{\rm cr} = \frac{\mathbf{g}\_{\rm sat}}{\mathbf{g}\_{\rm w}} \mathbf{D}' \left( 1 - \frac{\tan \mathbf{b}}{\tan \mathbf{j}} \right) + \frac{\mathbf{c}\_{\rm t}}{\mathbf{g}\_{\rm w} \tan \mathbf{j} \quad \cos \mathbf{b}} \tag{4}$$

When the soil depth (D') is equal to hcr, the critical soil depth or immunity depth (Dcr) is given as follows

$$\mathbf{D}\_{cr} = \frac{\mathbf{c}\_r}{\mathbf{g}\_w \tan \mathbf{j} \cdot \cos \mathbf{b} + \mathbf{g}\_{sw} \cos \mathbf{b} \left(\tan \mathbf{b} - \tan \mathbf{j}\right)}\tag{5}$$

In the case of relatively steep slopes (b > f), hcr decreases linearly (i.e. stability decreases) with an increase of soil depth D' (see Equation (4)). The soil depth Dmax for which shallow landsliding can occur without saturated throughflow (corresponding to hcr=0) is (*Iida*, [6]):

$$\mathbf{D}\_{\text{max}} = \frac{\mathbf{c}\_{\text{t}}}{\mathbf{g}\_{\text{sat}} \cos \mathbf{b} \left(\tan \mathbf{b} - \tan \mathbf{j}\right)}\tag{6}$$

#### **2.3. Hollow Hydrology**

Hillslope hydrological response has traditionally been studied by means of hydraulic groundwater theory (*Troch et al.*, [3]). In many regions, groundwater flow is the main source of streamflow between rainfall events. The basic macroscopic equation describing the movement of water in the soil is known as the three-dimensional Richards' equation.

Troch et al. [3]) reformulated the continuity and Darcy equations in terms of storage along the hillslope, which leads to the hillslope storage Boussinesq (HSB) equation for subsurface flow in hillslopes. Extending Brutsaert's [7]) analysis, they linearized this equation as:

$$\frac{\partial S'}{\partial t} = K \frac{\partial^2 S'}{\partial \mathbf{x'}^2} + U \frac{\partial S'}{\partial \mathbf{x'}} + N\mathbf{w} \tag{7}$$

$$\text{with } K = \frac{k\_s p D' \cos b}{f} \text{ and } U = \frac{k\_s \sin b}{f} - aK \text{ where S' is the subspace saturated storage, } N = \frac{k\_s}{f}$$

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

different hollows have different distributions of scar depth. As can be seen, the probability of distribution of Dslide is concentrated close to the immunity depth (Dcr) for the supply-limited case,

**Figure 1.** Long term simulation of deposit thickness (left) and Probability distribution of scar depth (collu-

Figures 2 (left) and (right) indicate how the probability distributions of the interarrival of the landslide-producing rain events (Tslide) and the corresponding rainfall intensities (Rslide) vary for the different hollows. These results show that in hollow (which has less convergence and a larger area), Tslide is close to Tim (supply limited regime). , while in other hollows (which has more con-

**Figure 2.** Probability distribution of landslide return period (left) and probability distribution of the landslide

The following conclusions can be drawn from our rainfall-induced landslide stability analysis in

(i) Although shallow landslides in hollows are mainly triggered by high rainfall intensities,

(ii) With other site variables constant, shallow landslides usually occur when the soil depth

vium thickness when a landslide occurs) for hollows (right).

triggering rainfall intensity for hollows.

**4. Conclusions** 

vergence and a smaller area), TSlide moves in the direction of T<sup>r</sup>

response to deposit thickness evolution in complex hollows:

(deposits thickness) is between Dcr and Dmax.

deposit thickness also plays an important role in stability.

whereas it is concentrated at significantly larger depths for the event-limited cases.

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

(event limited regime).

<sup>137</sup> ISALS

is the recharge to the ground water table, ks is the saturated hydraulic conductivity and *f* is the drainable porosity (note that the value of *p* is determined iteratively as pD' should be equal to the average water table height *0 ( ) / ( ) L S x dx Af ′ ′ ′ ′ ∫* where *A* is the hollow drainage area).

