**Effect of Priming on Dormancy Breaking and Seedling Establishment of Caper (***Capparis spinosa* **L.)**

Saeed Khaninejad\* , Iman Hessam Arefi, and Mohammad Kafi

Department of Agronomy, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran

#### **Abstract**

Caper *(Capparis spinosa)* has deep roots, drought tolerant species, and produces a satisfactory vegetative cover which protects soils from erosion; it can be highly useful for the prevention of land degradation. Domestication of capers as medicinal, vegetable or soil surface coverage plant is complicated by limited and variable seed germination under artificial conditions. In order to examine the role of different levels of KNO3 (0, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000 and 8000 ppm) and gibberellic acid (GA3 ) (0, 50,100, 250, 500, 1000 and 2000 ppm) and durations (3, 12, 24 and 48 hr) on germination of Iranian caper seeds. In general 2000 mg/l gibberellic acid treatment resulted in more vigorous seed germination (42%) at any duration compared to any other concentration of the gibberellic acid. The highest seed germination of 26% was achieved when the seeds were treated 24 hour with 4000 ppm KNO3 solution but it was decreased in 8000 mg/l. The highest germination percentage (72%) was observed in seeds placed in filter papers wetted with in 250 ppm gibberellic acid after treatment with 8000 mg/l KNO3 for 24 hour (this duration was the best time span in two previous experiments). It seems that GA3 and KNO3 can replace partly to improve seed germination of caper. The highest seedling dry weight was achieved as seeds were treated in 100 ppm gibberellic acid plus 1000 ppm potassium nitrate. Therefore, it can be concluded that for best germination percentage of caper seeds, 250 ppm GA3 and 8000 ppm KNO3 and for the strongest seedling 100 ppm GA3 plus 1000 ppm KNO3 could be recommended.

**Keywords:** Caper, Dormancy, GA3, KNO3, Medicinal Plant

## **1. Introduction**

Caper (*Capparis spinosa* L.) plant is typical of the tropical Mediterranean areas as well as central Asia, Europe (Spain, Italy, Greece and Turkey) as well as North Africa and Middle East countries including Iran [9,11]. It is a perennial shrub, covering soil surface widely, and produces one of the deepest root systems [14]. The long roots and wide ecological amplitude allow it to withstand harsh environments. The species thus appears to be a suitable candidate for the protection of degraded areas in arid areas [14]. Apart from its roles in soil conservation, different parts of the caper plant is used in Iranian traditional medicine as a liver provoking agent, treatment of vessel clogs, anti-rheumatism and a diuretic agent [13]. Seed dormancy is an adaptive mechanism in many species particularly wild species to protect seedlings from freeze damage during the winter, or from drought stress in water shortage conditions [15]. Caper species is endangered in its natural habitats in Iran and many other countries due to climate change and overutilization.

© 2012 Khaninejad et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Domestication of capers as medicinal, vegetable or soil surface coverage plant is complicated by limited and variable seed germination under artificial conditions. According to some researchers, there are germination obstacles in the caper seeds and; thus, there are propagation difficulties of caper seedlings [11]. To ensure high plantation and viability, a reliable and high germination percentage is required. Plant growth regulators such as gibberellic acid (GA3 ) [6] and chemicals such as KNO3 [5] have been recommended to break seed dormancy and enhance germination. Gibberellins promote growth by increasing extendibility of the cell wall followed by the hydrolysis of starch to sugars which reduces the potential in the cell, resulting in the entry of water into the cell causing elongation [2]. KNO3 is the most widely used chemical for germination promoting [11]. Information on seed germination of capers is still limited. Therefore, it was thought that treatment of the seeds with plant growth regulators may influence rapid germination and root formation. The present study was conducted to examine the role of KNO3 and GA3 that might affect germination of Iranian capers seeds and study the possible advantages of in vitro germination over direct sowing of seeds in the soil.

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250, 500, 1000 and 2000 ppm) and six different potassium nitrate (0, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000 and 8000 ppm) treatment were applied on the seeds in the spring (March) of 2010. The experimental design was a factorial based on randomized complete block with three replications (35 pots for

Analysis of variance performed using SAS 9.1 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC) and general linear models (PROC GLM) procedure. Multiple comparisons were conducted for significant effects with the least significant difference (LSD) test at α = 0.05 to determine the rate of seed germination for

There was no any symptom of germination of caper seeds in distilled water, Olmez *et al.,* (2004) reported only 3.67% germination in this plant using distilled water. The seed infection was started form the 4th day of the experiment and after 21 days, there were some damaged seeds

The highest seed germination of 42% was achieved after 24 h of soaking in 2000 mg/l GA3

compared to any other concentration of the gibberellic acid. This indicates that the regulation of

ing in gibberellic acid at all concentrations. Gibberellic acid is known to play an essential role in seed germination, leaf expansion, stem elongation, flowering and flower development [16]. Our results are in agreement with that of Negbi et al. [10] for *Hirschfeldia incana* and Orphanos [12] and Olmez *et al.,* [11] for *Capparis spinosa*, who found that the seed dormancy is mainly due to

Shahin [8] observed that the gibberellins reduces oxygen requirement for germination. The caper germination percentage obtained in this experiment is higher than previously reported e.i. 27.4

6 6j\* 6j 6j 10hi 8i 10hi 12 8i 8i 10hi 12gh 12gh 13fgh 24 24d 30c 30c 32c 38b 42a 48 14fg 16f 16f 24d 20e 22de

\*Values followed by different letters are significantly different at 0.05 level using LSD. There was no germina-

