Consider increasing this distance where vehicle speeds are higer than 55 km/h

**Table 1.** Minimum Subzone dimensions (NZ Transport Agency, 2009)

**Total** 

Frontage

The zone is the space at the edge of walkway adjacent to property line. The area that pedestrians naturally tend not to enter, as it may contain retaining walls, fences, pedestrians emerging from buildings, 'window shoppers' or overhanging vegetation.

The Frontage Zone may also be used as a secondary area for plantings, street furniture and social activities.

**Figure 10.** Without a Through Pedestrian Zone, the sidewalk corridor loses its essential function (Tekirdag,Turkey)

Pedestrian Zones 413

clearance problems, they cast shade in winter, causing icing problems, and most are very

The tree stock in any one area should not exceed more than 10% of any one species. Monocultures can lead to widespread tree loss when the population is attached by an alien

Trees and vegetation help cool urban climates through shading and evapotranspiration. Trees will provide shade and, if placed between the sidewalk and the road, an additional

Planting materials should be chosen which provide visual interest, support the local ecology, require little or no watering or maintenance, and make the pedestrian experience more pleasant. Care should be taken to choose plants whose growth will not create obstructions for the pedestrian nor damage the sidewalk (as certain tree roots may do).

Grass is generally the easiest and least expensive to install but may be harder to maintain over time where mowing is difficult, such as on slopes or near walls. Alternatives should be considered, especially when caretakers can be identified who can provide plants and/or who will care for the area until plants are established (i.e. the property owner or a neighborhood

A mix of native, low-growing ground covers will provide an alternative to grass that will not need mowing or frequent watering to survive and remain attractive. Flowers and leaves from native plants will also provide food and habitat for insects that contribute to the natural life cycle of butterflies, birds, and bees, and therefore play indispensable roles in the

**Figure 12.** Evergreen plants are not suitable for planting (Tekirdag,Turkey)

level of pedestrian protection (US Environmental Protection Agency).

salt intolerant (Figure 12).

invasive insect or disease.

health of our environment.

group).

**Figure 11.** The Through Pedestrian Zone is the area of the sidewalk corridor intended for pedestrian travel (Canakkale, Turkey)

## **10. Planting of pedestrian zone**

Plantings in the pedestrian zone should create desirable microclimates and should contribute to the psychological and visual comfort of users.

Planting design and plant choices for areas surrounding pedestrian areas play a big role in the overall appearance and environmental impact of the pedestrian area installation or new development. Trees and other landscaped areas near streets, sidewalks, and parking lots can reduce storm water runoff and adverse impacts to water resources. Trees and vegetation intercept rainfall, and the exposed soils associated with plants absorb water that will be returned to ground water systems or used by plants.

Use of native plants and shrubs help restore our natural ecosystems and help insure the survival of the full range of wildlife native to the area.

Planting trees in the strip of land between sidewalk and the edge of the road can be attractive and provide a security buffer between pedestrians and automobiles. But this strip of land is referred to by professional arborists as "the death zone" because it is so hostile to trees.

The absolute minimum width of the planting strip should be fully 1.2 m. A planting strip of 3 m in width is much more reasonable. This gives enough mass and strength to the trunk to shrug off snow loads, and should be tall enough to be upbranched to provide clearance for pedestrians and vehicles.

Evergreen plants are not suitable for sidewalk planting except in very rare circumstances, such as behind a sidewalk for a buffer hedge. They tend to be low branched, causing clearance problems, they cast shade in winter, causing icing problems, and most are very salt intolerant (Figure 12).

**Figure 12.** Evergreen plants are not suitable for planting (Tekirdag,Turkey)

412 Advances in Landscape Architecture

travel (Canakkale, Turkey)

trees.

pedestrians and vehicles.

**10. Planting of pedestrian zone** 

contribute to the psychological and visual comfort of users.

returned to ground water systems or used by plants.

survival of the full range of wildlife native to the area.

**Figure 11.** The Through Pedestrian Zone is the area of the sidewalk corridor intended for pedestrian

Plantings in the pedestrian zone should create desirable microclimates and should

Planting design and plant choices for areas surrounding pedestrian areas play a big role in the overall appearance and environmental impact of the pedestrian area installation or new development. Trees and other landscaped areas near streets, sidewalks, and parking lots can reduce storm water runoff and adverse impacts to water resources. Trees and vegetation intercept rainfall, and the exposed soils associated with plants absorb water that will be

Use of native plants and shrubs help restore our natural ecosystems and help insure the

Planting trees in the strip of land between sidewalk and the edge of the road can be attractive and provide a security buffer between pedestrians and automobiles. But this strip of land is referred to by professional arborists as "the death zone" because it is so hostile to

The absolute minimum width of the planting strip should be fully 1.2 m. A planting strip of 3 m in width is much more reasonable. This gives enough mass and strength to the trunk to shrug off snow loads, and should be tall enough to be upbranched to provide clearance for

Evergreen plants are not suitable for sidewalk planting except in very rare circumstances, such as behind a sidewalk for a buffer hedge. They tend to be low branched, causing The tree stock in any one area should not exceed more than 10% of any one species. Monocultures can lead to widespread tree loss when the population is attached by an alien invasive insect or disease.

Trees and vegetation help cool urban climates through shading and evapotranspiration. Trees will provide shade and, if placed between the sidewalk and the road, an additional level of pedestrian protection (US Environmental Protection Agency).

Planting materials should be chosen which provide visual interest, support the local ecology, require little or no watering or maintenance, and make the pedestrian experience more pleasant. Care should be taken to choose plants whose growth will not create obstructions for the pedestrian nor damage the sidewalk (as certain tree roots may do).

Grass is generally the easiest and least expensive to install but may be harder to maintain over time where mowing is difficult, such as on slopes or near walls. Alternatives should be considered, especially when caretakers can be identified who can provide plants and/or who will care for the area until plants are established (i.e. the property owner or a neighborhood group).

A mix of native, low-growing ground covers will provide an alternative to grass that will not need mowing or frequent watering to survive and remain attractive. Flowers and leaves from native plants will also provide food and habitat for insects that contribute to the natural life cycle of butterflies, birds, and bees, and therefore play indispensable roles in the health of our environment.

The nature of the planting materials should be in keeping with the site. Mown grass or compact shrubs may be more in keeping with a commercial district or town center. Wildflowers and grasses may be suitable for certain residential areas and more open landscapes. Larger shrubs can be placed to block undesirable views while not obstructing important sight lines or snow clearing.

Pedestrian Zones 415

car trips taken and pollution produced. Trees can provide seasonal shade for pedestrians, cyclists and motorists and reduce the light reflection or glare from buildings and other surfaces. Trees assist in reducing the extreme temperatures by trapping heat in winter and by filtering heat and increasing the humidity during summer. Trees are ideal for reducing wind velocity in streets. The porous structure of trees allows them to temper turbulence and reduce wind tunnel effects without creating eddy currents that can occur against solid structures. Linear plantings of appropriate native trees act as valuable flight paths and habitat corridors for birds and small native mammals and provides shelter, food and nesting

The visual and aesthetic benefits of street trees as usually classified under social benefits, but appear to have received less attention in recent years with the focus on quantifying the measurable social, economic and environmental services provided by the urban forest. These somewhat "intangible" benefits may be less well understood, and less easily measured by researchers from the biological or social science with little research published

Improved amenity and connectivity of the street network, (particularly walking routes between public transport and major activity centers) can support and improve the viability of commercial activities within the City. Street trees and in particular avenue plantings are known to markedly increase property values and to attract industry and new residents to the City. Appropriate street tree planting along commercial strips can improve the economic

Street trees can reduce energy expenditure by providing shade to houses and cars and reducing energy consumption. Other aspects of street trees which have been considered in the development of this Strategy include litter drop, lifting footpaths and other property damage, obstruction of sight lines for traffic (especially when trees are young), blocking views and light, competition with other vegetation such as grass or garden plants, and

Acorrding to O'Brien (1993) identifies a number of functional and aesthetic contributions to

 Complementing historic or culturally significant buildings or streetscape (Figure 14) Enhancing pedestrian or vehicular orientation legibility and way finding. Street trees can emphasize direction and directional change by accentuating road lines (Figure 15). They can emphasize a sense of movement, and their spacing can be manipulated to create a desired ambience, with closer spacing emphasizing a sense of speed. Trees can also be used to emphasize road junctions and focal points, and to reinforce the

viability of the strip by improving customer comfort and therefore business diversity.

potential to exacerbate allergies (Moonee Valley City Council 2007).

Creating or reinforcing identity in a street (Figure 13)

urban streetscapes. Street trees; (Ely, 2010)

hierarchy of streets within the city.

hollows (Moonee Valley City Council 2007).

**13. Economic benefits** 

by landscape architects and urban designer (Ely, 2010).

Street trees are a significant component of the green areas, and deliver (social, economic and environmental) benefits to the city. Studies of urban trees benefits tend to categorize them as either: social (including both human health and well-being, deeper spiritual and psychological significance); economic and environmental (including ecological benefits) (Sommer and Sommer, 1989; Tarran, 2006; Flannigan, 2005). Street trees have aesthetic value and attractiveness. Tree size is an important variable within this with the general preference for large, spreading, globular or round trees. Height has also been found to be an important variable (Kalmbach and Kielbaso, 1979; Williams, 2002).

## **11. Social benefits**

The planting of street trees can provide an opportunity to promote the importance of preserving remnant vegetation and the need to plant more trees in the urban environment. Trees can improve the aesthetic of a streetscape thus encouraging walking and increasing the chance of social encounters and providing health benefits. A well designed and connected road and path network will optimize walking trips and all abilities access. Planting in the nature strip delineates the pedestrian space from the vehicular space which improves the sense of safety.

Furthermore, tree canopies engender a human scale to the street helping to slow vehicles and create a more pleasant street environment. Trees form a significant component of the cultural and historical value of an area. Protection of existing trees will ensure a legacy for future generations. Trees soften the harsh angularities of urban structures, aid healing and help satisfy the need to recognize seasonal differences. Street trees can enhance historical areas with plantings that are appropriate to the particular historical period and reflective of local residential garden and park plantings. A sense of place and local identity can be created by trees for local residents and visitors to the City. Direction and movement can be emphasized by trees. By manipulating planting arrangement and spacing to provide a continuous visual experience, trees can emphasis direction and movement.

## **12. Environmental benefits**

Trees can improve local microclimate, and reduce the "urban heat island effect" where the air and surface temperature of urban areas are much higher than these of surrounding rural or forest areas. Trees naturally purify the air by diluting and absorbing pollution and collecting airborne particles on their leaves. Trees also reduce carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere by direct absorption and oxygen gas production. Furthermore, the provision of pleasant street environments will encourage more walking, potentially reducing the number car trips taken and pollution produced. Trees can provide seasonal shade for pedestrians, cyclists and motorists and reduce the light reflection or glare from buildings and other surfaces. Trees assist in reducing the extreme temperatures by trapping heat in winter and by filtering heat and increasing the humidity during summer. Trees are ideal for reducing wind velocity in streets. The porous structure of trees allows them to temper turbulence and reduce wind tunnel effects without creating eddy currents that can occur against solid structures. Linear plantings of appropriate native trees act as valuable flight paths and habitat corridors for birds and small native mammals and provides shelter, food and nesting hollows (Moonee Valley City Council 2007).

The visual and aesthetic benefits of street trees as usually classified under social benefits, but appear to have received less attention in recent years with the focus on quantifying the measurable social, economic and environmental services provided by the urban forest. These somewhat "intangible" benefits may be less well understood, and less easily measured by researchers from the biological or social science with little research published by landscape architects and urban designer (Ely, 2010).

## **13. Economic benefits**

414 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**11. Social benefits** 

improves the sense of safety.

**12. Environmental benefits** 

important sight lines or snow clearing.

variable (Kalmbach and Kielbaso, 1979; Williams, 2002).

The nature of the planting materials should be in keeping with the site. Mown grass or compact shrubs may be more in keeping with a commercial district or town center. Wildflowers and grasses may be suitable for certain residential areas and more open landscapes. Larger shrubs can be placed to block undesirable views while not obstructing

Street trees are a significant component of the green areas, and deliver (social, economic and environmental) benefits to the city. Studies of urban trees benefits tend to categorize them as either: social (including both human health and well-being, deeper spiritual and psychological significance); economic and environmental (including ecological benefits) (Sommer and Sommer, 1989; Tarran, 2006; Flannigan, 2005). Street trees have aesthetic value and attractiveness. Tree size is an important variable within this with the general preference for large, spreading, globular or round trees. Height has also been found to be an important

The planting of street trees can provide an opportunity to promote the importance of preserving remnant vegetation and the need to plant more trees in the urban environment. Trees can improve the aesthetic of a streetscape thus encouraging walking and increasing the chance of social encounters and providing health benefits. A well designed and connected road and path network will optimize walking trips and all abilities access. Planting in the nature strip delineates the pedestrian space from the vehicular space which

Furthermore, tree canopies engender a human scale to the street helping to slow vehicles and create a more pleasant street environment. Trees form a significant component of the cultural and historical value of an area. Protection of existing trees will ensure a legacy for future generations. Trees soften the harsh angularities of urban structures, aid healing and help satisfy the need to recognize seasonal differences. Street trees can enhance historical areas with plantings that are appropriate to the particular historical period and reflective of local residential garden and park plantings. A sense of place and local identity can be created by trees for local residents and visitors to the City. Direction and movement can be emphasized by trees. By manipulating planting arrangement and spacing to provide a

Trees can improve local microclimate, and reduce the "urban heat island effect" where the air and surface temperature of urban areas are much higher than these of surrounding rural or forest areas. Trees naturally purify the air by diluting and absorbing pollution and collecting airborne particles on their leaves. Trees also reduce carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere by direct absorption and oxygen gas production. Furthermore, the provision of pleasant street environments will encourage more walking, potentially reducing the number

continuous visual experience, trees can emphasis direction and movement.

Improved amenity and connectivity of the street network, (particularly walking routes between public transport and major activity centers) can support and improve the viability of commercial activities within the City. Street trees and in particular avenue plantings are known to markedly increase property values and to attract industry and new residents to the City. Appropriate street tree planting along commercial strips can improve the economic viability of the strip by improving customer comfort and therefore business diversity.

Street trees can reduce energy expenditure by providing shade to houses and cars and reducing energy consumption. Other aspects of street trees which have been considered in the development of this Strategy include litter drop, lifting footpaths and other property damage, obstruction of sight lines for traffic (especially when trees are young), blocking views and light, competition with other vegetation such as grass or garden plants, and potential to exacerbate allergies (Moonee Valley City Council 2007).

Acorrding to O'Brien (1993) identifies a number of functional and aesthetic contributions to urban streetscapes. Street trees; (Ely, 2010)


Pedestrian Zones 417

**Figure 15.** Street trees can emphasize direction and directional change (Tekirdag,Turkey)

**Figure 16.** Tree's Symbolic or monumental role (Burgaz, Bulgaria)

planted adjacent to the kerb) (Figure 17).

city gateway (Figure 16).

Trees can play a symbolic or monumental role, for example in major boulevards and

 Enhancing visual amenity through screening unsightly views, softening the mass of large buildings, and reducing the apparent width of streets (especially if trees are

**Figure 13.** Trees reinforcing identity in a street (Canakkale, Turkey)

**Figure 14.** (Budapest, Hungary)

**Figure 15.** Street trees can emphasize direction and directional change (Tekirdag,Turkey)

**Figure 14.** (Budapest, Hungary)

**Figure 13.** Trees reinforcing identity in a street (Canakkale, Turkey)

 Trees can play a symbolic or monumental role, for example in major boulevards and city gateway (Figure 16).

**Figure 16.** Tree's Symbolic or monumental role (Burgaz, Bulgaria)

 Enhancing visual amenity through screening unsightly views, softening the mass of large buildings, and reducing the apparent width of streets (especially if trees are planted adjacent to the kerb) (Figure 17).

Pedestrian Zones 419

**Figure 19.** Street plants create a space by trunks and canopies(Tekirdag,Turkey)

**Figure 20.** Creating "walls" of tree trunks (Balchk, Bulgaria)

Providing clear spatial definition in streets, for example by separating pedestrian and

vehicular zones, both physically and psychologically (Figure 21).

**Figure 17.** Enhancing visual amenity through screening unsightly views (Burgaz, Bulgaria)

Providing visual interest, color and a sense of movement in urban setting (Figure 18).

**Figure 18.** Providing visual interest (Burgaz, Bulgaria)


**Figure 19.** Street plants create a space by trunks and canopies(Tekirdag,Turkey)

**Figure 17.** Enhancing visual amenity through screening unsightly views (Burgaz, Bulgaria)

**Figure 18.** Providing visual interest (Burgaz, Bulgaria)

creating "roofs" of tree canopies) (Figure 19, 20).

Providing awareness of seasonal change

Providing visual interest, color and a sense of movement in urban setting (Figure 18).

 Providing a *sense* of human scale by creating smaller space within the wider streetscape, both vertically (by creating "walls" of tree trunks), and horizontally (by

**Figure 20.** Creating "walls" of tree trunks (Balchk, Bulgaria)

 Providing clear spatial definition in streets, for example by separating pedestrian and vehicular zones, both physically and psychologically (Figure 21).

Pedestrian Zones 421

Other notable features

Proposed tree species

 Evergreen or deciduous Rate of growth and longevity Resistance to pests and diseases

Degree of limb shed

Value of tree as a wildlife habitat

**Table 2.** Suggested Sidewalk Plants

Hazard Reduction Pruning

Pruning

**15. Maintenance of street tree** 

maintenance pruning objectives (Figure 22).

and obviously weak branches, two inches in diameter or greater.

Surrounding land use (residential, commercial, industrial, open space)

Physical characteristics ( height, spread, shape, ornamental value, etc)

pollution, tree pruning and damage caused by vandalism

**Latin name Latin name Latin name** *Acer campestre Corylus colura Quercus rubra Acer negundo Ginkgo biloba Quercus cocinea Acer platonoides Gleditsia triacanthos Tilia tomentosa Acer pseudoplatanus Ligustrum ovalifolium Robinia pseudoacacia Aesculus carnea Liriodendron tulipifera Robinia pseudoacacia* 

*Alnus cordata Morus alba Schinus molle Betula pendula Platanus orientalis Sorbus araia Catalpa bignonioides Populus sp. Ulmus glabra* 

Tolerances to climatic conditions (periods of drought), soil compaction, poor drainage,

Street tree maintenance includes the inspection, pruning, removal and replacement of trees.

Street trees are to be pruned using a combination of hazard reduction pruning and

Primary objective is to reduce the danger to a specific target caused by visibly defined hazards in a tree. Hazard pruning consists of the removal of dead, dying, diseased, decayed

*'Umbracaulifera* 

 Planting limitations (retail strips, narrow reserves) Stage of housing development (in new residential areas)

Connections to nearby public open space

 Parking and traffic limitations Site topography and quality of views Proportion of recent plantings

**Figure 21.** Street trees separating pedestrian and vehicular zones (Tekirdag,Turkey)

 Most significantly, street trees can provide a unifying element in an often visually diverse and sometimes chaotic urban streetscape.

## **14. Street tree selection**

 The choice of tree for a particular street or area is guided by a wide range of factors, including the ability of the species to withstand various environmental and physical constraints as well as the type of street environment that is to be created or preserved. These factors include (Moonee Valley City Council 2007):

Existing tree planting


#### Street reserve


#### Other notable features

420 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 21.** Street trees separating pedestrian and vehicular zones (Tekirdag,Turkey)

diverse and sometimes chaotic urban streetscape.

factors include (Moonee Valley City Council 2007):

Location ( nature/median strip, road, path)

Presence and width of nature strip and median strip

Planting density (number of gaps)

Presence and width of footpath

Overhead or underground services

**14. Street tree selection** 

Existing tree planting

Quality (age, form etc)

Road reserve width

Species type

Street reserve

Most significantly, street trees can provide a unifying element in an often visually

 The choice of tree for a particular street or area is guided by a wide range of factors, including the ability of the species to withstand various environmental and physical constraints as well as the type of street environment that is to be created or preserved. These


Proposed tree species



**Table 2.** Suggested Sidewalk Plants

### **15. Maintenance of street tree**

Street tree maintenance includes the inspection, pruning, removal and replacement of trees.

Pruning

Street trees are to be pruned using a combination of hazard reduction pruning and maintenance pruning objectives (Figure 22).

#### Hazard Reduction Pruning

Primary objective is to reduce the danger to a specific target caused by visibly defined hazards in a tree. Hazard pruning consists of the removal of dead, dying, diseased, decayed and obviously weak branches, two inches in diameter or greater.

### Maintenance Pruning

Primary objective is to maintain or improve tree health and structure. Maintenance pruning may include one or all of the pruning types, crown cleaning, crown thinning and crown raising.

Pedestrian Zones 423

*Training Pruning* – Pruning a young tree to develop a strong scaffold branch structure. Branches that are crossing, interfering with scaffold branches or have included bark should be removed. Large growing branches with narrow attachments may need removed. Low limbs should be removed to provide clearance over streets and sidewalks. Young trees should receive a training pruning at four years after initial planting. Scaffold branches should be selected with the intent of eventually providing the above mentioned clearances. A crown to trunk ratio of two thirds to one third should be maintained. Care must be taken to eliminate vision obstructions of oncoming traffic, stop signs, stop lights, street signs,

Pruning in late autumn and early winter can lead to winter injury. The pruning wounds may not have time to "harden off" or prepare for winter. This can lead to deeper freezing in the tissues around the wound and in essence a larger wound can be created that the tree will have difficulty dealing with. During the late winter months (February and March), harmful pathogens are at a minimum, mostly inactive; therefore, this is a safe pruning environment from that standpoint. During this season, deciduous trees have hardened off and when the growing season begins the wounds will be sealed and the callusing process will begin.

school signs, traffic signs and any other signs or lights that affect public safety.

**Figure 23.** Incorrect pruning (Burgaz, Bulgaria)

**Figure 22.** Pruning of trees

## **16. Types of pruning**

*Crown Cleaning* – Consists of the selective removal of one or more of the following items; dead, dying, diseased, or weak branches and water sprouts from a tree's crown.

*Crown Thinning* – Consists of the selective removal of branches to increase light penetration, air movement and reduce weight.

*Crown Raising* – Consists of the removal of the lower branches of a tree in order to provide clearance for pedestrians and vehicles. Crown raising should be performed with the intent of providing clearance of eight feet over sidewalks and thirteen and one half feet over streets. A crown to trunk ratio of two thirds to one third should be maintained. Care must be taken to eliminate vision obstructions of oncoming traffic, stop signs, stop lights, street signs, school signs, traffic signs and any other signs or lights that affect public safety.

*Crown Reduction* – Consists of removing limbs to reduce the height and/or spread of a tree. Crown reduction pruning should only be done in situations where branches interfere with utility lines, where there has been significant crown dieback, or due to storm damage it is appropriate to prune for safety and aesthetic reasons (Figure 23, 24).

*Crown Restoration* – Improves the structure, form and appearance of trees that have been severely headed, vandalized or storm damaged.

*Training Pruning* – Pruning a young tree to develop a strong scaffold branch structure. Branches that are crossing, interfering with scaffold branches or have included bark should be removed. Large growing branches with narrow attachments may need removed. Low limbs should be removed to provide clearance over streets and sidewalks. Young trees should receive a training pruning at four years after initial planting. Scaffold branches should be selected with the intent of eventually providing the above mentioned clearances. A crown to trunk ratio of two thirds to one third should be maintained. Care must be taken to eliminate vision obstructions of oncoming traffic, stop signs, stop lights, street signs, school signs, traffic signs and any other signs or lights that affect public safety.

Pruning in late autumn and early winter can lead to winter injury. The pruning wounds may not have time to "harden off" or prepare for winter. This can lead to deeper freezing in the tissues around the wound and in essence a larger wound can be created that the tree will have difficulty dealing with. During the late winter months (February and March), harmful pathogens are at a minimum, mostly inactive; therefore, this is a safe pruning environment from that standpoint. During this season, deciduous trees have hardened off and when the growing season begins the wounds will be sealed and the callusing process will begin.

**Figure 23.** Incorrect pruning (Burgaz, Bulgaria)

422 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Primary objective is to maintain or improve tree health and structure. Maintenance pruning may include one or all of the pruning types, crown cleaning, crown thinning and crown

*Crown Cleaning* – Consists of the selective removal of one or more of the following items;

*Crown Thinning* – Consists of the selective removal of branches to increase light penetration,

*Crown Raising* – Consists of the removal of the lower branches of a tree in order to provide clearance for pedestrians and vehicles. Crown raising should be performed with the intent of providing clearance of eight feet over sidewalks and thirteen and one half feet over streets. A crown to trunk ratio of two thirds to one third should be maintained. Care must be taken to eliminate vision obstructions of oncoming traffic, stop signs, stop lights, street

*Crown Reduction* – Consists of removing limbs to reduce the height and/or spread of a tree. Crown reduction pruning should only be done in situations where branches interfere with utility lines, where there has been significant crown dieback, or due to storm damage it is

*Crown Restoration* – Improves the structure, form and appearance of trees that have been

signs, school signs, traffic signs and any other signs or lights that affect public safety.

appropriate to prune for safety and aesthetic reasons (Figure 23, 24).

severely headed, vandalized or storm damaged.

dead, dying, diseased, or weak branches and water sprouts from a tree's crown.

Maintenance Pruning

**Figure 22.** Pruning of trees

**16. Types of pruning** 

air movement and reduce weight.

raising.

Pedestrian Zones 425

Ely, M. E., 2010. Integrating Trees Into the Design of the City: Expert Opinions on Developing More Sustainable Practices for Planting Street Trees in Australian Cities, Ph. Thesis, p:483, School of Architecture, landscape Architecture and Urban Design Faculty

Flannigan, J., 2005. An evaluation of residents' attitudes to street trees in southwest England.

Guidelines for Action Sidewalk Design Transportation Advisory Committee and Town

KonSULT, the Knowledgebase on Sustainable Urban Land use and Transport. Institute for

 http://www.konsult.leeds.ac.uk/private/level2/instruments/instrument049/l2\_049a.htm Melia, S., Barton, H. and Parkhurst, G., 2010. Carfree, Low Car - What's the Difference?

Mineapolis Pedestrian Master Plan 2009. Access Mineapolis Ten Year Transportation Action

http://www.mvcc.vic.gov.au/forresidents/environmentprograms/~/media/Files/ForResidents

NZ Transport Agency, 2009. Pedestrian Planning and Design Guide. ISBN 978-0-478-35228-

Ornetzeder, M., Hertwich, E.G., Hubacek, K., Korytarova, K. and Haas, W., 2008. The environmental effect of car-free housing: A case in Vienna. *Ecological Economics* 65 (3),

Portland Transportation Office, 1998. Portland Pedestrian Design Guide City of Portland Office of Transportation Engineering and Development Pedestrian Transportation

Rosen, S.B., 2006. The success and failure of pedestrian malls in Europe and America. Senior Project, City and Regional Planning Department California Polytechnic State University

Rubenstein, H.M., 1992. Pedestrian Malls, Streetscapes and Urban Spaces. John

Sen, S., 1999. Toward A Typology of Transportation-Related Urban Design Problems and Solutions: Case Studies of Small And Medium Sized Cities n The Eastern United States.

Sommer, R. and Sommer, B., 1989. The factor structure of street tree attributes. *Journal of* 

http://www.minneapolismn.gov/www/groups/public/@publicworks/documents/webco

Citizens. http://www.acton-ma.gov/DocumentCenter/Home/View/856

of the Professions, The University of Adelaide.

Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT

*World Transport Policy & Practice* 16 (2), 24-32.

Moonee Valley City Council 2007. Street Planting Strategy.

National Transportation Center Morgan State.

US Environmental Protection Agency, Heat Island Effect, See: http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/mitigation/trees.htm

/Environment/EW\_2008\_StreetPlantingStrat\_LR.ashx

O'Brien, D. 1993. Street Trees for Cities and Towns, Sydney, Imago Press.

Program. http://www.portlandoregon.gov/transportation/article/84048

*Arboricultural Journal* 28, 219–241.

ntent/convert\_286149.pdf

3 (online), New Zealand.

Plan.

516-530.

San Luis Obispo.

Wiley&Sons, Inc.

*Arboriculture* 15, 243–246.

**Figure 24.** Incorrect pruning (Tekirdag Turkey)

## **Author details**

Elif Ebru Sisman *Namk Kemal University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Design and Architect, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

## **17. References**


http://www.konsult.leeds.ac.uk/private/level2/instruments/instrument049/l2\_049a.htm


http://www.minneapolismn.gov/www/groups/public/@publicworks/documents/webco ntent/convert\_286149.pdf

Moonee Valley City Council 2007. Street Planting Strategy.

424 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 24.** Incorrect pruning (Tekirdag Turkey)

*Namk Kemal University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Design and Architect, Department of Landscape* 

Department of Transport, 2012. Planning and Designing for Pedestrians: Guidelines,

http://www.transport.wa.gov.au/mediaFiles/AT\_WALK\_P\_plan\_design\_pedestrians\_g

Design Guidelines for Streets and Sidewalks 2009. Chapter 10: Pedestrian Facility Design Minneapolis. http://www.slideshare.net/Sarah17/chapter-10-pedestrian-facility-design

**Author details** 

Elif Ebru Sisman

*Architecture, Turkey* 

**17. References** 

Western Australia.

uidelines.pdf


Tarran, J., 2006. Trees, Urban Ecology and Community Health. TREENET Proceeding of the 7th National Street Tree Symposium: 7th-8th September, Adelaide, TREENET Inc.

**Chapter 17** 

© 2013 Uslu and Shakouri, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

**Urban Landscape Design and Biodiversity** 

Nowadays, cities are focal points of interaction between urbanization and nature. During the recent years, the density of buildings and other hard surfaces have dramatically increased by population growth in urban area and urbanization becomes the phenomena in

Today, more than half of the of the world's population lives in cities which is increasing by time (Tratalos et al., 2007). Research indicates that by 2030, 1.75 billion new urban residents are expected in urban area (Mcdonald et al., 2008). Also, by 2050, more than two-third of the

Although, cities cover 2% of the world's surface (Muller et al., 2010), they have an enormous impact on the earth environment. Urban areas consume 75% of global natural resources and cause 80% of 'greenhouse' gas emission. Also, urbanization modifies the ecology and features of urban landscape. There are some of the ecological impacts of the urbanization on environment such as fragmentation of open and natural areas, degradation of water resources, loss of free natural services (Benedict & Macmahon 2002), alteration of habitat, loss and dismemberment of natural vegetation and the creation of novel habitat types (Tratalos et al. 2007). These rapid changes cause concerns about the future of life in cities. Therefore, sustainable approach towards use of the earth's natural resources and

Alberti et al. (2003) claimed that cities are both complex ecological entities which have their own unique internal rules of behavior, growth and evaluation and important global

During the last few decades, the topic of urban biodiversity as a component of urban ecology has been discussed in many researches. These researches indicate that urbanization, land use and land cover (Muller et al. 2010) are the main factors threat of biodiversity by direct habitat conversion or indirect effects of human population growth on local, regional

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Aysel Uslu and Nasim Shakouri

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55761

ecological forcing functions.

**1. Introduction** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

our century both in developed and developing countries.

significantly larger world will be living in urban area (Muller et al., 2010).

biodiversity in urban area become vital to ensure the next generations life.

## **Urban Landscape Design and Biodiversity**

Aysel Uslu and Nasim Shakouri

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55761

## **1. Introduction**

426 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Tarran, J., 2006. Trees, Urban Ecology and Community Health. TREENET Proceeding of the 7th National Street Tree Symposium: 7th-8th September, Adelaide, TREENET Inc.

> Nowadays, cities are focal points of interaction between urbanization and nature. During the recent years, the density of buildings and other hard surfaces have dramatically increased by population growth in urban area and urbanization becomes the phenomena in our century both in developed and developing countries.

> Today, more than half of the of the world's population lives in cities which is increasing by time (Tratalos et al., 2007). Research indicates that by 2030, 1.75 billion new urban residents are expected in urban area (Mcdonald et al., 2008). Also, by 2050, more than two-third of the significantly larger world will be living in urban area (Muller et al., 2010).

> Although, cities cover 2% of the world's surface (Muller et al., 2010), they have an enormous impact on the earth environment. Urban areas consume 75% of global natural resources and cause 80% of 'greenhouse' gas emission. Also, urbanization modifies the ecology and features of urban landscape. There are some of the ecological impacts of the urbanization on environment such as fragmentation of open and natural areas, degradation of water resources, loss of free natural services (Benedict & Macmahon 2002), alteration of habitat, loss and dismemberment of natural vegetation and the creation of novel habitat types (Tratalos et al. 2007). These rapid changes cause concerns about the future of life in cities. Therefore, sustainable approach towards use of the earth's natural resources and biodiversity in urban area become vital to ensure the next generations life.

> Alberti et al. (2003) claimed that cities are both complex ecological entities which have their own unique internal rules of behavior, growth and evaluation and important global ecological forcing functions.

> During the last few decades, the topic of urban biodiversity as a component of urban ecology has been discussed in many researches. These researches indicate that urbanization, land use and land cover (Muller et al. 2010) are the main factors threat of biodiversity by direct habitat conversion or indirect effects of human population growth on local, regional

and global scales (Clergeau et al. 1998, Blair 1999, McKinney 2002; Ricketts and Imhoff 2003). Over the years, an approximately species decline by 10-15% caused just by habitat lost. These figures will increase by pollution, climate change and other environmental problems caused by urbanization (Zitkovic 2008).

Urban Landscape Design and Biodiversity 429

constitute individuals, then form the populations, which regroup into species and as a

Biodiversity is usually defined as living diversity of nature and as a component of environment. It involved all form of life, the structural and functional aspects together. Biodiversity is not only the quantity. Therefore, as assessment criteria; richness and its spatial distribution, significant and rare characteristics, homogenization and hybridization

The concept of urban biodiversity is specific part of living diversity of nature. Zitkovic (2008) describes it as plants and animals that are living in the built environment. It also consists of patches of land that have survived during city expansion and represent the area before dense human settlement. In another definition by Muller et al. (2010), the urban biodiversity is explained as "the variety and richness of living organisms (including genetic

Through the history of human life, a lot of factors affected biodiversity. Permanent settlement, agriculture revolution, cultivates plants and domesticates animals influenced the urban biodiversity. In addition the manner that land is used and built up, economic, social and cultural dynamics affected urban biodiversity. Beside that the cities' development impacts directly urban biodiversity. It also influence how biodiversity is distributed among the different groups of the population (Oliveira et al.2011).Therefore, in the urban areas with less dense of population and shorter history of human impact original natural areas and species can be found. However, in mega-cities or more densely populated areas urban biodiversity includes only the species that can survive or adapted to the character and

Today, urban biodiversity is not only the important part of urban ecosystem but also, it is a substantial ecological and cultural integrating element. Furthermore the native flora and

There is variety of biodiversity from rural borders to urban core according to the different types of habitats. Muller et al. (2010) categorized urban landscape and habitat levels as follows;

Urban-industrial landscape (e.g. city canters, residential areas, industrial parks,

It must be highlighted that the concept of urban biodiversity is not include just native species. Urban biodiversity may not accommodate the native biodiversity of the surroundings as this may not be compatible with the urban environment or the connivance of urban residents. For example, Manaus in Brazil is surrounded by the Amazon jungle, but its citizens do not expect to share their daily life environment with local fauna including boas or piranhas. Some native trees may not be suitable for urban environment due to the natural limitations (e.g., the need for space, clean air, water or certain species to survive) or management constraints (e.g., the frequent need for trimming or cleaning beyond local

Remnants of pristine natural landscape (e.g. leftovers of primeval forests rock faces);

fauna are important tools for urban ecological and cultural identity.

Agricultural landscapes (e.g. meadows, areas of arable land);

railways areas, formal parks and gardens, brownfields).

variation and habitat diversity found in and on the edge of human settlements".

results end as a communities.

factors will be considered.

quality of urban ecosystems.

The distribution of people across the Earth's surface is not an equal one. Therefore the pressure of population growth on balancing the conservation and the use of natural resources varies in different parts of the world (Kohsaka 2010).

Generally, the levels of urbanization are high in developing countries which most of the protected areas are located in. In addition, the distance between protected areas and cities is reducing that brings with it, significant conservation challenges (Mcdonald et al. 2008; Oliveira et al. 2011).

This situation is not better in developed countries. According to Muller & Warner (2010), the number of vascular plant species decreases from more than 400 species per km2 at urban fringe to less than 50 species per km2 in city center, in central European cities. That's why urbanization and its impacts on environment are global issue for human future. However, there is still a glimmer of hope for preserving the urban biodiversity because there is a growing awareness that the health of the planet's biological diversity is essential for determination of human own destiny. Therefore, more protection is required for biodiversity than what has occurred to date (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005; Connery 2010). In Addtion, nature in the city and studies of urban biodiversity become more vital because of rapid urbanization growth in the world.

In this case, landscape architects have significant role in designing the cities as a healthy and aesthetically pleasing living environments while conserving biodiversity. Preserving and improving the natural areas in parallel with biodiversity is an important concept in urban landscape planning and design.

Towards these objectives, this chapter focuses on the urban biodiversity and the opportunities and conflict of improving urban biodiversity. First section of chapter as a conceptual framework starts by reviewing some important concepts related with urban biodiversity. Consequently, the opportunities for improving urban biodiversity are identified. Also, the planning, management and design of urban landscape have been discussed as a tool of development, protection and creation of biodiversity. In addition, planting and constructional urban landscape design has been explained in order to creation and protection of biodiversity in urban areas. Finally, some of the conflicts in preserving and improving urban biodiversity are discussed.