According to the definition of the storage S', the mean groundwater table height (over the hillslope width) is:

$$\overline{h'} (\mathbf{x'}) = \frac{S'(\mathbf{x'})}{f \mathbf{v}(\mathbf{x'})} = \frac{Ne^{-\mathbf{a}\mathbf{v}'}}{af} \left[ \frac{e^{a\mathbf{l}'}}{U} \left( I - e^{\frac{U}{K}\mathbf{r}'} \right) + \frac{I}{\left(Ka + U\right)} \left( e^{\frac{U}{K}\mathbf{r}'} - e^{a\mathbf{r}'} \right) \right] \tag{8}$$

Again, for parallel hillslopes this reduces to:

Now, we can obtain the maximum groundwater table depth in each hillslope (which is critical for landslide occurrence):

$$\overline{h'} (\mathbf{x'\_m}) = \frac{N}{fa(aK + U)} \left\{ e^{aI} \left[ I + \frac{U}{aK} \left( \mathbb{I} - e^{-aI'} \right) \right]^{-\frac{aK}{U}} - I \right\} \tag{9}$$

Equating ( ) *<sup>m</sup> h*′ *x*′ and hcr, the critical rainfall intensity for triggering landslides (Rcr) can now be calculated as:

$$R\_{cr} = \frac{h\_{cr} f a \left(aK + U\right)}{\left\{e^{aL} \left[1 + \frac{U}{aK} \left(1 - e^{-aL}\right)\right]^{-\frac{aK}{U}} - 1\right\}}\tag{10}$$

#### **3. Results and discussion**

Figure 1 shows long term simulations of deposit thickness evolution in the four hollows (from top to bottom) and illustrates how shallow landsliding occurs when the soil thickness (D') ranges between Dcr and Dmax. The left figure shows the time series of deposit thickness for the HSB model. As can be seen, this figure1 (left) indicates how, as a function of the hollow geometry from steep slopes (top) to gentle slopes (bottom), the landslide probability is changed as well. For instance in hollow (where T<sup>r</sup> >>Tim), landslides never occur and the system can be termed "unconditionally-stable".

Figure 1 (right) illustrates the probability distribution of colluvium thickness when a landslide occurs as simulated by the HSB model (right column) (Dslide). This histogram shows that the different hollows have different distributions of scar depth. As can be seen, the probability of distribution of Dslide is concentrated close to the immunity depth (Dcr) for the supply-limited case, whereas it is concentrated at significantly larger depths for the event-limited cases.

**Figure 1.** Long term simulation of deposit thickness (left) and Probability distribution of scar depth (colluvium thickness when a landslide occurs) for hollows (right).

Figures 2 (left) and (right) indicate how the probability distributions of the interarrival of the landslide-producing rain events (Tslide) and the corresponding rainfall intensities (Rslide) vary for the different hollows. These results show that in hollow (which has less convergence and a larger area), Tslide is close to Tim (supply limited regime). , while in other hollows (which has more convergence and a smaller area), TSlide moves in the direction of T<sup>r</sup> (event limited regime).

**Figure 2.** Probability distribution of landslide return period (left) and probability distribution of the landslide triggering rainfall intensity for hollows.

#### **4. Conclusions**

The following conclusions can be drawn from our rainfall-induced landslide stability analysis in response to deposit thickness evolution in complex hollows:


(iii) Given a deposit thickness, for each hollow there exists a critical rainfall intensity leading to the highest water table and subsequent landslide occurrence.

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

**Environmental Benefits of Organic Farming**

Predictions of human population and its requirements to generate new farmlands are unavoidable. On the other hand there have been significant concerns over threats of the agriculture expansion over the next 50 years globally. This is due to public concerns on quality of agricultural products and environmental concerns. Organic farming is kind of agricultural that provide the consumers, with fresh, tasty and reliable food while regarding natural life-cycle systems. There are tremendous attentions in organic farming and foods nowadays both in developed and developing countries. In addition to health benefits of organic products for consumers, there are vital environmental benefits for the earth. An organic farming keeps biodiversity and reduce environmental pollutions such air, water. And soil. This paper investigates and highlights these

Organic farming is kind of agricultural that provide the consumers, with fresh, tasty and reliable food while regarding natural life-cycle systems. In order to reach organic farming a number of practices should be implemented. Unnatural substances such as chemical synthetic pesticide and synthetic fertiliser livestock antibiotics, food additives and processing aids should be limited. The use of genetically modified organisms should be prohibited. Taking advantage of on-site resources, such as livestock manure for fertiliser or feed produced on the farm. Choosing plant and animal species that are resistant to disease and adapted to local conditions. Raising livestock

There have been significant concerns over threats of the agriculture expansion over the next 50 years globally. Predictions of human population and its requirements to generate new farmlands are unavoidable. This means changing more land use from farmland and rangeland to agriculture lands. As a consequence biodiversity is expected to decrease. Furthermore using more machinery and chemical pesticides and herbicides world will be facing more environmental pol-

Nowadays, organic farming has received increasing attention in agricultural policy and rural development. With growing public concern for food quality and safety, animal welfare and natural resources, the organic farming philosophy and practice become more accepted [1]. Organic

Organic farming as an environmentally friendly version of agriculture is been selected especially by people of developed countries. It provides organic food which is healthier because it does not

Department of Environmental Engineering, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran

in free-range, open-air systems and providing them with organic feed.

market has been welcoming by developed countries [2].