**Table 1.** Effect of different duration and concentration of GA3 on seed germination percentage of *C. spinosa*

for 6 hours was only 8% while at the same concentration of GA3

treatment resulted in more vigorous seed germination at any duration

is also important; for instance the germination percentage

has a positive effect on germination. Mayer and

levels after seed imbibitions is a crucial factor in determining seed germination.

treatment. Germination percentage was reduced beyond 24 hours of soak-

**GA3 dose (mg/l)**

**50 100 250 500 1000 2000**

1). However, 38% seed germination was achieved in the same duration at 1000 mg/l GA3

each block) for every treatment.

each patch and seed treatment**.**

**2. Result and Discussions**

**2.1. Gibberellic acid treatment**

Duration of exposure of seeds to GA3

% in Olmez *et al.,* [11] experiment.

tion in distilled water (zero GA3)

the seed coat that prevents germination and GA3

in each petri dish.

endogenous GA3

**Soaking time (hours)**

at 1000 mg/l of GA3

after 24 hours of GA3

In general 2000 mg/l GA3

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(Table

(Table 1).

it was 38%

#### **1.1. Materials and Methods**

In order to evaluate germination properties and effect of different treatments on dormancy breaking of *caparis spinosa,* these experiments were conducted at Physiological Research Laboratory, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran, in 2010. The seeds used in this study were collected from Shothern Khorasan province, Iran, where capers grows abundantly. The seeds were separated from the fruit material, rinsed in tap water, dried in shade and kept at room temperature in linen sacks until sowing.

The germination test conducted to find out germination properties of caper seeds in H2 O as control, concentrated gibberellic acid, potassium nitrate, gibberellic acid + potassium nitrate. A sample of 25 randomly selected seeds was used with four replications. Experiments were carried out in 90mm diameter Petri dishes using 90mm diameter Whatman No. 1 filter papers in the bottom and top of the petri dishes to cover the seeds. Experiment was continued for 21 days and every day the procedure of germination was monitored.

Similar to previous experiment, samples of twenty five randomly selected seeds with four replications were soaked in different doses (0, 50,100, 250, 500, 1000 and 2000 ppm) and durations (3, 12, 24 and 48 hr) of gibberellic acid solution. No further water was added during the experiment period. For control treatment, Filter papers were moistened with distilled water.

Another 21 days experiment was conducted to find out potassium nitrate solution on germination. Seeds soaked in different doses (0, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000 and 8000 ppm) (Amri, 2010) and durations (3, 12, 24 and 48 hr) of potassium nitrate. Samples and germinated seeds were counted every day until the end of the experiment.

The seeds were placed in filter papers were soaked in 0, 50,100, 250, 500, 1000 and 2000 ppm gibberellic acid solution after applying different doses (0, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000 and 8000 ppm) of potassium nitrate solution for 24 h. For control treatment, filter papers were moistened with distilled water. This experiment also continued for 21 days and seed germination was monitored every day.

The combined experiment of gibberellic acid and potassium nitrate was arranged in the polyethylene pots filled with growing medium composed of clay, sand and manure (1:1:1). Pots were kept in open air conditions after sowing. Seven different gibberellic acid treatment (0, 50, 100, 250, 500, 1000 and 2000 ppm) and six different potassium nitrate (0, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000 and 8000 ppm) treatment were applied on the seeds in the spring (March) of 2010. The experimental design was a factorial based on randomized complete block with three replications (35 pots for each block) for every treatment.

Analysis of variance performed using SAS 9.1 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC) and general linear models (PROC GLM) procedure. Multiple comparisons were conducted for significant effects with the least significant difference (LSD) test at α = 0.05 to determine the rate of seed germination for each patch and seed treatment**.**

## **2. Result and Discussions**

There was no any symptom of germination of caper seeds in distilled water, Olmez *et al.,* (2004) reported only 3.67% germination in this plant using distilled water. The seed infection was started form the 4th day of the experiment and after 21 days, there were some damaged seeds in each petri dish.

#### **2.1. Gibberellic acid treatment**

The highest seed germination of 42% was achieved after 24 h of soaking in 2000 mg/l GA3 (Table 1). However, 38% seed germination was achieved in the same duration at 1000 mg/l GA3 (Table 1). In general 2000 mg/l GA3 treatment resulted in more vigorous seed germination at any duration compared to any other concentration of the gibberellic acid. This indicates that the regulation of endogenous GA3 levels after seed imbibitions is a crucial factor in determining seed germination. Duration of exposure of seeds to GA3 is also important; for instance the germination percentage at 1000 mg/l of GA3 for 6 hours was only 8% while at the same concentration of GA3 it was 38% after 24 hours of GA3 treatment. Germination percentage was reduced beyond 24 hours of soaking in gibberellic acid at all concentrations. Gibberellic acid is known to play an essential role in seed germination, leaf expansion, stem elongation, flowering and flower development [16]. Our results are in agreement with that of Negbi et al. [10] for *Hirschfeldia incana* and Orphanos [12] and Olmez *et al.,* [11] for *Capparis spinosa*, who found that the seed dormancy is mainly due to the seed coat that prevents germination and GA3 has a positive effect on germination. Mayer and Shahin [8] observed that the gibberellins reduces oxygen requirement for germination. The caper germination percentage obtained in this experiment is higher than previously reported e.i. 27.4 % in Olmez *et al.,* [11] experiment.