## **2. Conceptual framework**

## **2.1. Definitions of urban biodiversity**

The concept of biodiversity is general term that can occur at any levels of life. Savard et al. (2000) explained that life is structured in a hierarchical manner which start by cells that constitute individuals, then form the populations, which regroup into species and as a results end as a communities.

428 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Oliveira et al. 2011).

landscape planning and design.

**2. Conceptual framework** 

improving urban biodiversity are discussed.

**2.1. Definitions of urban biodiversity** 

caused by urbanization (Zitkovic 2008).

resources varies in different parts of the world (Kohsaka 2010).

more vital because of rapid urbanization growth in the world.

and global scales (Clergeau et al. 1998, Blair 1999, McKinney 2002; Ricketts and Imhoff 2003). Over the years, an approximately species decline by 10-15% caused just by habitat lost. These figures will increase by pollution, climate change and other environmental problems

The distribution of people across the Earth's surface is not an equal one. Therefore the pressure of population growth on balancing the conservation and the use of natural

Generally, the levels of urbanization are high in developing countries which most of the protected areas are located in. In addition, the distance between protected areas and cities is reducing that brings with it, significant conservation challenges (Mcdonald et al. 2008;

This situation is not better in developed countries. According to Muller & Warner (2010), the number of vascular plant species decreases from more than 400 species per km2 at urban fringe to less than 50 species per km2 in city center, in central European cities. That's why urbanization and its impacts on environment are global issue for human future. However, there is still a glimmer of hope for preserving the urban biodiversity because there is a growing awareness that the health of the planet's biological diversity is essential for determination of human own destiny. Therefore, more protection is required for biodiversity than what has occurred to date (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005; Connery 2010). In Addtion, nature in the city and studies of urban biodiversity become

In this case, landscape architects have significant role in designing the cities as a healthy and aesthetically pleasing living environments while conserving biodiversity. Preserving and improving the natural areas in parallel with biodiversity is an important concept in urban

Towards these objectives, this chapter focuses on the urban biodiversity and the opportunities and conflict of improving urban biodiversity. First section of chapter as a conceptual framework starts by reviewing some important concepts related with urban biodiversity. Consequently, the opportunities for improving urban biodiversity are identified. Also, the planning, management and design of urban landscape have been discussed as a tool of development, protection and creation of biodiversity. In addition, planting and constructional urban landscape design has been explained in order to creation and protection of biodiversity in urban areas. Finally, some of the conflicts in preserving and

The concept of biodiversity is general term that can occur at any levels of life. Savard et al. (2000) explained that life is structured in a hierarchical manner which start by cells that Biodiversity is usually defined as living diversity of nature and as a component of environment. It involved all form of life, the structural and functional aspects together. Biodiversity is not only the quantity. Therefore, as assessment criteria; richness and its spatial distribution, significant and rare characteristics, homogenization and hybridization factors will be considered.

The concept of urban biodiversity is specific part of living diversity of nature. Zitkovic (2008) describes it as plants and animals that are living in the built environment. It also consists of patches of land that have survived during city expansion and represent the area before dense human settlement. In another definition by Muller et al. (2010), the urban biodiversity is explained as "the variety and richness of living organisms (including genetic variation and habitat diversity found in and on the edge of human settlements".

Through the history of human life, a lot of factors affected biodiversity. Permanent settlement, agriculture revolution, cultivates plants and domesticates animals influenced the urban biodiversity. In addition the manner that land is used and built up, economic, social and cultural dynamics affected urban biodiversity. Beside that the cities' development impacts directly urban biodiversity. It also influence how biodiversity is distributed among the different groups of the population (Oliveira et al.2011).Therefore, in the urban areas with less dense of population and shorter history of human impact original natural areas and species can be found. However, in mega-cities or more densely populated areas urban biodiversity includes only the species that can survive or adapted to the character and quality of urban ecosystems.

Today, urban biodiversity is not only the important part of urban ecosystem but also, it is a substantial ecological and cultural integrating element. Furthermore the native flora and fauna are important tools for urban ecological and cultural identity.

There is variety of biodiversity from rural borders to urban core according to the different types of habitats. Muller et al. (2010) categorized urban landscape and habitat levels as follows;


It must be highlighted that the concept of urban biodiversity is not include just native species. Urban biodiversity may not accommodate the native biodiversity of the surroundings as this may not be compatible with the urban environment or the connivance of urban residents. For example, Manaus in Brazil is surrounded by the Amazon jungle, but its citizens do not expect to share their daily life environment with local fauna including boas or piranhas. Some native trees may not be suitable for urban environment due to the natural limitations (e.g., the need for space, clean air, water or certain species to survive) or management constraints (e.g., the frequent need for trimming or cleaning beyond local capacity). Indeed, removal of some species from cities, like mosquitoes, can add to the quality of life in those cities. As for desert cities, citizens may want to have trees and other non-native species. Therefore, the role of cities to foster biodiversity will vary according to its individual context. For one city, the urban biodiversity may comport with the surrounding biodiversity and the city can leave a corridor for this biodiversity thus intertwining the urban fabric with local habitats. For another city (like Manaus), this may not be possible, or at least for some species (Oliveira et al. 2011).

Urban Landscape Design and Biodiversity 431

Also, urban ecosystem can make favorable condition for improving biodiversity. Many researches indicate that there is a variety of species living in urban area that are welladapted to the urban life (Oliveira et al. 2011). Also, some research has produced substantial evidence indicating that biodiversity in urban area can be more than rural areas surrounding (Qureshi & Breuste 2010). The reason is that, there are unique physical and ecological conditions in urban area. These are mixed and small-scale habitat mosaic, different from of landscapes and land uses, the various influences of people that result in habitat types and plant and animal associations or communities (Muller & Werner 2010).

Muller (2007) justified the reasons for high biodiversity in cities as follows:

Cities often include relics of semi-natural habitats - meadows, arable fields…

Cities are centers of importation, naturalization and spread of exotic species.

The variety and distinctness of urban habitats - residential areas, gardens, parks,

Therefore, the urban ecosystem is valuable for biodiversity including population structure, genetic diversity. Savard et al. (2000) explained an excellent example for these advantages. Planting rare vegetable or rare form of plants in backyards can sustain a source for genetic variability. Additionally creation of pools and wetland can reproduce variety of aquatic organisms. Cultivation of flowering plants in cities parks and even private lots can attract butterfly and birds and consequently increase the diversity of these species. For example, in 2010 as part of the Landscape Urbanism biennale, an area was planted up to reintroduce

Urban ecosystems are similar from different perspectives such as structure, function and constraints. The geographical location, size and the type of landscape they modify are the factors of their difference. One of the important element influences plant and wildlife species which can be found in urban built environment is the landscape surrounding the city. Therefore it has a significant role in the management of urban biodiversity (Savard et

There are lots of examples indicate immigration of animals and plants to urban areas from their natural habitats. The reason of this immigration in most cases is food supply and lack

There is a general agreement that cities are characterized by high species richness in terms of vascular plants and most animal groups. This is the result of the high beta-diversity that means the large variety of habitats present and variation in vertical and habitat structure, the considerable variation in the type and intensities of land use, the range of material used and the huge array of micro-habitants, and the most varied habitant mosaic configurations

Cities often include relics of natural habitats- forests, rivers…

industrial areas, railway areas, brownfields

Cities are centers of immigration

butterflies back into the city Bat Yam Israel.

**2.3. Urban ecosystem and biodiversity** 

of predators (Muller & Werner 2010).

(Muller & Werner 2010).

al. 2000).

The modern concepts of biodiversity and ecosystems have the potential to remedy this misconception. Ecosystems show that components within any geographical unit are connected, including nature, human beings and cities. Biodiversity reflects the interconnectivity of all life on Earth.

## **2.2. The importance of urban biodiversity**

The urban environment is ecologically highly dynamic (Gilbert, 1989; Adams, 1994; Savard et al. 2000) and can provide opportunities for improving the biodiversity and ensure beneficial insights into the management of biodiversity in other ecosystems. The existence of urban biodiversity can have positive impacts on quality of life as well as environmental improvement. Green areas such as parks can provide interactions between human and nature (Figure 1). It can also influence the form of the city and its inhabitants. Furthermore, the conservation of urban biodiversity is an important issue in managing urban landscape especially in mega-cities (Qureshi & Breuste 2010).

**Figure 1.** Green areas such as parks can provide interactions between human and nature as well as improving biodiversity (Photo from Ankara-Turkey taken by Aysel Uslu)

Also, urban ecosystem can make favorable condition for improving biodiversity. Many researches indicate that there is a variety of species living in urban area that are welladapted to the urban life (Oliveira et al. 2011). Also, some research has produced substantial evidence indicating that biodiversity in urban area can be more than rural areas surrounding (Qureshi & Breuste 2010). The reason is that, there are unique physical and ecological conditions in urban area. These are mixed and small-scale habitat mosaic, different from of landscapes and land uses, the various influences of people that result in habitat types and plant and animal associations or communities (Muller & Werner 2010). Muller (2007) justified the reasons for high biodiversity in cities as follows:


430 Advances in Landscape Architecture

connectivity of all life on Earth.

**2.2. The importance of urban biodiversity** 

especially in mega-cities (Qureshi & Breuste 2010).

capacity). Indeed, removal of some species from cities, like mosquitoes, can add to the quality of life in those cities. As for desert cities, citizens may want to have trees and other non-native species. Therefore, the role of cities to foster biodiversity will vary according to its individual context. For one city, the urban biodiversity may comport with the surrounding biodiversity and the city can leave a corridor for this biodiversity thus intertwining the urban fabric with local habitats. For another city (like Manaus), this may

The modern concepts of biodiversity and ecosystems have the potential to remedy this misconception. Ecosystems show that components within any geographical unit are connected, including nature, human beings and cities. Biodiversity reflects the inter-

The urban environment is ecologically highly dynamic (Gilbert, 1989; Adams, 1994; Savard et al. 2000) and can provide opportunities for improving the biodiversity and ensure beneficial insights into the management of biodiversity in other ecosystems. The existence of urban biodiversity can have positive impacts on quality of life as well as environmental improvement. Green areas such as parks can provide interactions between human and nature (Figure 1). It can also influence the form of the city and its inhabitants. Furthermore, the conservation of urban biodiversity is an important issue in managing urban landscape

**Figure 1.** Green areas such as parks can provide interactions between human and nature as well as

improving biodiversity (Photo from Ankara-Turkey taken by Aysel Uslu)

not be possible, or at least for some species (Oliveira et al. 2011).

Cities are centers of importation, naturalization and spread of exotic species.

Therefore, the urban ecosystem is valuable for biodiversity including population structure, genetic diversity. Savard et al. (2000) explained an excellent example for these advantages. Planting rare vegetable or rare form of plants in backyards can sustain a source for genetic variability. Additionally creation of pools and wetland can reproduce variety of aquatic organisms. Cultivation of flowering plants in cities parks and even private lots can attract butterfly and birds and consequently increase the diversity of these species. For example, in 2010 as part of the Landscape Urbanism biennale, an area was planted up to reintroduce butterflies back into the city Bat Yam Israel.

## **2.3. Urban ecosystem and biodiversity**

Urban ecosystems are similar from different perspectives such as structure, function and constraints. The geographical location, size and the type of landscape they modify are the factors of their difference. One of the important element influences plant and wildlife species which can be found in urban built environment is the landscape surrounding the city. Therefore it has a significant role in the management of urban biodiversity (Savard et al. 2000).

There are lots of examples indicate immigration of animals and plants to urban areas from their natural habitats. The reason of this immigration in most cases is food supply and lack of predators (Muller & Werner 2010).

There is a general agreement that cities are characterized by high species richness in terms of vascular plants and most animal groups. This is the result of the high beta-diversity that means the large variety of habitats present and variation in vertical and habitat structure, the considerable variation in the type and intensities of land use, the range of material used and the huge array of micro-habitants, and the most varied habitant mosaic configurations (Muller & Werner 2010).

According to Muller & Werner (2010), during the 19th and 20th centuries, the number of naturalized species (tree, shrubs and herbaceous plants) increased significantly. The urbanization is shown as basic reason of this *biotic homogenization.* During these years, planting small number of nonnative species and cultivars in gardens caused biotic homogenization of these species. By the time, these species spread as invasive species into their surroundings (Muller & Werner 2010). Beside these plant species, some of the animal species also become naturalized in urban area. As a result of biotic homogenization process, the biodiversity increase in urban areas.

Urban Landscape Design and Biodiversity 433

protected natural open space and corridors (adjoining residential yards or sections)

Green infrastructures consist of a system of *hubs* and *link.* Hubs are "destinations for the wildlife and ecological processes moving to or through them" and links are a "connections

The corridors have significant role suporting biodiversity because they allowing some species, especially the less mobile ones, to disperse to distant locations and limit the

Vergnes et al. (2012) analyzed the effect of corridors on the variety of species, the number of individuals, the means by which species disperse (in the air or on the ground) and the main habitats in which the species are typically found. The results of this research indicate that, not only do corridors affect the dispersal of individual species; they also allow species to maintain community structure. Furthermore, corridors can connect urban areas with new

During the history of life, cities often occur in unique and valuable natural ecosystems such as the River side and delta. Urbanization in these areas fragments the natural and original habitats (Schaefer 2003). Over the time, continued urbanization isolates these areas. However, in some cases these areas are protected as natural parks, but their biodiversity decreasing as a result of isolation. Planning green infrastructure and green links enables these areas to act as more viable larger units, thereby helping to protect their biodiversity.

Most of the time the growth of population in cities cause spreading to rural areas surrounding where original vegetation is exist. These areas have an opportunity for its use as parts of the urban infrastructure in the new city regions (Breuste, 2004; Florgard 2010). Planning the green infrastructure will connect these areas to urban areas and can improve

One of the challenges in urban planning and design is the habitat fragmentation caused by urbanization. Connectivity is the product of green infrastructure in urban environment that ties the island biogeography and conservation biology and unable them to function as larger units containing larger breeding populations and more complex food webs (Schaefer 2003).

Habitat fragments are the nodes of this web and corridors are the connection between them. Linehan et al. (1995; Schaefer 2003) determined the strength and impact of network connectivity by the number of network in region, the dimensions of the links within the

Many researchers accepted the value of connectivity in forestry conservation and founding the movement of wildlife between habitat patches (Harris 1984; Noss 1987; Schaefer 2003).

Wildlife movement through the corridors can range small to large mammals (e.g Wegner and Merriam 1979) and birds (e.g. Dmowski and Kozakiewicz 1990; Schaefer 2003). Some criteria can examine the quality of corridors in green infrastructure such as vegetation

tying the system together and enabling green infrastructure networks to work".

negative impacts of fragmentation (Vergnes et al. 2012).

city regions locating in rural areas surround the main city.

the biological diversity indirectly.

networks and the number and sizes of the nodes.

(Hostetler et al. 2011).

Urban biodiversity have positive impact on human wellbeing. Expanding the urban green areas and contributing the natural areas development in cities not only promotes species richness, but also bring better quality of life for the residents. Curitiba Declaration on Cities and Biodiversity (2007; Connery 2009) emphasized the importance of urban biodiversity signaling the need "to integrate biodiversity concerns into urban planning and development, with a view to improving the lives of urban residents …"

Urban biodiversity provide recreational areas in artificial urban environment, so, it is essential for resident's health (Niemela 1999).The biological diversity also helps people, shape their "sense of place."(Connery 2009). Existance of varaiety of plants or animals as characteristics of places can present a memorable picture from different sites and led to the identification of places.

Additionally, urban biodiversity as a key component of ecosystems have positive effect on ecological service function. Several ecological services having significant role and human wellbeing are the direct products of urban biodiversity. On the other hand, biodiversity loss can influence almost all services provided by ecosystems (MA, 2005; Oliveira et al. 2011). These ecological services range from provisioning services (e.g. food, fuel, water) to regulating (e.g. climate/air pollution regulation, waste assimilation, flood and fire regulation) and cultural services (Oliveira et al. 2011). Using the local diverse vegetation can be more effective improving ecological services.

Furthermore, urban biodiversity can play a significant role in improving the green infrastructure that influences the human health and climate changes and heat islands positively (Vergnes et al. 2012).

Conservation of urban biodiversity is an important global issue because urban environment have a significant role in preserving the local species and maintaina platform for urban citizens to understand the natural process. For a long time, urban planning effort was to establish protected area and corridors in cities (Hostetler et al. 2011). However today, most of the biologists and ecologists believed that creating the connection between parks, preserves and other important ecological areas and establishing green infrastructure is the key concept for pereserving biological diversity and ecological process (Benedict ve Macmahon 2002).

Benedict & Macmahon (2002) describes green infrastructure as an ecological framework needed for environmental, social and economic sustainability. It can also be defined as protected natural open space and corridors (adjoining residential yards or sections) (Hostetler et al. 2011).

432 Advances in Landscape Architecture

identification of places.

the biodiversity increase in urban areas.

be more effective improving ecological services.

positively (Vergnes et al. 2012).

Macmahon 2002).

According to Muller & Werner (2010), during the 19th and 20th centuries, the number of naturalized species (tree, shrubs and herbaceous plants) increased significantly. The urbanization is shown as basic reason of this *biotic homogenization.* During these years, planting small number of nonnative species and cultivars in gardens caused biotic homogenization of these species. By the time, these species spread as invasive species into their surroundings (Muller & Werner 2010). Beside these plant species, some of the animal species also become naturalized in urban area. As a result of biotic homogenization process,

Urban biodiversity have positive impact on human wellbeing. Expanding the urban green areas and contributing the natural areas development in cities not only promotes species richness, but also bring better quality of life for the residents. Curitiba Declaration on Cities and Biodiversity (2007; Connery 2009) emphasized the importance of urban biodiversity signaling the need "to integrate biodiversity concerns into urban planning and

Urban biodiversity provide recreational areas in artificial urban environment, so, it is essential for resident's health (Niemela 1999).The biological diversity also helps people, shape their "sense of place."(Connery 2009). Existance of varaiety of plants or animals as characteristics of places can present a memorable picture from different sites and led to the

Additionally, urban biodiversity as a key component of ecosystems have positive effect on ecological service function. Several ecological services having significant role and human wellbeing are the direct products of urban biodiversity. On the other hand, biodiversity loss can influence almost all services provided by ecosystems (MA, 2005; Oliveira et al. 2011). These ecological services range from provisioning services (e.g. food, fuel, water) to regulating (e.g. climate/air pollution regulation, waste assimilation, flood and fire regulation) and cultural services (Oliveira et al. 2011). Using the local diverse vegetation can

Furthermore, urban biodiversity can play a significant role in improving the green infrastructure that influences the human health and climate changes and heat islands

Conservation of urban biodiversity is an important global issue because urban environment have a significant role in preserving the local species and maintaina platform for urban citizens to understand the natural process. For a long time, urban planning effort was to establish protected area and corridors in cities (Hostetler et al. 2011). However today, most of the biologists and ecologists believed that creating the connection between parks, preserves and other important ecological areas and establishing green infrastructure is the key concept for pereserving biological diversity and ecological process (Benedict ve

Benedict & Macmahon (2002) describes green infrastructure as an ecological framework needed for environmental, social and economic sustainability. It can also be defined as

development, with a view to improving the lives of urban residents …"

Green infrastructures consist of a system of *hubs* and *link.* Hubs are "destinations for the wildlife and ecological processes moving to or through them" and links are a "connections tying the system together and enabling green infrastructure networks to work".

The corridors have significant role suporting biodiversity because they allowing some species, especially the less mobile ones, to disperse to distant locations and limit the negative impacts of fragmentation (Vergnes et al. 2012).

Vergnes et al. (2012) analyzed the effect of corridors on the variety of species, the number of individuals, the means by which species disperse (in the air or on the ground) and the main habitats in which the species are typically found. The results of this research indicate that, not only do corridors affect the dispersal of individual species; they also allow species to maintain community structure. Furthermore, corridors can connect urban areas with new city regions locating in rural areas surround the main city.

During the history of life, cities often occur in unique and valuable natural ecosystems such as the River side and delta. Urbanization in these areas fragments the natural and original habitats (Schaefer 2003). Over the time, continued urbanization isolates these areas. However, in some cases these areas are protected as natural parks, but their biodiversity decreasing as a result of isolation. Planning green infrastructure and green links enables these areas to act as more viable larger units, thereby helping to protect their biodiversity.

Most of the time the growth of population in cities cause spreading to rural areas surrounding where original vegetation is exist. These areas have an opportunity for its use as parts of the urban infrastructure in the new city regions (Breuste, 2004; Florgard 2010). Planning the green infrastructure will connect these areas to urban areas and can improve the biological diversity indirectly.

One of the challenges in urban planning and design is the habitat fragmentation caused by urbanization. Connectivity is the product of green infrastructure in urban environment that ties the island biogeography and conservation biology and unable them to function as larger units containing larger breeding populations and more complex food webs (Schaefer 2003).

Habitat fragments are the nodes of this web and corridors are the connection between them. Linehan et al. (1995; Schaefer 2003) determined the strength and impact of network connectivity by the number of network in region, the dimensions of the links within the networks and the number and sizes of the nodes.

Many researchers accepted the value of connectivity in forestry conservation and founding the movement of wildlife between habitat patches (Harris 1984; Noss 1987; Schaefer 2003).

Wildlife movement through the corridors can range small to large mammals (e.g Wegner and Merriam 1979) and birds (e.g. Dmowski and Kozakiewicz 1990; Schaefer 2003). Some criteria can examine the quality of corridors in green infrastructure such as vegetation layering, diversity of plant life and a minimum of invasive alien species (Thorne 1993; Schaefer 2003).

Urban Landscape Design and Biodiversity 435

Nowadays one of the important challenges in urban area is the problems caused by the climate change. The increasing growth of structural areas and fragmentation of natural and open spaces is the main reason of the urban heat islands and climate changes (Baris et al. 2010). Today, it becomes vital to create micro climatically comfortable spaces within the artificial urban environment both for human thermal comfort and for enabling the conservation of

In a variety of studies, the significant impact of vegetation in urban climate, its ecological balance and effects on citizen's comfort is documented (e.g. Bolund &Hunhammar, 1999; Dimoudi & Nikolopoulou, 2003; Gill et al. 2007; Hagen & Stiles, 2010). Also as Ong (2003; Hagen & Stiles, 2010) emphasized sustainability of city depends on the urban vegetation.

There is lots of evidence that vegetation can reduce the air pollution in urban area (Svensson and Eliasson, 1997; Bolund and Hunhammar 1999). Also, research represents the effective role of the vegetation on air filtering than water or open spaces (Bolund and Hunhammar 1999). Different component are affective on the level of pollution reduction provided by vegetation. Plants can filter the pollution and particulates in the air using their leaf. Therefore, filtering capacity increases with more leaf area and using the trees in urban design. Using trees

Complex species assemblages also can improve the soil health. They can decrease the capacity of soil for absorbing the flood water. Also they can have positive impact on water filtering. Using the various species of plants specially trees can filter air and reduce the amount of carbon in the air causing the greenhouse effect in urban area. It must be noted that using local vegetation has advantages of cutting costs in many cases. The reason is that these species live several years without requiring little human attendance or input of water.

Green space in the urban landscape helps in overcoming fundamental environmental problem, further enabling and easing conservation efforts from local and regional

Biodiversity and healthy ecosystems within city limits support the quality of life of citizens, facilitate municipal services and aid in restoring a positive and integrated perception of the

For decades, preservation of biological diversity restricted just for protected areas where biodiversity is guarded from human threats. Today, protected areas cover approximately 15% of earth whole land surfaces (Mcdonal et al. 2008). Although having such a small rate, the protected areas still have significant role on preserving biodiversity. In addition, the protected area, the concept of preserving biodiversity in urban area gets importance in last

The reason is that the urban areas consist of different habitats and ecosystems allowing many species to grow and expand as we mentioned before. Therefore, the richness of the

biodiversity that can still be called the native flora of the region (Hagen & Stiles 2010).

can be more effective in air pollution reduction than the bushes and grassland.

authorities and others.

environment to citizen.

**3. Preserving and restoring urban biodiversity** 

years. There are a few causes for the importance of this issue.

Today, there are a lot of examples of ccorridors and ecological connection in European cities that bringing nature into city centers and developing physical and ecological connection between built-up areas and natural and greens paces (Beatley 2000).

In many of the urban areas, there is generally one or more open and green spaces with large size that presenting as a mother habitat patch for preserving biodiversity. But, preserving and protecting these habitat patches is not enough for improving urban biodiversity. The reason is that without the connection between them, isolation and loss of genetic diversity is unavoidable. Corridors of urban green infrastructure connect different size of habitat patches such as backyards, hedgerows, green roofs to parks.

Population increasingly grows in urban area and human life still depends on the nature and the ecosystem that they live in. An ecosystem generally can be defined as ''a set of interacting species and their local, non-biological environment functioning together to sustain life'' (Moll and Petit, 1994; Bolund and Hunhammar 1999). Cities are depending on the ecosystems beyond the city limits. In the study of 29 largest cities by Bolund & Hunhammar (1999), in Baltic Sea region, it was estimated that the cities claimed ecosystem support areas at least 500–1000 times larger than the area of the cities themselves. But, in this chapter the concept of urban ecosystem is focused and the effects of ecosystem inside the borders of cities.

Ecosystems usually differ in size, borders and location. In the case of urban environment, it can be defined as a single large ecosystem including all the individual ecosystems like parks, lakes and etc. or can investigate as several individual ecosystems (Rebele, 1994; Bolund and Hunhammar 1999). In this chapter the concept of urban ecosystem consist of all ecosystems located in urban area.

The concept of 'ecosystem services' refers to benefits human populations derive from ecosystems. Bolund and Hunhammar (1999) identified seven urban ecosystems including;

Street trees; lawns: parks; urban forests; cultivated land; wetlands; lakes: sea; and streams.

Then, they range the ecosystem services generated by these systems as: air filtration, micro climate regulation, noise reduction, rain water drainage, sewage treatment, and recreational and cultural values. Finally, they emphasized the locally generated ecosystem services have a substantial impact on the quality-of-life in urban areas and should be addressed in landuse planning. Now, what the relations of urban biodiversity and the urban ecosystem services is.

Urban biodiversity can provide series of benefits in urban ecosystem by improving the ecosystem services ranging from the more directly perceived, such as water supplies and recreation facilities (parks) to less tangible effects of large bio diverse areas, such as hosting species which may help cure diseases or contribute to long term climate stability.

Nowadays one of the important challenges in urban area is the problems caused by the climate change. The increasing growth of structural areas and fragmentation of natural and open spaces is the main reason of the urban heat islands and climate changes (Baris et al. 2010). Today, it becomes vital to create micro climatically comfortable spaces within the artificial urban environment both for human thermal comfort and for enabling the conservation of biodiversity that can still be called the native flora of the region (Hagen & Stiles 2010).

434 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Schaefer 2003).

borders of cities.

services is.

ecosystems located in urban area.

layering, diversity of plant life and a minimum of invasive alien species (Thorne 1993;

Today, there are a lot of examples of ccorridors and ecological connection in European cities that bringing nature into city centers and developing physical and ecological connection

In many of the urban areas, there is generally one or more open and green spaces with large size that presenting as a mother habitat patch for preserving biodiversity. But, preserving and protecting these habitat patches is not enough for improving urban biodiversity. The reason is that without the connection between them, isolation and loss of genetic diversity is unavoidable. Corridors of urban green infrastructure connect different size of habitat

Population increasingly grows in urban area and human life still depends on the nature and the ecosystem that they live in. An ecosystem generally can be defined as ''a set of interacting species and their local, non-biological environment functioning together to sustain life'' (Moll and Petit, 1994; Bolund and Hunhammar 1999). Cities are depending on the ecosystems beyond the city limits. In the study of 29 largest cities by Bolund & Hunhammar (1999), in Baltic Sea region, it was estimated that the cities claimed ecosystem support areas at least 500–1000 times larger than the area of the cities themselves. But, in this chapter the concept of urban ecosystem is focused and the effects of ecosystem inside the

Ecosystems usually differ in size, borders and location. In the case of urban environment, it can be defined as a single large ecosystem including all the individual ecosystems like parks, lakes and etc. or can investigate as several individual ecosystems (Rebele, 1994; Bolund and Hunhammar 1999). In this chapter the concept of urban ecosystem consist of all

The concept of 'ecosystem services' refers to benefits human populations derive from ecosystems. Bolund and Hunhammar (1999) identified seven urban ecosystems including;

Street trees; lawns: parks; urban forests; cultivated land; wetlands; lakes: sea; and streams.

Then, they range the ecosystem services generated by these systems as: air filtration, micro climate regulation, noise reduction, rain water drainage, sewage treatment, and recreational and cultural values. Finally, they emphasized the locally generated ecosystem services have a substantial impact on the quality-of-life in urban areas and should be addressed in landuse planning. Now, what the relations of urban biodiversity and the urban ecosystem

Urban biodiversity can provide series of benefits in urban ecosystem by improving the ecosystem services ranging from the more directly perceived, such as water supplies and recreation facilities (parks) to less tangible effects of large bio diverse areas, such as hosting

species which may help cure diseases or contribute to long term climate stability.

between built-up areas and natural and greens paces (Beatley 2000).

patches such as backyards, hedgerows, green roofs to parks.

In a variety of studies, the significant impact of vegetation in urban climate, its ecological balance and effects on citizen's comfort is documented (e.g. Bolund &Hunhammar, 1999; Dimoudi & Nikolopoulou, 2003; Gill et al. 2007; Hagen & Stiles, 2010). Also as Ong (2003; Hagen & Stiles, 2010) emphasized sustainability of city depends on the urban vegetation.

There is lots of evidence that vegetation can reduce the air pollution in urban area (Svensson and Eliasson, 1997; Bolund and Hunhammar 1999). Also, research represents the effective role of the vegetation on air filtering than water or open spaces (Bolund and Hunhammar 1999). Different component are affective on the level of pollution reduction provided by vegetation. Plants can filter the pollution and particulates in the air using their leaf. Therefore, filtering capacity increases with more leaf area and using the trees in urban design. Using trees can be more effective in air pollution reduction than the bushes and grassland.

Complex species assemblages also can improve the soil health. They can decrease the capacity of soil for absorbing the flood water. Also they can have positive impact on water filtering. Using the various species of plants specially trees can filter air and reduce the amount of carbon in the air causing the greenhouse effect in urban area. It must be noted that using local vegetation has advantages of cutting costs in many cases. The reason is that these species live several years without requiring little human attendance or input of water.

Green space in the urban landscape helps in overcoming fundamental environmental problem, further enabling and easing conservation efforts from local and regional authorities and others.

Biodiversity and healthy ecosystems within city limits support the quality of life of citizens, facilitate municipal services and aid in restoring a positive and integrated perception of the environment to citizen.

## **3. Preserving and restoring urban biodiversity**

For decades, preservation of biological diversity restricted just for protected areas where biodiversity is guarded from human threats. Today, protected areas cover approximately 15% of earth whole land surfaces (Mcdonal et al. 2008). Although having such a small rate, the protected areas still have significant role on preserving biodiversity. In addition, the protected area, the concept of preserving biodiversity in urban area gets importance in last years. There are a few causes for the importance of this issue.

The reason is that the urban areas consist of different habitats and ecosystems allowing many species to grow and expand as we mentioned before. Therefore, the richness of the

species proliferates in these areas. On the other hand, cities consume a large amount of natural resources of places, far away from cities and indirectly affect the bio diversities' of these areas. In addition, most of the cities' activities generate air pollution, solid waste and so on that directly has negative impact on cities biodiversity.

Urban Landscape Design and Biodiversity 437

vegetated corridors linking urban green areas to each other or connecting these areas with rural habitats are important to maintain and enhance urban biodiversity (Flink and Searns, 1993; Savard et al. 2000). The reason is that, they facilitate the movements of species between the different habitats. Consequently, they insure the colonization of natural

Streams and other waterways as natural corridors in urban areas are another opportunities for promoting biodiversity. If these corridors are well managed, they can improve biodiversity not only in the habitats beside the land but also can have positive effects on the

**Figure 2.** Waterways in urban areas as opportunity for promoting biodiversity (photo from Brussels-

In addition to urban corridors, urban landscape consists of natural areas covered by local species of plants. These plants constitute habitats for many other animal species. Therefore, protecting these natural areas inside the cities, results many benefits especially those influencing biodiversity. They also help preservation of local habitats and species that are in

Beyond supporting a variety of species and habitats, other advantages of protecting natural areas in cities are contributing the essential services including water filtration and absorption, nutrient cycling, air filtration that can improve biodiversity indirectly. In addition, they can bring nature closer to city dwellers. As a result, the native species will recognized and be familiar for inhabitants. Therefore, urban residents will protect these species by rising awareness of environmental issues and importance of urban biodiversity.

areas.

proliferation of aquatic species (Figure 2).

Belgium taken by Aysel Uslu)

peril of extinction (Figure 3).

That's why; it is essential to develop methods for identifying where the human threats and biodiversity coincide (Ricketts et al. 1999; Rickettes & Imhoff 2006) to decrease the negative impacts of urbanization on urban biodiversity and preserve the existing species while restoring the damaged areas.

According to these objectives in this section, the opportunities for preserving biodiversity in urban areas are firstly evaluated. Because preserving a functional biotope and ecosystem are a basic step in sustainable development in cities and towns. Also, it can provide aesthetical and functional advantages that can ensure many social and economic benefits in cities.

In second part, the relation between urban landscape design and biodiversity is discussed. Also, the methods of planning and design of urban landscape that can improve urban biodiversity are defined. Furthermore, the effective method for improving urban biodiversity is recommended.

Finally, the conflicts and challenges in preserving and improving urban biodiversity are investigated. The problems related to preserving urban biodiversity are emphasized in this part because if the obstructions identified, better solutions will emerged and elimination of problems will accelerate the improvement of urban biodiversity.

## **3.1. Opportunities to promoting urban biodiversity**

Cities are the parts of larger ecosystems and don't exist isolated. Therefore, investigating opportunities to promote urban biodiversity can impress the richness of species not only inside the urban borders but also in areas surrounding the cities. However, while perusing these opportunities, it must be highlighted that all of the species are not equal in urban area.

Most of the species existing in urban area are different in many features such as size, shape, abundance, distribution, trophic position, ecological function, feeding habits and desirability. It is substantial to identify which species have more important role in the community and their absence will affect other species while evaluating the opportunities for promoting species life.

Urban structure consists of different natural corridors such as waterways and green ways. These natural habitats inside the urban borders accommodate many species and generally are connected to the areas out of the urban boundaries. So, they are important features for biodiversity both as stable and as transient habitats (McIntyre, 2000; McIntyre et al., 2001; Angold et al. 2006).

Therefore, evaluating the opportunities in preserving biodiversity in these areas can increase the urban biodiversity richness as well as near rural and natural areas species diversity. Any vegetated corridors linking urban green areas to each other or connecting these areas with rural habitats are important to maintain and enhance urban biodiversity (Flink and Searns, 1993; Savard et al. 2000). The reason is that, they facilitate the movements of species between the different habitats. Consequently, they insure the colonization of natural areas.

436 Advances in Landscape Architecture

restoring the damaged areas.

biodiversity is recommended.

promoting species life.

Angold et al. 2006).

cities.

species proliferates in these areas. On the other hand, cities consume a large amount of natural resources of places, far away from cities and indirectly affect the bio diversities' of these areas. In addition, most of the cities' activities generate air pollution, solid waste and

That's why; it is essential to develop methods for identifying where the human threats and biodiversity coincide (Ricketts et al. 1999; Rickettes & Imhoff 2006) to decrease the negative impacts of urbanization on urban biodiversity and preserve the existing species while

According to these objectives in this section, the opportunities for preserving biodiversity in urban areas are firstly evaluated. Because preserving a functional biotope and ecosystem are a basic step in sustainable development in cities and towns. Also, it can provide aesthetical and functional advantages that can ensure many social and economic benefits in

In second part, the relation between urban landscape design and biodiversity is discussed. Also, the methods of planning and design of urban landscape that can improve urban biodiversity are defined. Furthermore, the effective method for improving urban

Finally, the conflicts and challenges in preserving and improving urban biodiversity are investigated. The problems related to preserving urban biodiversity are emphasized in this part because if the obstructions identified, better solutions will emerged and elimination of

Cities are the parts of larger ecosystems and don't exist isolated. Therefore, investigating opportunities to promote urban biodiversity can impress the richness of species not only inside the urban borders but also in areas surrounding the cities. However, while perusing these opportunities, it must be highlighted that all of the species are not equal in urban area. Most of the species existing in urban area are different in many features such as size, shape, abundance, distribution, trophic position, ecological function, feeding habits and desirability. It is substantial to identify which species have more important role in the community and their absence will affect other species while evaluating the opportunities for

Urban structure consists of different natural corridors such as waterways and green ways. These natural habitats inside the urban borders accommodate many species and generally are connected to the areas out of the urban boundaries. So, they are important features for biodiversity both as stable and as transient habitats (McIntyre, 2000; McIntyre et al., 2001;

Therefore, evaluating the opportunities in preserving biodiversity in these areas can increase the urban biodiversity richness as well as near rural and natural areas species diversity. Any

so on that directly has negative impact on cities biodiversity.

problems will accelerate the improvement of urban biodiversity.