Farhad Nejadkoorki

environmental concerns.

**1. Introduction** 

lution (water, air, soil).

**Keywords:** Organic food, environment, benefits

**Abstract**

© 2012 Nejadkoorki .; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

provided the original work is properly cited.

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

<sup>139</sup> ISALS


#### **5. References**


## **Environmental Benefits of Organic Farming**

## Farhad Nejadkoorki

Department of Environmental Engineering, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran

#### **Abstract**

Predictions of human population and its requirements to generate new farmlands are unavoidable. On the other hand there have been significant concerns over threats of the agriculture expansion over the next 50 years globally. This is due to public concerns on quality of agricultural products and environmental concerns. Organic farming is kind of agricultural that provide the consumers, with fresh, tasty and reliable food while regarding natural life-cycle systems. There are tremendous attentions in organic farming and foods nowadays both in developed and developing countries. In addition to health benefits of organic products for consumers, there are vital environmental benefits for the earth. An organic farming keeps biodiversity and reduce environmental pollutions such air, water. And soil. This paper investigates and highlights these environmental concerns.

**Keywords:** Organic food, environment, benefits

### **1. Introduction**

Organic farming is kind of agricultural that provide the consumers, with fresh, tasty and reliable food while regarding natural life-cycle systems. In order to reach organic farming a number of practices should be implemented. Unnatural substances such as chemical synthetic pesticide and synthetic fertiliser livestock antibiotics, food additives and processing aids should be limited. The use of genetically modified organisms should be prohibited. Taking advantage of on-site resources, such as livestock manure for fertiliser or feed produced on the farm. Choosing plant and animal species that are resistant to disease and adapted to local conditions. Raising livestock in free-range, open-air systems and providing them with organic feed.

There have been significant concerns over threats of the agriculture expansion over the next 50 years globally. Predictions of human population and its requirements to generate new farmlands are unavoidable. This means changing more land use from farmland and rangeland to agriculture lands. As a consequence biodiversity is expected to decrease. Furthermore using more machinery and chemical pesticides and herbicides world will be facing more environmental pollution (water, air, soil).

Nowadays, organic farming has received increasing attention in agricultural policy and rural development. With growing public concern for food quality and safety, animal welfare and natural resources, the organic farming philosophy and practice become more accepted [1]. Organic market has been welcoming by developed countries [2].

Organic farming as an environmentally friendly version of agriculture is been selected especially by people of developed countries. It provides organic food which is healthier because it does not

© 2012 Nejadkoorki .; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

contain synthetic pesticide traces. The soil structure on organic farms is much better leading to less pollution from nitrate and is healthier for the crop plant, and environmentally organic is better than the other forms and is chemical free [5]. In contrast agriculture with use of pesticides and other chemical materials have been reported to produce foods leading to cancer [5].

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

better leading to less pollution from nitrate and is healthier for the crop plant, and that environ-

This paper has highlighted the most environmental benefits of organic farming compared to conventional agriculture. It was discussed that the main environmental costs of non-organic farming are narrowing biodiversity and increasing different types of pollution (e.g. water, air, soil). However, if an organic farming is preferred a number of environmental benefits will be met. A holistic

Organic agriculture perform : Much better Better The same Worse

mentally organic is better than the other forms and is chemical free [5].

• Habitat diversity X • Landscape X

• Soil structure X

**Climate and air** X

• N2O X • CH4 X

• Water use X

**Table 1.** Assessment of organic farming compared to conventional agriculture

**5. Summary and conclusion**

assessment can be seen in table1 [6].

**Biodiversity and landscape** X • Floral diversity X • Faunal diversity X

**Soil** X • Soil organic matter X

• Soil erosion X **Ground and surface water** X Nitrate leaching X

• CO2 X

• NH3 X

**Farm input and output** X • Nutrient use X

• Energy use X

• Biological activity X

Pesticides X

• Pesticides X

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

<sup>141</sup> ISALS

## **2. Biodiversity**

Natural ecosystems have been providing a home for plants and animals. The current diversity in species is result of million years of evolution of such systems. However, when we simplify natural ecosystems to anthropogenic ones, home of unwanted plants and animals appear to be limited. A contemporary agriculture system destroys complex ecosystem such as forests and rangelands through clear cutting. Furthermore using chemical based substances to get rid of pests and weeds make the problem doubles.