\*Values followed by different letters are significantly different at 0.05 level using LSD. There was no germination in distilled water (zero GA3)

**Table 1.** Effect of different duration and concentration of GA3 on seed germination percentage of *C. spinosa*

#### **2.2. Potassium nitrate treatment**

Treatment with exogenous KNO3 stimulated of germination percentage of caper seeds. The highest seed germination of 26% was achieved when the seeds were treated 24 hour with 4000 mg/l KNO3 solution but it was decreased in 8000 mg/l. Moreover, germination percentage of caper seeds were dependence to concentrations up to 4000 mg/l and duration dependence up to 24 hours (Table 2). Several workers have reported that KNO3 improved the seed germination of many plants seed [3,11]. Potassium nitrate was found to be effective in breaking dormancy of many species [1]. Use of KNO3 has been an important seed treatment in seed-testing laboratories for many years without a good explanation for its action [5].

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**0 500 1000 2000 4000 8000**

 30op 40jk 34mn 48fg 52e 72a 32no 44hi 42ij 50ef 66b 46gh 38kl 46gh 44hi 62c 70a 48fg 42ij 46gh 56d 46gh 50ef 46gh \*Values with in a column followed by different letters are significantly different at 0.05 level using LSD. **Table 3.** Effect of different concentration of KNO3 + GA3 on seed germination percentage of *C. spinosa*

Significant effect of seed priming treatment was observed in the final seeding establishment. The highest seedling dry weight of 25 mg/plant was achieved when the seeds were treated with 100 ppm gibberellic acid treatment + 1000 ppm Potassium Nitrate (Table4). The germination phase of planted seeds is critical because it directly determines the density of a crop stand especially under arid conditions. Where dry soil may impair imbibitions of water and high temperature may affect seed viability and eventual density of a crop stand [4]. Hadas and Russo [4] further observed that a good stand can be ensured by a complete and fast germination and if germination seed is slow in taking up water, emergence is impaired and consequently the final stand is reduced.

**KNO3 dose (mg/l)**

**KNO3 dose (mg/l)**

**0 500 1000 2000 4000 8000**

 17ghi 18fgh 19efg 19efg 18fgh 18fgh\* 19efg 19efg 20def 20def 19efg 100 20def 21cde 22bcd 23abc 23abc 22bcd 20def 23abc 25a 24ab 23abc 22bcd 19efg 20def 22bcd 21cde 20def 18fgh 16hij 18fgh 18fgh 19efg 17ghi 15ijk 12l 13kl 14jkl 14jkl 13kl 12l

In general to improve caper seed germination, 2000 mg/l gibberellic acid treatment resulted in more vigorous seed germination (42%) at any duration compared to other concentrations. While, the highest seed germination of 26% was achieved when the seeds were treated 24 hour with

(72%) was observed in seeds placed in filter papers wetted with in 250 ppm gibberellic acid after

solution but it was decreased in 8000 mg/l. The highest germination percentage

for 24 hour (this duration was the best time span in two previ-

\*Values followed by different letters are significantly different at 0.05 level using LSD.

**Table 4.** Effect of KNO3 + GA3 on seedling dry weight (mg) of *C. spinosa*

**GA3 dose (mg/l)**

**GA3 dose (mg/l)**

4000 ppm KNO3

treatment with 8000 mg/l KNO3

**2.4. Seedling establishment:**

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\*Values followed by different letters are significantly different at 0.05 level using LSD. There was no germination in distilled water (zero KNO3)

**Table 2.** Effect of different duration and concentration of KNO3 on seed germination percentage of *C. spinosa*

#### **2.3. Potassium Nitrate + Gibberellic acid treatment:**

The highest germination percentage (72%) was observed in seeds placed in filter papers wetted with in 250 ppm gibberellic acid after treatment with 8000 mg/l KNO3 for 24 hour (this duration was the best time span in two previous experiment), however there was no any significant difference between this germination percentage and that of 1000 ppm gibberellic acid after treatment with 4000 mg/lit KNO3 (Table 3). It seems that GA3 and KNO3 can replace partly to improve seed germination of caper. No germination in case of control was possibly due to the seed coat of the capers that forms mucilage on soaking in water [12]. The mucilage surrounding the seed is supposed to inhibit diffusion of oxygen to the embryos and prevent germination. Khan and Ungar [7] believed that vegetative hormones can break embryo dormancy and neutralize prevention role of Abscissas acid (ABA) directly or indirectly. But we could not find the synergistic effects of GA3 and KNO3 on germination of caper and other species in the literature.



\*Values with in a column followed by different letters are significantly different at 0.05 level using LSD.

**Table 3.** Effect of different concentration of KNO3 + GA3 on seed germination percentage of *C. spinosa*

#### **2.4. Seedling establishment:**

Significant effect of seed priming treatment was observed in the final seeding establishment. The highest seedling dry weight of 25 mg/plant was achieved when the seeds were treated with 100 ppm gibberellic acid treatment + 1000 ppm Potassium Nitrate (Table4). The germination phase of planted seeds is critical because it directly determines the density of a crop stand especially under arid conditions. Where dry soil may impair imbibitions of water and high temperature may affect seed viability and eventual density of a crop stand [4]. Hadas and Russo [4] further observed that a good stand can be ensured by a complete and fast germination and if germination seed is slow in taking up water, emergence is impaired and consequently the final stand is reduced.


\*Values followed by different letters are significantly different at 0.05 level using LSD.

**Table 4.** Effect of KNO3 + GA3 on seedling dry weight (mg) of *C. spinosa*

In general to improve caper seed germination, 2000 mg/l gibberellic acid treatment resulted in more vigorous seed germination (42%) at any duration compared to other concentrations. While, the highest seed germination of 26% was achieved when the seeds were treated 24 hour with 4000 ppm KNO3 solution but it was decreased in 8000 mg/l. The highest germination percentage (72%) was observed in seeds placed in filter papers wetted with in 250 ppm gibberellic acid after treatment with 8000 mg/l KNO3 for 24 hour (this duration was the best time span in two previous experiments). It seems that GA3 and KNO3 have a synergist effect and can replace partly to improve seed germination of caper. The highest seedling dry weight was achieved as seeds were treated in 100 ppm gibberellic acid + 1000 ppm potassium nitrate. Therefore, it can be concluded that for best germination percentage of caper seeds, 250 ppm GA3 and 8000 ppm KNO3 and for the strongest caper seedling 100 ppm GA3 + 1000 ppm KNO3 could be recommended for dormancy breaking of caper seeds.