**3.1. Opportunities to promoting urban biodiversity** 

Streams and other waterways as natural corridors in urban areas are another opportunities for promoting biodiversity. If these corridors are well managed, they can improve biodiversity not only in the habitats beside the land but also can have positive effects on the proliferation of aquatic species (Figure 2).

**Figure 2.** Waterways in urban areas as opportunity for promoting biodiversity (photo from Brussels-Belgium taken by Aysel Uslu)

In addition to urban corridors, urban landscape consists of natural areas covered by local species of plants. These plants constitute habitats for many other animal species. Therefore, protecting these natural areas inside the cities, results many benefits especially those influencing biodiversity. They also help preservation of local habitats and species that are in peril of extinction (Figure 3).

Beyond supporting a variety of species and habitats, other advantages of protecting natural areas in cities are contributing the essential services including water filtration and absorption, nutrient cycling, air filtration that can improve biodiversity indirectly. In addition, they can bring nature closer to city dwellers. As a result, the native species will recognized and be familiar for inhabitants. Therefore, urban residents will protect these species by rising awareness of environmental issues and importance of urban biodiversity.

Urban Landscape Design and Biodiversity 439

biodiversity as well as improving its capacity to provide ecosystem services. They also can connect cities to the surroundings area and facilitate the movement of different species of

An example for brownfield is unused industrial areas inside the cities. If these areas were abandoned for a long time, natural plants begin to grow without any intervention. As a result of this vegetation, several species of insects and other animals will attract to the area and if this habitat modification managed properly, it will be transformed into new habitat for many species. In some cases these areas turned to man-made parks that have positive impact on urban biodiversity as well as natural vegetation. The research of Strauss and Biedermann (2006; Haase& Schetke 2010) indicate the positive response of different species to large area of inner-city grassy brownfields and negative reaction to the absence of them. In addition to brownfield, some researchers reported considerable potential of shrinking cities for biodiversity and the improvement of urban green system. The residential and commercial properties and their subsequent demolition area provide opportunities enlargement of urban green space as well as the ecological restoration of cities. Therefore, identifying these areas and investigating their potential for improving urban green space

will have significant role in increasing urban biodiversity (Haas & Schetke 2010).

elements as a habitat for different species can improve urban biodiversity.

Jim and Chen, 2010; Francis 2010).

and constructional materials development (Figure 4).

Beside the opportunities related to land use, constructional elements in cities can provide opportunities for promoting urban biodiversity. Walls are one of these noticeable constructional elements in cities that can support biodiversity and provide other environmental benefits as well. As a result of population growth and decrease in land area available for urbanization, the vertical dimension in urban areas expanded. Utilizing these

In general three types of walls in urban area can be observed; free standing (boundary) walls, buildings walls and retaining walls. Different vascular plant species have the ability to grow on these types of walls. Most of the studies on walls vegetation have focused on old walls maintaining an interesting flora, sufficient to attract some initial botanical attention. As a result, some walls are identified as worthy of conservation because they have some biodiversity value as well as historical and cultural value (Darlington, 1981; Gilbert, 1992;

However, establishment of more plants on walls depends on the physical and ecological features of walls allowing the trapping and germination of seeds (Darlington, 1981; Francis and Hoggart, 2009; Segal, 1969; Francis 2010). Other factors such as physical substrate, moisture, nutrients, micro climate are also decisive factors on walls biodiversity. Freestanding walls are often the common location for vegetation in urban areas. But maintaining the other vegetation species on the buildings wall still require new technologies

Finally, it must be highlighted that urbanization provided appropriate environments for many exotic species to grow inside the city's boundaries. If these advantages are wellmanaged, the biological diversity of urban areas will improve with native species as well as exotic species. Thus, urban government must plan, design urban environment in such way

insects and animals depending to the plant species.

**Figure 3.** Natural green spaces can support the life cycle of local species (photo from Luxembourg taken by Aysel Uslu).

Also there are series of open public areas inside the cities that have potential for improving biodiversity. If these areas including; parks and public gardens, outdoor sports activity areas, playground, squares, hobby gardens and urban farms are well-designed and managed, then they will provide life habitats for many plant and animal species.

Apart from preserving and linking of existing green spaces, creating new green spaces inside the cities is essential to complete green network and sustainable urban development (Hagen & Stiles, 2010). New green spaces can increase the potential of species to move through urban areas and colonize the surrounding habitats. Residential areas gardens can have a significant role in this concept. According to Savard (1978), well vegetated residential areas can establish aerial corridors through their tree canopy. These areas are beneficial for migrating birds which use them extensively as they provide food and protection against aerial predators.

Besides the gardens and greening the courtyard, any other green strategies such as green roof are essential for improving urban biodiversity. Rapid urbanization caused most of the natural green spaces inside the cities to be destroyed and fragmented. Consequently of these modifications, the natural habitats of many species are damaged. Therefore, creating new green areas can improve these habitats supporting urban biodiversity.

Unused land within cities and brownfield sites are the other parts of urban landscape structure that can have significant role on rehabilitating the urban natural biodiversity. One example for unused land within cities is railways. Railway sidings with vegetation can connect different green spaces within cities and play as a network enhancing habitat for biodiversity as well as improving its capacity to provide ecosystem services. They also can connect cities to the surroundings area and facilitate the movement of different species of insects and animals depending to the plant species.

438 Advances in Landscape Architecture

taken by Aysel Uslu).

aerial predators.

**Figure 3.** Natural green spaces can support the life cycle of local species (photo from Luxembourg

managed, then they will provide life habitats for many plant and animal species.

Also there are series of open public areas inside the cities that have potential for improving biodiversity. If these areas including; parks and public gardens, outdoor sports activity areas, playground, squares, hobby gardens and urban farms are well-designed and

Apart from preserving and linking of existing green spaces, creating new green spaces inside the cities is essential to complete green network and sustainable urban development (Hagen & Stiles, 2010). New green spaces can increase the potential of species to move through urban areas and colonize the surrounding habitats. Residential areas gardens can have a significant role in this concept. According to Savard (1978), well vegetated residential areas can establish aerial corridors through their tree canopy. These areas are beneficial for migrating birds which use them extensively as they provide food and protection against

Besides the gardens and greening the courtyard, any other green strategies such as green roof are essential for improving urban biodiversity. Rapid urbanization caused most of the natural green spaces inside the cities to be destroyed and fragmented. Consequently of these modifications, the natural habitats of many species are damaged. Therefore, creating new

Unused land within cities and brownfield sites are the other parts of urban landscape structure that can have significant role on rehabilitating the urban natural biodiversity. One example for unused land within cities is railways. Railway sidings with vegetation can connect different green spaces within cities and play as a network enhancing habitat for

green areas can improve these habitats supporting urban biodiversity.

An example for brownfield is unused industrial areas inside the cities. If these areas were abandoned for a long time, natural plants begin to grow without any intervention. As a result of this vegetation, several species of insects and other animals will attract to the area and if this habitat modification managed properly, it will be transformed into new habitat for many species. In some cases these areas turned to man-made parks that have positive impact on urban biodiversity as well as natural vegetation. The research of Strauss and Biedermann (2006; Haase& Schetke 2010) indicate the positive response of different species to large area of inner-city grassy brownfields and negative reaction to the absence of them. In addition to brownfield, some researchers reported considerable potential of shrinking cities for biodiversity and the improvement of urban green system. The residential and commercial properties and their subsequent demolition area provide opportunities enlargement of urban green space as well as the ecological restoration of cities. Therefore, identifying these areas and investigating their potential for improving urban green space will have significant role in increasing urban biodiversity (Haas & Schetke 2010).

Beside the opportunities related to land use, constructional elements in cities can provide opportunities for promoting urban biodiversity. Walls are one of these noticeable constructional elements in cities that can support biodiversity and provide other environmental benefits as well. As a result of population growth and decrease in land area available for urbanization, the vertical dimension in urban areas expanded. Utilizing these elements as a habitat for different species can improve urban biodiversity.

In general three types of walls in urban area can be observed; free standing (boundary) walls, buildings walls and retaining walls. Different vascular plant species have the ability to grow on these types of walls. Most of the studies on walls vegetation have focused on old walls maintaining an interesting flora, sufficient to attract some initial botanical attention. As a result, some walls are identified as worthy of conservation because they have some biodiversity value as well as historical and cultural value (Darlington, 1981; Gilbert, 1992; Jim and Chen, 2010; Francis 2010).

However, establishment of more plants on walls depends on the physical and ecological features of walls allowing the trapping and germination of seeds (Darlington, 1981; Francis and Hoggart, 2009; Segal, 1969; Francis 2010). Other factors such as physical substrate, moisture, nutrients, micro climate are also decisive factors on walls biodiversity. Freestanding walls are often the common location for vegetation in urban areas. But maintaining the other vegetation species on the buildings wall still require new technologies and constructional materials development (Figure 4).

Finally, it must be highlighted that urbanization provided appropriate environments for many exotic species to grow inside the city's boundaries. If these advantages are wellmanaged, the biological diversity of urban areas will improve with native species as well as exotic species. Thus, urban government must plan, design urban environment in such way that outcomes of urbanization influences on the biodiversity can have positive impact on quality and quantity of urban biodiversity.

Urban Landscape Design and Biodiversity 441

Urban planners must determine the inventory resources with in cities and organize them by unique structure, corridors. Therefore the landscape characteristics of the area must be considered in land-use decision. For example, valley or streams can be considered as natural corridors. Also, during the urban growth process it must be considered that these areas

For example a simple meadow containing wildflowers is valuable from the biological preserving point of view. However, shearing these flowers before their blooming can cause the loss of biological diversity values. Therefore, these potential zones, must integrate social

Today, there are many examples of strategies for bringing cities and nature more closely all over the world. The use of native species for ornamental purposes, establishment of conservation areas, revitalization of the nearby water river basin, planning for tree lined streets and linear parks are some of these strategies. European cities offer many examples of these kinds of efforts to incorporate green features and nature into the design of the built

**Figure 5.** An area with wildflower inside the city borders is valuable for urban biodiversity (photo from

Also, it is important that urban planners act on large scales including entire city or smaller scale including neighborhoods. Local action and regional action are equally important in the concept of improving biodiversity. It is critically important that urban planners and other related professionals such as landscape designers or urban designers consider the protection and conservation areas inside the cities in their urban planning and design strategies. In addition, continuous network of these protected zones together with other

must remain as natural as possible (Figure 5).

and ecological considerations to avoid conflicts.

environment in urban areas.

Ankara-Turkey taken by Aysel Uslu).

**Figure 4.** New technologies for maintaining vegetation species on the buildings walls (photo from Brussels-Belgium taken by Aysel Uslu).

## **3.2. Urban landscape design and biodiversity**

Through the history of civilization, most of the attempts to increase the urban biodiversity restricted just to managing the particular green areas or conserving and restoring certain habitats inside the cities. Also, it must be highlighted that the main goal of these activities was providing recreation areas for urban residents like urban parks and green belts rather than improving urban biodiversity. As a result, most of planning process and managing urban land use policies were based on the immediate issues and ignore the wider ecological patterns in urban area.

Recently, emphasizing the importance of urban biodiversity in many research and increasing environmental awareness caused urban biological diversity to be slightly considered in urban planning and designing process to have sustainable and more resilience environment. However, for the implementation of this concept in comprehensive manner, more effective urban planning and design policies are required. Therefore, for shedding light to this issue, in this part some of the planning and design methods for improving urban biodiversity will be identified and recommended.

According to Angold et al. (2006), better understanding of the interplay between landscape and local factors that affect urban biological diversity is first step for managing urban environment. Therefore, identifying the existing biological diversity potential and protecting these areas is essential for improving biodiversity. Accordingly, local planning and design practices yields better results in the term of urban biological preservation. Also, local planners having more information about biodiversity potential of specific area can make better decision for improving biodiversity and react better facing to particular challenges. Urban planners must determine the inventory resources with in cities and organize them by unique structure, corridors. Therefore the landscape characteristics of the area must be considered in land-use decision. For example, valley or streams can be considered as natural corridors. Also, during the urban growth process it must be considered that these areas must remain as natural as possible (Figure 5).

440 Advances in Landscape Architecture

quality and quantity of urban biodiversity.

Brussels-Belgium taken by Aysel Uslu).

patterns in urban area.

**3.2. Urban landscape design and biodiversity** 

urban biodiversity will be identified and recommended.

that outcomes of urbanization influences on the biodiversity can have positive impact on

**Figure 4.** New technologies for maintaining vegetation species on the buildings walls (photo from

Through the history of civilization, most of the attempts to increase the urban biodiversity restricted just to managing the particular green areas or conserving and restoring certain habitats inside the cities. Also, it must be highlighted that the main goal of these activities was providing recreation areas for urban residents like urban parks and green belts rather than improving urban biodiversity. As a result, most of planning process and managing urban land use policies were based on the immediate issues and ignore the wider ecological

Recently, emphasizing the importance of urban biodiversity in many research and increasing environmental awareness caused urban biological diversity to be slightly considered in urban planning and designing process to have sustainable and more resilience environment. However, for the implementation of this concept in comprehensive manner, more effective urban planning and design policies are required. Therefore, for shedding light to this issue, in this part some of the planning and design methods for improving

According to Angold et al. (2006), better understanding of the interplay between landscape and local factors that affect urban biological diversity is first step for managing urban environment. Therefore, identifying the existing biological diversity potential and protecting these areas is essential for improving biodiversity. Accordingly, local planning and design practices yields better results in the term of urban biological preservation. Also, local planners having more information about biodiversity potential of specific area can make better decision for improving biodiversity and react better facing to particular challenges. For example a simple meadow containing wildflowers is valuable from the biological preserving point of view. However, shearing these flowers before their blooming can cause the loss of biological diversity values. Therefore, these potential zones, must integrate social and ecological considerations to avoid conflicts.

Today, there are many examples of strategies for bringing cities and nature more closely all over the world. The use of native species for ornamental purposes, establishment of conservation areas, revitalization of the nearby water river basin, planning for tree lined streets and linear parks are some of these strategies. European cities offer many examples of these kinds of efforts to incorporate green features and nature into the design of the built environment in urban areas.

**Figure 5.** An area with wildflower inside the city borders is valuable for urban biodiversity (photo from Ankara-Turkey taken by Aysel Uslu).

Also, it is important that urban planners act on large scales including entire city or smaller scale including neighborhoods. Local action and regional action are equally important in the concept of improving biodiversity. It is critically important that urban planners and other related professionals such as landscape designers or urban designers consider the protection and conservation areas inside the cities in their urban planning and design strategies. In addition, continuous network of these protected zones together with other

urban greenery must be determined. For this purpose as Niemela (1999), emphasized, 'green belts' surrounding cities and 'green corridors' running through cities are the effective strategies. Because these areas, prevent urban sprawl and ensure the connection between green and natural patches (Oliveira et al. 2011). The surrounding areas of different cities in world include lawns, grove and forest areas. These areas contain large amount of biological diversity. Creating network between these areas and inner cities green and open areas is one of the most effective instruments to preserve and enhance urban biodiversity in large scale.

Urban Landscape Design and Biodiversity 443

Another important point that must be noted for preserving biological diversity in large scale is housing programs in urban areas. Designing more natural built environment to have minimal impact on surrounding landscape and existing biodiversity is a key concept in urban design according to the goals of preserving urban biodiversity. For these purpose, during the construction phase and the process following that, the cooperation of ecologist with urban planners and designers is very important to protect existing local biodiversity and improving flora and fauna diversity in future. One of the positive initiative according to these objectives is Eco-housing a program developed jointly by UNEP and UN-HABITAT, a concept of sustainable principle for entire lifecycle of a housing project. Eco-housing in urban area will have positive impacts on biodiversity conservation by reducing footprint

The concerted efforts at various scales on improving urban biodiversity can produce best results. Designing with biodiversity in mind must be an important part of sustainable design strategies at a neighbourhood level such as micro district, subdivision, housing complexes. In small scale, home-owners can take various actions for improving urban biodiversity. It is important that home owners realize that their individual effort can contribute to a larger collective effort that would culminate in the creation of a real biological corridor. Such a corridor can facilitate the movements of several species throughout the city and improve urban biodiversity (Laurence and Palmaerts, 1991; Savard et al. 2000). Plantings on balconies, in window boxes and on roofs beside promote residential gardens including decorative or vegetable gardens can have positive impact on

**Figure 7.** Flowerboxes containing various flowers diverse (photo from Brussels-Belgium taken by Aysel

and the environmental pollution caused by urbanization (Oliveira et al. 2011).

improving urban biological diversity (Figure 7).

Uslu).

Also, large scale green spaces inside the city has significant role on improving biodiversity. The reason is that small parks or green areas are scattered inside the cities without connectivity to other green spaces. So, they can have slight contributions to preserving biodiversity in urban area (Figure 6).

(photo from Brussels taken by Oguz Yilmz).

**Figure 6.** Low-maintenance green area design to promote urban biodiversity in small scale designed by Christine Guerard & Almuth Bennett

Beside the green spaces, in large scale, planning and design strategies for aquatic urban habitats are so important for improving urban biodiversity. Therefore, the sustainable design, planning and management of urban streams, canals, rivers, ponds, reservoirs, lakes and other water bodies, constitutes can have significant role on aquatic biodiversity inside the cities. One of the examples for sustainable management of urban aquatic habitats is Urban Biosphere Reserve (UBR) approach in Istanbul (Tezer, 2005; Oliveira et al. 2011).

Another important point that must be noted for preserving biological diversity in large scale is housing programs in urban areas. Designing more natural built environment to have minimal impact on surrounding landscape and existing biodiversity is a key concept in urban design according to the goals of preserving urban biodiversity. For these purpose, during the construction phase and the process following that, the cooperation of ecologist with urban planners and designers is very important to protect existing local biodiversity and improving flora and fauna diversity in future. One of the positive initiative according to these objectives is Eco-housing a program developed jointly by UNEP and UN-HABITAT, a concept of sustainable principle for entire lifecycle of a housing project. Eco-housing in urban area will have positive impacts on biodiversity conservation by reducing footprint and the environmental pollution caused by urbanization (Oliveira et al. 2011).

442 Advances in Landscape Architecture

biodiversity in urban area (Figure 6).

(photo from Brussels taken by Oguz Yilmz).

Christine Guerard & Almuth Bennett

urban greenery must be determined. For this purpose as Niemela (1999), emphasized, 'green belts' surrounding cities and 'green corridors' running through cities are the effective strategies. Because these areas, prevent urban sprawl and ensure the connection between green and natural patches (Oliveira et al. 2011). The surrounding areas of different cities in world include lawns, grove and forest areas. These areas contain large amount of biological diversity. Creating network between these areas and inner cities green and open areas is one of the most effective instruments to preserve and enhance urban biodiversity in large scale. Also, large scale green spaces inside the city has significant role on improving biodiversity. The reason is that small parks or green areas are scattered inside the cities without connectivity to other green spaces. So, they can have slight contributions to preserving

**Figure 6.** Low-maintenance green area design to promote urban biodiversity in small scale designed by

Beside the green spaces, in large scale, planning and design strategies for aquatic urban habitats are so important for improving urban biodiversity. Therefore, the sustainable design, planning and management of urban streams, canals, rivers, ponds, reservoirs, lakes and other water bodies, constitutes can have significant role on aquatic biodiversity inside the cities. One of the examples for sustainable management of urban aquatic habitats is Urban Biosphere Reserve (UBR) approach in Istanbul (Tezer, 2005; Oliveira et al. 2011).

The concerted efforts at various scales on improving urban biodiversity can produce best results. Designing with biodiversity in mind must be an important part of sustainable design strategies at a neighbourhood level such as micro district, subdivision, housing complexes. In small scale, home-owners can take various actions for improving urban biodiversity. It is important that home owners realize that their individual effort can contribute to a larger collective effort that would culminate in the creation of a real biological corridor. Such a corridor can facilitate the movements of several species throughout the city and improve urban biodiversity (Laurence and Palmaerts, 1991; Savard et al. 2000). Plantings on balconies, in window boxes and on roofs beside promote residential gardens including decorative or vegetable gardens can have positive impact on improving urban biological diversity (Figure 7).

**Figure 7.** Flowerboxes containing various flowers diverse (photo from Brussels-Belgium taken by Aysel Uslu).

In all large and small scale cases, the qualities of plants species used in green spaces are determinant factor for the habitat that these species provide. The reason is that these habitats encourage the particular species of animals. Generally, vegetation with a diversity of native plant species especially in areas, where land development is intensive, is recommended for increasing animal biodiversity (McKinney, 2002; Oliveir et al. 2011). For example planting trees in private gardens or cities' street provide the opportunities for improving bird biodiversity in urban area. The main problem in this case is that, after the urbanization development, most of the animals and plants do not ensure compliance with city life. But, widely use of native plants can have positive impact on improving the original habitats. Beside that, many other human efforts can help animals to adapt themselves to these new conditions. For example, by provision of artificial nesting or feeding structure inside private gardens or public green spaces in the cities, most of the birds and other animals are encouraged to live inside the city (Figure 8).

Urban Landscape Design and Biodiversity 445

Tree planting issue is an important to promote biodiversity. Also, the maintenance of green area should promote some specific animals. For example birds use the branches of trees in their nesting season. So, cutting of these branches may disturb the life cycle of the bird and decrease the urban biodiversity. Therefore municipality or the owners of private gardens must manage their green area maintenance programs according to the biodiversity

One of the important opportunities for improving biodiversity in urban area is that, urban environment has potential for naturalization of non-native species. Generally the term alien species are used for these types of plants and animals coming from outside a set area. When these species adapted to their new environment, they can be able to spread and improve biological diversity of the area. Therefore particular strategies in planting design of the green areas inside the cities can help new species to be adapted and existing of these species

Most of the time in planting design of urban areas the designers utilize particular species of trees, flowers and other plants. But, diversifying plant design can support many animal species life inside the cities. For example, using different species wildflowers encourage more insects depending on the nectar feeding these insects. As a result, instead of using a small number of plants, using large number of plant species increase the opportunities for

Also, bringing together different types of habitats can provide shelter and feeding opportunities for wildlife, therefore can have positive impact on urban biodiversity. Combination of forest trees, shrubs and meadow can create nesting opportunities for different animals. Also, diversity in the combination of trees, shrubs, wild flowers, dead trees inside the public open areas creates more habitats for wildlife in urban areas. These rich mosaics of different habitats are attractive for urban residents too. The reason is that diversity of habitat creates different views inside the cities pleasuring the urban residents.

In addition, biological diversity usually increases in the junction point of the habitats borders. Therefore, these areas constitute habitats with different environmental characteristics. Thus, it is necessary in urban landscape design to bring different types of habitats beside each other (Figure 9). For example, Using shrubs beside the meadow area

As described above, with various methods of planting design in urban area, the biological diversity can be improved. On the other hand, there are some incorrect assumptions in urban landscape design and management that must be modified for getting better result in biodiversity improvement. One of them is that utilizing plants and vegetation having attracting fruit or seed for birds and butterfly or any other insects is not applicable in planting design of urban public open areas and parks. The reason is that, these plants and animals may cause environmental pollution that can disturb urban residents. But, the fact is that, these plants can provide habitats for birds and other animals improving urban biodiversity. Therefore, any kind of plants ensuring the life of animals and birds species

beside the local one can help to increase the biological diversity in cities.

provide opportunities for life of diverse plants and animal's species.

management.

improving urban biodiversity.

**Figure 8.** Artificial nesting or feeding structure for improving urban biodiversity (a) Photo from Pol Ghekiere 's house garden in Belgium taken by Aysel Uslu (b) Watering cup for street animals in Izmir

Tree planting issue is an important to promote biodiversity. Also, the maintenance of green area should promote some specific animals. For example birds use the branches of trees in their nesting season. So, cutting of these branches may disturb the life cycle of the bird and decrease the urban biodiversity. Therefore municipality or the owners of private gardens must manage their green area maintenance programs according to the biodiversity management.

444 Advances in Landscape Architecture

animals are encouraged to live inside the city (Figure 8).

In all large and small scale cases, the qualities of plants species used in green spaces are determinant factor for the habitat that these species provide. The reason is that these habitats encourage the particular species of animals. Generally, vegetation with a diversity of native plant species especially in areas, where land development is intensive, is recommended for increasing animal biodiversity (McKinney, 2002; Oliveir et al. 2011). For example planting trees in private gardens or cities' street provide the opportunities for improving bird biodiversity in urban area. The main problem in this case is that, after the urbanization development, most of the animals and plants do not ensure compliance with city life. But, widely use of native plants can have positive impact on improving the original habitats. Beside that, many other human efforts can help animals to adapt themselves to these new conditions. For example, by provision of artificial nesting or feeding structure inside private gardens or public green spaces in the cities, most of the birds and other

**Figure 8.** Artificial nesting or feeding structure for improving urban biodiversity (a) Photo from Pol Ghekiere 's house garden in Belgium taken by Aysel Uslu (b) Watering cup for street animals in Izmir One of the important opportunities for improving biodiversity in urban area is that, urban environment has potential for naturalization of non-native species. Generally the term alien species are used for these types of plants and animals coming from outside a set area. When these species adapted to their new environment, they can be able to spread and improve biological diversity of the area. Therefore particular strategies in planting design of the green areas inside the cities can help new species to be adapted and existing of these species beside the local one can help to increase the biological diversity in cities.

Most of the time in planting design of urban areas the designers utilize particular species of trees, flowers and other plants. But, diversifying plant design can support many animal species life inside the cities. For example, using different species wildflowers encourage more insects depending on the nectar feeding these insects. As a result, instead of using a small number of plants, using large number of plant species increase the opportunities for improving urban biodiversity.

Also, bringing together different types of habitats can provide shelter and feeding opportunities for wildlife, therefore can have positive impact on urban biodiversity. Combination of forest trees, shrubs and meadow can create nesting opportunities for different animals. Also, diversity in the combination of trees, shrubs, wild flowers, dead trees inside the public open areas creates more habitats for wildlife in urban areas. These rich mosaics of different habitats are attractive for urban residents too. The reason is that diversity of habitat creates different views inside the cities pleasuring the urban residents.

In addition, biological diversity usually increases in the junction point of the habitats borders. Therefore, these areas constitute habitats with different environmental characteristics. Thus, it is necessary in urban landscape design to bring different types of habitats beside each other (Figure 9). For example, Using shrubs beside the meadow area provide opportunities for life of diverse plants and animal's species.

As described above, with various methods of planting design in urban area, the biological diversity can be improved. On the other hand, there are some incorrect assumptions in urban landscape design and management that must be modified for getting better result in biodiversity improvement. One of them is that utilizing plants and vegetation having attracting fruit or seed for birds and butterfly or any other insects is not applicable in planting design of urban public open areas and parks. The reason is that, these plants and animals may cause environmental pollution that can disturb urban residents. But, the fact is that, these plants can provide habitats for birds and other animals improving urban biodiversity. Therefore, any kind of plants ensuring the life of animals and birds species must be identified and the methods of utilizing these plants in the urban area should be developed.

Urban Landscape Design and Biodiversity 447

**Figure 10.** Biodiversity management should create benefits for poor communities and more visible and

Finally, it must be noted that, creation and improvement of urban biological diversity processes require time. Therefore, the programs and design methods should be based on characteristics of the local ecology considering the time required for each stage. Also, it must be highlighted that, to be successful in conserving biodiversity, the value of nature in public mind must be made clear. Also, by using different levels of environmental education, government raises environmental awareness of urban residents to ensure the next generation life in cities. The reason is that most of the biological diversity restoration and improvement work would not have been possible without the participation of volunteers

**Figure 11.** Promoting awareness of biodiversity to local communities (photo from Brussels in Belgium

sensible for urban residents A sample of edible landscape design in urban area Belgium.

and urban residents (Figure 11).

taken by Oguz Yilmaz)

**Figure 9.** Bringing different type of habitats inside the urban park- Ankara(photo from Ankara-Turkey taken by Nasim Shakouri).

Besides the visible impacts of biological diversity in urban areas, after the death of animals and plants, they provide many habitats for fungus, micro-organism and degrading organisms as well. The reason is that, these corpses are nutrient for many organisms. Therefore, supporting urban biodiversity improve natural life cycle inside the cities too.

It must be noted that it is essential in urban landscape planning and design to make biodiversity more viable, more visible and sensible for urban residents (Figure 10). By engaging with those who design the places where people live and work, human habitats can be modified to places providing life requirements for wild species, a form of conservation biology that calls 'reconciliation ecology'(Rosenzweig, 2001, Rosenzweig, 2003; Miller 2005). These efforts can restore the human connections with the natural world by closing the places where people live and work to the places having the potential for improving urban biological diversity, increase public environment awareness and facilitate participation of urban residents in preserving urban biodiversity.

Another way for reproducing urban biodiversity as well as restoring human connection with nature is urban agriculture program in public lands. According to these programs, urban open areas are used for production of organic food while contributing to environmental education of local residents. These methods can improve biological diversity by creating spaces for growth of various species of plants inside the city. Also, it contributes urban residents to participate in agriculture activities that increasing plant cultivation and preservation knowledge. For better result, urban government, planners and designers must identify appreciate open places inside the cities and analyzed their potential for vegetation growth, then utilize these areas by applicable design for agriculture purposes.

taken by Nasim Shakouri).

urban residents in preserving urban biodiversity.

developed.

must be identified and the methods of utilizing these plants in the urban area should be

**Figure 9.** Bringing different type of habitats inside the urban park- Ankara(photo from Ankara-Turkey

Besides the visible impacts of biological diversity in urban areas, after the death of animals and plants, they provide many habitats for fungus, micro-organism and degrading organisms as well. The reason is that, these corpses are nutrient for many organisms. Therefore, supporting urban biodiversity improve natural life cycle inside the cities too.

It must be noted that it is essential in urban landscape planning and design to make biodiversity more viable, more visible and sensible for urban residents (Figure 10). By engaging with those who design the places where people live and work, human habitats can be modified to places providing life requirements for wild species, a form of conservation biology that calls 'reconciliation ecology'(Rosenzweig, 2001, Rosenzweig, 2003; Miller 2005). These efforts can restore the human connections with the natural world by closing the places where people live and work to the places having the potential for improving urban biological diversity, increase public environment awareness and facilitate participation of

Another way for reproducing urban biodiversity as well as restoring human connection with nature is urban agriculture program in public lands. According to these programs, urban open areas are used for production of organic food while contributing to environmental education of local residents. These methods can improve biological diversity by creating spaces for growth of various species of plants inside the city. Also, it contributes urban residents to participate in agriculture activities that increasing plant cultivation and preservation knowledge. For better result, urban government, planners and designers must identify appreciate open places inside the cities and analyzed their potential for vegetation

growth, then utilize these areas by applicable design for agriculture purposes.

**Figure 10.** Biodiversity management should create benefits for poor communities and more visible and sensible for urban residents A sample of edible landscape design in urban area Belgium.

Finally, it must be noted that, creation and improvement of urban biological diversity processes require time. Therefore, the programs and design methods should be based on characteristics of the local ecology considering the time required for each stage. Also, it must be highlighted that, to be successful in conserving biodiversity, the value of nature in public mind must be made clear. Also, by using different levels of environmental education, government raises environmental awareness of urban residents to ensure the next generation life in cities. The reason is that most of the biological diversity restoration and improvement work would not have been possible without the participation of volunteers and urban residents (Figure 11).

**Figure 11.** Promoting awareness of biodiversity to local communities (photo from Brussels in Belgium taken by Oguz Yilmaz)

In addition, the establishment of networks for city governments, scientific and researchers is essential for cooperation, knowledge sharing, critical debate, monitoring and evaluation of the factors effecting urban biodiversity. Integration of biodiversity into urban plan should be considered.

Urban Landscape Design and Biodiversity 449

Raising the awareness of biodiversity is an important part of maximizing urban biodiversity

**Figure 12.** Creating natural areas inside the cities can be effective for bringing together urban residents

Furthermore, most of the time the urban residents don't perceive the attempts by planners and scientists to protect nature in urban environments (Breuste, 2004; Oliveira et al. 2011). Therefore, they don't participate in the implementation of the strategies for improving biodiversity. The major problems especially appear when the government and urban planning neglect the principle of urban biodiversity preservation and improvement in their

The other problem relating to preserving urban biodiversity is misperception the concept of natural areas that are protected inside the cities borders. Most of the people believe that these areas are squalid and unsafe regions for residents (Figure 13). Therefore they prefere these areas have particular design and form such as urban park. It is not a problem for residents but also most of the urban planners and municipalities officials have the same idea. Therefore, environmental education and defining the value of natural biodiversity is

Another problem related to human behavior, is that people do not know about the native species and they unconsciously influence the spread of non-native species. Urban ecosystem makes opportunities for growth and the replacement of native species with alien (nonnative) species (Mckinney 2002; Oliveira et al. 2011). Heightened air and surface temperature in urban areas compering to surrounding areas create new habitat in urban ecosystem. Consequently, this modification in habitat type can make opportunities for nonnative species to growth and disperse. Also it has a homogenizing effect on biodiversity as native habitats (McKinney and Lockwood 1999, McKinney 2002; Miller 2005). Urban–rural

and nature (photo from Brussels-Belgium taken by Aysel Uslu).

urban planning and design strategies.

vital for straighten of this incorrect opinion.

conservation.

## **3.3. The conflicts in order to improvement of biodiversity in the cities**

While investigating methods and opportunities for preserving the urban biodiversity has gained importance, the challenges and conflicts of achieving these goals are more emerged. That's why, in this part, the conflicts of improving urban biodiversity is determined and discussed.

As described before, urban ecosystem is highly dynamic and beside human beings involves wildlife communities too. While the proportion of urban residents increasing, the nature and properties of urban ecosystem gain importance. The reason is that, urban ecosystem is the determining factor in quality of human life as well as other living creatures. Also, the scale and speed of urban growth is the main reason of urbanization and transformation of the spatial configuration and ecological process in urban area (Alberti 2005, Dale et al. 2000, McDonnell et al. 1997, Dramstad et al. 1996, McDonnel and Pickett 1990; Connery 2009). Therefore, planning the urban growth and applying the principles used for managing or enhancing biodiversity not only can be effective in increasing the quality of human life but also can have positive impact on natural life diversity in urban ecosystem. This section investigates the difficulties and challenges in enhancing the urban biodiversity from different points of view.

Nowadays, the words 'nature' and 'biodiversity' remained images of areas that are located far from the cities. For many people these areas are places that are unaffected by human impact. Therefore, when the concept of biodiversity is discussed in urban area, the idea of preserving and improving urban biodiversity is not familiar for them. The reason is that over the years as the urbanization expands, human being grows more and more distinct from the natural world. So, the wedge between people and nature is driven deeper. Miller research (2005) indicates that people spend most of their daily life for indoor activities. It is not applied just for adults but also it is a tendency for children to spend fewer hours outdoors as well.

The fact is that, the environment encountered during childhood becomes the baseline against which environmental degradation is measured later in life. Therefore, one of the fundamental solutions for preserving urban biodiversity is to bring people closer to the nature beginning from their childhood and give the opportunities for recognizing the natural values to preserve them in future (Figure 12).

In addition to these, there is still lack of environmental awareness. People do not understand the importance of the natural biodiversity of their region. For example, trees that are established in natural areas and buffers may be cut down by adjoining residents because of facing conflicted values such as the trees interfering with their "view" (Hostetler at el. 2011). Raising the awareness of biodiversity is an important part of maximizing urban biodiversity conservation.

448 Advances in Landscape Architecture

be considered.

discussed.

different points of view.

outdoors as well.

natural values to preserve them in future (Figure 12).

In addition, the establishment of networks for city governments, scientific and researchers is essential for cooperation, knowledge sharing, critical debate, monitoring and evaluation of the factors effecting urban biodiversity. Integration of biodiversity into urban plan should

While investigating methods and opportunities for preserving the urban biodiversity has gained importance, the challenges and conflicts of achieving these goals are more emerged. That's why, in this part, the conflicts of improving urban biodiversity is determined and

As described before, urban ecosystem is highly dynamic and beside human beings involves wildlife communities too. While the proportion of urban residents increasing, the nature and properties of urban ecosystem gain importance. The reason is that, urban ecosystem is the determining factor in quality of human life as well as other living creatures. Also, the scale and speed of urban growth is the main reason of urbanization and transformation of the spatial configuration and ecological process in urban area (Alberti 2005, Dale et al. 2000, McDonnell et al. 1997, Dramstad et al. 1996, McDonnel and Pickett 1990; Connery 2009). Therefore, planning the urban growth and applying the principles used for managing or enhancing biodiversity not only can be effective in increasing the quality of human life but also can have positive impact on natural life diversity in urban ecosystem. This section investigates the difficulties and challenges in enhancing the urban biodiversity from

Nowadays, the words 'nature' and 'biodiversity' remained images of areas that are located far from the cities. For many people these areas are places that are unaffected by human impact. Therefore, when the concept of biodiversity is discussed in urban area, the idea of preserving and improving urban biodiversity is not familiar for them. The reason is that over the years as the urbanization expands, human being grows more and more distinct from the natural world. So, the wedge between people and nature is driven deeper. Miller research (2005) indicates that people spend most of their daily life for indoor activities. It is not applied just for adults but also it is a tendency for children to spend fewer hours

The fact is that, the environment encountered during childhood becomes the baseline against which environmental degradation is measured later in life. Therefore, one of the fundamental solutions for preserving urban biodiversity is to bring people closer to the nature beginning from their childhood and give the opportunities for recognizing the

In addition to these, there is still lack of environmental awareness. People do not understand the importance of the natural biodiversity of their region. For example, trees that are established in natural areas and buffers may be cut down by adjoining residents because of facing conflicted values such as the trees interfering with their "view" (Hostetler at el. 2011).