Organic farming have less impact on hedge bottom vegetation, with hedges on organic farms displaying significantly higher species diversity than those on conventional farms [2].

Evidence from comparative studies under arable regimes indicated a general trend for higher earthworm abundance under organic management. There have been reports that the presence of grass-clover leys within organic rotations is the principal reason for the significantly higher nonpest butterfly, spiders, beetles abundance [2].

## **3. Air pollution and climate change**

A major theme in organic practices is to operate in tight nutrient cycles to minimise losses to the air and water reserves [3]. There is a reduction in air pollution not just from the lower carbon footprint but also from the absence of chemical sprays which get into the atmosphere. There have been tremendous amount of chemicals which are used to direct lands to yield only desired products and not pests and weeds. This is especially can be tracked after agricultural revolution through using planes and tanks of materials.

Agriculture is both cause and victim of climate change. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the annual amount of greenhouse gases emitted by the agricultural sector is estimated about six giga- tonnes CO2 in 2005. This represents approximately 10-12% of total greenhouse gases. As a consequence an organic farming system is only substitute to produce healthy products without any side effects locally (air pollution) and globally (climate change).

## **4. Water and soil pollution**

Intensive aquaculture may leave substantial amount of nutrients and poisons to water bodies [4]. Water pollution is largely associated with the use and discharge of water in both animal and plant farming. For instance in a fish pond each time water is exchanged, wastewater is discharged to the surrounding surface waters. The wastewater carries a number of pollutants, reflected in the selected indicators. These pollutants ultimately stem from chemicals, fertilizers and feed added to the ponds [4]. Therefore in an organic farming, water pollution is lower, as there is much reduced eutrophication of chemical inputs. Soil structure on organic farms is much better leading to less pollution from nitrate and is healthier for the crop plant, and that environmentally organic is better than the other forms and is chemical free [5].

#### **5. Summary and conclusion**

This paper has highlighted the most environmental benefits of organic farming compared to conventional agriculture. It was discussed that the main environmental costs of non-organic farming are narrowing biodiversity and increasing different types of pollution (e.g. water, air, soil). However, if an organic farming is preferred a number of environmental benefits will be met. A holistic assessment can be seen in table1 [6].


**Table 1.** Assessment of organic farming compared to conventional agriculture

The author suggests that more local studies should be taken to compare and quantify the economical and environmental trade off between organic and non-organic farming. A life cycle assessment is an efficient approach to compare these two by addressing a holistic approach.

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

, Mahdi Shafaghati2, \*, Akram Norouzi<sup>2</sup>

City landscaping is the art of visually and structurally integrating the complex of buildings, roads and elements present in them, as well as all those spaces which give shape to urban environments. These include natural spaces inside city precincts which play a decisive role in creating urban landscapes with a decisively different appearance. Among natural elements influencing urban landscapes, trees are of paramount importance owing to their particular structure and spatial function. Like buildings, trees have structures which help create plant-based architectural styles. In lieu with overall changes that a city experiences in the course of its subsequent historical stages, the selection criteria for the varieties of trees to be planted in the city change, too. Meanwhile, almost all cities in the world today host a large proportion of open space with distinctive physical characteristics each. These include streets, squares, and spaces adjacent to car parks. Tree selection criteria for each of these spatial categories vary accordingly as determined by professional city landscaping architects. Based on research findings and the field study carried out, this article tries to assess and highlight the role played by landscaped and natural elements in the

**The Role of Trees in Improving the Urban** 

**Landscape, (Case Study Vli Asr Street** 

, Maryam Mirbahaei<sup>3</sup>

\* Corresponding author, Tel.: +982122446512; fax: +982122488550.

greater urban architecture, and draw up certain conclusions as a result.

**Keywords:** urban landscape, tree species, Vali Asr Street Tehran, Urban environment

Exactly as the establishment of developed urban areas is considered to be one of the greatest achievements of human civilization, city landscaping is can also be taken as a measure of the degree and nature of a civilization and the collective psyche of a nation. Although the view which regards cities as phenomena independent of the human will is not held as widely to date (3), there is still a deep-seated approach to the subject which has strong following and tries to interpret and analyze the city and her landscapes regardless of humankind as their simultaneous creator and

**of Tehran city)**

Fardad Edalatkhah<sup>1</sup>

1 Municipality of Tehran, Tehran, Iran 2 Payame Noor University, Taleghan, Iran 3 Payame Noor University, Varamin, Iran

Email: m\_shafagati@yahoo.com

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction** 

perceiver (7).

Somaye Motaghi<sup>2</sup>

© 2012 Edalatkhah et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

provided the original work is properly cited.

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

,

<sup>143</sup> ISALS

#### **6. References**