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**Factors Influencing Consumers' Willingness to** 

Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, Faculty of Agricultural Economics and

The main purpose of this study was to investigate factors influencing consumers' willingness to pay for agricultural organic products (AOP). This article has done with reviewing and analyzing various researches in different countries. The findings revealed that the premiums that consumers were willing to pay vary from country to country. Consumers' knowledge and awareness about AOP differs. Some had more knowledge about AOP and some were un-knowledgeable about AOP. Some factors influencing consumers' willingness to purchase AOP were consumers' socio-economic characteristics and AOP characteristics. Due to the importance of consumers' knowledge about AOP for purchase decisions, it is recommended to publish materials about

With population growth, agriculture will need to produce enough supply of food to feed an expected more than eight milliard people by 2030 (1). Farmers depend mainly on chemical technologies to manage pests and to produce adequate food (2). However, despite their many benefits, it is now clear that pesticides may also have unfortunate consequences to human health and the environment (3). Hence, an interest in organic products is increasing throughout the world due to response to concerns about conventional agricultural practices, human health, and environmental safety. The role of organic agriculture in providing food is now gaining wider

Stobbelaar et al. (5) stated that "an organic product is food produced without artificial fertilizer or chemical pesticides, nor containing artificial coloring, flavoring or aromatic substances, preservatives, or genetically modified ingredients". Organic foods are perceived as healthier than conventional alternatives (6). At the same time, these products are perceived as rather expensive (7). Hence, it is essential to investigate if consumers are willing to pay for AOP. According to the studies done in the field of organic products in different countries, this study attempts to investigate how much consumers are willing to pay for organic products. Also, which factors influence

**Pay for Agricultural Organic Products (AOP)**

Mahtab Pouratashi

**Abstract**

Email: m\_pouratashi@yahoo.com

AOP and deliver them to families.

they willingness to pay for these products.

**1. Introduction** 

recognition (4).

Development, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran

© 2012 Pouratashi; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the

original work is properly cited.

**Keywords**: Agricultural organic product, willingness, purchase, knowledge

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

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#### **3. Reference**


## **Factors Influencing Consumers' Willingness to Pay for Agricultural Organic Products (AOP)**

## Mahtab Pouratashi

Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, Faculty of Agricultural Economics and Development, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran Email: m\_pouratashi@yahoo.com

#### **Abstract**

The main purpose of this study was to investigate factors influencing consumers' willingness to pay for agricultural organic products (AOP). This article has done with reviewing and analyzing various researches in different countries. The findings revealed that the premiums that consumers were willing to pay vary from country to country. Consumers' knowledge and awareness about AOP differs. Some had more knowledge about AOP and some were un-knowledgeable about AOP. Some factors influencing consumers' willingness to purchase AOP were consumers' socio-economic characteristics and AOP characteristics. Due to the importance of consumers' knowledge about AOP for purchase decisions, it is recommended to publish materials about AOP and deliver them to families.

**Keywords**: Agricultural organic product, willingness, purchase, knowledge

## **1. Introduction**

With population growth, agriculture will need to produce enough supply of food to feed an expected more than eight milliard people by 2030 (1). Farmers depend mainly on chemical technologies to manage pests and to produce adequate food (2). However, despite their many benefits, it is now clear that pesticides may also have unfortunate consequences to human health and the environment (3). Hence, an interest in organic products is increasing throughout the world due to response to concerns about conventional agricultural practices, human health, and environmental safety. The role of organic agriculture in providing food is now gaining wider recognition (4).

Stobbelaar et al. (5) stated that "an organic product is food produced without artificial fertilizer or chemical pesticides, nor containing artificial coloring, flavoring or aromatic substances, preservatives, or genetically modified ingredients". Organic foods are perceived as healthier than conventional alternatives (6). At the same time, these products are perceived as rather expensive (7). Hence, it is essential to investigate if consumers are willing to pay for AOP. According to the studies done in the field of organic products in different countries, this study attempts to investigate how much consumers are willing to pay for organic products. Also, which factors influence they willingness to pay for these products.

© 2012 Pouratashi; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

#### **1.1. Purpose and Objectives**

The main purpose of the study was to investigate Factors influencing consumers' willingness to pay for agricultural organic products (AOP). The special objectives of the study were:

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gender, age, income and education, are among the most important factors influencing willing-

Makatouni (6) reported that product characteristics such as nutritive value, freshness, taste, and food safety influence consumer' willingness to purchase AOP. Bonti-Ankomah and Yiridoe (2006) also reported that respondents were willing to pay more for organics products because of

Angulo et al. (16) stated that among the factors that affect willingness to pay for organic foods were consumers' use of food labels, experience with the product, and the prices consumers actually pay. Krystallis and Chryssohoidis (22) found that Consumers purchased organic products because they perceived these products as higher quality, safer foods that they could trust more

Aryal et al. (17) found that lack of information available to consumers, higher prices over those of conventional foods, and the limited and erratic domestic supply were factors influenced consumers' willingness to purchase AOP. Rajabi et al. (23) found that the consumers' knowledge of organic products was at medium level. Also, consumers' attitude toward using organic products was at neutral and favorable levels. The researchers found that four most highly ranked factors influencing the adoption of organic products were educational, access, improving product char-

According to the findings, effective factors on consumers' willingnessto purchase AOP can be

According to the importance of AOP, this study investigated factors influencing consumers' willingness to purchase AOP. Attitude, knowledge, age, income, characteristics of agricultural products such as tests, color, nutritive value were among the factors affected consumers' decision

ness to purchase AOP.

food safety, taste and nutritive value.

than their conventional counterparts.

acteristics and supportive services

**4. Summary and conclusion**

making about purchase.

shown by Fig. 1.