**3.3. The conflicts in order to improvement of biodiversity in the cities** 

**Figure 12.** Creating natural areas inside the cities can be effective for bringing together urban residents and nature (photo from Brussels-Belgium taken by Aysel Uslu).

Furthermore, most of the time the urban residents don't perceive the attempts by planners and scientists to protect nature in urban environments (Breuste, 2004; Oliveira et al. 2011). Therefore, they don't participate in the implementation of the strategies for improving biodiversity. The major problems especially appear when the government and urban planning neglect the principle of urban biodiversity preservation and improvement in their urban planning and design strategies.

The other problem relating to preserving urban biodiversity is misperception the concept of natural areas that are protected inside the cities borders. Most of the people believe that these areas are squalid and unsafe regions for residents (Figure 13). Therefore they prefere these areas have particular design and form such as urban park. It is not a problem for residents but also most of the urban planners and municipalities officials have the same idea. Therefore, environmental education and defining the value of natural biodiversity is vital for straighten of this incorrect opinion.

Another problem related to human behavior, is that people do not know about the native species and they unconsciously influence the spread of non-native species. Urban ecosystem makes opportunities for growth and the replacement of native species with alien (nonnative) species (Mckinney 2002; Oliveira et al. 2011). Heightened air and surface temperature in urban areas compering to surrounding areas create new habitat in urban ecosystem. Consequently, this modification in habitat type can make opportunities for nonnative species to growth and disperse. Also it has a homogenizing effect on biodiversity as native habitats (McKinney and Lockwood 1999, McKinney 2002; Miller 2005). Urban–rural gradient research in many cities emphasized that the number of native species decreases in central parts of cities, where the ratio of built spaces to green spaces and the proportion of impervious surfaces are high (Zerbe et al., 2003, McKinney, 2002; Oliveira et al. 2011). Also, most of the native species that remain in cities have tendency to be segregated from the neighborhoods where most of the human residential areas are located (Turner 2004; Miller 2005). In a research on the conservation value of clustered subdivisions, the result indicate that plant community within the open space was dominated by exotics because these areas did not have proper land stewardship to maintain native plant communities (Lenth et al. 2006; Hostetler et al. 2011).

Urban Landscape Design and Biodiversity 451

As a result, the increase in the number of non-native species in cities causes recognition of these species as native species by many people and shapes the people's view about native biodiversity incorrectly. Therefore, when the concept of preserving urban biodiversity is discussed, most of the people misunderstand this concept. For figure out such problems, considering the dynamic of urban ecosystem, the native species of every urban region must be identify and document, to prevent the unexpected result of non-native species

The other challenge relating to distribution of non-native species is hazards of invasion of aggressive species. In recent years, several Scientifics have discovered that increasing urbanization results in large proportion of existing plant species in urban areas being replaced by small number of wide spread and aggressive species. In some regions of the world, most of the invasive spices are non-native, which were first introduced into cities where they got established and naturalized, and spread. Thus, cities were the principle starting points from where many of these aggressive species spread (Muller et. al 2010).

Also it should be noted that many other factors can have unfavorable impact on native species. For example, storm water runoff can contain an excessive amount of nutrients, causing algal blooms in water bodies, fish kills, and the growth of invasive exotic plants. Therefore, urban planners must consider these hazards and manage them in such a way that

The other perception by urban resident related to biological diversity is the hazards of the illnesses causing by birds for human. Therefore most of the urban residents do not want to share their daily life environment with the birds or other animals. In these cases, urban

In addition to human behavior, biodiversity loss can be linked to the urban planning or lack of it. The fact is that, there is still a lack of proper instruments to deal with biodiversity at the

Cities originally include natural areas with native flora and fauna. From the biological point of view these natural areas contain greater biodiversity than plantations (Mcdonnell, 1988; Gilbert, 1989; Florgard 2010). A critical problem relating these areas is that if the native vegetation lost, it can't be replaced by planting replacement species (Florgard 2010). However in most of the city planning strategies in developing countries this issue is ignored. As a result, fragmentation of the natural areas has occurred and causes the loss of

Also, in most of the developing countries the need for housing put stress on surrounding ecology and cause unplanned and informal city plans. These plans have negative impacts on highly biodiversity ecosystems such as forests and mangroves. Rio de Janeiro is one of the top examples for this type of urban biodiversity loss. Research shows that the city lost a large part of its forests and mangroves due to the expansion of favelas (slums). Approximately 9% of the sandbank mangroves were lost during the last 3 years alone

inhabitant's behavior may influence the life of animals and birds adversely.

distribution.

city level.

native species.

the native species gets least vulnerability.

(Rocha et al., 2010; Oliveira et al.2011).

**Figure 13.** Residents prefer the condition of photo (a) inside the cities. However, preserving the local biodiversity on (b) is more sustainable (photos taken by Aysel Uslu from Ankara-Turkey).

As a result, the increase in the number of non-native species in cities causes recognition of these species as native species by many people and shapes the people's view about native biodiversity incorrectly. Therefore, when the concept of preserving urban biodiversity is discussed, most of the people misunderstand this concept. For figure out such problems, considering the dynamic of urban ecosystem, the native species of every urban region must be identify and document, to prevent the unexpected result of non-native species distribution.

450 Advances in Landscape Architecture

2006; Hostetler et al. 2011).

gradient research in many cities emphasized that the number of native species decreases in central parts of cities, where the ratio of built spaces to green spaces and the proportion of impervious surfaces are high (Zerbe et al., 2003, McKinney, 2002; Oliveira et al. 2011). Also, most of the native species that remain in cities have tendency to be segregated from the neighborhoods where most of the human residential areas are located (Turner 2004; Miller 2005). In a research on the conservation value of clustered subdivisions, the result indicate that plant community within the open space was dominated by exotics because these areas did not have proper land stewardship to maintain native plant communities (Lenth et al.

**Figure 13.** Residents prefer the condition of photo (a) inside the cities. However, preserving the local

biodiversity on (b) is more sustainable (photos taken by Aysel Uslu from Ankara-Turkey).

The other challenge relating to distribution of non-native species is hazards of invasion of aggressive species. In recent years, several Scientifics have discovered that increasing urbanization results in large proportion of existing plant species in urban areas being replaced by small number of wide spread and aggressive species. In some regions of the world, most of the invasive spices are non-native, which were first introduced into cities where they got established and naturalized, and spread. Thus, cities were the principle starting points from where many of these aggressive species spread (Muller et. al 2010).

Also it should be noted that many other factors can have unfavorable impact on native species. For example, storm water runoff can contain an excessive amount of nutrients, causing algal blooms in water bodies, fish kills, and the growth of invasive exotic plants. Therefore, urban planners must consider these hazards and manage them in such a way that the native species gets least vulnerability.

The other perception by urban resident related to biological diversity is the hazards of the illnesses causing by birds for human. Therefore most of the urban residents do not want to share their daily life environment with the birds or other animals. In these cases, urban inhabitant's behavior may influence the life of animals and birds adversely.

In addition to human behavior, biodiversity loss can be linked to the urban planning or lack of it. The fact is that, there is still a lack of proper instruments to deal with biodiversity at the city level.

Cities originally include natural areas with native flora and fauna. From the biological point of view these natural areas contain greater biodiversity than plantations (Mcdonnell, 1988; Gilbert, 1989; Florgard 2010). A critical problem relating these areas is that if the native vegetation lost, it can't be replaced by planting replacement species (Florgard 2010). However in most of the city planning strategies in developing countries this issue is ignored. As a result, fragmentation of the natural areas has occurred and causes the loss of native species.

Also, in most of the developing countries the need for housing put stress on surrounding ecology and cause unplanned and informal city plans. These plans have negative impacts on highly biodiversity ecosystems such as forests and mangroves. Rio de Janeiro is one of the top examples for this type of urban biodiversity loss. Research shows that the city lost a large part of its forests and mangroves due to the expansion of favelas (slums). Approximately 9% of the sandbank mangroves were lost during the last 3 years alone (Rocha et al., 2010; Oliveira et al.2011).

This situation in developed countries is not better than developing country. Suburban lifestyles by middle- and high-income groups in developed and developing countries caused the urban sprawl and suburbanization. Due to the increasing spread of suburban housing the rate of structural areas to the lands preserved as parks or conservation areas is accrued (Oliveira et al. 2011).

Urban Landscape Design and Biodiversity 453

biodiversity (Olson and Dinerstein 1998, Ricketts et al. 1999*,* Myers et al. 2000; Ricketts and

However, urbanized areas function within a hierarchical decision system, managing is key concept for extending biodiversity. It must be highlighted that every nation is responsible for its own characteristic biotopes and species. Thus, the development plans of cities definitely affect biodiversity conservation and improvement. Therefore, for getting best result in conserving biological diversity; all issues related to urban biodiversity should be considered. Also, the importance of local biodiversity must be emphasized until then, with the cooperation of residents, scientific and governments, sustainable solution and plans will

Biodiversity is not only an issue of the quantity of species and their habitats, but of the quality of areas and processes. This relates very much to the local scale because much of biodiversity's quality exists in its locality, referred to as in situ biodiversity. Biodiversity existing in its natural setting is considered most valuable, as opposed to specimens in zoos and botanical gardens. For instance, an assemblage of plants and animals that has occurred in an area for millennia may not have a comparatively high number of species, but may have special characteristics as an integrated system together. Targeting single species is

Finally, urban landscape design issues must have been considered ecological objective; protecting environment and our planet in contemporary world. It must be noted that the quality of landscape design must depend on the quality of green areas as a habitat. Urban green areas and landscape design should contain the subjects of landscape ecology

Alberti, M., Marzluff, J. M., Shulenberger, E., Bradley, G., Ryan, C., Zumbrunnen, C., 2003. Integrating Humans into Ecology: Opportunities and Challenges for Studying Urban

Angold, P.G., Sadler, J.P, Hill, M.O., Pullin, A., Rushton, S., Austin, K., Small, E., Wood, B., Wadsworth, R., Sanderson, R., Thampson, K. 2006. Biodiversity in urban habitat

Barş, M.E. Shakouri, N. Zolnoun, S. (2012). Green roof: the suggestion project of Ankamall commercial building. Journal of Tekirdag Agricultural Faculty 2012 9(1) - 33-44.

Imhoff 2003). Thus, the results cannot be applied in the actual conditions.

nonetheless often an easier task for cities (Zitkovic 2008).

knowledge which have been successfully implemented in reality.

*Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture,* 

Ecosystems. BioScience, Vol. 53, No. 12 (Dec., 2003), pp. 1169-1179.

patches. Science of the Total Environment 360 (2006) 196– 204.

be emerged.

**Author details** 

**4. References** 

*Turkey* 

Aysel Uslu and Nasim Shakouri

The reports of the Secretariat of the CBD (Convention on biological diversity) indicate that many of the fundamental threats to biodiversity loss in cities associated with public services and infrastructure planning and design policy that local government are responsible for these loss (SCBD, 2007; Savard et al 2000). Therefore, making the right decision in urban planning and design polices can preserve urban biodiversity as well as restoring the losses. Establishing extensive biotope and habitat mapping and protection programs will have positive impact on identifying important areas of wildlife habitat in and around cities and protecting and enhancing these areas. Also, coordination among different levels of government and among local governments for joint action is vital for getting better result. Furthermore, addressing the residential issues is vital for controling the cities' ecological footprints. Also, polices of urban development must focus on compact urban forms and strong housing management to avoid the urban biodiversity losses.

Another issue must be underlined is that the process of urbanization influences habitats of species typical of open landscape adversely. Also, few local governments establish planning frameworks and implementation strategies through preserving urban biodiversity. For example, in central Europe, change in land use caused decrease in calcareous grassland belongs to the habitat types with the highest species richness (Joas et al. 2010). Therefore, maintaining high-quality natural areas in urbanizing regions or preserving natural areas containing high levels of biodiversity will require many municipal governments to change their perspectives and improve their urban planning according to the goals of urban biodiversity preservation and improvement.

Also, it must be highlighted that, planning open spaces and greenways are not luxury. However, they are the essential for preserving urban biodiversity and making connection between habitats with different species. Fortunately, in North America some local governments have begun to preserve and improve the urban biodiversity in their planning framework based in large part on Landscape Ecology's patch-corridor-matrix principles (Forman 1995; Connery 2009).

Finally, it must be emphasized that the researches and studies about urban biodiversity are still inadequate and limited. Generally, most of the studies analyses focus on only one or a few groups of species (e.g., Scott et al. 1993, Sisk et al. 1994; Ricketts and Imhoff 2003). Therefore, the authors evaluate data without considering the role of other species and the features of their habitat on the growth and distribution of the sample species. As a result the methods of preserving and improvement of the species community is not comprehensive and applicable. Also, many assessments include subjective information to measure threats to biodiversity (Olson and Dinerstein 1998, Ricketts et al. 1999*,* Myers et al. 2000; Ricketts and Imhoff 2003). Thus, the results cannot be applied in the actual conditions.

However, urbanized areas function within a hierarchical decision system, managing is key concept for extending biodiversity. It must be highlighted that every nation is responsible for its own characteristic biotopes and species. Thus, the development plans of cities definitely affect biodiversity conservation and improvement. Therefore, for getting best result in conserving biological diversity; all issues related to urban biodiversity should be considered. Also, the importance of local biodiversity must be emphasized until then, with the cooperation of residents, scientific and governments, sustainable solution and plans will be emerged.

Biodiversity is not only an issue of the quantity of species and their habitats, but of the quality of areas and processes. This relates very much to the local scale because much of biodiversity's quality exists in its locality, referred to as in situ biodiversity. Biodiversity existing in its natural setting is considered most valuable, as opposed to specimens in zoos and botanical gardens. For instance, an assemblage of plants and animals that has occurred in an area for millennia may not have a comparatively high number of species, but may have special characteristics as an integrated system together. Targeting single species is nonetheless often an easier task for cities (Zitkovic 2008).

Finally, urban landscape design issues must have been considered ecological objective; protecting environment and our planet in contemporary world. It must be noted that the quality of landscape design must depend on the quality of green areas as a habitat. Urban green areas and landscape design should contain the subjects of landscape ecology knowledge which have been successfully implemented in reality.

## **Author details**

452 Advances in Landscape Architecture

accrued (Oliveira et al. 2011).

This situation in developed countries is not better than developing country. Suburban lifestyles by middle- and high-income groups in developed and developing countries caused the urban sprawl and suburbanization. Due to the increasing spread of suburban housing the rate of structural areas to the lands preserved as parks or conservation areas is

The reports of the Secretariat of the CBD (Convention on biological diversity) indicate that many of the fundamental threats to biodiversity loss in cities associated with public services and infrastructure planning and design policy that local government are responsible for these loss (SCBD, 2007; Savard et al 2000). Therefore, making the right decision in urban planning and design polices can preserve urban biodiversity as well as restoring the losses. Establishing extensive biotope and habitat mapping and protection programs will have positive impact on identifying important areas of wildlife habitat in and around cities and protecting and enhancing these areas. Also, coordination among different levels of government and among local governments for joint action is vital for getting better result. Furthermore, addressing the residential issues is vital for controling the cities' ecological footprints. Also, polices of urban development must focus on compact urban forms and

Another issue must be underlined is that the process of urbanization influences habitats of species typical of open landscape adversely. Also, few local governments establish planning frameworks and implementation strategies through preserving urban biodiversity. For example, in central Europe, change in land use caused decrease in calcareous grassland belongs to the habitat types with the highest species richness (Joas et al. 2010). Therefore, maintaining high-quality natural areas in urbanizing regions or preserving natural areas containing high levels of biodiversity will require many municipal governments to change their perspectives and improve their urban planning according to the goals of urban

Also, it must be highlighted that, planning open spaces and greenways are not luxury. However, they are the essential for preserving urban biodiversity and making connection between habitats with different species. Fortunately, in North America some local governments have begun to preserve and improve the urban biodiversity in their planning framework based in large part on Landscape Ecology's patch-corridor-matrix principles

Finally, it must be emphasized that the researches and studies about urban biodiversity are still inadequate and limited. Generally, most of the studies analyses focus on only one or a few groups of species (e.g., Scott et al. 1993, Sisk et al. 1994; Ricketts and Imhoff 2003). Therefore, the authors evaluate data without considering the role of other species and the features of their habitat on the growth and distribution of the sample species. As a result the methods of preserving and improvement of the species community is not comprehensive and applicable. Also, many assessments include subjective information to measure threats to

strong housing management to avoid the urban biodiversity losses.

biodiversity preservation and improvement.

(Forman 1995; Connery 2009).

Aysel Uslu and Nasim Shakouri *Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

## **4. References**


Beatley, T. 2000. Green urbanism learning from European cities. Island Press, 2000 - Business & Economics - 491 pages.

Urban Landscape Design and Biodiversity 455

Ignatieva, M. Design and Future of Urban Biodiversity. *Urban biodiversity and design* 1st edition. Edited by N. Muller, P. Warner and John G. Kelcey. ©2010 Blackwell

Joas, Ch. Gnadinger, J. Wiesinger, K. Haase, R. Kiehl, K. 2010. Restoration and design of calcareous grasslands in urban and suburban area: examples from the Munich plain. *Urban biodiversity and design* 1st edition. Edited by N. Muller, P. Warner and John G.

Kendle, T . 1997.Urban Nature Conservation: Landscape Management in the Urban

Kohsaka, R. 2010. Economics and the convention on biodiversity: financial incentives for encouraging biodiversity in Nagoya. *Urban biodiversity and design* 1st edition. Edited by

Mcdonald, R. Kareiva, P. Forman, R.T.T. 2008. The implications of current and future urbanization for global protected areas and biodiversity conservation, Biological

Miller, J. R. 2005. Biodiversity conservation and the extinction of experience, TRENDS in

Muller N., Werner p., Kelcey J.G. 2010. Urban Biodiversity and Design. John Wiley & Sons,

Muller. N. 2007. Distinctive characteristics of urban biodiversity. Cities and Biodiversity:

Müller, N. Most Frequently Occurring Vascular Plants and the Role of Non-native Species in Urban Areas – a Comparison of Selected Cities in the Old and the New World. *Urban biodiversity and design* 1st edition. Edited by N. Muller, P. Warner and John G. Kelcey.

Niemela, J.1999. Ecology and urban planning. Biodiversity and Conservation 8: 119±131,

Oliveira, J.A., Balaban, O., Doll, C.N.H., Peñaranda, R. M., Gasparatos, A., Iossifova, D., Suwa, A. 2011. Cities and biodiversity: Perspectives and governance challenges for implementing the convention on biological diversity (CBD) at the city level. Biological

Opdam, P. 2002. Assessing the Conservation Potential of Habitat Networks, in gutzwiller, K.J., (ed). Applying Landscape Ecology in Biological Conservation, Springer(2002),

Qureshi, S. & Breuste, Jurgen H. 2010. Prospects of biodiversity in mega city of Karachi, Pakistan: potentials, Constraints and implications. *Urban biodiversity and design* 1st edition. Edited by N. Muller, P. Warner and John G. Kelcey. ©2010 Blackwell

Ricketts, T. and M. Imhoff. 2003. Biodiversity, urban areas, and agriculture: locating priority ecoregions for conservation. Conservation Ecology 8(2): 1. [online] URL:

Achieving the 2010 Biodiversity Target". Curitiba, 26. – 28. March 2007.

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©2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 227-242.

Conservation 144 (2011) 1302–1313.

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& Economics - 491 pages.

12-17. Maryland, USA.

Economics 29 (1999) 293–301.

http://dx.doi.org/10.3992/jgb.4.2.23.

Beatley, T. 2000. Green urbanism learning from European cities. Island Press, 2000 - Business

Benedict, M. A. & Macmahon, E.T.2002. Green Infrastructure: Smart Conservation for the 21st Century, Renewable Resources Journal, Volume 20, Number3, Autumn 2002, Pages

Bolund, P. Hunhammar, S. 1999. Analysis Ecosystem services in urban areas. Ecological

Colding, J. 2007. Ecological land-use complementation' for building resilience in urban

Connery, K. (2009) Biodiversity and Urban Design: Seeking an Integrated Solution. Journal

Cook, E. D. 2002. Landscape structure indices for assessing urban ecological networks.

Dunnett, N. Swanwick, C. and Wooley, H.2002 Improving Urban Parks, Play Areas and

European Communities, 2008. The European Union's Biodiversity Action Plan. "Halting The

Florgard, C. 2010. Integration of natural vegetation in urban design- information, personal determination and commitment. *Urban biodiversity and design* 1st edition. Edited by N.

Flores, A. Pickett, A. Zipperer, S. Pouyat, W. Pirani, R. 1998. Adopting a modern ecological view of the metropolitan landscape: the case of a greenspace system for the New York

Francis R. A. 2010. Wall ecology: A frontier for urban biodiversity and ecological engineering, *Progress in Physical Geography* 2011 35: 43 originally published online 18

Goddard, M.A. Dougill A.J. Benton, T.G. 2009. Scaling up from gardens: biodiversity conservation in urban environments. Trends in Ecology and Evolution Vol.25 No.2 Haase, D. & Schetke S. 2010. Potential of biodiversity and recreation in shrinking cities: contextualization and operationalization. *Urban biodiversity and design* 1st edition. Edited

Hostetler, M., Allen, W., Meurk, C. 2011. Conserving urban biodiversity Creating green infrastructure is only the first step. Landscape and Urban Planning (2011),

ICLEI. 2008. Partnerships & networks for urban biodiversity. Local and regional Authorities

by N. Muller, P. Warner and John G. Kelcey. ©2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Hagen, K. Stiles, R. 2010. Contribution of landscape design to changing urban climate conditions. . *Urban biodiversity and design* 1st edition. Edited by N. Muller, P. Warner and

ecosystems. Landscape and Urban Planning 81 (2007) 46–55.

of Green Building: Spring 2009, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 23-38.

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Open Spaces, Urban Research Report, DTLR,, May 2002.

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Savard, L. Clergeaub,Ph., Mennechez, G., 2000. Biodiversity concepts and urban ecosystems. Landscape and Urban Planning 48 (2000) 131±142.

**Chapter 18** 

© 2013 Matos and Batista, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

**Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens** 

This reflexion comes from a look over the city, particularly the relationship between the built and the open spaces that constitute it. In this look we came across the enormous importance that the system of open spaces has and has always had on the construction of the city, its balance, its identity and its experience. On a closer approach to the system of open spaces of the city, we were confronted with the existence of typologically qualified spaces and of spaces without any typological attribution but that are, by no means, less important than the former. Open spaces, interstices between the built fabric of the contemporary city, that present a certain continuity and that allow the flow of air, of water and matter, simultaneously with the flow of residents or casual users. Sometimes, besides that flow, an informal appropriation of these spaces as spaces for fun, games and socializing is verified, emphasizing the enormous potential presented in the structure and cohesion of the city as support of the urban experience, of social interaction and, of the development of the sense of community. About these spaces, several questions have been raised concerning its quality and diversity, namely its lack of integration in a recognized urban typology and all the consequences that this determines. However, we considered that this fact, on its own, does not constitute a negative factor, but a distinct reality determined by the ever-accelerating rhythm

of the technological, economical, social, cultural and demographic chances.

by different social-economical and cultural contexts.

The need to understand the presence of these spaces leads us to a study and analysis of the evolution of the city and of the transformation process that has been occurring, not only in the conceptual and ideological point of view, but also in morphological terms determined

During this project we verified that the characteristic discontinuity of the suburbs was the result of an urban model that, since the 60's of the 20th century, has given birth to a new concept of city and, in a disorderly growing process, allowed a landscape of problematic

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**as Structures of Urban Sustainability** 

Rute Sousa Matos and Desidério Sales Batista

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55892

**1. Introduction** 


http://www.countdown2010.net/2010/wp-content/uploads/FS7Greenspace\_small.PDF.

Rute Sousa Matos and Desidério Sales Batista

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55892

## **1. Introduction**

456 Advances in Landscape Architecture

ae.pdf.

Savard, L. Clergeaub,Ph., Mennechez, G., 2000. Biodiversity concepts and urban ecosystems.

Schaefer, V. 2003. Green Links and Urban Biodiversity—an Experiment in Connectivity 2003

http://planet.botany.uwc.ac.za/nisl/Conservation%20Biology/Conservation\_CCT/2c\_sch

Town and Country Planning Association, 2004. Biodiversity by Design: A guide for sustainable communities. http://www.tcpa.org.uk/data/files/bd\_biodiversity.pdf Tratalos, J., Fuller, R.A., Warren, Ph. H., Davies R.G., Gaston, K.J. 2007. Urban form, biodiversity potential and ecosystem services. Landscape and Urban Planning 83 (2007) Vergnes, A., Le Viol, I., Clergeau, P. (2012) Green corridors in urban landscapes affect the arthropod communities of domestic gardens. *Biological Conservation.* 145: 171–178.

Yang, F. S., Freedman, B., Cote, R. 2004. Principles and practice of ecological design.

Werner, P. Zahner, R. Urban Patterns and Biological Diversity: A Review, *Urban biodiversity and design* 1st edition. Edited by N. Muller, P. Warner and John G. Kelcey. ©2010

Zitkovic, M. 2008. Managing green spaces for urban biodiversity. Local and regional

http://www.countdown2010.net/2010/wp-content/uploads/FS7Greenspace\_small.PDF.

Landscape and Urban Planning 48 (2000) 131±142.

Georgia Basin/Puget Sound Research Conference.

Doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.11.002.

Environ. Rev. Vol. 12, 2004. NRC Canada.

Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 37-55 145-176.

Authorities for biodiversity 2010.

This reflexion comes from a look over the city, particularly the relationship between the built and the open spaces that constitute it. In this look we came across the enormous importance that the system of open spaces has and has always had on the construction of the city, its balance, its identity and its experience. On a closer approach to the system of open spaces of the city, we were confronted with the existence of typologically qualified spaces and of spaces without any typological attribution but that are, by no means, less important than the former. Open spaces, interstices between the built fabric of the contemporary city, that present a certain continuity and that allow the flow of air, of water and matter, simultaneously with the flow of residents or casual users. Sometimes, besides that flow, an informal appropriation of these spaces as spaces for fun, games and socializing is verified, emphasizing the enormous potential presented in the structure and cohesion of the city as support of the urban experience, of social interaction and, of the development of the sense of community. About these spaces, several questions have been raised concerning its quality and diversity, namely its lack of integration in a recognized urban typology and all the consequences that this determines. However, we considered that this fact, on its own, does not constitute a negative factor, but a distinct reality determined by the ever-accelerating rhythm of the technological, economical, social, cultural and demographic chances.

The need to understand the presence of these spaces leads us to a study and analysis of the evolution of the city and of the transformation process that has been occurring, not only in the conceptual and ideological point of view, but also in morphological terms determined by different social-economical and cultural contexts.

During this project we verified that the characteristic discontinuity of the suburbs was the result of an urban model that, since the 60's of the 20th century, has given birth to a new concept of city and, in a disorderly growing process, allowed a landscape of problematic

© 2013 Matos and Batista, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

suburbs to arise, anarchically, in an unqualified territory. The interstices over which we lean are the consequence of this extensive growth of cities and its suburbs.

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 459

that the massive growth of cities has over the rural space, the landscape is proposed as model to the urbanism, and it is recommended the integration of public landscapes with the infra-structural systems, formalizing and leading the urban development, similarly to what happened with *Central Park* in New York and the continuous system of the Boston Parks by

In this search for the lost multifunctionality it is frequent the reference to the aesthetic, social, ecological, economical and cultural components and consequently, the role of

It then begins to take shape, in this study, the idea of production associated with leisure as a fundamental component of landscape that structures, qualifies, and gives continuity to the urban fabric through its interstitial spaces, open spaces and suburbs, all the way to the countryside, promoting an articulated relationship between this *old city-countryside* dichotomy. Our main purpose is the proposal of a new project approach that provides the creation of a multifunctional structure of landscape dedicated to production and leisure in an urban context. In this perspective, the interstitial spaces, object of this study, can and should be a current expression of the landscape *continuum*, given that it allows the occurrence of the ecological processes and of the fundamental biological cycles to the harmonious and

This desideratum is accomplished, or can consubstantiate itself, through urban agriculture, which is perfectly compatible with recreational and leisure activities, as has been long advocated by Ribeiro Telles, and it is even proposed in his "Plano Verde de Lisboa" - Lisbon's Green Plan [1]-, and how it has been proved by the "quintas de recreio"

Although urban agriculture refers, in general, to activities connected to the production of fresh vegetables in the city, it does not mean that it has to be strictly related with production; urban agriculture is also fundamental on including ecological, cultural, recreational and aesthetic concerns, related to the landscape. This means, urban agriculture can integrate, and be, a structuring *continuum* that assures the occurrence of the processes and flows of the various systems that constitute the landscape. This structure should be ecologically justified, as well as it should be developed according to the holistic view that the landscape demands in and for its understanding. In it, there should be present the ecological, aesthetic, social, economical and cultural components and from it there should result spaces and economical,

Urban agriculture can be based in the ecological principles of life and on the necessary space to process its actions, reactions and interactions. It can be considered, even, as other elements of the urban infra-structure: wide and complex, and demanding planning and design, management and maintenance. This means, it is perfectly compatible with the

In this sense, urban agriculture is considered, in this study, in its several dimensions – ecological, cultural, social, economical and aesthetic – as a constituent of the natural and

social, cultural, aesthetic and ecologically balanced structures.

holistic concerns of landscape architecture.

Frederick Olmsted, where the landscape lead the process of the formation of the city.

protection, production and leisure.

balanced development of the city.

(recreational farms), in Portugal.

Aware of the existence of these unnamed *intervals*, in the city, the open space continues, frequently, to be called *green* and to, still, play a secondary role on the construction of the urban landscape. Despite its high potential in the structure and cohesion of the city, these spaces – the interstices and the *greens* – and the attitude of indifference that has been verified towards its qualitative definition tends to reduce them to nothing more than another index in the city's statistics.

Thus, it is necessary a new understanding on the urban condition of the interstitial spaces and on the importance of the quality of the landscape. We consider fundamental to implement an intentional and adequate use of these spaces, as a vital condition to its defense, in a positive way, guaranteed by its comprehension and enjoyment, recognizing them as the true potential to the development and experience of the city. They should, then, be acknowledged as spaces of urban cohesion, fundamental and complementary to the built space and its articulation with the surrounding, ecologically, aesthetically, culturally, socially, economically and technologically.

With the purpose of obtaining a bigger understanding on the quality of the landscape, and based on the idea that this should appear as a fundamental structure and a cornerstone on the qualification of the city, we leaned on its inherent multifunctionality.

From here starts the conscious notion that the landscape is a recent conquest in the western culture, being considered as such from the moment Man inscribes it in a determined culture and epoch. Intrinsic to the concept of landscape come the concept of multifunctionality to which the concepts and the practices of production, leisure and protection have always been associated. However, this dimension and multifunctional look are lost with the modern movement where, the sectoral zoning does not allow the coexistence of several roles thus appearing the vague concept of *green space*, that stretches throughout the entire city homogeneously, amorphous and residually.

It becomes, then, urgent and primordial the return to that concept of landscape. Several authors, searching for new strategies that lead to the multifunctionality of the landscape and its understanding, defend that in the open spaces of the city it should be implanted a continuous and structuring fabric where landscape would appear as a fundamental structure of this *continuum*, having as a principle the systemic vision of the landscape, long implicit in practice and in the philosophy of landscape architecture, from the continuous system of public parks designed by Olmsted, to the concept of *continuum naturale*, introduced and developed, in Portugal, by Professor Caldeira Cabral, in the middle of the last century, covering all the projects that include the concepts of green corridors and of green or ecological structures, all of them essential, since they allow the occurrence of ecological processes, fundamental to the growth and sustainable development of the city.

As well in the recent current, designated as *Landscape Urbanism* (1996), that appears with the rekindle of environmental and ecological concerns, such as the growth of tourism and the questions connected with it, with the sense of oneness and entity, as well as with the impact that the massive growth of cities has over the rural space, the landscape is proposed as model to the urbanism, and it is recommended the integration of public landscapes with the infra-structural systems, formalizing and leading the urban development, similarly to what happened with *Central Park* in New York and the continuous system of the Boston Parks by Frederick Olmsted, where the landscape lead the process of the formation of the city.

458 Advances in Landscape Architecture

in the city's statistics.

socially, economically and technologically.

homogeneously, amorphous and residually.

suburbs to arise, anarchically, in an unqualified territory. The interstices over which we lean

Aware of the existence of these unnamed *intervals*, in the city, the open space continues, frequently, to be called *green* and to, still, play a secondary role on the construction of the urban landscape. Despite its high potential in the structure and cohesion of the city, these spaces – the interstices and the *greens* – and the attitude of indifference that has been verified towards its qualitative definition tends to reduce them to nothing more than another index

Thus, it is necessary a new understanding on the urban condition of the interstitial spaces and on the importance of the quality of the landscape. We consider fundamental to implement an intentional and adequate use of these spaces, as a vital condition to its defense, in a positive way, guaranteed by its comprehension and enjoyment, recognizing them as the true potential to the development and experience of the city. They should, then, be acknowledged as spaces of urban cohesion, fundamental and complementary to the built space and its articulation with the surrounding, ecologically, aesthetically, culturally,

With the purpose of obtaining a bigger understanding on the quality of the landscape, and based on the idea that this should appear as a fundamental structure and a cornerstone on

From here starts the conscious notion that the landscape is a recent conquest in the western culture, being considered as such from the moment Man inscribes it in a determined culture and epoch. Intrinsic to the concept of landscape come the concept of multifunctionality to which the concepts and the practices of production, leisure and protection have always been associated. However, this dimension and multifunctional look are lost with the modern movement where, the sectoral zoning does not allow the coexistence of several roles thus appearing the vague concept of *green space*, that stretches throughout the entire city

It becomes, then, urgent and primordial the return to that concept of landscape. Several authors, searching for new strategies that lead to the multifunctionality of the landscape and its understanding, defend that in the open spaces of the city it should be implanted a continuous and structuring fabric where landscape would appear as a fundamental structure of this *continuum*, having as a principle the systemic vision of the landscape, long implicit in practice and in the philosophy of landscape architecture, from the continuous system of public parks designed by Olmsted, to the concept of *continuum naturale*, introduced and developed, in Portugal, by Professor Caldeira Cabral, in the middle of the last century, covering all the projects that include the concepts of green corridors and of green or ecological structures, all of them essential, since they allow the occurrence of ecological processes, fundamental to the growth and sustainable development of the city.

As well in the recent current, designated as *Landscape Urbanism* (1996), that appears with the rekindle of environmental and ecological concerns, such as the growth of tourism and the questions connected with it, with the sense of oneness and entity, as well as with the impact

the qualification of the city, we leaned on its inherent multifunctionality.

are the consequence of this extensive growth of cities and its suburbs.

In this search for the lost multifunctionality it is frequent the reference to the aesthetic, social, ecological, economical and cultural components and consequently, the role of protection, production and leisure.

It then begins to take shape, in this study, the idea of production associated with leisure as a fundamental component of landscape that structures, qualifies, and gives continuity to the urban fabric through its interstitial spaces, open spaces and suburbs, all the way to the countryside, promoting an articulated relationship between this *old city-countryside* dichotomy.

Our main purpose is the proposal of a new project approach that provides the creation of a multifunctional structure of landscape dedicated to production and leisure in an urban context. In this perspective, the interstitial spaces, object of this study, can and should be a current expression of the landscape *continuum*, given that it allows the occurrence of the ecological processes and of the fundamental biological cycles to the harmonious and balanced development of the city.

This desideratum is accomplished, or can consubstantiate itself, through urban agriculture, which is perfectly compatible with recreational and leisure activities, as has been long advocated by Ribeiro Telles, and it is even proposed in his "Plano Verde de Lisboa" - Lisbon's Green Plan [1]-, and how it has been proved by the "quintas de recreio" (recreational farms), in Portugal.

Although urban agriculture refers, in general, to activities connected to the production of fresh vegetables in the city, it does not mean that it has to be strictly related with production; urban agriculture is also fundamental on including ecological, cultural, recreational and aesthetic concerns, related to the landscape. This means, urban agriculture can integrate, and be, a structuring *continuum* that assures the occurrence of the processes and flows of the various systems that constitute the landscape. This structure should be ecologically justified, as well as it should be developed according to the holistic view that the landscape demands in and for its understanding. In it, there should be present the ecological, aesthetic, social, economical and cultural components and from it there should result spaces and economical, social, cultural, aesthetic and ecologically balanced structures.

Urban agriculture can be based in the ecological principles of life and on the necessary space to process its actions, reactions and interactions. It can be considered, even, as other elements of the urban infra-structure: wide and complex, and demanding planning and design, management and maintenance. This means, it is perfectly compatible with the holistic concerns of landscape architecture.

In this sense, urban agriculture is considered, in this study, in its several dimensions – ecological, cultural, social, economical and aesthetic – as a constituent of the natural and

cultural continuous that structures the urban and suburban fabric, through its open spaces and interstices, making the articulation and establishing an inter-relationship with the countryside.

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 461

consequently the relevance of its contextualization, in the *landscape urbanism*, something that

Lastly, we concluded with the proposal of integrating urban agriculture in a new approach to the landscape design in an urban context, but also in conceptual terms. And, with the presentation of strategies to the development of a sustainable urban agriculture, in order to contribute to a return to the multifunctionality of the landscape, which promotes the existence of a structure of continuous landscape where the recreation, the production and protection should be present and inseparable, thus contributing to urban sustainability.