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Consumers' willingness to purchase AOP;

Effective factors on consumers' willingness to purchase AOP.

## **2. Consumers' willingness to purchase AOP**

Different studies have been done in regard to consumers' willingness to purchase AOP. For example, Skuras and Vakrou (8) found that 60 to 70 percent of respondents willing to pay a premium for quality food products. Meier-Ploeger and Woodward (9) in German reported that 52 percent of the respondents were willing to pay more for organic fruits and vegetables and 39 percent for grain products. Davis et al. (10) found that men would pay more at a percentage of 41 percent compared to 44 percent of women.

Gil et al. (11) showed that in Spain only likely and actual organic consumers were willing to pay a premium of 15-25 percent for organic food. Fotopoulos and Krystallis (12) stated that in Greece, organic consumers expected to pay from 19 to 63 percent for food products.

Corsi and Novelli (13) in Italy found that only organic consumers who could remember the price of conventional minute steak beef and roast beef were willing to pay 52 and 58 percent respectively above regular prices for the organic type of these products. Millock (14) found that 35% of the respondents in Denmark were willing to pay more for any type of organic products. In contrast, 18% of consumers were not willing to pay for all kind of products.

Canavari et al. (15) found that the proposed premium price for organic peaches and apples was accepted by 65.8 percent of the Italian respondents of their survey. Angulo et al. (16) found that although the Spanish consumers were concerned with the issue of food safety, 72.5 percent of them were not willing to pay a premium for a labeled food with a traceability certificate.

Aryal et al. (17) revealed that all respondents were willing to pay price premium, but the level of acceptability varied considerably. A total of 58% of the consumers were willing to pay 6- 20% price premium, whereas 13% were willing to pay up to 50% premium. The average premium was estimated about 30%. Asadi et al. (18) found that in Iran, the majority of respondents were not willing to pay a price premium higher than 20%.

According to the findings, it is revealed that the premiums that consumers are willing to pay vary. This difference can be explained by the consumers' knowledge and awareness about agricultural organic products.

## **3. Effective factors on consumers' willingness to purchase AOP**

Attention to studies in the field of organic agriculture has found different factors influencing purchase of AOP. Krissoff (19) found that consumers' perception about food safety of organic products - these products are safer, healthier and more environmentally friendly than conventionally products- affected consumers to pay for AOP. Govindasamy and Italia (20) showed that gender, age, income and education, are among the most important factors influencing willingness to purchase AOP.

Makatouni (6) reported that product characteristics such as nutritive value, freshness, taste, and food safety influence consumer' willingness to purchase AOP. Bonti-Ankomah and Yiridoe (2006) also reported that respondents were willing to pay more for organics products because of food safety, taste and nutritive value.

Angulo et al. (16) stated that among the factors that affect willingness to pay for organic foods were consumers' use of food labels, experience with the product, and the prices consumers actually pay. Krystallis and Chryssohoidis (22) found that Consumers purchased organic products because they perceived these products as higher quality, safer foods that they could trust more than their conventional counterparts.

Aryal et al. (17) found that lack of information available to consumers, higher prices over those of conventional foods, and the limited and erratic domestic supply were factors influenced consumers' willingness to purchase AOP. Rajabi et al. (23) found that the consumers' knowledge of organic products was at medium level. Also, consumers' attitude toward using organic products was at neutral and favorable levels. The researchers found that four most highly ranked factors influencing the adoption of organic products were educational, access, improving product characteristics and supportive services

According to the findings, effective factors on consumers' willingnessto purchase AOP can be shown by Fig. 1.

## **4. Summary and conclusion**

According to the importance of AOP, this study investigated factors influencing consumers' willingness to purchase AOP. Attitude, knowledge, age, income, characteristics of agricultural products such as tests, color, nutritive value were among the factors affected consumers' decision making about purchase.

If consumers are not knowledgeable about organic products, they are unwilling to pay anything more than standard prices. Knowledge and awareness are perceived prerequisites in the adoption process (24). Bhatta et al. (25) found that a majority of the respondents knew about organic agriculture. Aryal et al. (17) found that nearly all of the respondents had heard about the organic products. But, they were not sure which products were organic and which were not. Rajabi et al. (23) found that the consumers' knowledge of organic products was at medium level. Therefore, consumers must be knowledgeable about organic products and their benefits including human health. Rajabi et al. (23) found that uses TV the most. After that, there were books, Newspapers and Journals. It is recommended to increase consumers' knowledge about AOP via different delivery methods such as radio and TV programs, CD and DVD. Zhou and Chen (26) found that 56 percent of the consumers had heard about organic products from TV, 47 percent learned from magazines, 23 percent through internet, 16 percent obtain the information from supermarket, 10 percent from friends and 5 percent had obtained the organic food information from other channels.

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[9] Meier-Ploeger, A. and Woodward, L. 1999. Trends between countries. Ecology and Farming, 20,

[10] Davis, A., Titterington, A.J. and Cochrane, C. 1995. Who buys organic food? A profile of the

[11] Gil, J.M., Gracia, A. and Sanchez, M. 2000. Market segmentation and willingness to pay for organic products in Spain. International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, 3, 207-26.

[12] Fotopoulos, C. and Krystallis, A. 2001. Defining the organic consumer and his willingness to pay for selected food products in Greece. paper presented at the 51st International Atlantic Economic

[13] Corsi, A. and Novelli, S. 2002. Consumers' willingness to pay a price for organic beef meat. Paper

[14] Millock, K., Hansen, L.G. Wier, M. and Anderson, L.M. 2002. Willingness to Pay for Organic products: A Comparison between Survey Data and Panel Data from Denmark, AKF Denmark. [15] Canavari, M., Nocella, G. and Scarpa, R. 2003. Stated willingness to pay for environment-friendly production of apples and peaches: web-based versus in-person surveys. Paper presented at the

[16] Angulo, A.M., Gil, J.M. and Tamburo, L. 2003. Food safety and consumers' willingness to pay for labeled beef in Spain. paper presented at the 83rd EAAE Seminar, Chania, 4-6 September. [17] Aryal, K.P., Chaudhary, P., Pandit, S. & Sharma, G. 2009. Consumers' willingness to pay for organic products: a case from kathmandu valley. The Journal of Agriculture and Environment,

[18] Asadi, A., Akbari, M. Sharifazadeh, A. and Hashemi, S.M. 2009. Analysis of Factors Affecting Agricultural Organic Products Diffusion among Consumers: Perception of Extension Workers.

[19] Krissoff, B. 1998. Emergence of U.S. organic agriculture - can we compete? American Journal of

[20] Govindasamy, R. and Italia, J. 1999. Predicting willingness to pay a premium for organically

[21] Bonti-Ankomah S. and Yiridoe, E.K. 2006. Organic and conventional food: A literature review of the economics of consumers' perceptions and preference. Final Report. Organic Agriculture

[22] Krystallis, A. and Chryssohoidis, G. 2005. Consumers' willingness to pay for organic food. British

[23] Rajabi, A., Pouratashi, M. and ShabanAli Fami, H. 2011. An Analysis of consumers' knowledge and willingness to pay for organic products. First National Congress on New Technologies in

[25] Bhatta, G.D., Doppler, W. KC, K.B. and Ranabhat, A. 2008. Potentials of Organic Agriculture in Nepal. In P. Chaudhary; K. Aryal and D. Tharu (ed.), Proceedings of International Workshop

grown fresh produce. Journal of Food Distribution Research, 30(2), 44-53.

Centre of Canada. Nova Scotia Agricultural College, truro, Nova Scotia, Canada.

purchasers of organic food in N. Ireland. British Food Journal, 97(10), 17-23.

January-April, 15.

10, Jun.2009, 12-22.

Society Conference, Athens, March 13-20.

83rd EAAE Seminar, Chania, 4-6 September.

World Applied Science Journal. 6 (3): 331-338.

Agriculture, 10-12 Sep., Zanjan University, Iran.

[24] Rogers E. 1995. Diffusion of innovations. 4th ed. New York: Free Press.

Agricultural Economics. 80(5): 1130-1133.

Food Journal, 107(5),320-343.

presented at the Xth EAAE Congress, Zaragoza, 28-31 August

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

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High prices and deficiencies in distribution channels are obstacles to the purchase of AOP (11). Hence, it is recommended that policy makers indicate distinct places for selling of these products.

#### **5. Acknowledgement**

The author gratefully acknowledges the National Elite Foundation for their support.

#### **6. References**


on Opportunities and Challenges of Organic Production and Marketing in South Asia, NPG, Kathmandu, Nepal, pp.34-46.

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

, Mahboubeh Madani<sup>3</sup>

**Effect of Fungal GrowthInhibition from** 

**Pomegranate Flower and Peel Extracts** 

1 Young Researchers Club, Falavarjan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran 2 Departments of Biology, Falavarjan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran Departments of Microbiology, Falavarjan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran

Candida species are now one of the most common organisms isolated from hospitalized patients. The range of antifungal agents available is limited, and some of the most effective agents are also toxic. In the other hand plants have been used for thousands of years to flavor and conserve food, to treat health disorders and to prevent diseases including epidemics. The aim of this study was to investigate the antifungal effect of petroleumether, ethyl acetate and n-butanol fractions isolated from pomegranate pericarp and flower against Candida albicans (ATCC 3153). The maximum inhibition zone of Candida albicans was obtained by peel's n-butanol fraction, 35

**Keywords**: Punica granatum L., peel, flower, petroleumether, ethyl acetate, n-butanol

The *Punica granatum L.*, is one of the oldest known edible fruits. It is native to Persia and from there it spreads into Asia, North Africa and Mediterranean Europe, including Turkey [1, 2]. According to Qur'an, Bible, Torah and Babylonian Talmud, pomegranate is a gif and heavenly fruit

The extracts of traditional herbs have been shown to exert biological activity in vitro and in vivo*. Punica granatum* is employed in man medicine for the treatment of various diseases such as skin diseases, and wound healing, ulcers, fever, diarrhoea, and microbial infection. In the recently years, the *Punica granatum* has been the subject of much scientific research which have showed

The different types of phytochemical that have been showed identified from pomegranate pericarp (peel, rind) and pomegranate flower. Pomegranate pericarp's constituents are Luteolin, kaempferol, EA glycosides, EA, Pedunculagin, punicalin, phenolic punicalagins, Gallic acid and other fatty acids, catechin, EGCG, quercetin, rutin and other flavonols, flavones, flavonones, anthocyanidins. Pomegranate flower's constituents are Polyphones, punicalagins punicalin, EA,

Candida species are harmless saprophyte yeasts, a normal component of the human biota in the gastrointestinal tract and oral and vaginal mucosae. These yeasts can cause superficial infections

, Leila Amjad<sup>2</sup>

mm. Petroleumether fractions had no any antifungal activities.

its antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-cancer effects [3, 4].