The clear relevance of the presently discussed subject, namely the existence of open spaces in the city, and the need to revitalize its periphery, the multifunctionality of landscapes, the concept of landscape as structure, and the pertinence of agriculture through the creation of allotment gardens, has led many authors from different fields to produce literature, critical studies, and research on these important matters. Our theoretical support are those authors who consider open spaces and urban voids as work material, full of potential and value for the creation of new socially, culturally, economically, ecologically, and aesthetically viable spaces, as well as those studies centered on the best tools to act on the urban voids, as urban resources. The rigid building fabric rejects these manageable, flexible spaces, which are highly adaptable, in constant change, and well articulated with the different systems of city,

In recent years, there have been some studies both on the importance of landscape in urban spaces, and on the ecological systems and their associated aesthetic issues. Some studies and projects have also been done on urban agriculture and its pertinence, ecological integration

Therefore, this project is based on a bibliographical review of theoretical studies about the themes we seek to develop, and about the proposition of *Plano Verde de Lisboa*, which includes many interventions on the landscape architecture integrating the design of the

Where human beings exist, there is an associated food market. To the eyes of planners, architects, politicians and investors, to practice agriculture in the city was considered all over the world, and mainly in the previous century, a practice not to be done or to be simply ignored. However the production of local food was always quite popular appearing, frequently, in confined spaces given that those with access to land and water would do it, independently of the political restrictions. Recently, researchers, politicians, urban planners and landscape architects have given it a growing importance – turning a neglected activity, in the last seventy years, in a great potential to create forms of sustainable subsistence.

and significance as network, system, and infrastructure.

development of allotment gardens.

**3. What is urban agriculture?** 

it is not the happening today.

**2. Materials and methods** 

and its design.

We consider that this option is based on three pillars: one with a historical and temporal character – the multifunctionality (promiscuity) of the Mediterranean landscape, from which the meridional Portuguese landscape is a part; another of a conceptual and practical character, that concerns the theory and the *praxis* of landscape architecture and of the *landscape urbanism*; and lastly, in our own opinion, the answer that may be given by the urban agriculture to the global crisis situation and to the growth of the estimated urban population (already felt) in the next decades, which lead us to approach the theme of urban agriculture in a more general way.

According to *Food and Agriculture Organization* (FAO) (2009), for the first time in the history of humanity, there is a bigger concentration of population in the cities than in the countryside. This urbanization process determines big challenges to the planning, management, maintenance and conservation of the urban areas.

In the beginning of the third millennium we inhabit a world with an unprecedented number of population. There are currently around 6.3 billion people, a number that it is expected to rise to 9 billion, in 2050 (FAO, 2009). Around half of the world population lives in cities, and this estimation is expected to rise to two thirds by 2030. A great number of cities grow over agricultural terrains, a fact that certainly reduces the capability to produce a considerable amount of the food necessary to the auto-sustainability of the city. It is estimated that if the developing countries follow the western lifestyle – in terms of the usage of food, forest and energy products – three whole planets will be needed. It is, then, of crucial matter that the city becomes much more efficient in the way it utilizes its resources, which includes, obviously, the production of food. Urban agriculture constitutes, in this case, a fundamental contribution to the auto-sustainability of the city. Moreover, urban agriculture will be a practice that won't compromise uses or future options, thus becoming a guaranty of soil preservation, a scarce and fundamental resource.

This chapter is centered on the theme of urban agriculture, namely its definition, identification and characterization, emphasizing three of its typologies based on relevance and inclusion in the objectives of this study. They are: the urban allotment garden, the *continuous productive landscapes* and the *urban field*. In this context, we leaned over its relevance and the need in the contemporary city when facing the current social-economical crisis and the estimated urban growth in a near future. The benefits that can be brought and the obstacles that can occur are presented, either at a food and nutritional safety level, either at a health and local development level, or even at a social-cultural and urban environmental management level. The politics that regulate urban agriculture in its social, economical and ecological dimensions are addressed, and how it has influenced its practice, as well as the economical issues associated. We considered fundamental the study of agriculture throughout history and its evolution in the city, its relationship with the countryside, as well as the possibility of its integration in the interstitial urban spaces and, consequently the relevance of its contextualization, in the *landscape urbanism*, something that it is not the happening today.

Lastly, we concluded with the proposal of integrating urban agriculture in a new approach to the landscape design in an urban context, but also in conceptual terms. And, with the presentation of strategies to the development of a sustainable urban agriculture, in order to contribute to a return to the multifunctionality of the landscape, which promotes the existence of a structure of continuous landscape where the recreation, the production and protection should be present and inseparable, thus contributing to urban sustainability.

## **2. Materials and methods**

460 Advances in Landscape Architecture

agriculture in a more general way.

cultural continuous that structures the urban and suburban fabric, through its open spaces and interstices, making the articulation and establishing an inter-relationship with the countryside. We consider that this option is based on three pillars: one with a historical and temporal character – the multifunctionality (promiscuity) of the Mediterranean landscape, from which the meridional Portuguese landscape is a part; another of a conceptual and practical character, that concerns the theory and the *praxis* of landscape architecture and of the *landscape urbanism*; and lastly, in our own opinion, the answer that may be given by the urban agriculture to the global crisis situation and to the growth of the estimated urban population (already felt) in the next decades, which lead us to approach the theme of urban

According to *Food and Agriculture Organization* (FAO) (2009), for the first time in the history of humanity, there is a bigger concentration of population in the cities than in the countryside. This urbanization process determines big challenges to the planning,

In the beginning of the third millennium we inhabit a world with an unprecedented number of population. There are currently around 6.3 billion people, a number that it is expected to rise to 9 billion, in 2050 (FAO, 2009). Around half of the world population lives in cities, and this estimation is expected to rise to two thirds by 2030. A great number of cities grow over agricultural terrains, a fact that certainly reduces the capability to produce a considerable amount of the food necessary to the auto-sustainability of the city. It is estimated that if the developing countries follow the western lifestyle – in terms of the usage of food, forest and energy products – three whole planets will be needed. It is, then, of crucial matter that the city becomes much more efficient in the way it utilizes its resources, which includes, obviously, the production of food. Urban agriculture constitutes, in this case, a fundamental contribution to the auto-sustainability of the city. Moreover, urban agriculture will be a practice that won't compromise uses or future options, thus becoming a guaranty of soil

This chapter is centered on the theme of urban agriculture, namely its definition, identification and characterization, emphasizing three of its typologies based on relevance and inclusion in the objectives of this study. They are: the urban allotment garden, the *continuous productive landscapes* and the *urban field*. In this context, we leaned over its relevance and the need in the contemporary city when facing the current social-economical crisis and the estimated urban growth in a near future. The benefits that can be brought and the obstacles that can occur are presented, either at a food and nutritional safety level, either at a health and local development level, or even at a social-cultural and urban environmental management level. The politics that regulate urban agriculture in its social, economical and ecological dimensions are addressed, and how it has influenced its practice, as well as the economical issues associated. We considered fundamental the study of agriculture throughout history and its evolution in the city, its relationship with the countryside, as well as the possibility of its integration in the interstitial urban spaces and,

management, maintenance and conservation of the urban areas.

preservation, a scarce and fundamental resource.

The clear relevance of the presently discussed subject, namely the existence of open spaces in the city, and the need to revitalize its periphery, the multifunctionality of landscapes, the concept of landscape as structure, and the pertinence of agriculture through the creation of allotment gardens, has led many authors from different fields to produce literature, critical studies, and research on these important matters. Our theoretical support are those authors who consider open spaces and urban voids as work material, full of potential and value for the creation of new socially, culturally, economically, ecologically, and aesthetically viable spaces, as well as those studies centered on the best tools to act on the urban voids, as urban resources. The rigid building fabric rejects these manageable, flexible spaces, which are highly adaptable, in constant change, and well articulated with the different systems of city, and its design.

In recent years, there have been some studies both on the importance of landscape in urban spaces, and on the ecological systems and their associated aesthetic issues. Some studies and projects have also been done on urban agriculture and its pertinence, ecological integration and significance as network, system, and infrastructure.

Therefore, this project is based on a bibliographical review of theoretical studies about the themes we seek to develop, and about the proposition of *Plano Verde de Lisboa*, which includes many interventions on the landscape architecture integrating the design of the development of allotment gardens.

## **3. What is urban agriculture?**

Where human beings exist, there is an associated food market. To the eyes of planners, architects, politicians and investors, to practice agriculture in the city was considered all over the world, and mainly in the previous century, a practice not to be done or to be simply ignored. However the production of local food was always quite popular appearing, frequently, in confined spaces given that those with access to land and water would do it, independently of the political restrictions. Recently, researchers, politicians, urban planners and landscape architects have given it a growing importance – turning a neglected activity, in the last seventy years, in a great potential to create forms of sustainable subsistence.

If we look to the history of agriculture, in the European context, many have considered agriculture and city in a different way. However, according to several authors this does not correspond to reality.1

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 463

In [4] is referred that the most important characteristic that distinguishes urban agriculture from any other kind of agriculture, is not so much the location, but the fact that it constitutes a part of the urban economy and the ecological and social systems: it utilizes urban resources (land, work, solid organic residues and water); produces for the citizens; it is strongly influenced by the urban conditions (politics, competition for the land, markets and urban prices) and causes an impact on the urban system (the effects on food safety, poverty,

Also in [5] urban agriculture may have place in any part of the city – in spaces of different topography, defined, or undefined typology, *brown-fields*, *green* spaces, parks, roadsides, highway slopes, in wide spaces or hidden corners.4 It can appear wherever inside the urban context, leading many cities to stimulate their multiple use keeping the spaces, inside the city, simultaneously valuable and free of buildings. In most cases it is high yielding allotment gardens where fruit and vegetables grow and, if the economical situation is tough,

Peri-urban agriculture is the agriculture that occurs in the urban-rural borderline or in low density sub-urban areas, similar to urban agriculture despite the size of the allotment being frequently bigger. Despite this vast coverage of urban agriculture, typologically and spatially speaking, we want to make reference to three theoretically distinct types, although



Allotment gardens are a unique contribution to urban space. It's a contribution challenging the conventional notion of urban space and of open space design. These spaces are an echo, and a memory of how the countryside might have been — a humanized *landscape* but with a

However, urban/rural conflict has been a consistent source of difficulties for urban designers because it contradicts imposed rankings of what is, or should be the urban space —

<sup>4</sup> The *Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes* - CPULs may appear in any space of variable shape, dimension and scale.

peaceful feeling, a shared space with a touch of inner silence.

perfectly compatible and complementary in morphological and practical terms.

point of view of a possible design strategy of landscape to the urban space.

ecology and health).

be implemented.

**3.1. Allotment gardens** 

it can include small animals and/or aquaculture.

Urban agriculture always existed. As we know, the first human settlements are located near fertile and arable land to assure a close food source. As cities grew, they were occupying those agricultural lands, necessitating, consequently, of more sources of food.

The definition of urban agriculture in [2], classical and widely used, refers that "urban agriculture is an industry located inside or in the outskirts of the city, the growth of which, processes and distributes a diversity of food and other products, widely re-utilizing human and material resources, products and services found inside and in the outskirts of the urban area, and providing, in turn, material and human resources, products and services to that urban area".

This definition articulates production in confined spaces, related economical activities, localization, destination markets (or just for the consumption inside the house) and the types of products made in a dynamic interaction that may vary from one urban area to the other. Urban agriculture does not only present research associated to the natural sciences (agronomy, pollution, water and soil quality, among others), but also important questions of social and economical nature (land markets, migration from the rural space to the urban and social integration among others.)2, not counting the questions associated to urban planning and the architectures.

Also according to [3], urban agriculture can be defined as the cultivation of plants and the raising of animals with food purposes, inside and around the cities including, even, other uses and activities related such as the production and the delivery of *inputs*, and the processing and commercialization of the products. Urban agriculture is located inside or in the outskirts of the city and it comprehends a variety of different production systems, different from the subsistence production, processing, at the level of the aggregate, a completely commercialized agriculture.3

This activity is generally characterized: by the proximity to the markets, by a high competitiveness for the land, by being a limited space, by the utilization of organic resources namely solid organic residues and residual waters, by having a low degree of organization, by its products being mainly perishable, and by having a high degree of specialization, among others. Due to the provision of perishable products such as vegetables, fresh milk, and poultry products, urban agriculture complements, to some extent, rural agriculture and heightens the efficiency of national and regional food systems.

<sup>1</sup> Henri Bava, Joaquin Sabaté, Pablo Arias Sierra, Pierre Donadieu and Ribeiro Telles, among others, argue the coexistence and the simultaneous development of both.

<sup>2</sup> Currently, the research on urban agriculture is also applicable to the study of politics and is offered as an answer to the technocratic vision of the way of planning and legislating.

<sup>3</sup> The population capacity to generate income is necessary and profoundly satisfactory. Using the surface, and the land itself, is one of the most ancient ways of generating income, mainly under the form of food production. It also allows the so much desired work in and with natural conditions.

In [4] is referred that the most important characteristic that distinguishes urban agriculture from any other kind of agriculture, is not so much the location, but the fact that it constitutes a part of the urban economy and the ecological and social systems: it utilizes urban resources (land, work, solid organic residues and water); produces for the citizens; it is strongly influenced by the urban conditions (politics, competition for the land, markets and urban prices) and causes an impact on the urban system (the effects on food safety, poverty, ecology and health).

Also in [5] urban agriculture may have place in any part of the city – in spaces of different topography, defined, or undefined typology, *brown-fields*, *green* spaces, parks, roadsides, highway slopes, in wide spaces or hidden corners.4 It can appear wherever inside the urban context, leading many cities to stimulate their multiple use keeping the spaces, inside the city, simultaneously valuable and free of buildings. In most cases it is high yielding allotment gardens where fruit and vegetables grow and, if the economical situation is tough, it can include small animals and/or aquaculture.

Peri-urban agriculture is the agriculture that occurs in the urban-rural borderline or in low density sub-urban areas, similar to urban agriculture despite the size of the allotment being frequently bigger. Despite this vast coverage of urban agriculture, typologically and spatially speaking, we want to make reference to three theoretically distinct types, although perfectly compatible and complementary in morphological and practical terms.


## **3.1. Allotment gardens**

462 Advances in Landscape Architecture

correspond to reality.1

urban area".

and the architectures.

completely commercialized agriculture.3

coexistence and the simultaneous development of both.

the so much desired work in and with natural conditions.

the technocratic vision of the way of planning and legislating.

heightens the efficiency of national and regional food systems.

If we look to the history of agriculture, in the European context, many have considered agriculture and city in a different way. However, according to several authors this does not

Urban agriculture always existed. As we know, the first human settlements are located near fertile and arable land to assure a close food source. As cities grew, they were occupying

The definition of urban agriculture in [2], classical and widely used, refers that "urban agriculture is an industry located inside or in the outskirts of the city, the growth of which, processes and distributes a diversity of food and other products, widely re-utilizing human and material resources, products and services found inside and in the outskirts of the urban area, and providing, in turn, material and human resources, products and services to that

This definition articulates production in confined spaces, related economical activities, localization, destination markets (or just for the consumption inside the house) and the types of products made in a dynamic interaction that may vary from one urban area to the other. Urban agriculture does not only present research associated to the natural sciences (agronomy, pollution, water and soil quality, among others), but also important questions of social and economical nature (land markets, migration from the rural space to the urban and social integration among others.)2, not counting the questions associated to urban planning

Also according to [3], urban agriculture can be defined as the cultivation of plants and the raising of animals with food purposes, inside and around the cities including, even, other uses and activities related such as the production and the delivery of *inputs*, and the processing and commercialization of the products. Urban agriculture is located inside or in the outskirts of the city and it comprehends a variety of different production systems, different from the subsistence production, processing, at the level of the aggregate, a

This activity is generally characterized: by the proximity to the markets, by a high competitiveness for the land, by being a limited space, by the utilization of organic resources namely solid organic residues and residual waters, by having a low degree of organization, by its products being mainly perishable, and by having a high degree of specialization, among others. Due to the provision of perishable products such as vegetables, fresh milk, and poultry products, urban agriculture complements, to some extent, rural agriculture and

<sup>1</sup> Henri Bava, Joaquin Sabaté, Pablo Arias Sierra, Pierre Donadieu and Ribeiro Telles, among others, argue the

2 Currently, the research on urban agriculture is also applicable to the study of politics and is offered as an answer to

3 The population capacity to generate income is necessary and profoundly satisfactory. Using the surface, and the land itself, is one of the most ancient ways of generating income, mainly under the form of food production. It also allows

those agricultural lands, necessitating, consequently, of more sources of food.

Allotment gardens are a unique contribution to urban space. It's a contribution challenging the conventional notion of urban space and of open space design. These spaces are an echo, and a memory of how the countryside might have been — a humanized *landscape* but with a peaceful feeling, a shared space with a touch of inner silence.

However, urban/rural conflict has been a consistent source of difficulties for urban designers because it contradicts imposed rankings of what is, or should be the urban space —

<sup>4</sup> The *Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes* - CPULs may appear in any space of variable shape, dimension and scale.

expressed through particular notions of order and control, purity of shape, and clear limits. Still, the users and the public in general seem to prize this contradiction of rules. The feeling many people have about living, working, strolling, and bicycle riding through allotment gardens is an evidence both of their vital, psychological and physical value and of the need to involve more people in the debate about the future of these spaces.

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 465

Between 1900 and 1945 the bigger stimulant to the production of food in Europe was the War: the real threat of famine caused by the blockages originated campaigns to increase the

During the First World War, with fear of harming the citizens' morale, the British government's campaign to increase food production, as well as the rationing, started from 1917. Despite all this, the results of the campaign were outstanding. In [5], the number of 250m2 allotments increased, approximately, from 450 000 to 600 000 in 1913, and from 1 300

Between wars, the public's interest in allotments and in other forms of urban food production declined in Europe, although to levels never lower to those recorded in 1914. The mass unemployment, verified since 1920, revived the interest in allotment gardens as a valuable means of social-economical aide. Philanthropic Groups of the most varied origins, namely the *Society of Friends*, in England, developed plans providing fertilizers, seeds and tools. Currently, similar supporting mechanisms are used in Cuba, in its national program of urban agriculture. During the Second World War the production of fruits and vegetables inside the cities of the UK was shown to have an important value in times of need. The production in family allotment gardens, making use of gardens in public and private places,

local food production, a lot of which was coming from urban agriculture.

000 to 1 500 000 in 1917, having been produced 2 000 000 tonnes of vegetables.

exceeded more than 10% of the country's total needs in terms of fresh vegetables [8].

in line with a time destined to the scientific progress [5].

cities, with new roles and goals allowing *new urban activities*.

to establish this bond through urban agriculture.

According to the data in [9]*,* during war time, not only the agricultural activities but also the livestock and poultry production reached high values. In 1942 there were registered, in urban zones in England, more than 90 000 poultry farmers with a production of 16 000 000 specimens. In 1944 the allotment gardens, alongside gardens and other portions of land including parks transformed into agricultural fields, amounted to a total 10% of the country's food needs and half the fruit and vegetable's needs. The end of the campaign *Dig for Victory*, in England, was followed by a harsh decline of the urban food production. The recent state of well-being, the existence of jobs and a rising prosperity, made that the food production was no longer a necessity. Also an image problem had a negative effect on the allotment gardens: people associated them to war, and a time of austerity that no longer was

Among progress and setbacks, in periods of crisis, the strategic value of allotment gardens has always been emphasized. The 1970's were a turning point for allotment gardens, with the emergence of new production means. This seemed to be due to a new environmental ethics, developed in the 1960's as an alternative lifestyle, and a notion of self-sufficiency based on renewable energies. After the crisis, the urban dynamics of developing societies brought new freezing techniques, allowing the possibility to find any product regardless of the season and at a minimal distance. Nevertheless, old urban markets inside the cities are very significant as a means to re-establish the citizens' natural links with nature [10]. This requires a redefinition of the methods and purposes in the design of open spaces within the

It is evident that the new diffuse city carries, in a way, a certain desire of a relationship between the citizen and nature and, it seems clear that in this context, it is physically easier

## *3.1.1. Brief historical evolution*

Food production is linked to the history of cities, since their origins [6]: the lack of an efficient transportation system and of sophisticated food preservation techniques before the Industrial Revolution inevitably meant that the population had to grow vegetables near their place of residence. In the 18th century, allotment gardens acquired a deliberate social character to compensate the rural population that had migrated to the city. The purpose of those allotment gardens was to provide a nutritional and economical safety net against unemployment or, to supplement reduced incomes. The necessity of urban allotment gardens quickly rose, occupying the city. At this point, the display and the supply of the allotment gardens was widely private and *ad hoc.*

At the end of the 19th century, the power and the rising responsibilities of the local governments reflected in the appearance of the first law to urban allotment gardens, in England, that required local authorities to provide allotment gardens to the workers that showed economical needs. Similar proceedings occurred in other parts of Europe, for example, the introduction of the *Schrebergarten* in Germany [5].

Until the third decade of the 20th century, the urban growth of food meant an important part of the city's consumption. The fresh products, legumes and vegetables came from the allotment gardens along the streams and rivers of the city. The importance of these ruralurban bonds transcended the merely economical plan and the environmental issues that today we are faced with.

The former allotment gardens' zones started to be occupied with highways, residential areas, railroads and other infra-structures necessary to the growth of the city. 5. Throughout the ages transformations to the agricultural activities in the urban areas occurred as a result of the new industrial culture of the cities as well as of speculative interests associated with the improvement of transportation that allowed a quicker and more economical supply of the central markets. At the same time, the contamination of the waters of the rivers by the industry represented one of the greatest ecological catastrophes resulting in the abandonment of the agricultural activity in urban areas.

<sup>5</sup> Metropolization is the major cause of the loss of agriculture in the city. Attests to the supremacy of the terciary function: commercial, financial, of decision and of command; it depends on a modality of urban growth founded under the automobile, under the consentment of the urban public administration and, consequently, under the form of local government. A second series of motives is related with a negative view for sanitary reasons and public health. A third series has to do with the disadvantages to which the farmers are subjected (the incompatibility of tractors with the urban traffic, lach of irrigation water (…) [7]

Between 1900 and 1945 the bigger stimulant to the production of food in Europe was the War: the real threat of famine caused by the blockages originated campaigns to increase the local food production, a lot of which was coming from urban agriculture.

464 Advances in Landscape Architecture

*3.1.1. Brief historical evolution* 

today we are faced with.

allotment gardens was widely private and *ad hoc.*

example, the introduction of the *Schrebergarten* in Germany [5].

abandonment of the agricultural activity in urban areas.

the urban traffic, lach of irrigation water (…) [7]

expressed through particular notions of order and control, purity of shape, and clear limits. Still, the users and the public in general seem to prize this contradiction of rules. The feeling many people have about living, working, strolling, and bicycle riding through allotment gardens is an evidence both of their vital, psychological and physical value and of the need

Food production is linked to the history of cities, since their origins [6]: the lack of an efficient transportation system and of sophisticated food preservation techniques before the Industrial Revolution inevitably meant that the population had to grow vegetables near their place of residence. In the 18th century, allotment gardens acquired a deliberate social character to compensate the rural population that had migrated to the city. The purpose of those allotment gardens was to provide a nutritional and economical safety net against unemployment or, to supplement reduced incomes. The necessity of urban allotment gardens quickly rose, occupying the city. At this point, the display and the supply of the

At the end of the 19th century, the power and the rising responsibilities of the local governments reflected in the appearance of the first law to urban allotment gardens, in England, that required local authorities to provide allotment gardens to the workers that showed economical needs. Similar proceedings occurred in other parts of Europe, for

Until the third decade of the 20th century, the urban growth of food meant an important part of the city's consumption. The fresh products, legumes and vegetables came from the allotment gardens along the streams and rivers of the city. The importance of these ruralurban bonds transcended the merely economical plan and the environmental issues that

The former allotment gardens' zones started to be occupied with highways, residential areas, railroads and other infra-structures necessary to the growth of the city. 5. Throughout the ages transformations to the agricultural activities in the urban areas occurred as a result of the new industrial culture of the cities as well as of speculative interests associated with the improvement of transportation that allowed a quicker and more economical supply of the central markets. At the same time, the contamination of the waters of the rivers by the industry represented one of the greatest ecological catastrophes resulting in the

5 Metropolization is the major cause of the loss of agriculture in the city. Attests to the supremacy of the terciary function: commercial, financial, of decision and of command; it depends on a modality of urban growth founded under the automobile, under the consentment of the urban public administration and, consequently, under the form of local government. A second series of motives is related with a negative view for sanitary reasons and public health. A third series has to do with the disadvantages to which the farmers are subjected (the incompatibility of tractors with

to involve more people in the debate about the future of these spaces.

During the First World War, with fear of harming the citizens' morale, the British government's campaign to increase food production, as well as the rationing, started from 1917. Despite all this, the results of the campaign were outstanding. In [5], the number of 250m2 allotments increased, approximately, from 450 000 to 600 000 in 1913, and from 1 300 000 to 1 500 000 in 1917, having been produced 2 000 000 tonnes of vegetables.

Between wars, the public's interest in allotments and in other forms of urban food production declined in Europe, although to levels never lower to those recorded in 1914. The mass unemployment, verified since 1920, revived the interest in allotment gardens as a valuable means of social-economical aide. Philanthropic Groups of the most varied origins, namely the *Society of Friends*, in England, developed plans providing fertilizers, seeds and tools. Currently, similar supporting mechanisms are used in Cuba, in its national program of urban agriculture. During the Second World War the production of fruits and vegetables inside the cities of the UK was shown to have an important value in times of need. The production in family allotment gardens, making use of gardens in public and private places, exceeded more than 10% of the country's total needs in terms of fresh vegetables [8].

According to the data in [9]*,* during war time, not only the agricultural activities but also the livestock and poultry production reached high values. In 1942 there were registered, in urban zones in England, more than 90 000 poultry farmers with a production of 16 000 000 specimens. In 1944 the allotment gardens, alongside gardens and other portions of land including parks transformed into agricultural fields, amounted to a total 10% of the country's food needs and half the fruit and vegetable's needs. The end of the campaign *Dig for Victory*, in England, was followed by a harsh decline of the urban food production. The recent state of well-being, the existence of jobs and a rising prosperity, made that the food production was no longer a necessity. Also an image problem had a negative effect on the allotment gardens: people associated them to war, and a time of austerity that no longer was in line with a time destined to the scientific progress [5].

Among progress and setbacks, in periods of crisis, the strategic value of allotment gardens has always been emphasized. The 1970's were a turning point for allotment gardens, with the emergence of new production means. This seemed to be due to a new environmental ethics, developed in the 1960's as an alternative lifestyle, and a notion of self-sufficiency based on renewable energies. After the crisis, the urban dynamics of developing societies brought new freezing techniques, allowing the possibility to find any product regardless of the season and at a minimal distance. Nevertheless, old urban markets inside the cities are very significant as a means to re-establish the citizens' natural links with nature [10]. This requires a redefinition of the methods and purposes in the design of open spaces within the cities, with new roles and goals allowing *new urban activities*.

It is evident that the new diffuse city carries, in a way, a certain desire of a relationship between the citizen and nature and, it seems clear that in this context, it is physically easier to establish this bond through urban agriculture.

It is also to be noted that the settlements from where the great metropolitan areas arose, in the west, came from rural areas. The will to maintain this old cultural heritage had important effects in certain working suburbs, in big urban areas not only European, but also American [8]. The ethnic and cultural variety in the European Union, made of populations that came from rural cultures and that made sure that, in certain suburban areas, the *patios* and the open spaces of the house were used to their full potential with the cultivation of vegetables, keeping the bond with their origins and, at the same time, helping the family's economy. This practice can be considered an example for the open spaces of the city that, frequently, with their *standardized* treatment, keep the citizen and the city with their backs turned against nature.

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 467

the conventional agricultural activity that existed or still exists in a determined area. They are, often, activities done outside the commercial circuits, in small allotments or allotment gardens that justify themselves, as an activity, with their own reasons more linked to the urban world, than to the rural one. On the other hand, the agricultural practice by the

Currently, urban agriculture continues to be useful as a means of providing some food and financial income for the citizens, as well as having some other important benefits [13]:






In England and in Northern Europe in general, a community allotment garden or an urban farm, are local projects run by and for local community groups. Sometimes they are run in a partnership with the local authorities but, its main characteristic is the strong local involvement. These allotment gardens exist mainly in densely built areas where its creation has been the answer of the community to the lack of a project and/or adequate management

The urban farms are also known as pedagogical farms or community farms. The agricultural allotments are not generally run by a community, but there is a rising movement for the formation of an association of groups of parcels with the objective of practicing a decentralized management from the Local Authority that will move from the *statutory* sector (although with legal protection) towards the *run by the community* sector. Inside the movement of the allotments it is verified as well that there is a rising number of groups that are consciously establishing work run by the community with innovative schemes to obtain more community support [14].The majority of the projects is centered on food production activities, formation courses on the area, field trips from schools to community allotments and the undertaking of community businesses related to the urban agricultural practice. Some advance with the proposal of recreational and sporting equipments, of free time

The community allotment gardens7 and the urban farms are extremely flexible and adapt to the requirements of the local community. They have in common the encouragement of

7 Relatively to their location and marking of the allotment it is necessary to bear in mind if its objective is therapeutic or recreational, commercial, for self-consumption or mix use. The gardening allotments are of the most popular for

benefits through physical exercise, better food quality and bigger diversity)

of the citizens, allowing them to realize the real dimension of time).

working class has survived at the expense of the low cost food available.

rehabilitation of youngsters).

directly or indirectly).

to and of the open spaces.

activities and vacation schemes.

reduction of the carbon footprint).

In Portugal, the strong migration movements from the 60s and 70s, of population coming from rural areas towards the big cities [11], lead as well to the appearance of certain ways of urban and suburban agriculture that answered to a new type o *urban space*, called in [12] as a *third space*, that showed a bond from the new industrial population to the memory of their old rural habits.

Still today, in our great metropolitan areas, there are small agricultural explorations in the interstitial spaces, or of difficult use, in suburban areas that, inside their precariousness, have an exceptional interest as a sociological phenomenon, and that we believe to exceed what would be a mere mechanism of transition as an adaptation of migrant populations to the new culture of the urban space6.

The sub-metropolitan allotment gardens appear in the big cities (take a look at Lisbon) as very representative places, even from the sociological, geographical, and anthropological point of view, which has been studying them with obvious interest. These studies show us what they mean as an expression of a way of understanding the urban space as the *habitat* of Man: the sub-metropolitan allotment gardens mean more than just bridges towards adaptation, being the expression of what the city could be in its definitive form and that that form is both easy and possible to be accomplished.

In the case of the metropolitan area of Lisbon, the important peri-urban agricultural areas that had some significant production capability, since the 60s of the 20th century, started to progressively lose importance as a consequence of the destruction of the agricultural soil, not only due to the new industrial and residential developments that invaded these peripheral spaces, but also due to the construction of powerful infrastructures and networks of services that destroyed the productive space of a primary sector that, on the other hand, was also losing its manpower, given the new employment opportunities.

Nowadays, it is frequent that the nature and origin of those allotment gardens, either because of where it came from, or because of its situation, do not have a relationship with

<sup>6</sup> Institutional areas (belonging to hospitals, schools and churches), riverbanks and road edges, parks, terrains under high voltage power lines, areas that can not be used for construction and its surroundings constitute a great part of municipal terrain. The planning of the use and exploration of these spaces requires the record of the localization, as a first step, and then the evaluation of its potential. It is important to evaluate the availability of the land for urban agriculture in a certain city in a short, medium or long term. The land may not be available due to the rapid growth of the city and the expansion of built areas [3].

the conventional agricultural activity that existed or still exists in a determined area. They are, often, activities done outside the commercial circuits, in small allotments or allotment gardens that justify themselves, as an activity, with their own reasons more linked to the urban world, than to the rural one. On the other hand, the agricultural practice by the working class has survived at the expense of the low cost food available.

466 Advances in Landscape Architecture

old rural habits.

the new culture of the urban space6.

the city and the expansion of built areas [3].

form is both easy and possible to be accomplished.

It is also to be noted that the settlements from where the great metropolitan areas arose, in the west, came from rural areas. The will to maintain this old cultural heritage had important effects in certain working suburbs, in big urban areas not only European, but also American [8]. The ethnic and cultural variety in the European Union, made of populations that came from rural cultures and that made sure that, in certain suburban areas, the *patios* and the open spaces of the house were used to their full potential with the cultivation of vegetables, keeping the bond with their origins and, at the same time, helping the family's economy. This practice can be considered an example for the open spaces of the city that, frequently, with their *standardized* treatment, keep the citizen and the city with their backs turned against nature.

In Portugal, the strong migration movements from the 60s and 70s, of population coming from rural areas towards the big cities [11], lead as well to the appearance of certain ways of urban and suburban agriculture that answered to a new type o *urban space*, called in [12] as a *third space*, that showed a bond from the new industrial population to the memory of their

Still today, in our great metropolitan areas, there are small agricultural explorations in the interstitial spaces, or of difficult use, in suburban areas that, inside their precariousness, have an exceptional interest as a sociological phenomenon, and that we believe to exceed what would be a mere mechanism of transition as an adaptation of migrant populations to

The sub-metropolitan allotment gardens appear in the big cities (take a look at Lisbon) as very representative places, even from the sociological, geographical, and anthropological point of view, which has been studying them with obvious interest. These studies show us what they mean as an expression of a way of understanding the urban space as the *habitat* of Man: the sub-metropolitan allotment gardens mean more than just bridges towards adaptation, being the expression of what the city could be in its definitive form and that that

In the case of the metropolitan area of Lisbon, the important peri-urban agricultural areas that had some significant production capability, since the 60s of the 20th century, started to progressively lose importance as a consequence of the destruction of the agricultural soil, not only due to the new industrial and residential developments that invaded these peripheral spaces, but also due to the construction of powerful infrastructures and networks of services that destroyed the productive space of a primary sector that, on the other hand,

Nowadays, it is frequent that the nature and origin of those allotment gardens, either because of where it came from, or because of its situation, do not have a relationship with

6 Institutional areas (belonging to hospitals, schools and churches), riverbanks and road edges, parks, terrains under high voltage power lines, areas that can not be used for construction and its surroundings constitute a great part of municipal terrain. The planning of the use and exploration of these spaces requires the record of the localization, as a first step, and then the evaluation of its potential. It is important to evaluate the availability of the land for urban agriculture in a certain city in a short, medium or long term. The land may not be available due to the rapid growth of

was also losing its manpower, given the new employment opportunities.

Currently, urban agriculture continues to be useful as a means of providing some food and financial income for the citizens, as well as having some other important benefits [13]:


In England and in Northern Europe in general, a community allotment garden or an urban farm, are local projects run by and for local community groups. Sometimes they are run in a partnership with the local authorities but, its main characteristic is the strong local involvement. These allotment gardens exist mainly in densely built areas where its creation has been the answer of the community to the lack of a project and/or adequate management to and of the open spaces.

The urban farms are also known as pedagogical farms or community farms. The agricultural allotments are not generally run by a community, but there is a rising movement for the formation of an association of groups of parcels with the objective of practicing a decentralized management from the Local Authority that will move from the *statutory* sector (although with legal protection) towards the *run by the community* sector. Inside the movement of the allotments it is verified as well that there is a rising number of groups that are consciously establishing work run by the community with innovative schemes to obtain more community support [14].The majority of the projects is centered on food production activities, formation courses on the area, field trips from schools to community allotments and the undertaking of community businesses related to the urban agricultural practice. Some advance with the proposal of recreational and sporting equipments, of free time activities and vacation schemes.

The community allotment gardens7 and the urban farms are extremely flexible and adapt to the requirements of the local community. They have in common the encouragement of

<sup>7</sup> Relatively to their location and marking of the allotment it is necessary to bear in mind if its objective is therapeutic or recreational, commercial, for self-consumption or mix use. The gardening allotments are of the most popular for

social participation and of the creation of sustainable communities. The projects contribute directly to the development of the community generating social participation and promoting urban regeneration through:

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 469

The same author refers that the cultivated parcels lack market value. They are precariously occupied with their owners aware that they can be evicted at any moment. These terrains were never bought or sold and, if those who cultivate them can no longer enjoy them due to the age or any familiar reasons, they give them to those that show some interest in cultivating them. Also, it does not seem common the presence of youngsters in the cultivation of the allotment gardens; those who work there, occasionally , are men, of mature age, from 50 to 70 years old, in their majority retired, that use their free time, to fill the emptiness of their leisure. This dedication is never too intense, nor has any economical expectations, a fact almost impossible due to being a low quality piece of land, to using

Relatively to the Portuguese reality, in 2004 the Culturgest issued a challenge for the attribution of urban allotment gardens in Lisbon. The contestants were all (or almost all) retired people and migrants in the city. According to the Commissary of Town Hall of Lisbon (CML) to this contest, the Landscape Architect Rosário Salema, the children of the contestants would not carry on this activity, simultaneously productive (because they sell the products they cultivate) and recreational. Relatively to the community allotment gardens, it was verified that they covered technical staff (qualified active population), at

According to the Landscape Architect Maria José Fundevila, current commissary for the legalization of community allotment gardens, the Town Hall of Lisbon, the *Heritage and Investment Division* of the CML is finally making a record of urban allotment gardens, with that information still unavailable. Relatively to the age groups and professional situations of the farmers, it would depend on the areas in question: in the more marginal zones, socially speaking, you have a wide variety of farmers being hard to establish a global pattern for the urban allotment gardens – the allotment gardens are very connected to the social and economical aspect in the city, at least that appeared spontaneously, so that they are directly

The Commissary referred two distinct examples: Quinta da Granja, in front of the Colombo Shopping Center, and the Parque Hortícola de Chelas, near the J Zone neighborhood in Chelas: in the first one there is a predominance of retired people, at a 60 to 70% rate, that have cultivated the area for a long time. The oldest one has done it for 38 years and is 97 years old today. In this case, the number of people that initiate the cultivation already in retirement is really low. Many have occupied these areas for a long time and have, meanwhile, retired. The main reason to cultivate the allotment gardens is the fondness for the cultivation of the land as well as the distraction it provides and the leisure occupation.

In Parque de Chelas the situation is completely different. The age group ranges from 30 to 70 and here, predominate the professionally active individuals or, at least, in this age group, given that many are unemployed. Here, the main reason for the cultivation of allotment gardens is the complement to the family income. These farmers sell their products illegally,

elementary tools and to not having the adequate support.

least in the medium class neighborhoods, for example Telheiras.

related to the social typology of the area in which they are inserted.

*3.1.2. The reality in Portugal* 



In [15] is considered that the expression *agricultural allotment* should be replaced by the concept of recreational gardens because the first one has an historical stigma of low yielding and relative poverty. Additionally, the tracing and localization of the allotments should consider not only the individual parcels, but also the community areas, shelters, recreational areas and even some occasional spaces for orchards and groves. The *recreational gardens* should be strategically placed near the requirements and as far way as possible from sources of known contamination, such as old railroad tracks and some empty spaces resultant from polluting industries.

In [16] is understood the presence of these sub-metropolitan allotment gardens as the result of a marginal occupation of soils that comes as the result of problems due to the crisis and of the industrial stop that in the decade of 1970 affected the working economy. The exploration of these small parcels serves to grant some additional funds to the families' economies and to give jobs to young unemployed people with no expectations whatsoever.

This diagnosis, as to the origin and justification of existence of sub-metropolitan allotment gardens, is not entirely shared in [17] after deeply analyzing the sociological components of the existing allotment gardens in suburban areas of the city. In[17], the origin of the metropolitan allotment gardens can not be related to the issue of industrial deactivation, given that the origin of the allotment gardens is prior to it. Thus, its origin has to be explained in variables of some other nature.

It does not seem valid, as well, to relate these allotment gardens with factors of economical benefits to their cultivators. In fact, the greens and vegetables produced do no enter in any kind of commercialization. The only gains are the occasional family consumption or the satisfaction of offering the products to friends of acquaintances.

leisure reasons and spare time in England. In fact the management of the allotments is considered by many as a leisure activity more than a means of producing food.

The same author refers that the cultivated parcels lack market value. They are precariously occupied with their owners aware that they can be evicted at any moment. These terrains were never bought or sold and, if those who cultivate them can no longer enjoy them due to the age or any familiar reasons, they give them to those that show some interest in cultivating them. Also, it does not seem common the presence of youngsters in the cultivation of the allotment gardens; those who work there, occasionally , are men, of mature age, from 50 to 70 years old, in their majority retired, that use their free time, to fill the emptiness of their leisure. This dedication is never too intense, nor has any economical expectations, a fact almost impossible due to being a low quality piece of land, to using elementary tools and to not having the adequate support.

#### *3.1.2. The reality in Portugal*

468 Advances in Landscape Architecture

environment;


polluting industries.


community businesses.


explained in variables of some other nature.

activity more than a means of producing food.

satisfaction of offering the products to friends of acquaintances.

promoting urban regeneration through:





social participation and of the creation of sustainable communities. The projects contribute directly to the development of the community generating social participation and




In [15] is considered that the expression *agricultural allotment* should be replaced by the concept of recreational gardens because the first one has an historical stigma of low yielding and relative poverty. Additionally, the tracing and localization of the allotments should consider not only the individual parcels, but also the community areas, shelters, recreational areas and even some occasional spaces for orchards and groves. The *recreational gardens* should be strategically placed near the requirements and as far way as possible from sources of known contamination, such as old railroad tracks and some empty spaces resultant from

In [16] is understood the presence of these sub-metropolitan allotment gardens as the result of a marginal occupation of soils that comes as the result of problems due to the crisis and of the industrial stop that in the decade of 1970 affected the working economy. The exploration of these small parcels serves to grant some additional funds to the families' economies and

This diagnosis, as to the origin and justification of existence of sub-metropolitan allotment gardens, is not entirely shared in [17] after deeply analyzing the sociological components of the existing allotment gardens in suburban areas of the city. In[17], the origin of the metropolitan allotment gardens can not be related to the issue of industrial deactivation, given that the origin of the allotment gardens is prior to it. Thus, its origin has to be

It does not seem valid, as well, to relate these allotment gardens with factors of economical benefits to their cultivators. In fact, the greens and vegetables produced do no enter in any kind of commercialization. The only gains are the occasional family consumption or the

leisure reasons and spare time in England. In fact the management of the allotments is considered by many as a leisure

to give jobs to young unemployed people with no expectations whatsoever.

Relatively to the Portuguese reality, in 2004 the Culturgest issued a challenge for the attribution of urban allotment gardens in Lisbon. The contestants were all (or almost all) retired people and migrants in the city. According to the Commissary of Town Hall of Lisbon (CML) to this contest, the Landscape Architect Rosário Salema, the children of the contestants would not carry on this activity, simultaneously productive (because they sell the products they cultivate) and recreational. Relatively to the community allotment gardens, it was verified that they covered technical staff (qualified active population), at least in the medium class neighborhoods, for example Telheiras.

According to the Landscape Architect Maria José Fundevila, current commissary for the legalization of community allotment gardens, the Town Hall of Lisbon, the *Heritage and Investment Division* of the CML is finally making a record of urban allotment gardens, with that information still unavailable. Relatively to the age groups and professional situations of the farmers, it would depend on the areas in question: in the more marginal zones, socially speaking, you have a wide variety of farmers being hard to establish a global pattern for the urban allotment gardens – the allotment gardens are very connected to the social and economical aspect in the city, at least that appeared spontaneously, so that they are directly related to the social typology of the area in which they are inserted.

The Commissary referred two distinct examples: Quinta da Granja, in front of the Colombo Shopping Center, and the Parque Hortícola de Chelas, near the J Zone neighborhood in Chelas: in the first one there is a predominance of retired people, at a 60 to 70% rate, that have cultivated the area for a long time. The oldest one has done it for 38 years and is 97 years old today. In this case, the number of people that initiate the cultivation already in retirement is really low. Many have occupied these areas for a long time and have, meanwhile, retired. The main reason to cultivate the allotment gardens is the fondness for the cultivation of the land as well as the distraction it provides and the leisure occupation.

In Parque de Chelas the situation is completely different. The age group ranges from 30 to 70 and here, predominate the professionally active individuals or, at least, in this age group, given that many are unemployed. Here, the main reason for the cultivation of allotment gardens is the complement to the family income. These farmers sell their products illegally, unlike those from Quinta da Granja that cultivate solely for themselves. In this case a severe problem arises which is the watering of the allotment gardens, in the summer, with residual waters from domestic or industrial origin, and that are improper for such use. They are, however, ready to be initiated the works of the first phase of a horticultural park, in this area, that consists precisely in endowing the area with accesses and water for irrigation.

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 471

The in-between space, halfway from the domestic and the pure leisure, considered in [12], is something that the city has had, in some way and, today, the new neo-liberal city of the post-modernism has definitely lost allowing as the only option the commercialization of virtual gadgets. But this *third space* of life is not commercial nor a mere alienating hobby, having as a background everything that the city and Man need from Nature. This means the relationship Man/Nature and includes the understanding of the landscape with all of its

In [17] is warned that there is a confrontation between sub-metropolitan allotment gardens and planning policy. The insensitivity of the planning about this space is something more than just ignorance: it is the result of the fear of the same foundations that rules planning, an image of order, from the social, functional and also aesthetic point of view. The allotment gardens have little meaning in today's virtual world where the way of existing and of connecting, given that the understanding of the city-nature does not have a market value.

*3.1.3. Other concepts related to the allotment gardens: Continuous Productive Urban* 

Viljoen introduced the concept of Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture and with the concept of CPULs – Continuous Productive Urban Landscape (CPULs) 8 in 2005, and it sounds quite interesting to us given the proximity of concepts with the concepts of *Natural Landscape Continuum* and *Cultural Continuum*, profoundly rooted in landscape architecture in Portugal and with concepts of the current landscape architecture: it consists in a coherently planned and conceived combination of *Continuous Landscape*<sup>9</sup>with *Productive Urban Landscape* 10*.* 

<sup>8</sup> *Continuous Productive Landscape (CPUL)* is a concept of project design that advocates the coherent introduction of productive landscapes. Crucial in the concept of CPUL it is the creation of a network of multifunctional open spaces

This concept grew in the project design investigation and explores the role that urban agriculture may play in urban design. It was thought and articulated for the first time in 1998 by *workshop Bohn and Viljoen – Architects,* followed by a publication of the book *Continuous Productive Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities.* This concept was the center of international attention and is, currently, part of the contemporary speech project. André Viljoen and Katrin Bohn are currently developing this concept in Brighton University – Faculty of Arts, through the said

9 Continuous Landscape, similarly to the concept introduced by Caldeira Cabral, in Portugal, in the 50s – Continuum naturale – it is a current idea in the theories of architecture and urbanism that has already started to be implemented, not in a global way but partially, in some cities of the world. It consists in a network of open spaces, predominantly porous and made of vegetation, namely parks, or inter-connected green spaces, oftentimes referred as an eco-structure or infra-structure. They are free of automobile circulation, allowing pedestrian movement in the urban open space. They are an alternative to the use of the urban open space if we compare them with the existing spatial qualities of the utilized and underutilized disperse parcels of the urban open space. They should constitute an enormous (infra) structure of walkable landscape that runs through the city. Example of this continuum is the green corridor of

10 Productive Urban Landscape is an open space made of vegetation and run in an economical way and to be ecologically productive, for example, providing food through urban agriculture, the absorption of pollution, the

that include urban agriculture as a complement and support of the constructed environment.

refreshing effects of the trees or the increase of biodiversity in the *green* corridors.

multifunctionality.

workshop.

Monsanto.

*Landscape (CPULs) and Urban Countryside* 

*Continuous Productive Urban Landscape (CPULs)* 

As for the municipal politics, in Lisbon, lately there have been promoted the urban allotment gardens, which until now, had not yet happened, despite all the continued effort made by some, trying to rekindle this practice.

About six years ago, a Commission was created, with the purpose of legalizing urban allotment gardens. It was then proposed a regulation that legitimates the existence of these spaces conferring some safety to the farmers that, in the last 12 years, have already received two eviction notices. This proposal has not yet been juridically seen but, however, it is already being applied. It consists basically in a classification, in order to protect the economical and social allotment gardens that correspond to 90% of all of the existing allotment gardens.

Aside from all the economical expectation, the suburban allotment gardens have an indubitable interest as an urban phenomenon given that it is an activity situated besides the *space offer* that the city provides to its citizens. They signify a way of *passing time* that the city had not foreseen. In this sense, they constitute an *in between* space, between their homes and the cafe as a place of reunion and leisure for the inhabitants. As it was already referred, in [12] the *third space* is considered interpreting allotment gardens as a place of leisure, with no equivalent in what is offered by the cities in a *standard* way.

In [17] those allotment gardens are linked to the transition of the rural to the urban space, as a manifestation of the persistence of a rural-agrarian encysted in a urban *habitat*, understanding that they constitute a symbol loaded with values, rooted in the interior of the new citizen. In this sense, they put it inside resistance and protection against hostility schemes that the city transmits to ethnic groups or cultural misfits. This assimilation of the sub-metropolitan allotment gardens in the context of the slums does not seem well-thought to us. The underlying problem in these urban-rural spaces is not only the creation of a *safety space* of reunion with their own identity and with the land of origin. It is also the expression of a will of permanence, an intention to integrate in the urban space something that, with no apparent reason, disappeared from the city.

Ribeiro Telles, that in Portugal has always been a fervent supporter of the existence of the urban allotment gardens, says that the new *city farmers* bring an intelligent message, in a spontaneous and naïve way and, without dogmas nor impositions, show the evidence of the possible, achieved without political support or public demonstrations. The new energy and wisdom sap, that the urban context brings, is the result of not only remembering rural values, but also of recognizing and feeling the urban needs. The suburban allotment gardens are not ways of socializing that are contradictory and opposite to the urban lifestyle, instead they are paradigms of the needs that no longer justify themselves in the urban space.

The in-between space, halfway from the domestic and the pure leisure, considered in [12], is something that the city has had, in some way and, today, the new neo-liberal city of the post-modernism has definitely lost allowing as the only option the commercialization of virtual gadgets. But this *third space* of life is not commercial nor a mere alienating hobby, having as a background everything that the city and Man need from Nature. This means the relationship Man/Nature and includes the understanding of the landscape with all of its multifunctionality.

In [17] is warned that there is a confrontation between sub-metropolitan allotment gardens and planning policy. The insensitivity of the planning about this space is something more than just ignorance: it is the result of the fear of the same foundations that rules planning, an image of order, from the social, functional and also aesthetic point of view. The allotment gardens have little meaning in today's virtual world where the way of existing and of connecting, given that the understanding of the city-nature does not have a market value.

## *3.1.3. Other concepts related to the allotment gardens: Continuous Productive Urban Landscape (CPULs) and Urban Countryside*

#### *Continuous Productive Urban Landscape (CPULs)*

470 Advances in Landscape Architecture

allotment gardens.

made by some, trying to rekindle this practice.

equivalent in what is offered by the cities in a *standard* way.

apparent reason, disappeared from the city.

unlike those from Quinta da Granja that cultivate solely for themselves. In this case a severe problem arises which is the watering of the allotment gardens, in the summer, with residual waters from domestic or industrial origin, and that are improper for such use. They are, however, ready to be initiated the works of the first phase of a horticultural park, in this area, that consists precisely in endowing the area with accesses and water for irrigation.

As for the municipal politics, in Lisbon, lately there have been promoted the urban allotment gardens, which until now, had not yet happened, despite all the continued effort

About six years ago, a Commission was created, with the purpose of legalizing urban allotment gardens. It was then proposed a regulation that legitimates the existence of these spaces conferring some safety to the farmers that, in the last 12 years, have already received two eviction notices. This proposal has not yet been juridically seen but, however, it is already being applied. It consists basically in a classification, in order to protect the economical and social allotment gardens that correspond to 90% of all of the existing

Aside from all the economical expectation, the suburban allotment gardens have an indubitable interest as an urban phenomenon given that it is an activity situated besides the *space offer* that the city provides to its citizens. They signify a way of *passing time* that the city had not foreseen. In this sense, they constitute an *in between* space, between their homes and the cafe as a place of reunion and leisure for the inhabitants. As it was already referred, in [12] the *third space* is considered interpreting allotment gardens as a place of leisure, with no

In [17] those allotment gardens are linked to the transition of the rural to the urban space, as a manifestation of the persistence of a rural-agrarian encysted in a urban *habitat*, understanding that they constitute a symbol loaded with values, rooted in the interior of the new citizen. In this sense, they put it inside resistance and protection against hostility schemes that the city transmits to ethnic groups or cultural misfits. This assimilation of the sub-metropolitan allotment gardens in the context of the slums does not seem well-thought to us. The underlying problem in these urban-rural spaces is not only the creation of a *safety space* of reunion with their own identity and with the land of origin. It is also the expression of a will of permanence, an intention to integrate in the urban space something that, with no

Ribeiro Telles, that in Portugal has always been a fervent supporter of the existence of the urban allotment gardens, says that the new *city farmers* bring an intelligent message, in a spontaneous and naïve way and, without dogmas nor impositions, show the evidence of the possible, achieved without political support or public demonstrations. The new energy and wisdom sap, that the urban context brings, is the result of not only remembering rural values, but also of recognizing and feeling the urban needs. The suburban allotment gardens are not ways of socializing that are contradictory and opposite to the urban lifestyle, instead

they are paradigms of the needs that no longer justify themselves in the urban space.

Viljoen introduced the concept of Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture and with the concept of CPULs – Continuous Productive Urban Landscape (CPULs) 8 in 2005, and it sounds quite interesting to us given the proximity of concepts with the concepts of *Natural Landscape Continuum* and *Cultural Continuum*, profoundly rooted in landscape architecture in Portugal and with concepts of the current landscape architecture: it consists in a coherently planned and conceived combination of *Continuous Landscape*<sup>9</sup>with *Productive Urban Landscape* 10*.* 

<sup>8</sup> *Continuous Productive Landscape (CPUL)* is a concept of project design that advocates the coherent introduction of productive landscapes. Crucial in the concept of CPUL it is the creation of a network of multifunctional open spaces that include urban agriculture as a complement and support of the constructed environment.

This concept grew in the project design investigation and explores the role that urban agriculture may play in urban design. It was thought and articulated for the first time in 1998 by *workshop Bohn and Viljoen – Architects,* followed by a publication of the book *Continuous Productive Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities.* This concept was the center of international attention and is, currently, part of the contemporary speech project. André Viljoen and Katrin Bohn are currently developing this concept in Brighton University – Faculty of Arts, through the said workshop.

<sup>9</sup> Continuous Landscape, similarly to the concept introduced by Caldeira Cabral, in Portugal, in the 50s – Continuum naturale – it is a current idea in the theories of architecture and urbanism that has already started to be implemented, not in a global way but partially, in some cities of the world. It consists in a network of open spaces, predominantly porous and made of vegetation, namely parks, or inter-connected green spaces, oftentimes referred as an eco-structure or infra-structure. They are free of automobile circulation, allowing pedestrian movement in the urban open space. They are an alternative to the use of the urban open space if we compare them with the existing spatial qualities of the utilized and underutilized disperse parcels of the urban open space. They should constitute an enormous (infra) structure of walkable landscape that runs through the city. Example of this continuum is the green corridor of Monsanto.

<sup>10</sup> Productive Urban Landscape is an open space made of vegetation and run in an economical way and to be ecologically productive, for example, providing food through urban agriculture, the absorption of pollution, the refreshing effects of the trees or the increase of biodiversity in the *green* corridors.

It corresponds to a non-built and urban landscape, economically, social-culturally and ecologically productive, situated in a landscaping strategy to a metropolitan scale, built to include living and natural elements; thought to encourage and allow the urban inhabitants the contact with the activities and processes normally related to the countryside.

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 473

The amplitude describes the space, in its extension, its width and breath. It means more than size, but the dimension is its basic element, its beginning. There is no qualitative judgment connected to dimension12. The size is considered influential in the designation of the space and in its capability to proportion certain programs and occupations. The sense of openness13, given that it is connected to the size, reflects this manipulation providing a

The utilization/occupation of the space is one of the first concerns when planning the contemporary open space. It means, frequently, to put in perspective the success of the new project with designs with criteria, also quantifiable, as for example, the cargo capacity, or the financial volume obtained by the offer capacity of the place (leisure centers, stores, restaurants, spas, among others). A more holistic vision of the current occupation of the open spaces may include more stable and qualifying criteria, namely education, health, the potential for integration or enrichment of the self, the satisfaction over individual actions

Ecology, in this case, gives importance to the open urban space for the connection of the present drawing project to the program of a more desirable and sustainable future, proposing, as well, a strategy for the management of this process. The ecological concept of gradient, in particular, clarifies the idea of gradation in the process of formation and transformation of the shape, and of the natural processes, of the organization of the materials in nature according to a stricter set of rules following the formal creative device, but coherent with the ecological limit principle. A second type of movement is that of the

In [20] is introduced the concept of *urban countryside*, in which is accepted as valid the definition of the French rural code, which defines as agricultural every activity of control and management of a biological cycle of either plant or animal nature, together with the activity developed by a farmer in the prosecution of the act of production or sustained by the companies. The concept of *urban countryside* puts itself in the relationship of movement

12 A small open space is not a bad open space, neither is a big open space for that matter. They are valued for being

13 Although related to the place, the sense of openness reflects manipulation promoting a qualitative measure more consensual to the success of the urban open spaces. It is related to the occupation and function of the space as well as with its position in the urban thread, reinforcing the importance of the open space in the urban net. The potential to this movement encourages occupation and the occupiers as well as it models the shape and appearance of the urban open spaces. It also introduces change and renovation in the space, offering with that a particular visual stimulus. The stimulus can be extracted from a number of sources (events, activities, movement, etc.), but it is, predominantly, connected to the material and natural processes: the vegetation submitted to a seasonal variation, to the growth and

14 Depending on their programs and the tolerance to change, an open space providing social interactions will certainly accommodate a great variety of occupiers that seem less interested in the dimension of the space or its location, than in

much more sensitive measure for the qualitative success of the urban open space.


and its importance to a wider urban community14.

change of plantation patterns, to water, wind, sun, rain, etc.

its potential to integrate and participate.

*The Urban countryside* 

open, exterior, non-built.

misfit, that continuously changes the shape, position and appearance.

Overlapping the sustainable concept of *Productive Urban Landscape* with the spatial concept of *Continuous Landscapes* it is possible to propose a new strategy of urban design that will change the appearance of the contemporary cities towards the understanding of the city as a natural system, similarly to what is pretended with *Lisbon's Green Plan* and its *Green Structure.*<sup>11</sup>

The CPULs will divulge the productive landscapes economically, social-culturally and environmentally. They will be inserted in the concept of landscape on an urban scale and, in the current context can be transposed to a territorial scale, offering the city a variety of advantages, lifestyles and few, if any, inconveniences or unsustainable aspects. This system of continuity shall cross the city through the built space, connecting all the open spaces inside it articulating them, finally, with the surrounding rural space.

In [19], the CPULs will expand to the countryside, enriching the urban fabric and the lifestyles and actively contributing to the resolution of environmental and urban problems. Either being different or similar, these productive landscapes will exist on pair with other urban open spaces. The CPULs will function as a strategy of urban design, hence, being able to act as moderators between the wishes of the local users and the strategies for urban planning; between social and economical feasibility; between sustainable ideas and urban productivity; between short term advantages and long term benefits.

Formally they can be very similar to the urban parks given that they both present a materiality and spatiality predominantly built with living and natural structures and elements, and are design with determined spatial criteria, formal and functional. They are as well, for several reasons, similar to urban forests. The urban parks and groves, being agriculturally less productive allow, however, a bigger freedom on the utilization of the space, given that there is not the protection of the cultures condition. In what refers to countryside, the CPULs can be considered similar to gardens given that they both follow the same sequences and patterns of plantation.

In comparison with other open kinds of urban open space, in reference [19] are referred three criteria that cover the most important qualities of a CPUL:


<sup>11</sup> Included in the Urban Green Structure, Magalhães [18] defends, the existence of an Urban Ecological Structure, in which it is pretended to assure a bigger biological richness and to safeguard the fundamental systems to the ecological balance of the city. With this Structure it is pretended the creation of a continuum naturale integrated in the urban space, as it was congratulated in the Environmental Bases Law, providing the city, in an homogenous way, of a system constituted by different biotopes and corridors that connect them, represented either by natural occurrences, either by existing or created spaces for the purpose, that serve as a support to wildlife. To this ecological structure we add a productive structure, also a subset of the Green Structure.


472 Advances in Landscape Architecture

*Structure.*<sup>11</sup>

It corresponds to a non-built and urban landscape, economically, social-culturally and ecologically productive, situated in a landscaping strategy to a metropolitan scale, built to include living and natural elements; thought to encourage and allow the urban inhabitants

Overlapping the sustainable concept of *Productive Urban Landscape* with the spatial concept of *Continuous Landscapes* it is possible to propose a new strategy of urban design that will change the appearance of the contemporary cities towards the understanding of the city as a natural system, similarly to what is pretended with *Lisbon's Green Plan* and its *Green* 

The CPULs will divulge the productive landscapes economically, social-culturally and environmentally. They will be inserted in the concept of landscape on an urban scale and, in the current context can be transposed to a territorial scale, offering the city a variety of advantages, lifestyles and few, if any, inconveniences or unsustainable aspects. This system of continuity shall cross the city through the built space, connecting all the open spaces

In [19], the CPULs will expand to the countryside, enriching the urban fabric and the lifestyles and actively contributing to the resolution of environmental and urban problems. Either being different or similar, these productive landscapes will exist on pair with other urban open spaces. The CPULs will function as a strategy of urban design, hence, being able to act as moderators between the wishes of the local users and the strategies for urban planning; between social and economical feasibility; between sustainable ideas and urban

Formally they can be very similar to the urban parks given that they both present a materiality and spatiality predominantly built with living and natural structures and elements, and are design with determined spatial criteria, formal and functional. They are as well, for several reasons, similar to urban forests. The urban parks and groves, being agriculturally less productive allow, however, a bigger freedom on the utilization of the space, given that there is not the protection of the cultures condition. In what refers to countryside, the CPULs can be considered similar to gardens given that they both follow the

In comparison with other open kinds of urban open space, in reference [19] are referred

11 Included in the Urban Green Structure, Magalhães [18] defends, the existence of an Urban Ecological Structure, in which it is pretended to assure a bigger biological richness and to safeguard the fundamental systems to the ecological balance of the city. With this Structure it is pretended the creation of a continuum naturale integrated in the urban space, as it was congratulated in the Environmental Bases Law, providing the city, in an homogenous way, of a system constituted by different biotopes and corridors that connect them, represented either by natural occurrences, either by existing or created spaces for the purpose, that serve as a support to wildlife. To this ecological structure we add a

the contact with the activities and processes normally related to the countryside.

inside it articulating them, finally, with the surrounding rural space.

productivity; between short term advantages and long term benefits.

three criteria that cover the most important qualities of a CPUL:


same sequences and patterns of plantation.

productive structure, also a subset of the Green Structure.


The amplitude describes the space, in its extension, its width and breath. It means more than size, but the dimension is its basic element, its beginning. There is no qualitative judgment connected to dimension12. The size is considered influential in the designation of the space and in its capability to proportion certain programs and occupations. The sense of openness13, given that it is connected to the size, reflects this manipulation providing a much more sensitive measure for the qualitative success of the urban open space.

The utilization/occupation of the space is one of the first concerns when planning the contemporary open space. It means, frequently, to put in perspective the success of the new project with designs with criteria, also quantifiable, as for example, the cargo capacity, or the financial volume obtained by the offer capacity of the place (leisure centers, stores, restaurants, spas, among others). A more holistic vision of the current occupation of the open spaces may include more stable and qualifying criteria, namely education, health, the potential for integration or enrichment of the self, the satisfaction over individual actions and its importance to a wider urban community14.

Ecology, in this case, gives importance to the open urban space for the connection of the present drawing project to the program of a more desirable and sustainable future, proposing, as well, a strategy for the management of this process. The ecological concept of gradient, in particular, clarifies the idea of gradation in the process of formation and transformation of the shape, and of the natural processes, of the organization of the materials in nature according to a stricter set of rules following the formal creative device, but coherent with the ecological limit principle. A second type of movement is that of the misfit, that continuously changes the shape, position and appearance.

#### *The Urban countryside*

In [20] is introduced the concept of *urban countryside*, in which is accepted as valid the definition of the French rural code, which defines as agricultural every activity of control and management of a biological cycle of either plant or animal nature, together with the activity developed by a farmer in the prosecution of the act of production or sustained by the companies. The concept of *urban countryside* puts itself in the relationship of movement

<sup>12</sup> A small open space is not a bad open space, neither is a big open space for that matter. They are valued for being open, exterior, non-built.

<sup>13</sup> Although related to the place, the sense of openness reflects manipulation promoting a qualitative measure more consensual to the success of the urban open spaces. It is related to the occupation and function of the space as well as with its position in the urban thread, reinforcing the importance of the open space in the urban net. The potential to this movement encourages occupation and the occupiers as well as it models the shape and appearance of the urban open spaces. It also introduces change and renovation in the space, offering with that a particular visual stimulus. The stimulus can be extracted from a number of sources (events, activities, movement, etc.), but it is, predominantly, connected to the material and natural processes: the vegetation submitted to a seasonal variation, to the growth and change of plantation patterns, to water, wind, sun, rain, etc.

<sup>14</sup> Depending on their programs and the tolerance to change, an open space providing social interactions will certainly accommodate a great variety of occupiers that seem less interested in the dimension of the space or its location, than in its potential to integrate and participate.

between process and product, between agriculture of the urban space and *desagriculture* of the rural space.

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 475

job of a landscape design – to build and design the landscape structure that will build the Eco-symbols. The innovation will consist in associating the agricultural and the built spaces, in a project that binds them forever. The inhabitable city will be constructed at the expenses of creative imagination, over the ruins of conformism and preconceived ideas. The multicultural concept of nature and the new attribution of the natural sense to the natural

According to Donadieu the realistic utopia of the *urban countryside* voluntarily attributes to the space a spiritual condition, more than reducing it to a lifeless support of equipment and social practices. Some will participate and will recognize themselves in this project; others won't, because the constructive tension of the project is that same source of social

As for us, we consider that the challenge of territorial appropriation is remarkable: first it includes in the social territory in question, some spaces exclusive for the inhabitants given that, through a work that involves major actors – farmers, associations or municipal staff – it questions the ideal of social organization and discusses that aesthetic job. The virtues of the dialog are certainly known but, its achievement depends, majorly, from the capability of

It is indispensable to reclaim the myths of nature that, in the *urban countryside* project, send us to the founding values of society. The myths and rites keep the group together, gather it when it falls apart, be it a problem of public order, be it of collective health or of the future of the planet. Acting in such a way, the interlocutors of the project gather around rites – meetings, expositions, media messages – indicating the symbols, spaces or objects, land or agricultural products, stimulating the processes of socialization where individual dispersion

To say that the habitability of a territory passes through the social appropriation of the public and private places, mean to enunciate a necessary condition but probably not enough because the creation of social legacies through founding myths – as solidarity or health benefits – makes the social-political regulating system to recognize the collective project and to accompany it; otherwise it won't be nothing more than pure fantasy. In [20] the communal administration should, for example, buy agricultural fields to guaranty the continuity of the cultivation, to systematize leisure routes in the agricultural parks or to subsidize the farmers in case of prolonged price fall. It is not rare that local administrators subscribe to the common opinions, making their own the aspirations of society: living in the countryside, for example, is a *slogan* that accompanies the farms' policies and local

compromise, is that the ecological sciences should concern themselves about the natural processes, inventory and environmental sustainability and living species, while nature and landscape pay attention to the perception of this

The countryside is, in fact, the second nature made a show, in territory where urbanity and rurality are intimately connected and still opposed. In [20] the countryside is a concept we need to keep mentally representing to be able to

objects can create the foundation to the political project of the *urban field*.

society to recognize their own mythical horizons, be them ancient or modern.

differentiation, adhesion, expectancy or denial.

is the rule.

revivalism.

reach reality.

environment and its representation."

Considered as a social project, capable of improving the urban life conditions, the urban countryside is not reduced to a social-economical process that varies according to the greatness or richness of the city. Not wanting to renounce to its goal – to feed the citizens – it is a part of territory of the city without necessarily transforming into a *green space* or *natural park*, unless the park takes on the content and duties as an experimentation place of the *urban countryside*. In this case, we talk about an urban rurality – different from the agricultural rurality – similarly to *Quintas de Recreio* (recreational farms), in Portugal, where the population does not waive the agriculture but that should be coherent between two possible paradoxes: to lose agriculture but not the shape of the allotment garden, or to keep the field with no agriculture similar to the idea of a garden that evokes the agricultural image, without producing.

*Urban countryside (campagne urbaine)* – coined by Donadieu in 1998 and title of one of his most well-known works – two words that seemingly oppose and create movement fighting the sedentariness of the thought. But, *urban countryside* are also two coordinated words in a single concept through which it is easier to promote the project and an action.

The countryside space infiltrated in the disperse city may be a part of the urban space taking on rules for the contemporary city project from the new cultural, ecological and social values that build an inhabitable society. In [20] it is not proposed as an unprecedented space typology, as a new *standard* for *green*, but is aspired to create an inhabitable space, given that, together with agriculture, a new ecology is proposed, new myths and new symbols to share with their inhabitants – a new landscape.

The goal of Donadieu is that the peri-urban agricultural space, which will tend to be more extensive in the coming years, never again has to be subjected to the fatality of a next transformation, but that it shall be a witness of the history, given that it will outlive it. This countryside, inhabited by a society that combines the practice of the city with landsmen from several origins, asks to participate in the definition of the urban space given that their inhabitants do not want to let go of the city, confirming a life choice where a bigger contact with nature is privileged15.

The hypothesis that the new city of the *urban countryside* organizes itself around an habitability project, or better put of sustainable urbanity, can be put. However, for this new countryside to become a landscape and, consequently, to acquire a relative perpetuity, it is obvious that it should be created with the quality that it does not currently have16. It is the

<sup>15</sup> The risk that the peri-urban society takes is alienation, the loss of an horizon of meaning and the feeling of belonging to a community confused with the place, the attribution of a social category to a stable and immutable context.

<sup>16</sup> In [21] is emphasized that, without the cultural scheme of landscape, the citizen can not understand the countryside:

<sup>&</sup>quot;How can you understand the agricultural logic if you are unacquainted with the subjects of fieldwork and livestock? And looking to the ecological thought, how can you accept that absolute protection allows the conservation of biodiversity, when everyone knows that the second *natura*, once abandoned, can leave the place a lot less diversified than what ecologists think? And how not to protest against the horticultural academicism that proposes to cover countries and cities of flowers, to produce nothing more than commonplaces. What the aestheticians say, without

job of a landscape design – to build and design the landscape structure that will build the Eco-symbols. The innovation will consist in associating the agricultural and the built spaces, in a project that binds them forever. The inhabitable city will be constructed at the expenses of creative imagination, over the ruins of conformism and preconceived ideas. The multicultural concept of nature and the new attribution of the natural sense to the natural objects can create the foundation to the political project of the *urban field*.

474 Advances in Landscape Architecture

image, without producing.

with nature is privileged15.

share with their inhabitants – a new landscape.

the rural space.

between process and product, between agriculture of the urban space and *desagriculture* of

Considered as a social project, capable of improving the urban life conditions, the urban countryside is not reduced to a social-economical process that varies according to the greatness or richness of the city. Not wanting to renounce to its goal – to feed the citizens – it is a part of territory of the city without necessarily transforming into a *green space* or *natural park*, unless the park takes on the content and duties as an experimentation place of the *urban countryside*. In this case, we talk about an urban rurality – different from the agricultural rurality – similarly to *Quintas de Recreio* (recreational farms), in Portugal, where the population does not waive the agriculture but that should be coherent between two possible paradoxes: to lose agriculture but not the shape of the allotment garden, or to keep the field with no agriculture similar to the idea of a garden that evokes the agricultural

*Urban countryside (campagne urbaine)* – coined by Donadieu in 1998 and title of one of his most well-known works – two words that seemingly oppose and create movement fighting the sedentariness of the thought. But, *urban countryside* are also two coordinated words in a

The countryside space infiltrated in the disperse city may be a part of the urban space taking on rules for the contemporary city project from the new cultural, ecological and social values that build an inhabitable society. In [20] it is not proposed as an unprecedented space typology, as a new *standard* for *green*, but is aspired to create an inhabitable space, given that, together with agriculture, a new ecology is proposed, new myths and new symbols to

The goal of Donadieu is that the peri-urban agricultural space, which will tend to be more extensive in the coming years, never again has to be subjected to the fatality of a next transformation, but that it shall be a witness of the history, given that it will outlive it. This countryside, inhabited by a society that combines the practice of the city with landsmen from several origins, asks to participate in the definition of the urban space given that their inhabitants do not want to let go of the city, confirming a life choice where a bigger contact

The hypothesis that the new city of the *urban countryside* organizes itself around an habitability project, or better put of sustainable urbanity, can be put. However, for this new countryside to become a landscape and, consequently, to acquire a relative perpetuity, it is obvious that it should be created with the quality that it does not currently have16. It is the

15 The risk that the peri-urban society takes is alienation, the loss of an horizon of meaning and the feeling of belonging to a community confused with the place, the attribution of a social category to a stable and immutable context. 16 In [21] is emphasized that, without the cultural scheme of landscape, the citizen can not understand the countryside: "How can you understand the agricultural logic if you are unacquainted with the subjects of fieldwork and livestock? And looking to the ecological thought, how can you accept that absolute protection allows the conservation of biodiversity, when everyone knows that the second *natura*, once abandoned, can leave the place a lot less diversified than what ecologists think? And how not to protest against the horticultural academicism that proposes to cover countries and cities of flowers, to produce nothing more than commonplaces. What the aestheticians say, without

single concept through which it is easier to promote the project and an action.

According to Donadieu the realistic utopia of the *urban countryside* voluntarily attributes to the space a spiritual condition, more than reducing it to a lifeless support of equipment and social practices. Some will participate and will recognize themselves in this project; others won't, because the constructive tension of the project is that same source of social differentiation, adhesion, expectancy or denial.

As for us, we consider that the challenge of territorial appropriation is remarkable: first it includes in the social territory in question, some spaces exclusive for the inhabitants given that, through a work that involves major actors – farmers, associations or municipal staff – it questions the ideal of social organization and discusses that aesthetic job. The virtues of the dialog are certainly known but, its achievement depends, majorly, from the capability of society to recognize their own mythical horizons, be them ancient or modern.

It is indispensable to reclaim the myths of nature that, in the *urban countryside* project, send us to the founding values of society. The myths and rites keep the group together, gather it when it falls apart, be it a problem of public order, be it of collective health or of the future of the planet. Acting in such a way, the interlocutors of the project gather around rites – meetings, expositions, media messages – indicating the symbols, spaces or objects, land or agricultural products, stimulating the processes of socialization where individual dispersion is the rule.