Mahsa Shafighi 1

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction** 

of God.

© 2012 Shafighi et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

provided the original work is properly cited.

Gallic acid, ursolic acid, triterpenoids, including maslinic and Asiatic acid [1, 5- 7].

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[26] Zhou, L. and Chen, T. 2007. Consumer Perception of Organic Food in Urumqi. Contributed Paper prepared for presentation at the 5th Seminar 'International Marketing and International Trade of Quality Food Products' Bologna, Italy, March 8-10.

## **Effect of Fungal GrowthInhibition from Pomegranate Flower and Peel Extracts**

Mahsa Shafighi 1 , Leila Amjad<sup>2</sup> , Mahboubeh Madani<sup>3</sup>

1 Young Researchers Club, Falavarjan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran 2 Departments of Biology, Falavarjan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran Departments of Microbiology, Falavarjan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran

#### **Abstract**

Candida species are now one of the most common organisms isolated from hospitalized patients. The range of antifungal agents available is limited, and some of the most effective agents are also toxic. In the other hand plants have been used for thousands of years to flavor and conserve food, to treat health disorders and to prevent diseases including epidemics. The aim of this study was to investigate the antifungal effect of petroleumether, ethyl acetate and n-butanol fractions isolated from pomegranate pericarp and flower against Candida albicans (ATCC 3153). The maximum inhibition zone of Candida albicans was obtained by peel's n-butanol fraction, 35 mm. Petroleumether fractions had no any antifungal activities.

**Keywords**: Punica granatum L., peel, flower, petroleumether, ethyl acetate, n-butanol

## **1. Introduction**

The *Punica granatum L.*, is one of the oldest known edible fruits. It is native to Persia and from there it spreads into Asia, North Africa and Mediterranean Europe, including Turkey [1, 2]. According to Qur'an, Bible, Torah and Babylonian Talmud, pomegranate is a gif and heavenly fruit of God.

The extracts of traditional herbs have been shown to exert biological activity in vitro and in vivo*. Punica granatum* is employed in man medicine for the treatment of various diseases such as skin diseases, and wound healing, ulcers, fever, diarrhoea, and microbial infection. In the recently years, the *Punica granatum* has been the subject of much scientific research which have showed its antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-cancer effects [3, 4].

The different types of phytochemical that have been showed identified from pomegranate pericarp (peel, rind) and pomegranate flower. Pomegranate pericarp's constituents are Luteolin, kaempferol, EA glycosides, EA, Pedunculagin, punicalin, phenolic punicalagins, Gallic acid and other fatty acids, catechin, EGCG, quercetin, rutin and other flavonols, flavones, flavonones, anthocyanidins. Pomegranate flower's constituents are Polyphones, punicalagins punicalin, EA, Gallic acid, ursolic acid, triterpenoids, including maslinic and Asiatic acid [1, 5- 7].

Candida species are harmless saprophyte yeasts, a normal component of the human biota in the gastrointestinal tract and oral and vaginal mucosae. These yeasts can cause superficial infections

© 2012 Shafighi et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

such as thrush and vaginitis; however, if the immune defences of the host become compromised, they can cause severe systemic infections. Risk factors for patients include infection by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), anticancer therapy, organ transplantation, abdominal surgery, catheters, diabetes and the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics [4, 11].

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

ate fractions. Antifungal effects of peel and flower fractions by well-diffusion assay method have

The maximum inhibition zones of peel fractions against C. albicans ATCC 3153 were obtained in 200 µl concentrations by n- butanol fraction, water fraction and ethyl acetate fraction respectively. C. albicans ATCC 3153 only was sensitive to flower n- butanol fraction. In addition C. Albicans

The fractions had no any antifungal activity in 10 µl, and there was direct relationship between

Also, n- butanol, ethyl acetate, water and petroleumether had no any antifungal activities. In the

**Figure 1.** The inhibitory zons (mm) of peel's fractions in 4 concentrations against *C. albicans (*ATCC 3153).

**Figure 2.** The inhibitory zones (mm) of flower's fractions in 4 concentrations against C. albicans (ATCC 3153).

This work was supported by Young Researchers Club, Falavarjan Branch, Islamic Azad University. The authors also thank Dr. Ranjbar, Dr. Khatabakhsh and Mrs. Shahsar for their kindly aid.

F1: Petroleumether Fraction, F2: Water Fraction, F3: Ethyl acetate Fraction, F4: n-butanol Frcation.

F1: Petroleumether Fraction, F2: Water Fraction, F3: Ethyl acetate Fraction, F4: n-butanol Frcation.

been shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2 respectively.

concentration and inhibition zone.

**Acknowledgment** 

ATCC 3153 was resistant to peel and flower Petroleumether fractions.

other words, the extracted compounds of peel and flower were effective [4].

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

<sup>379</sup> ISALS

The aim of this study was to investigate the antifungal effect of some fractions isolated from pomegranate pericarp and flower against *Candida albicans.*

## **2. Materials and Methods**

Samples of *P. Granatum* flowers and peels were collected and identification in June and September 2011 respectively from the Agricultural Research Centre in Isfahan, Iran.

The flowers and peels were air-dried in a low light at room temperature for 1 weak. The material was thereafter ground in an electric grinder to produce a powder separately.

Peels and flowers powder extracted with 100% petroleumether (F1) at room temperature for 24 hours respectively, the extracts were filtered. Then 20 gram of remains powders were extracted with 75% Ethanol by Soxhlet extraction for 8 hours.

The residues were dried over night and then evaporated by using a rotary evaporator. The dried extracts were suspended in distilled water (F2) and partition with ethyl acetate (F3) followed by n-butanol (F4). All fractions were frigid at -20°C until each experiment.

The yeast strain *C. albicans* (ATCC 3153) were used in this study. It obtained from Institute of Scientific and Industrial Researches, Tehran, Iran. At the first, it has been maintained at 4°C on Sabouraud dextrose agar (SDA) plates and sub cultured at 25°C in Sabouraud dextrose broth (SDB) before each experiment to ensure viability and purity.

Petri dishes contained 20 ml of SDA have been used for well-diffusion assay. Wells have been prepared in the SDA plates. In agar well diffusion, 10, 50, 100 and 200 µl of each fractions have been inoculated to each well separately. Then 100 ml of 106 CFU/ml yeast suspension was spread uniformly onto the agar plate using cotton swabs. Diameters (in mm) of growth inhibition zones were measured after incubation at 25°C for 24- 48 hours.

## **3. Results and Discussion**

*Candida* species are now the fourth most common organism recovered from the blood of hospitalized patients. Notwithstanding the increasing need for effective therapy, the range of antifungal agents available is limited, and some of the most effective agents are also toxic. In addition, although azoles have been used successfully for the treatment of Candida infections, numerous reports of treatment failures are now appearing in the literature [4]. In view of the lack of new classes of drugs or different molecular targets, drug combinations might be considered a viable strategy for therapy, considering the multiplicity of fungal targets against which current agents are effective.

 The antimicrobial and antifungal effects of alcoholic extracts of different parts of pomegranate tree were previously studied [1, 8-11]. Nevertheless, few studies have showed the antifungal effect of different pomegranate fractions. This study showed the antifungal activity of 4 pomegranate fractions. Antifungal effects of peel and flower fractions by well-diffusion assay method have been shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2 respectively.

The maximum inhibition zones of peel fractions against C. albicans ATCC 3153 were obtained in 200 µl concentrations by n- butanol fraction, water fraction and ethyl acetate fraction respectively.

 C. albicans ATCC 3153 only was sensitive to flower n- butanol fraction. In addition C. Albicans ATCC 3153 was resistant to peel and flower Petroleumether fractions.

The fractions had no any antifungal activity in 10 µl, and there was direct relationship between concentration and inhibition zone.

Also, n- butanol, ethyl acetate, water and petroleumether had no any antifungal activities. In the other words, the extracted compounds of peel and flower were effective [4].

**Figure 1.** The inhibitory zons (mm) of peel's fractions in 4 concentrations against *C. albicans (*ATCC 3153). F1: Petroleumether Fraction, F2: Water Fraction, F3: Ethyl acetate Fraction, F4: n-butanol Frcation.

**Figure 2.** The inhibitory zones (mm) of flower's fractions in 4 concentrations against C. albicans (ATCC 3153). F1: Petroleumether Fraction, F2: Water Fraction, F3: Ethyl acetate Fraction, F4: n-butanol Frcation.

## **Acknowledgment**

This work was supported by Young Researchers Club, Falavarjan Branch, Islamic Azad University. The authors also thank Dr. Ranjbar, Dr. Khatabakhsh and Mrs. Shahsar for their kindly aid.

#### **4. References**

[1] Saad Sabbar Dahham, Mir Naiman Ali, Hajera Tabassum and Mazharuddin Khan, 2010. Studies on Antibacterial and Antifungal Activity of Pomegranate (*Punica granatum* L.). American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 9 (3): 273-281.

International Conference on Applied Life Sciences (ICALS2012)

**Investigating Importance and Effects of Climate** 

**Extension Education Activities in Confronting** 

2 Agricultural Research- Education and Extension Organization\_ Birjand Branch – Birjand, Iran

In this article, author state a brief to drought management as an essential approach for regional development and maintaining employment in South Khorasan province in Iran. Rainfall is the ultimate source of water, affecting production of crops and other biomass by direct falling on the fields as well as supporting surface and ground water irrigation. However, possibilities of drought occurrence in Iran vary from once in 20 years. The frequency and intensity of extreme weather events like droughts, floods, heat/cold waves, cyclones, delayed or early onset, long dry spells, early withdrawal, and floods in drought frequented areas and droughts in flood afflicted areas have increased during the last two decades due to global warming. Since drought is defined by deviation from the normal rainfall, it can happen in all regions. Assessment and management of drought is complex due to its gradual appearance and long lasting impact or recoveries. Characteristics and impact of drought vary from region to region and year to year. Drought affects human, livestock, wildlife, bio-diversity and degrades the quality of natural resource base. This article is part of a research project titled: (( Investigating importance and effects of climate changes in agriculture in south khorasan province and recognizing appropriate extension education activities in confronting them)) that by author has been done in the Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization\_ Birjand Branch – Birjand, South khorasan

**Changes in Agriculture in South Khorasan** 

**Province and Recognizing Appropriate** 

**Them**

**Abstract**

province of Iran.

**1. Introduction**

Farhood Golmohammadi<sup>1</sup>

3 Oloome Entezami University- Birjand, Iran

1 Islamic Azad University, Birjand Branch – Birjand, Iran

© 2012 Golmohammadi et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

provided the original work is properly cited.

Drought is universal phenomenon that can occur everywhere and can cause harmful impacts on human beings and natural ecosystems. Growing public awareness of the issue of global climate change has raised enormous concerns regarding its potential impacts and consequences. Although there are inconclusive findings on the specific impacts of climate

**Keywords**: Drought, Impact, desert, south Khorasan province, Iran.

Turkey, September 10-12, 2012

, Mohsen Arazmjoo2 , Seyed Hamid Razavi<sup>3</sup>

<sup>381</sup> ISALS