To say that the habitability of a territory passes through the social appropriation of the public and private places, mean to enunciate a necessary condition but probably not enough because the creation of social legacies through founding myths – as solidarity or health benefits – makes the social-political regulating system to recognize the collective project and to accompany it; otherwise it won't be nothing more than pure fantasy. In [20] the communal administration should, for example, buy agricultural fields to guaranty the continuity of the cultivation, to systematize leisure routes in the agricultural parks or to subsidize the farmers in case of prolonged price fall. It is not rare that local administrators subscribe to the common opinions, making their own the aspirations of society: living in the countryside, for example, is a *slogan* that accompanies the farms' policies and local revivalism.

compromise, is that the ecological sciences should concern themselves about the natural processes, inventory and environmental sustainability and living species, while nature and landscape pay attention to the perception of this environment and its representation."

The countryside is, in fact, the second nature made a show, in territory where urbanity and rurality are intimately connected and still opposed. In [20] the countryside is a concept we need to keep mentally representing to be able to reach reality.

Localization can be enunciated under the form of a paradox: the more social groups find in the *urban countryside* the attributes of nature, the more complex should the social and technical processes be to produce this way of *nature* connected dialectically to the central urban area. The more the countryside becomes inhabitable, offering pleasure and comfort to its users, the more the collective myths should be renewable.

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 477

recognized, with very different meanings in the developing countries and in the developed ones. In the developing countries, urban agriculture is largely oriented around the economical needs, as in the developed countries it provides, mainly, answer to wishes and social and recreational needs. Besides the social reasons presented, urban agriculture reflects and comprehends the multifunctional dimension intrinsic to the concept of landscape.

In Europe the interest on urban agricultural exploration – whatever the typology – has constantly been increasing in the last few years resulting in an upwelling of food production

In [23] agriculture tends to define itself as a *bottom-up* activity, a movement of timeless roots to the *top-down* elitism of landscape design professionals. The policies – the questions and practices – whatever the perspective in which they are seen, require *top-down* and *bottom-up* initiatives. To free or reclassify the land for urban agriculture requires more than a simple desire of holding hands and planting vegetables. It requires a *top-down* intervention, by the planners and local authorities. If urban agriculture is seen as one of the various ways to make an environmentally productive landscape inside, and around and out of the cities, then the professionals of the field of the urban project – open spaces and built fabric – are

The urban agriculture in Western Europe can not be reproduced in the same molds as in countries like China, with a much more rooted and generalized connection to the traditional agriculture, or even in the United States, with its new immigrant population, that come from agricultural economies. For urban agriculture in Western Europe to be a part of its own citycountryside, it needs a wider coalition in the groups of interest: it needs not only to be tolerated, but to be welcomed. Any interest in the promotion of more complex models of development already introduced by Geddes and McHarg should pass by finding a place for

As it has been referred, urban agriculture never stopped being present in the city, adapting to the different situations. The inhabitants of the cities have developed different strategies to



18 The cities accumulate nutrients through the concentration of human population and their organic residues, be it solid or liquid. These nutrients may frequently be acquired without costs or at a low cost and can be converted into edible

date as a social safety net for poor urban aggregates and at disadvantage.

improve their subsistence having urban agriculture been one of them. In [3] urban agriculture answers in three ways to the urban dynamics:

in the urban space.

vital allies in this project.

urban agriculture.

We can then consider, as being of general consensus that, although it may be placed inside urban agriculture, given that it refers to activities related to food production in the city, being able to occur in several situations, the *urban countryside* allows other activities besides this one, namely new social and economical practices (ponds, rural tourism, sale of quality food products, horse raising, among others) carriers of an innovative proposition of sustainability and of new ways of spatiality. The *urban countryside* can be that of a more urban and rural city that will result from the articulation of the *natural*, urban and rural systems, that will result in turn in a new idea of space where its appropriation makes it inhabitable and of identity.

## **3.2. Why allotment gardens?**

Nowadays, half the world population lives in cities. According to the United Nations Human Settlements Program — UN Habitat 2004, *State of the World Cities*, in 2030, this proportion will be of 60% (UN-Habitat, 2004).

Many cities cannot stand this massive population growth. Authorities face many challenges: creating enough employment; providing basic services, such as water supply and sanitation, health care, education; planning and maintaining open spaces; managing urban waste and sewage; decentralizing and creating a new efficient local autonomy

Poverty accompanies the urbanization process, gradually affecting urban areas [22]. This is an indication that cities are quickly becoming the focus of intervention and strategy planning to eradicate famine and poverty, as well as to improve subsistence means, which requires new ways to encourage local economies and strengthening nourishment and food safety. We think urban farming is one of those strategies.

The growth of urban poverty, famine and unemployment, as well as the special opportunities that the city provides to the farmers17, have stimulated the development of a diversity of production of the agricultural systems inside and in the outskirts of the city, frequently specialized in perishable products like fresh vegetables, milk, eggs and meat, taking advantage of the interstices inside and in the peripheries of the cities. Even though some ways of urban and peri-urban agriculture are based in a temporary use of these empty spaces, urban agriculture is a permanent characteristic of many cities, either in developing countries, either in the so-called developed ones. Also, the meaning of urban agriculture inside the contemporary open space varies according to the city in question. The environmental benefits of urban agriculture have only recently been identified and

<sup>17</sup> Namely the rising demand for food, greens and vegetables, the proximity to the markets and the availability of cheap resources, namely the urban solid residues and residual waters.

recognized, with very different meanings in the developing countries and in the developed ones. In the developing countries, urban agriculture is largely oriented around the economical needs, as in the developed countries it provides, mainly, answer to wishes and social and recreational needs. Besides the social reasons presented, urban agriculture reflects and comprehends the multifunctional dimension intrinsic to the concept of landscape.

476 Advances in Landscape Architecture

inhabitable and of identity.

**3.2. Why allotment gardens?** 

proportion will be of 60% (UN-Habitat, 2004).

sewage; decentralizing and creating a new efficient local autonomy

safety. We think urban farming is one of those strategies.

cheap resources, namely the urban solid residues and residual waters.

Localization can be enunciated under the form of a paradox: the more social groups find in the *urban countryside* the attributes of nature, the more complex should the social and technical processes be to produce this way of *nature* connected dialectically to the central urban area. The more the countryside becomes inhabitable, offering pleasure and comfort to

We can then consider, as being of general consensus that, although it may be placed inside urban agriculture, given that it refers to activities related to food production in the city, being able to occur in several situations, the *urban countryside* allows other activities besides this one, namely new social and economical practices (ponds, rural tourism, sale of quality food products, horse raising, among others) carriers of an innovative proposition of sustainability and of new ways of spatiality. The *urban countryside* can be that of a more urban and rural city that will result from the articulation of the *natural*, urban and rural systems, that will result in turn in a new idea of space where its appropriation makes it

Nowadays, half the world population lives in cities. According to the United Nations Human Settlements Program — UN Habitat 2004, *State of the World Cities*, in 2030, this

Many cities cannot stand this massive population growth. Authorities face many challenges: creating enough employment; providing basic services, such as water supply and sanitation, health care, education; planning and maintaining open spaces; managing urban waste and

Poverty accompanies the urbanization process, gradually affecting urban areas [22]. This is an indication that cities are quickly becoming the focus of intervention and strategy planning to eradicate famine and poverty, as well as to improve subsistence means, which requires new ways to encourage local economies and strengthening nourishment and food

The growth of urban poverty, famine and unemployment, as well as the special opportunities that the city provides to the farmers17, have stimulated the development of a diversity of production of the agricultural systems inside and in the outskirts of the city, frequently specialized in perishable products like fresh vegetables, milk, eggs and meat, taking advantage of the interstices inside and in the peripheries of the cities. Even though some ways of urban and peri-urban agriculture are based in a temporary use of these empty spaces, urban agriculture is a permanent characteristic of many cities, either in developing countries, either in the so-called developed ones. Also, the meaning of urban agriculture inside the contemporary open space varies according to the city in question. The environmental benefits of urban agriculture have only recently been identified and

17 Namely the rising demand for food, greens and vegetables, the proximity to the markets and the availability of

its users, the more the collective myths should be renewable.

In Europe the interest on urban agricultural exploration – whatever the typology – has constantly been increasing in the last few years resulting in an upwelling of food production in the urban space.

In [23] agriculture tends to define itself as a *bottom-up* activity, a movement of timeless roots to the *top-down* elitism of landscape design professionals. The policies – the questions and practices – whatever the perspective in which they are seen, require *top-down* and *bottom-up* initiatives. To free or reclassify the land for urban agriculture requires more than a simple desire of holding hands and planting vegetables. It requires a *top-down* intervention, by the planners and local authorities. If urban agriculture is seen as one of the various ways to make an environmentally productive landscape inside, and around and out of the cities, then the professionals of the field of the urban project – open spaces and built fabric – are vital allies in this project.

The urban agriculture in Western Europe can not be reproduced in the same molds as in countries like China, with a much more rooted and generalized connection to the traditional agriculture, or even in the United States, with its new immigrant population, that come from agricultural economies. For urban agriculture in Western Europe to be a part of its own citycountryside, it needs a wider coalition in the groups of interest: it needs not only to be tolerated, but to be welcomed. Any interest in the promotion of more complex models of development already introduced by Geddes and McHarg should pass by finding a place for urban agriculture.

As it has been referred, urban agriculture never stopped being present in the city, adapting to the different situations. The inhabitants of the cities have developed different strategies to improve their subsistence having urban agriculture been one of them.

In [3] urban agriculture answers in three ways to the urban dynamics:


<sup>18</sup> The cities accumulate nutrients through the concentration of human population and their organic residues, be it solid or liquid. These nutrients may frequently be acquired without costs or at a low cost and can be converted into edible

availability of cheap *inputs* such as urban solid residues and residual waters, proximity to the institutions that provide information on the markets, credits and technical advices and new urban solicitations, among others.

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 479

Farming influences a great variety of urban themes, being accepted and used as a sustainable development tool for the city. Today, farming faces the challenge of being part of the city planning and of being easily accessible so that urban citizens can enjoy its

The rising attention of political deciders and local and national practitioners is also reflected in the rising demand (to the members of – *Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security – RUAF)* for inspiring examples of policies and successful programs at the level of urban agriculture, as well as practices and co-financing of programs of investigation. This




their regular programs (Argentina, Kenya, Senegal and Nigeria).

developing capability in terms of the city and region.

multiple benefits [3].

fact can be attributed to several factors, namely:

from which urban agriculture is a part.


While some of the functions can be financially evaluated, others will have a tough time such as the emotional and aesthetic values. The sustainability of urban agriculture is connected with this multifunctional dimension. Urban agriculture adapts and develops together with the city according to the wishes of its users that represent the different functions. So, new ways of government, institutions and policies need to be implemented through processes that seek synergies and involve different actors [24].

Other city dynamics namely the urban and industrial traffic (that take a negative toll on the quality of the soils and irrigation waters), the new demands of the citizens (the need for recreational spaces and new products), changes in urban planning, in its norms and rules and, changes in the urban work market, among others, directly influence the development of urban agriculture and the way and where it is practiced.

These dynamics take place in a world increasingly open and global but that at the same time, searches for a bigger local focus, a greater decentralization and a larger maintenance of the social-cultural identity [22]. Both tendencies influence urban agriculture – globalization leads to new products entering the market, to more available information, in a general way, and to transformations in the consumer's preferences, which leads to an increase in the consumption in supermarkets; the focus on local tendencies leads to the preference on locally produced fresh food and to direct relationships of producer/consumer.

Since 2005 the prices of food items have skyrocketed to alarming values. Several values have contributed for this situation namely: the idea that agricultural products appear as an alternative fuel source; the rising need of food from developing countries, like China or India; a bigger cost for the transportation of the products; and the floods and droughts. The attention given to urban agriculture has increased considerably during the last two decades. The number of activities to promote urban agriculture internationally, nationally and locally, rose, but urban farmers still fight, in many cities of the world, to have their main strategy of survival recognized by the municipal authorities. Also the demand, by politicians and local practitioners, of inspiring examples of policies and successful actions is increasing.

products, vegetable or animal. On the other hand, while cities develop, there is an increasing demand of habitation buildings and of services that compete with the agricultural space. The producers need to adapt to these increasingly awkward conditions, while trying to maintain productivity through intensive production techniques.

Farming influences a great variety of urban themes, being accepted and used as a sustainable development tool for the city. Today, farming faces the challenge of being part of the city planning and of being easily accessible so that urban citizens can enjoy its multiple benefits [3].

478 Advances in Landscape Architecture

increasing.

availability of cheap *inputs* such as urban solid residues and residual waters, proximity to the institutions that provide information on the markets, credits and technical


While some of the functions can be financially evaluated, others will have a tough time such as the emotional and aesthetic values. The sustainability of urban agriculture is connected with this multifunctional dimension. Urban agriculture adapts and develops together with the city according to the wishes of its users that represent the different functions. So, new ways of government, institutions and policies need to be implemented through processes

Other city dynamics namely the urban and industrial traffic (that take a negative toll on the quality of the soils and irrigation waters), the new demands of the citizens (the need for recreational spaces and new products), changes in urban planning, in its norms and rules and, changes in the urban work market, among others, directly influence the development

These dynamics take place in a world increasingly open and global but that at the same time, searches for a bigger local focus, a greater decentralization and a larger maintenance of the social-cultural identity [22]. Both tendencies influence urban agriculture – globalization leads to new products entering the market, to more available information, in a general way, and to transformations in the consumer's preferences, which leads to an increase in the consumption in supermarkets; the focus on local tendencies leads to the preference on

Since 2005 the prices of food items have skyrocketed to alarming values. Several values have contributed for this situation namely: the idea that agricultural products appear as an alternative fuel source; the rising need of food from developing countries, like China or India; a bigger cost for the transportation of the products; and the floods and droughts. The attention given to urban agriculture has increased considerably during the last two decades. The number of activities to promote urban agriculture internationally, nationally and locally, rose, but urban farmers still fight, in many cities of the world, to have their main strategy of survival recognized by the municipal authorities. Also the demand, by politicians and local practitioners, of inspiring examples of policies and successful actions is

products, vegetable or animal. On the other hand, while cities develop, there is an increasing demand of habitation buildings and of services that compete with the agricultural space. The producers need to adapt to these increasingly

awkward conditions, while trying to maintain productivity through intensive production techniques.

locally produced fresh food and to direct relationships of producer/consumer.

promotion of recreational and leisure services, social inclusion of minorities.

advices and new urban solicitations, among others.

that seek synergies and involve different actors [24].

of urban agriculture and the way and where it is practiced.

The rising attention of political deciders and local and national practitioners is also reflected in the rising demand (to the members of – *Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security – RUAF)* for inspiring examples of policies and successful programs at the level of urban agriculture, as well as practices and co-financing of programs of investigation. This fact can be attributed to several factors, namely:


As a result of these developments, as well as of the pressure of the economically disadvantaged local groups, urban farmers, the Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) and several municipal authorities have recognized the potential of urban agriculture and are collaborating with other actors in an effort to maximize the benefits of urban agriculture while reducing the risks associated to it [3]. In [5], food production where food is being consumed, establishes a sustainable and healthy balance between production and consumption. It's an effective, practical, and beneficial way to reduce the energy currently being wasted in Western food production. This energy reduction in food production is vital for many reasons: that energy — mainly non-renewable — is currently used in the conventional food production; for instance, Europe greatly exceeds the energy use in the consumption of the food it produces. The unlimited daily use of non-renewable energy makes a significant contribution to the reduction of global resources, through the emission of greenhouse gases that generate global warming.

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 481

This is the fundamental difference between rich and poor countries. Once satisfied the feeding needs, it gives way to a new question: the quality of the individual and collective lifestyles that should have never been separated. That is, it creates urbanity in the sense of

Urban farming has many significant benefits, such as improving the environment and helping develop ecologically balanced areas, as well as at the social and economic level, for

Allotment gardens frequently connect areas with different occupations, establishing a visible physical link between two spaces. In this approach, they frequently define *hidden* or forgotten spaces within the city that may undoubtedly react to the landscape's

Urban agriculture also gives *scale to landscape*. The way these farming surfaces are changed to accommodate planted surface links and gives visibility to the underlying topography. The dimension of crops and cultivated fields offers another standard from which to measure landscape, allowing people to locate and position themselves within a particular territory. This capacity to read the landscape, and locate oneself becomes critical, as contemporary

Despite the undeniable existence of these benefits, the positive impact of urban agriculture in the character and quality of the landscape is not shared by everyone. Landscapes that result from urban agricultural projects tend to share some common characteristics that are not included in the dominant approaches to the project design of the urban space held by

These characteristics include a subtlety, an introvert character and frequently non-planned and the constant transformation of the landscape. To some they are understood as detractors of the quality of the urban landscape. But to others they are some of the most desired and

It is a fact that urban agriculture is crucial to the existence of several poor cities in the world. However, just recently, the wealthy industrial nations of the world and its politicians started to consider the potential benefits of urban agriculture. Nowadays, in all European cities, food production faces a severe competition with the other uses of the land, namely habitation, commerce and industry that frequently have a high profile and financial

While a great quantity of information on the design of low energy consumption buildings is available, including examples that take into account the impacts in the life cycle due to the embodied and operational energy, little bibliography is commonly made available relatively to urban agriculture. It is not that surprising that professions connected with the built environment have so little to do with urban agriculture. If the planning is supposed to be related with the coordination of the use and of land development and public interest, then the value of food production needs to be more publicized and, even included in the

globalization produces more uniform, compact, and timeless landscapes.

landscape architects, architects and urban planners.

curricula of studies related to this theme.

better living the city.

multifunctionality.

necessary landscapes.

payback.

the community, and in terms of health.

## **3.3. The benefits of allotment gardens**

Over at least the last 50 years, *green* policies have been opposing the city growth, or limiting its disadvantages, through the preservation of *nature* spaces within the city. In Europe, those policies have safeguarded untouchable spaces in the green belt, as an expression of an ever growing interest for farming spaces for the services they render the city. On one hand because their public management costs less than that of parks and gardens, and on the other, because citizens seek specific goods and services — fresh produce, pedagogic centers, urban waste recycling capacities, and a healthy living environment.

Considered as a social project capable of improving the conditions of the urban life, agriculture is not reduced to the economical processes that vary according to the wealth of city, but has important motivations to convince the constructors and organisms of city management of the third millennium. Urban agriculture can and should feed and nourish the citizens bound to be increasingly numerous. However, it is not the same in every country19 . In the developing nations it is not necessary to show the importance of this function, conditioned, however, by the real-estate pressure that puts farther and farther away from the urban centers the productive agricultural belt of the gardens, allotment gardens and orchards. The agriculture practiced in African cities withstands even the competition from rural agriculture and of the mass markets.

In the developed countries, on the other hand, besides rural agriculture, indifferent to the city, are appearing in new ways of horticultural production, orchards and flower cultivation that answer directly to the needs of the citizens, in particular to the demand of buying fresh food products, with known provenance and quality, or of searching for ornamental products, especially trees, perennial plants and seeds. These are new urban lifestyles.

<sup>19</sup> Urban agriculture is frequently tabulated by western *standards*. In the totality of Chinese cities, 85% of the consumed vegetables by the residents are produced inside the cities – Shanghai and Beijing are self-sufficient in vegetable production. This information may seem irrelevant to the rich European countries. However, the attitudes relative to food production are based in cultural aspects more than in health aspects as, for example, the Hong Kong case demonstrates. There, the vegetables to satisfy 45% of local demand are produced in 5-6% of the total land area [23].

This is the fundamental difference between rich and poor countries. Once satisfied the feeding needs, it gives way to a new question: the quality of the individual and collective lifestyles that should have never been separated. That is, it creates urbanity in the sense of better living the city.

480 Advances in Landscape Architecture

of greenhouse gases that generate global warming.

urban waste recycling capacities, and a healthy living environment.

competition from rural agriculture and of the mass markets.

**3.3. The benefits of allotment gardens** 

As a result of these developments, as well as of the pressure of the economically disadvantaged local groups, urban farmers, the Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) and several municipal authorities have recognized the potential of urban agriculture and are collaborating with other actors in an effort to maximize the benefits of urban agriculture while reducing the risks associated to it [3]. In [5], food production where food is being consumed, establishes a sustainable and healthy balance between production and consumption. It's an effective, practical, and beneficial way to reduce the energy currently being wasted in Western food production. This energy reduction in food production is vital for many reasons: that energy — mainly non-renewable — is currently used in the conventional food production; for instance, Europe greatly exceeds the energy use in the consumption of the food it produces. The unlimited daily use of non-renewable energy makes a significant contribution to the reduction of global resources, through the emission

Over at least the last 50 years, *green* policies have been opposing the city growth, or limiting its disadvantages, through the preservation of *nature* spaces within the city. In Europe, those policies have safeguarded untouchable spaces in the green belt, as an expression of an ever growing interest for farming spaces for the services they render the city. On one hand because their public management costs less than that of parks and gardens, and on the other, because citizens seek specific goods and services — fresh produce, pedagogic centers,

Considered as a social project capable of improving the conditions of the urban life, agriculture is not reduced to the economical processes that vary according to the wealth of city, but has important motivations to convince the constructors and organisms of city management of the third millennium. Urban agriculture can and should feed and nourish the citizens bound to be increasingly numerous. However, it is not the same in every country19 . In the developing nations it is not necessary to show the importance of this function, conditioned, however, by the real-estate pressure that puts farther and farther away from the urban centers the productive agricultural belt of the gardens, allotment gardens and orchards. The agriculture practiced in African cities withstands even the

In the developed countries, on the other hand, besides rural agriculture, indifferent to the city, are appearing in new ways of horticultural production, orchards and flower cultivation that answer directly to the needs of the citizens, in particular to the demand of buying fresh food products, with known provenance and quality, or of searching for ornamental

19 Urban agriculture is frequently tabulated by western *standards*. In the totality of Chinese cities, 85% of the consumed vegetables by the residents are produced inside the cities – Shanghai and Beijing are self-sufficient in vegetable production. This information may seem irrelevant to the rich European countries. However, the attitudes relative to food production are based in cultural aspects more than in health aspects as, for example, the Hong Kong case demonstrates. There, the vegetables to satisfy 45% of local demand are produced in 5-6% of the total land area [23].

products, especially trees, perennial plants and seeds. These are new urban lifestyles.

Urban farming has many significant benefits, such as improving the environment and helping develop ecologically balanced areas, as well as at the social and economic level, for the community, and in terms of health.

Allotment gardens frequently connect areas with different occupations, establishing a visible physical link between two spaces. In this approach, they frequently define *hidden* or forgotten spaces within the city that may undoubtedly react to the landscape's multifunctionality.

Urban agriculture also gives *scale to landscape*. The way these farming surfaces are changed to accommodate planted surface links and gives visibility to the underlying topography. The dimension of crops and cultivated fields offers another standard from which to measure landscape, allowing people to locate and position themselves within a particular territory. This capacity to read the landscape, and locate oneself becomes critical, as contemporary globalization produces more uniform, compact, and timeless landscapes.

Despite the undeniable existence of these benefits, the positive impact of urban agriculture in the character and quality of the landscape is not shared by everyone. Landscapes that result from urban agricultural projects tend to share some common characteristics that are not included in the dominant approaches to the project design of the urban space held by landscape architects, architects and urban planners.

These characteristics include a subtlety, an introvert character and frequently non-planned and the constant transformation of the landscape. To some they are understood as detractors of the quality of the urban landscape. But to others they are some of the most desired and necessary landscapes.

It is a fact that urban agriculture is crucial to the existence of several poor cities in the world. However, just recently, the wealthy industrial nations of the world and its politicians started to consider the potential benefits of urban agriculture. Nowadays, in all European cities, food production faces a severe competition with the other uses of the land, namely habitation, commerce and industry that frequently have a high profile and financial payback.

While a great quantity of information on the design of low energy consumption buildings is available, including examples that take into account the impacts in the life cycle due to the embodied and operational energy, little bibliography is commonly made available relatively to urban agriculture. It is not that surprising that professions connected with the built environment have so little to do with urban agriculture. If the planning is supposed to be related with the coordination of the use and of land development and public interest, then the value of food production needs to be more publicized and, even included in the curricula of studies related to this theme.

The contribution of urban agriculture to food safety and healthy nourishment is, likely, its most important point. Food production in the city is, in many cases, an answer of the urban poverty to an inadequate, irregular and insecure access to food, as well as to the lack of purchasing power. In the urban areas the lack of income translates itself more directly in a lack of food than in the rural areas (the economical income is necessary to buy food). The costs of supply and distribution of food from the rural areas to the urban ones, or the import of food to the cities, are constantly rising and its supply in the cities is irregular. As a consequence, urban food insecurity will continue to rise [25]. To add to the reinforcement of food safety and nourishment in urban farmers [26], urban agriculture produces large quantities of food to other sectors of the population. It was estimated that 200 million urban residents produce food for the urban market providing 15% to 20% of the food in the world [27].

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 483

urban farms can also have an important role having a leisure and educational play in for the citizens, having a role in biodiversity and landscape management, a bigger proximity with the natural cycles, as well as with the perceptive development of a different dimension of

Also emphasized in the urban agriculture related bibliography is its importance in terms of community development and as an agent for social regeneration, reducing the discrimination, fighting crime and generating economical benefits. In terms of urban regeneration, one of the strong points in urban agriculture, identified both in the Europe and North America related bibliography [29], is its capability of making a highly visible and

The waste elimination has become a serious problem in several cities. Urban agriculture can contribute to solve this problem turning urban waste into a productive resource through the

Urban agriculture and forest can also have a positive impact in the open spaces of the cities, in the improvement of the urban micro-climate (windbreakers; dust reduction and the existence of shadow) and in the maintenance of biodiversity as well as in the reduction of the carbon footprint in the city with the production of fresh food near the consumers reducing, consequently, the energy consumption caused by transportation, packing,

Investigation developed in Holland showed that the existence of agricultural spaces, and

Due to the multifunctional and improvising nature of allotment gardens, policy development and planning actions must involve many sectors and disciplines: agriculture, health, waste

On the other hand, urban farmers, as well as the organizations supporting them, must be involved in the planning process. In [30], the most important thing in strategic planning is the involvement of the underprivileged populations in the assessment of the situation, property definition, and the process of action planning and enforcement. These advisory processes result from development policies and planning actions, not only comprehensive, but also sustainable. These facts are increasingly acknowledged and included in urban planning approaches, as planning methodologies of the many players adopted by the

Public power has many reasons for wanting to keep farming spaces and farmers in urban areas. First of all, for food safety reasons in countries with scarce farming areas. Then, for

these domestic allotment gardens, original ways of socializing are developed, particularly on weekends and holidays. You go to the garden, mainly for food reasons, but also for the regular render-vous with other people and, with their

thus built with vegetation, near the houses, has a positive effect in people's health [3].

management, community development, nature and parks management, and others.

production of compound, worm culture and irrigation with residual waters.

time.

refrigeration, etc.

**3.4. Policy and allotment gardens** 

*Agenda 21*, and by the *Sustainable Cities Programme.*

families, bonds are created, talk, trade and invite.

practical difference in the life of the population.

The improved access to fresh food is directly linked with health improvement. The production of food in the cities can and should help improve the diet of the population allowing it the access to fresh fruit and vegetables, particularly that population with low income. To add to the diet, urban agriculture can provide an useful way out for the quantity of regular exercise that health professionals argue to be necessary to avoid health problems like obesity. Also the practice of gardening or horticulture has been widely recognized for its beneficial effects in the treatment of mental illnesses.

Urban agriculture is an important income source to a substantial number of aggregates. To add to the income of the sales of the surplus, the families of the farmers save in household expenses when cultivating their own food. Given that the economically disadvantaged classes normally spend a substantial part of their income in food (60-80%) [4], the savings can be substantial. Urban agriculture also stimulates the development of micro-companies for the production of the agricultural *inputs* needed (forage, compound and worms); to the processing, packing and product marketing and other services (animal health services, commercial accounting, transportation). In the developing countries it can proportion an orientation for the economical life.

The economical value of urban agriculture can not be simply compared to the type of financial flux caused by the exchange of money for agricultural products in supermarkets. From a small or medium production, preferably organic and seasonal and with aim at the local market, urban agriculture is a different approach to life and food that, more than to compete, supplements the already existing products in the supermarkets.

Urban agriculture can function as an important strategy for the attenuation of poverty and social integration of the disadvantaged groups (like immigrants, families affected by AIDS, people with deficiency, aggregates lead by women with children, elders without pensions, youth without jobs) providing them with a stronger way of integration in the urban network, a decent subsistence and preventing social problems [28]20 . The urban and peri-

<sup>20</sup> It is a merit that the inhabitants attribute to the neighboring agriculture of the city, the permission for the existence of family gardens, the integration of social marginal groups, for example immigrant workers or unemployed people. In

urban farms can also have an important role having a leisure and educational play in for the citizens, having a role in biodiversity and landscape management, a bigger proximity with the natural cycles, as well as with the perceptive development of a different dimension of time.

Also emphasized in the urban agriculture related bibliography is its importance in terms of community development and as an agent for social regeneration, reducing the discrimination, fighting crime and generating economical benefits. In terms of urban regeneration, one of the strong points in urban agriculture, identified both in the Europe and North America related bibliography [29], is its capability of making a highly visible and practical difference in the life of the population.

The waste elimination has become a serious problem in several cities. Urban agriculture can contribute to solve this problem turning urban waste into a productive resource through the production of compound, worm culture and irrigation with residual waters.

Urban agriculture and forest can also have a positive impact in the open spaces of the cities, in the improvement of the urban micro-climate (windbreakers; dust reduction and the existence of shadow) and in the maintenance of biodiversity as well as in the reduction of the carbon footprint in the city with the production of fresh food near the consumers reducing, consequently, the energy consumption caused by transportation, packing, refrigeration, etc.

Investigation developed in Holland showed that the existence of agricultural spaces, and thus built with vegetation, near the houses, has a positive effect in people's health [3].

## **3.4. Policy and allotment gardens**

482 Advances in Landscape Architecture

world [27].

The contribution of urban agriculture to food safety and healthy nourishment is, likely, its most important point. Food production in the city is, in many cases, an answer of the urban poverty to an inadequate, irregular and insecure access to food, as well as to the lack of purchasing power. In the urban areas the lack of income translates itself more directly in a lack of food than in the rural areas (the economical income is necessary to buy food). The costs of supply and distribution of food from the rural areas to the urban ones, or the import of food to the cities, are constantly rising and its supply in the cities is irregular. As a consequence, urban food insecurity will continue to rise [25]. To add to the reinforcement of food safety and nourishment in urban farmers [26], urban agriculture produces large quantities of food to other sectors of the population. It was estimated that 200 million urban residents produce food for the urban market providing 15% to 20% of the food in the

The improved access to fresh food is directly linked with health improvement. The production of food in the cities can and should help improve the diet of the population allowing it the access to fresh fruit and vegetables, particularly that population with low income. To add to the diet, urban agriculture can provide an useful way out for the quantity of regular exercise that health professionals argue to be necessary to avoid health problems like obesity. Also the practice of gardening or horticulture has been widely recognized for

Urban agriculture is an important income source to a substantial number of aggregates. To add to the income of the sales of the surplus, the families of the farmers save in household expenses when cultivating their own food. Given that the economically disadvantaged classes normally spend a substantial part of their income in food (60-80%) [4], the savings can be substantial. Urban agriculture also stimulates the development of micro-companies for the production of the agricultural *inputs* needed (forage, compound and worms); to the processing, packing and product marketing and other services (animal health services, commercial accounting, transportation). In the developing countries it can proportion an

The economical value of urban agriculture can not be simply compared to the type of financial flux caused by the exchange of money for agricultural products in supermarkets. From a small or medium production, preferably organic and seasonal and with aim at the local market, urban agriculture is a different approach to life and food that, more than to

Urban agriculture can function as an important strategy for the attenuation of poverty and social integration of the disadvantaged groups (like immigrants, families affected by AIDS, people with deficiency, aggregates lead by women with children, elders without pensions, youth without jobs) providing them with a stronger way of integration in the urban network, a decent subsistence and preventing social problems [28]20 . The urban and peri-

20 It is a merit that the inhabitants attribute to the neighboring agriculture of the city, the permission for the existence of family gardens, the integration of social marginal groups, for example immigrant workers or unemployed people. In

compete, supplements the already existing products in the supermarkets.

its beneficial effects in the treatment of mental illnesses.

orientation for the economical life.

Due to the multifunctional and improvising nature of allotment gardens, policy development and planning actions must involve many sectors and disciplines: agriculture, health, waste management, community development, nature and parks management, and others.

On the other hand, urban farmers, as well as the organizations supporting them, must be involved in the planning process. In [30], the most important thing in strategic planning is the involvement of the underprivileged populations in the assessment of the situation, property definition, and the process of action planning and enforcement. These advisory processes result from development policies and planning actions, not only comprehensive, but also sustainable. These facts are increasingly acknowledged and included in urban planning approaches, as planning methodologies of the many players adopted by the *Agenda 21*, and by the *Sustainable Cities Programme.*

Public power has many reasons for wanting to keep farming spaces and farmers in urban areas. First of all, for food safety reasons in countries with scarce farming areas. Then, for

these domestic allotment gardens, original ways of socializing are developed, particularly on weekends and holidays. You go to the garden, mainly for food reasons, but also for the regular render-vous with other people and, with their families, bonds are created, talk, trade and invite.

civil safety reasons (fire hazards due to dry vegetation). There are also economical and social reasons: the producers' geographical distance (due to costs, and also to local food safety in a crisis situation), requiring short commercial circuits; the diversity of farming products and their geographical origins, leading public power, for instance in Europe, to distinguish quality brands in defined territories — registered designation of origin (DOC), factory products or organic products; farming tourism also plays a significant role spreading these products.

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 485

markets, including the products from rural and overseas areas; its *inputs* including work

The urban producers can obtain a bigger efficiency with the utilization of underutilized resources in the cities such as the interstitial spaces, the city compound and the labor coming from unemployed people. The productivity of urban agriculture can be 15 times bigger than that of rural agriculture although the incomes can suffer some *inputs*, and insufficient

The macro-economical effects of urban agriculture can be improved on the level of food safety and of a reduction in food prices, inducing the increase of employment and contributing to the industries related to the activity. It is presented as a way out for the

The rapid urbanization process, verified along the last half of the 19th century, has lead to a continuous expansion of the city towards the rural suburbs, leaving big areas under the direct influence of the urban centers. However, the current problem of the peri-urban space, understood as a new way, a disperse way, of the construction of the city, corresponds to a

The process of progressive democratization brought the destruction of the traditional system of symbolic value and the continuous collocation of new values and references in the collective imagination. Relatively to the urban space, to its periphery and the diffuse territory of the city, democracy brought not so much the destruction of the places or their context, as it brought the trivialization of the shape of the public space and the repetition and reproduction of the shape of the private space, favoring the appearance of a separation

It's common knowledge that cities go through a constant process of construction and decadence. Open spaces are filled with buildings and their formal or informal temporary uses are eliminated. Meanwhile, degenerate areas are demolished, creating new open spaces that can stay empty for a long while, until they're given a new use with the corresponding

21 To be noted that even walled cities looked to, however they could, integrate inside them an area for that purpose only. For example, the F*ernandine wall,* in Lisbon, built in the 14th century, covered a wide area (a little bit over 100ha),

Also the Ebenezer Howard model, about the creation of new cities, predicted that each one of them would integrate a

However, if we consider that it starts in the search for the countryside by the citizens we can say for sure that it has always existed, not only for the needs of agricultural supply, but also for leisure and contact with nature and, for

22 A perspective of the defense of the common good is particularly worthy when we talk about the Mediterranean landscape, especially the coast, where the need for a social solidarity is stronger and an environmental valuation policy without the reconstruction of a civic tradition that establishes a connection of society with that place is unthinkable.

investment. These new spaces are often occupied by urban investors [3].

and fertilizers; and the distance from the place to the urban markets.

municipal support (FAO, 1998).

current social-economical problems.

of the idea of common good22 .

surrounding agricultural zone.

sanitary and health reasons [32].

to assure some supply autonomy in case of prolonged siege.

**3.5. Allotment gardens in the periphery** 

phenomenon that started developing two centuries ago21 .

There are other environmental and landscaping reasons: landscape design, multifunctional use, and identity preservation, amongst others. Under controlled conditions, urban farmers should recycle a part of urban water and organic waste. Farming landscape structure, such as productive farmland plots, wind hedges, wells, channels, supports, routes — these are all ways to break the agglomerate density of buildings. There are other vegetable or water surfaces, which also help purify urban micro-climate; farming spaces are leisure areas. Most of all, they offer the population public recreational spaces kept by farmers, so long as the safety of goods and people is guaranteed. Matching Donadieu's *urban field* [20], this image is not spontaneously born but comes from the collective action of farmers, the population, and urban public power.

These spaces are emerging as farming parks in South Milan, as orchards by Palermo, vegetable gardens and orchards in Baix Llobregat, in the Aubagne community not far from Marseille, in Delft, Holland, and as system of farming parks in Almada, also projected in *Estrutura Verde* and *Plano Verde de Lisboa*. This happens in all cities re-acknowledging the multifunctionality of landscapes.

Despite the already referred relevance of the existence of urban agricultural practices, its integration in the contemporary urban economy is still a flaw in the urban policies and planning.

Urban agriculture is an economical activity practiced for commercial reasons, by an estimated number of 200 million people and informally by 600 million people around the world. The innovative book *United Nations Development Programmes* (UNDP), *Urban Agriculture; foods, jobs and sustainable cities,* identify three economical benefits in urban agriculture: employment for the future generations and business development; the improvement of the national agricultural sector and the supply of urban food; and the economy of land use.

Even though urban agriculture significantly contributes to the feeding necessities of several urban populations, the United Nation's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) informed that, in the future, the 12 mega-cities (with more than 10 million inhabitants) will experience an increased difficulty in their feeding. (FAO, 1998).

The land portion necessary for the urban agricultural activities that are commercially viable will depend of a number of factors that include [31]: the quality of the land; the use of natural and artificial micro-climates including greenhouses and polyethylene tunnels; the type of crop growth; the combination of animals and plants, the prices of the products in the markets, including the products from rural and overseas areas; its *inputs* including work and fertilizers; and the distance from the place to the urban markets.

The urban producers can obtain a bigger efficiency with the utilization of underutilized resources in the cities such as the interstitial spaces, the city compound and the labor coming from unemployed people. The productivity of urban agriculture can be 15 times bigger than that of rural agriculture although the incomes can suffer some *inputs*, and insufficient municipal support (FAO, 1998).

The macro-economical effects of urban agriculture can be improved on the level of food safety and of a reduction in food prices, inducing the increase of employment and contributing to the industries related to the activity. It is presented as a way out for the current social-economical problems.

### **3.5. Allotment gardens in the periphery**

484 Advances in Landscape Architecture

products.

urban public power.

planning.

economy of land use.

an increased difficulty in their feeding. (FAO, 1998).

multifunctionality of landscapes.

civil safety reasons (fire hazards due to dry vegetation). There are also economical and social reasons: the producers' geographical distance (due to costs, and also to local food safety in a crisis situation), requiring short commercial circuits; the diversity of farming products and their geographical origins, leading public power, for instance in Europe, to distinguish quality brands in defined territories — registered designation of origin (DOC), factory products or organic products; farming tourism also plays a significant role spreading these

There are other environmental and landscaping reasons: landscape design, multifunctional use, and identity preservation, amongst others. Under controlled conditions, urban farmers should recycle a part of urban water and organic waste. Farming landscape structure, such as productive farmland plots, wind hedges, wells, channels, supports, routes — these are all ways to break the agglomerate density of buildings. There are other vegetable or water surfaces, which also help purify urban micro-climate; farming spaces are leisure areas. Most of all, they offer the population public recreational spaces kept by farmers, so long as the safety of goods and people is guaranteed. Matching Donadieu's *urban field* [20], this image is not spontaneously born but comes from the collective action of farmers, the population, and

These spaces are emerging as farming parks in South Milan, as orchards by Palermo, vegetable gardens and orchards in Baix Llobregat, in the Aubagne community not far from Marseille, in Delft, Holland, and as system of farming parks in Almada, also projected in *Estrutura Verde* and *Plano Verde de Lisboa*. This happens in all cities re-acknowledging the

Despite the already referred relevance of the existence of urban agricultural practices, its integration in the contemporary urban economy is still a flaw in the urban policies and

Urban agriculture is an economical activity practiced for commercial reasons, by an estimated number of 200 million people and informally by 600 million people around the world. The innovative book *United Nations Development Programmes* (UNDP), *Urban Agriculture; foods, jobs and sustainable cities,* identify three economical benefits in urban agriculture: employment for the future generations and business development; the improvement of the national agricultural sector and the supply of urban food; and the

Even though urban agriculture significantly contributes to the feeding necessities of several urban populations, the United Nation's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) informed that, in the future, the 12 mega-cities (with more than 10 million inhabitants) will experience

The land portion necessary for the urban agricultural activities that are commercially viable will depend of a number of factors that include [31]: the quality of the land; the use of natural and artificial micro-climates including greenhouses and polyethylene tunnels; the type of crop growth; the combination of animals and plants, the prices of the products in the The rapid urbanization process, verified along the last half of the 19th century, has lead to a continuous expansion of the city towards the rural suburbs, leaving big areas under the direct influence of the urban centers. However, the current problem of the peri-urban space, understood as a new way, a disperse way, of the construction of the city, corresponds to a phenomenon that started developing two centuries ago21 .

The process of progressive democratization brought the destruction of the traditional system of symbolic value and the continuous collocation of new values and references in the collective imagination. Relatively to the urban space, to its periphery and the diffuse territory of the city, democracy brought not so much the destruction of the places or their context, as it brought the trivialization of the shape of the public space and the repetition and reproduction of the shape of the private space, favoring the appearance of a separation of the idea of common good22 .

It's common knowledge that cities go through a constant process of construction and decadence. Open spaces are filled with buildings and their formal or informal temporary uses are eliminated. Meanwhile, degenerate areas are demolished, creating new open spaces that can stay empty for a long while, until they're given a new use with the corresponding investment. These new spaces are often occupied by urban investors [3].

<sup>21</sup> To be noted that even walled cities looked to, however they could, integrate inside them an area for that purpose only. For example, the F*ernandine wall,* in Lisbon, built in the 14th century, covered a wide area (a little bit over 100ha), to assure some supply autonomy in case of prolonged siege.

Also the Ebenezer Howard model, about the creation of new cities, predicted that each one of them would integrate a surrounding agricultural zone.

However, if we consider that it starts in the search for the countryside by the citizens we can say for sure that it has always existed, not only for the needs of agricultural supply, but also for leisure and contact with nature and, for sanitary and health reasons [32].

<sup>22</sup> A perspective of the defense of the common good is particularly worthy when we talk about the Mediterranean landscape, especially the coast, where the need for a social solidarity is stronger and an environmental valuation policy without the reconstruction of a civic tradition that establishes a connection of society with that place is unthinkable.

As for this crescent peri-urbanization, some say that, "the city-countryside dichotomy should give way to spatial integration, which process must not be seen as the countryside urbanized or as the city ruralized, but as a new way of social reorganization, that should reflect complementarities"23 .

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 487

of transformation – the soil of the future periphery, conditioning of the next votes in the process of real-estate valuation, of highways, interstitial area hard to interpret. In most cases, the destiny of the fields is the one of being defined by the dynamics of transformation

The relationships of the new residents with the space that they occupy, little has to do with rurality (although they can feel sympathetic about it). Even the older residents, with the crescent abandonment of agriculture, new jobs and displacements, will eventually be turned into citizens of this *wider city*, of this *city territory.* The peri-urban space, presented as a

This peri-urban interface is defined as land in an advanced state of transition from rural use to urban use – land in construction, land to which the plans for subdivision have been approved – in the end, land where there are little doubts about its orientation to and conversion into urban uses, where it is not predicted a multifunctional use of the landscape,

Oftentimes the urban periphery is referred more as a phase than as a place [37]; the rural activities are considered as activities to disappear in the next few years, while urban activities are simply understood as precursory of the city. The substitution of a rural inclusive space for a completely urbanized area is stipulated and, the disordered landscapes of the periphery, characterized by a mixture of rural and urban activities, are regarded according to this determined succession and established as places in transition that are soon bound to disappear28. The notion that urban development is the best use of the non-urban land is written in the lexicon of any urban planner or politician. The ignorance of the concept of multifunctionality and of the concept of landscape lead to the transformation of a the scenery of periphery and the notion of *no place* that accompanies it, turned into a battlefield between

Periphery can then be characterized, by many, simply as the grave to the countryside and a birthplace to the city, while the intermediate phases of the landscape and of life have been ignored. The periphery landscape, complex and sometimes chaotic is merely described as a temporary void. Due to the landscapes in transition being neglected and simplified according to the urban-rural conflict, the transforming side of the landscape is put aside or

These hybrid spaces of the city and the countryside, or *spaces outside the order* are common in the periphery [37]. Vast areas of the periphery are waiting for projects, often for a long time,

27 When the contemporary city breaks the rules of construction of its growth interrupting the continuity and adjacency with the pre-existing urban fabric, it simplifies the rules of construction of the boundary space, the *in-between* space, isolating the new settlements inside a landscape less and less recognizable as countrysde, but already altered by a transformation which objectives will be real-estate valuation, a goal to which the owner aspires be it farmer or citizen. 28 In [38] is referred that the periphery of the city has been, for a long time, the destination of the rural landscape of the periphery of the city, the natural material to the subdivision for residential and industrial lots and trailer parks 29 In [39] is referred the artificial division between urban and rural as the primary reason for the existing difficulties

return to the field is, before anything else, a new process of urbanization.

the efforts to preserve the rural soil and the ruthless forces of urbanization.

of the city [7]27 .

but where it is fundamental [36].

severely reduced29 .

when running the periphery.

In that same sense – of spatial integration and social reorganization – Secchi [33] revalues peripheries, stating that it is less and less certain that the periphery is the place for subordinated activities of degradation better representing the best place for exchange between the city and the rest of the world.

Such opinions reflect from the start the reality of the city-countryside relationship that, with the increasing dispersion, occurs in the urban surroundings. This new territorial localization and the specific social relationships to it associated indicate a new way of organizing the city. In its surroundings dynamic zones in expansion are seen, zones of interaction between the urban and rural areas.

This peri-urban interface [34] is characterized by rapid transformations in the use of the land and in the way of living of the populations. The traditional systems of local agriculture and land distribution are interrupted by new citizens looking to acquire land24 leading to a raising in its price.

As an answer, some *traditional* farmers give up their activity25 and sell the land looking for more profitable and lucrative activities26 .

The interdependence between urban areas and their rural surroundings creates the need of the existence of approaches of integrated development appealing to rethought areas of interest, institutional changes and innovative planning approaches [35].

None of this happens in the peri-urban space. The old inhabitants will still have some connection to agriculture, an increasingly smaller one, and shall keep social relationships of proximity, but the new inhabitants are essentially urban ones. Many of these come from the city, of collective habitation areas; they work in the city, in the services or in the industry and live car-dependent; their leisure and realities of reference are based on television and superstores; perhaps practicing some gardening; they value individuality and establish few neighborly connections; sometimes relationship problems occur between younger and elder residents.

The economical, social and demographic decomposition of the rural space makes the countryside increasingly oriented towards and by the city. The countryside around the city is, almost always, the most unstable place of the territory and more propitious to processes

<sup>23</sup> Carvalho [11] p. 189.

<sup>24</sup> To speculate: to the exploration of sand and stone, to the development of infra-structures, to the construction of instalation of more urbanized types of agriculture.

<sup>25</sup> The general devaluation of agriculture is a fact and Portugal is an example of it.

<sup>26</sup> Jobs in the city; the intensification of their agricultural systems of production to a bigger adaptation to the new urban conditions – cultural changes, market orientation, the use of new technologies, namely greenhouse production, direct market, use of urban waste or residual water, among others.

of transformation – the soil of the future periphery, conditioning of the next votes in the process of real-estate valuation, of highways, interstitial area hard to interpret. In most cases, the destiny of the fields is the one of being defined by the dynamics of transformation of the city [7]27 .

486 Advances in Landscape Architecture

reflect complementarities"23 .

the urban and rural areas.

raising in its price.

residents.

23 Carvalho [11] p. 189.

instalation of more urbanized types of agriculture.

market, use of urban waste or residual water, among others.

25 The general devaluation of agriculture is a fact and Portugal is an example of it.

between the city and the rest of the world.

more profitable and lucrative activities26 .

As for this crescent peri-urbanization, some say that, "the city-countryside dichotomy should give way to spatial integration, which process must not be seen as the countryside urbanized or as the city ruralized, but as a new way of social reorganization, that should

In that same sense – of spatial integration and social reorganization – Secchi [33] revalues peripheries, stating that it is less and less certain that the periphery is the place for subordinated activities of degradation better representing the best place for exchange

Such opinions reflect from the start the reality of the city-countryside relationship that, with the increasing dispersion, occurs in the urban surroundings. This new territorial localization and the specific social relationships to it associated indicate a new way of organizing the city. In its surroundings dynamic zones in expansion are seen, zones of interaction between

This peri-urban interface [34] is characterized by rapid transformations in the use of the land and in the way of living of the populations. The traditional systems of local agriculture and land distribution are interrupted by new citizens looking to acquire land24 leading to a

As an answer, some *traditional* farmers give up their activity25 and sell the land looking for

The interdependence between urban areas and their rural surroundings creates the need of the existence of approaches of integrated development appealing to rethought areas of

None of this happens in the peri-urban space. The old inhabitants will still have some connection to agriculture, an increasingly smaller one, and shall keep social relationships of proximity, but the new inhabitants are essentially urban ones. Many of these come from the city, of collective habitation areas; they work in the city, in the services or in the industry and live car-dependent; their leisure and realities of reference are based on television and superstores; perhaps practicing some gardening; they value individuality and establish few neighborly connections; sometimes relationship problems occur between younger and elder

The economical, social and demographic decomposition of the rural space makes the countryside increasingly oriented towards and by the city. The countryside around the city is, almost always, the most unstable place of the territory and more propitious to processes

24 To speculate: to the exploration of sand and stone, to the development of infra-structures, to the construction of

26 Jobs in the city; the intensification of their agricultural systems of production to a bigger adaptation to the new urban conditions – cultural changes, market orientation, the use of new technologies, namely greenhouse production, direct

interest, institutional changes and innovative planning approaches [35].

The relationships of the new residents with the space that they occupy, little has to do with rurality (although they can feel sympathetic about it). Even the older residents, with the crescent abandonment of agriculture, new jobs and displacements, will eventually be turned into citizens of this *wider city*, of this *city territory.* The peri-urban space, presented as a return to the field is, before anything else, a new process of urbanization.

This peri-urban interface is defined as land in an advanced state of transition from rural use to urban use – land in construction, land to which the plans for subdivision have been approved – in the end, land where there are little doubts about its orientation to and conversion into urban uses, where it is not predicted a multifunctional use of the landscape, but where it is fundamental [36].

Oftentimes the urban periphery is referred more as a phase than as a place [37]; the rural activities are considered as activities to disappear in the next few years, while urban activities are simply understood as precursory of the city. The substitution of a rural inclusive space for a completely urbanized area is stipulated and, the disordered landscapes of the periphery, characterized by a mixture of rural and urban activities, are regarded according to this determined succession and established as places in transition that are soon bound to disappear28. The notion that urban development is the best use of the non-urban land is written in the lexicon of any urban planner or politician. The ignorance of the concept of multifunctionality and of the concept of landscape lead to the transformation of a the scenery of periphery and the notion of *no place* that accompanies it, turned into a battlefield between the efforts to preserve the rural soil and the ruthless forces of urbanization.

Periphery can then be characterized, by many, simply as the grave to the countryside and a birthplace to the city, while the intermediate phases of the landscape and of life have been ignored. The periphery landscape, complex and sometimes chaotic is merely described as a temporary void. Due to the landscapes in transition being neglected and simplified according to the urban-rural conflict, the transforming side of the landscape is put aside or severely reduced29 .

These hybrid spaces of the city and the countryside, or *spaces outside the order* are common in the periphery [37]. Vast areas of the periphery are waiting for projects, often for a long time,

<sup>27</sup> When the contemporary city breaks the rules of construction of its growth interrupting the continuity and adjacency with the pre-existing urban fabric, it simplifies the rules of construction of the boundary space, the *in-between* space, isolating the new settlements inside a landscape less and less recognizable as countrysde, but already altered by a transformation which objectives will be real-estate valuation, a goal to which the owner aspires be it farmer or citizen.

<sup>28</sup> In [38] is referred that the periphery of the city has been, for a long time, the destination of the rural landscape of the periphery of the city, the natural material to the subdivision for residential and industrial lots and trailer parks 29 In [39] is referred the artificial division between urban and rural as the primary reason for the existing difficulties when running the periphery.

that contribute for the qualification of the landscape. The planning, the development, and the rehabilitation of spaces are part of the contemporary society; an intermediate phase of abandonment is an inevitable stage of the contemporary city, as well as of the countryside, that also is transformed [40]30; the peri-urban territory is clearly in the process of social rehabilitation.

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 489

to imply social motivations rooted in certain urban population sectors with smallholdings and small family vegetable gardens. These are often marginal and not profit oriented, which indicates to a tendency to recover connected ways of life, contrary to what we have now.

From an ecological point of view, nowadays, this proximity between farming and urban reality may be the most efficient vector to achieving a sustainable city, capable of giving a

A policy of maximum reduction of agricultural exploration uncertainties, under the dominant influence of the urban space, does not connect well with a new neo-liberal culture utilized as convincing proof of little solidary attitudes. Nevertheless, the maximum reduction of these uncertainties on agricultural explorations is in the recommendations of the OCDE. Before this organism agriculture must assume a decisive role in the organization

The management of European space policy inscribed in the European Spatial Development Perspective – Postdam 1999 – had the merit of putting between the primary objectives the orientation of the territorial community strategy towards a balanced urban system, reachable through new ways of city-countryside relationship, aiming to the integration of the poly-centric urban space of the metropolitan areas and peri-urban agricultural space, opposing to the union of the built fabric. The challenge of the contemporary city should start from the peri-urban agricultural space, which surface varies according to the greatness of the city, and which urbanity is more reinforced the more the urban center presents itself as a

The peri-urban field landscape, for a long time seen as productive agriculture, can become again, as in the image of the English countryside of Humphrey Repton and Capability Brown, a place of new symbols and renewed aesthetic values, with no nostalgic intention and innovative activities, be it from the city, be it from agriculture, that do not refute the city but embrace the advantages of this closeness and its inter-relationship-.The urban periphery can simultaneously be a space of predominantly rural use that assumes some urban functions without losing its sense and its agricultural economy. Transformed space that had and has, almost permanently, the necessity to adapt to technological innovations and the increases in production being in this improving capability its shot at survival. In this sequence, it can include not only small or medium explorations but also those of bigger dimension that have been and is protagonist of the *metamorphism* of the peripheries,

The history of peri-urban agriculture shows that, in the beginning of the 19th century, it was responsible for the production of food of the city. In the end of the said century with the big developments in transportation, peri-urban agriculture was responsible for the production

In the European market of the 60s of the 20th century, an enormous real-estate speculation takes place with the peri-urban agriculture. From the end of the 90s, the peri-urban agriculture painting varies a lot from region to region, with a bigger concern in this sense

of food of the city and neighboring cities (golden age of the horticultural periphery).

better use to waste production and to the growing energy consumption.

cohesive space, getting closer to the peripheries, including sections of field.

important to understand its evolution in time.

of the peri-urban areas.

The use of similar definitions, that refer the transition/indecision of a rural/urban use (and often the conflict between farmers and the population of the disperse city) have been long referred to in literature on planning, as well as the discussion around the old question of considering this as *urbanized countryside* or *ruralized city*.

It is certain that in both definitions it is included the idea that this space should contribute to the supply of food to the city. It is an obvious reality in developing countries, but much more complex when around the western city, where there is a type of agriculture that supplies to the big supermarkets and shopping centers, with which urban agriculture can not compete. In the peri-urban agricultural spaces there are many diverse ways of agriculture, from the intensive one to the extensive, from commercial to productive, from traditional to hobby.

This abundance of ways is quite positive because it indicates that, independently of any global project, these are the differentiation processes that are happening and that farmers are reacting to the demands of the new markets. The rapid advances of agrifood technology and modern rural economy management allowed to obtain benefits capable of transforming and making competitive the peri-urban space as a way of organization of the New Diffuse City. This new generation of dispersion landscape is related to the territory of peri-urbanity. In this figure, through discontinuity, a new agricultural space is introduced with unprecedented form and function. If we consider this space as a part of the new landscape, then territory and landscape must converge towards an innovative notion of values, nonmeasurable as trading values or economical goods, but as use values, that attribute weight to pragmatics implying a familiarity through the places they inhabit, carrying rhetorical and aesthetic values, as a premiss to an identity construction or the symbol of a renewed society.

The resistance of the farming space to the absorbing pressure of the neo-liberal city will depend, almost exclusively, on its own means and on the management of its resources and possibilities, as well as on the revitalization of its equipment levels and on the effectiveness of its means of transportation.

The enhancement and the creation of new techniques, as well as, in many cases, the farming units fragmentation, also beyond the commercial aspect, as in the case of the *Hobby Farm*  movement and of some family vegetable gardens, generate a dynamic in which *part-time farming* includes a double occupation as social and economic reality. This generates a stable relationship between farming spaces and urban space economy. On the other hand, besides economic matters, this relationship between farming spaces and urban spaces has also come

<sup>30</sup> Witness of this process are the hesitations of local administrators, the disbelief of the farmers, the pressure of the new inhabitants and the different *lobbys,* as defended by ecologists and hunters.

to imply social motivations rooted in certain urban population sectors with smallholdings and small family vegetable gardens. These are often marginal and not profit oriented, which indicates to a tendency to recover connected ways of life, contrary to what we have now.

488 Advances in Landscape Architecture

rehabilitation.

traditional to hobby.

of its means of transportation.

that contribute for the qualification of the landscape. The planning, the development, and the rehabilitation of spaces are part of the contemporary society; an intermediate phase of abandonment is an inevitable stage of the contemporary city, as well as of the countryside, that also is transformed [40]30; the peri-urban territory is clearly in the process of social

The use of similar definitions, that refer the transition/indecision of a rural/urban use (and often the conflict between farmers and the population of the disperse city) have been long referred to in literature on planning, as well as the discussion around the old question of

It is certain that in both definitions it is included the idea that this space should contribute to the supply of food to the city. It is an obvious reality in developing countries, but much more complex when around the western city, where there is a type of agriculture that supplies to the big supermarkets and shopping centers, with which urban agriculture can not compete. In the peri-urban agricultural spaces there are many diverse ways of agriculture, from the intensive one to the extensive, from commercial to productive, from

This abundance of ways is quite positive because it indicates that, independently of any global project, these are the differentiation processes that are happening and that farmers are reacting to the demands of the new markets. The rapid advances of agrifood technology and modern rural economy management allowed to obtain benefits capable of transforming and making competitive the peri-urban space as a way of organization of the New Diffuse City. This new generation of dispersion landscape is related to the territory of peri-urbanity. In this figure, through discontinuity, a new agricultural space is introduced with unprecedented form and function. If we consider this space as a part of the new landscape, then territory and landscape must converge towards an innovative notion of values, nonmeasurable as trading values or economical goods, but as use values, that attribute weight to pragmatics implying a familiarity through the places they inhabit, carrying rhetorical and aesthetic values, as a premiss to an identity construction or the symbol of a renewed society. The resistance of the farming space to the absorbing pressure of the neo-liberal city will depend, almost exclusively, on its own means and on the management of its resources and possibilities, as well as on the revitalization of its equipment levels and on the effectiveness

The enhancement and the creation of new techniques, as well as, in many cases, the farming units fragmentation, also beyond the commercial aspect, as in the case of the *Hobby Farm*  movement and of some family vegetable gardens, generate a dynamic in which *part-time farming* includes a double occupation as social and economic reality. This generates a stable relationship between farming spaces and urban space economy. On the other hand, besides economic matters, this relationship between farming spaces and urban spaces has also come

30 Witness of this process are the hesitations of local administrators, the disbelief of the farmers, the pressure of the new

inhabitants and the different *lobbys,* as defended by ecologists and hunters.

considering this as *urbanized countryside* or *ruralized city*.

From an ecological point of view, nowadays, this proximity between farming and urban reality may be the most efficient vector to achieving a sustainable city, capable of giving a better use to waste production and to the growing energy consumption.

A policy of maximum reduction of agricultural exploration uncertainties, under the dominant influence of the urban space, does not connect well with a new neo-liberal culture utilized as convincing proof of little solidary attitudes. Nevertheless, the maximum reduction of these uncertainties on agricultural explorations is in the recommendations of the OCDE. Before this organism agriculture must assume a decisive role in the organization of the peri-urban areas.

The management of European space policy inscribed in the European Spatial Development Perspective – Postdam 1999 – had the merit of putting between the primary objectives the orientation of the territorial community strategy towards a balanced urban system, reachable through new ways of city-countryside relationship, aiming to the integration of the poly-centric urban space of the metropolitan areas and peri-urban agricultural space, opposing to the union of the built fabric. The challenge of the contemporary city should start from the peri-urban agricultural space, which surface varies according to the greatness of the city, and which urbanity is more reinforced the more the urban center presents itself as a cohesive space, getting closer to the peripheries, including sections of field.

The peri-urban field landscape, for a long time seen as productive agriculture, can become again, as in the image of the English countryside of Humphrey Repton and Capability Brown, a place of new symbols and renewed aesthetic values, with no nostalgic intention and innovative activities, be it from the city, be it from agriculture, that do not refute the city but embrace the advantages of this closeness and its inter-relationship-.The urban periphery can simultaneously be a space of predominantly rural use that assumes some urban functions without losing its sense and its agricultural economy. Transformed space that had and has, almost permanently, the necessity to adapt to technological innovations and the increases in production being in this improving capability its shot at survival. In this sequence, it can include not only small or medium explorations but also those of bigger dimension that have been and is protagonist of the *metamorphism* of the peripheries, important to understand its evolution in time.

The history of peri-urban agriculture shows that, in the beginning of the 19th century, it was responsible for the production of food of the city. In the end of the said century with the big developments in transportation, peri-urban agriculture was responsible for the production of food of the city and neighboring cities (golden age of the horticultural periphery).

In the European market of the 60s of the 20th century, an enormous real-estate speculation takes place with the peri-urban agriculture. From the end of the 90s, the peri-urban agriculture painting varies a lot from region to region, with a bigger concern in this sense due to, in part, the enormous increase of the urban population and the economic crisis that is globally felt.

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 491

The modern society interrupted the dialog with the territory introducing the notion of *void*  understood as the abstract plan of the urban stereometry, imagined isolated in a space regarded as isotropic. Newton was the motivator of the space of modern society – the space of abstraction, with no time, a space that is already between the filled ones but that is neglected. But the sanitarian question, after the First War, with the valuing of the free area and the sun that, paradoxically inspired the spatiality of the modern city nullifying the values of composition that are preponderant still today in many cities, or at least parts of

The theory of modern movement on the relationship between the city and the countryside was often misunderstood. With the image of the *tabula rasa* ended an articulated reflection

The word play *country-cities in city-countries* with which Walter Gropius pretended to rebuild the urban city in the countryside; the carefree workers that found job in the countryside; the meticulous design of the cultivation of Adolf Loos's allotment gardens in the houses of Siedlung Huberg in Vienna31 ; the socialization programs of the *urban green*  aiming at the auto sustainability of the family centers promoted by Leberecht Miggie and of the *Gartenkultur* to the attribution of terrains attached to the house; the narrow complementarity between the urban thread and the agricultural space thought by Fritz Shumacher to the metropolitan area of Hamburg and Köln; these are just some examples that show the poetical roots of the *garden-city* in the modern movement knocking down the

The possibility of food supply of the citizens in the planning of the countryside in the margins of the *Siedlungen* rediscovered the rural space as a part of the city and the allotment

The contemporary city recomposed the separation between the city and the countryside occupying the territory again, densifying the chosen places by the rich bourgeoisie, in the last century – the vacation houses, the sea, the lake, the mountain – appropriating itself of the rural space, building an enormous new city in the countryside, continuing to leave empty great portions of land in which the contemporary city project can and should take advantage of the potentiality of these empty interstitial spaces reestablishing their historic and topological value, comprising them inside a new urban space [43]. The discontinuity of the new urban territories can start with the reconnaissance of the genesis of these interstitial

As it was referred, the category of the interstitial space has been an emerging problem to contemporaneity: the interstitial void renegades urbanization, it is not inserted in a project, or becomes a new product, or it is rejected by the countryside and becomes a non-cultivated and abandoned space. It results, generally, from the neglect that derives from the uncertainty of the way and the indefiniteness of the composition, left to an arbitrariness of a

31 "It is necessary to start from the garden. The garden is of almost importance, the house is secondary." In reference

that proposed the recovery of the *urban green* as a social value of rurality.

traditional relationship of dependence between the center and the periphery.

them.

[42] (p. 109).

garden as new urban material.

spaces that can be transformed to any use.

The peri-urban space is today, without a doubt, the most representative landscape of our post-industrial culture, setting a new expression that, in Europe, occupies almost the totality of the cultivable spaces, as it were the already natural form of expression of the agricultural spaces that need a high technological level and acquaintanceship with certain populations and activities [8].

The city demands a new culture concerning landscape. The expectations rural spaces create as to the location of activities already surpass peri-urban situations and the debate city/periphery/rural space, revealing a growing recovery of the landscape's multifunctionality, and implying a new understanding of their possible meaning as urban space support. What matters most is to *surpass* the notion of dependency of the rural space relatively to urban space. We believe that viewing the farming space as equal to any other soil use is the greatest contribution our time will leave as a legacy for the city's future.

Just as the proposition of *landscape urbanism*, concerning the relationship between the landscape and the city — landscape as an (infra)-structure determining urban planning and development — Donadieu, and also Ribeiro Telles, suggest — instead of trying in vain to control the city's growth through grids, belts, front sides, and green spaces — building the urban fabric from the farming and forest space.

Like many other authors — namely Corner, Donadieu, Hargreaves, Waldheim, and others — Marot [41] also says contemporary context has put landscape architects in the convergence of farming and urban traditions. This means they are at the core of an awareness directed to both viewing public spaces (urban projects) as landscapes and viewing landscapes (rural extensions) as public spaces and consequently as the projects' possible goals.

## **3.6. Allotment gardens in urban voids**

The process of city growth, almost always over the rural space, has produced new peripheries, hiding with new urban fronts the view over the countryside, introducing in it the city vocabulary, the houses, the roads, the infra-structures, substituting the agricultural parceling for the regular strokes of pathways, for a hard and waterproof surface that overlaps the irregular, porous and topographical surface.

The roles played by the countryside in their proximity to the cities were canceled, modified or appropriated accordingly to meet the necessities of the city, often conflicting with the diverse logic of space occupation and urban methods, nature regulators.

The environmental question that appeared in the second half of the 19th century, in the sequence of the industrial city, was, as we have seen, target of thinkers like Howard, Unwin, and Geddes, that re-elaborated an innovative culture of inhabiting, finding inspiration in the *poetic of the green.*

The modern society interrupted the dialog with the territory introducing the notion of *void*  understood as the abstract plan of the urban stereometry, imagined isolated in a space regarded as isotropic. Newton was the motivator of the space of modern society – the space of abstraction, with no time, a space that is already between the filled ones but that is neglected. But the sanitarian question, after the First War, with the valuing of the free area and the sun that, paradoxically inspired the spatiality of the modern city nullifying the values of composition that are preponderant still today in many cities, or at least parts of them.

490 Advances in Landscape Architecture

is globally felt.

and activities [8].

possible goals.

*poetic of the green.*

urban fabric from the farming and forest space.

**3.6. Allotment gardens in urban voids** 

overlaps the irregular, porous and topographical surface.

diverse logic of space occupation and urban methods, nature regulators.

due to, in part, the enormous increase of the urban population and the economic crisis that

The peri-urban space is today, without a doubt, the most representative landscape of our post-industrial culture, setting a new expression that, in Europe, occupies almost the totality of the cultivable spaces, as it were the already natural form of expression of the agricultural spaces that need a high technological level and acquaintanceship with certain populations

The city demands a new culture concerning landscape. The expectations rural spaces create as to the location of activities already surpass peri-urban situations and the debate city/periphery/rural space, revealing a growing recovery of the landscape's multifunctionality, and implying a new understanding of their possible meaning as urban space support. What matters most is to *surpass* the notion of dependency of the rural space relatively to urban space. We believe that viewing the farming space as equal to any other soil use is the greatest contribution our time will leave as a legacy for the city's future.

Just as the proposition of *landscape urbanism*, concerning the relationship between the landscape and the city — landscape as an (infra)-structure determining urban planning and development — Donadieu, and also Ribeiro Telles, suggest — instead of trying in vain to control the city's growth through grids, belts, front sides, and green spaces — building the

Like many other authors — namely Corner, Donadieu, Hargreaves, Waldheim, and others — Marot [41] also says contemporary context has put landscape architects in the convergence of farming and urban traditions. This means they are at the core of an awareness directed to both viewing public spaces (urban projects) as landscapes and viewing landscapes (rural extensions) as public spaces and consequently as the projects'

The process of city growth, almost always over the rural space, has produced new peripheries, hiding with new urban fronts the view over the countryside, introducing in it the city vocabulary, the houses, the roads, the infra-structures, substituting the agricultural parceling for the regular strokes of pathways, for a hard and waterproof surface that

The roles played by the countryside in their proximity to the cities were canceled, modified or appropriated accordingly to meet the necessities of the city, often conflicting with the

The environmental question that appeared in the second half of the 19th century, in the sequence of the industrial city, was, as we have seen, target of thinkers like Howard, Unwin, and Geddes, that re-elaborated an innovative culture of inhabiting, finding inspiration in the The theory of modern movement on the relationship between the city and the countryside was often misunderstood. With the image of the *tabula rasa* ended an articulated reflection that proposed the recovery of the *urban green* as a social value of rurality.

The word play *country-cities in city-countries* with which Walter Gropius pretended to rebuild the urban city in the countryside; the carefree workers that found job in the countryside; the meticulous design of the cultivation of Adolf Loos's allotment gardens in the houses of Siedlung Huberg in Vienna31 ; the socialization programs of the *urban green*  aiming at the auto sustainability of the family centers promoted by Leberecht Miggie and of the *Gartenkultur* to the attribution of terrains attached to the house; the narrow complementarity between the urban thread and the agricultural space thought by Fritz Shumacher to the metropolitan area of Hamburg and Köln; these are just some examples that show the poetical roots of the *garden-city* in the modern movement knocking down the traditional relationship of dependence between the center and the periphery.

The possibility of food supply of the citizens in the planning of the countryside in the margins of the *Siedlungen* rediscovered the rural space as a part of the city and the allotment garden as new urban material.

The contemporary city recomposed the separation between the city and the countryside occupying the territory again, densifying the chosen places by the rich bourgeoisie, in the last century – the vacation houses, the sea, the lake, the mountain – appropriating itself of the rural space, building an enormous new city in the countryside, continuing to leave empty great portions of land in which the contemporary city project can and should take advantage of the potentiality of these empty interstitial spaces reestablishing their historic and topological value, comprising them inside a new urban space [43]. The discontinuity of the new urban territories can start with the reconnaissance of the genesis of these interstitial spaces that can be transformed to any use.

As it was referred, the category of the interstitial space has been an emerging problem to contemporaneity: the interstitial void renegades urbanization, it is not inserted in a project, or becomes a new product, or it is rejected by the countryside and becomes a non-cultivated and abandoned space. It results, generally, from the neglect that derives from the uncertainty of the way and the indefiniteness of the composition, left to an arbitrariness of a

<sup>31 &</sup>quot;It is necessary to start from the garden. The garden is of almost importance, the house is secondary." In reference [42] (p. 109).

flexible pretense made infraction from the collective interest point of view and of a mono functional vision. The interstitial space calls for a vacant spot, the abandonment, being able to contain, however, the promise of valuing.

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 493

It is reinforced the idea that urban interstices are ideal spaces to include open spaces' projects that may contain urban agriculture and, simultaneously, spaces of ecological and social multifunctionality that are characterized by the continuity, polarity, differences in

As it has been referred, *urban agriculture* is a term that refers to a description of what is pretended to be done but, can be, as well, quite conditioning. In an apparently radical idea it continues the western tendency to create meaning and to make decisions through the

Urban agriculture is innovative given that it is in contrast with rural agriculture. The interstices are left out of this opposition – the exterior rings of the cities, frequently neglecting and rudimentary, as well as the suburbs besides them, are often underutilized, producing a feeling of restlessness that guaranties, once again, the garbage deposit, the persistence of industrial parks with low rent warehouses, of abandoned allotments and of

If we are capable of thinking in these interstices and other spaces as intense as, if not as more intense than, than consolidated areas with which they are related and connected, then the urban agriculture becomes one of the several intensification strategies, without being necessarily exclusive. It is one among many interventions of landscaping architecture.

The chances of building a productive landscape infra-structure may be based upon the new idea of an emerging city, for it invites us to view urban voids as a positive property of space, and consequently, to favor all occupation means valuing that void and setting it both as a

Therefore, the notion that urban voids are the perfect spots for open space projects allowing urban farming and, at the same time, ecologic multifunctionality spaces characterized by

In order for these allotment gardens to be successful, it is vital to create simple regulations ensuring that society will protect the value of natural processes, and itself. At the conceptual level, these spaces will provide an open space source essential to metropolitan areas, given the absolutely irresponsible way urbanization has been occurring (concerning natural processes and their values), generally, through the increase of the density of buildings inside

Despite the strong structuralism potential offered by the design of allotment gardens, the matter of urban agriculture is not included in the *landscape urbanism* debate*.* The most frequent typologies of this current concern the rehabilitation of old infra-structures and *brownfields*, favoring leisure and recreational activities for the benefit of users, and a deep

continuity, polarity, gradient differences, and social diversity is strengthened.

the cities and extension to the peripheries, always at the cost of open spaces.

**3.7. Allotment gardens in the context of** *landscape urbanism*

ecological rehabilitation of these spaces.

gradient and social diversity.

creation of opposite binaries [23].

the existence of underutilized and insecure urban parks.

structuring element of landscape and as part of the urban fabric.

Similarly to the *Third Landscape* by Gilles Clément, ecology approaches the interstitial space as a space where nature applies its projectuality, returning to the uncultivated the evolutionary dynamic of a natural *habitat*, more effective if it is near or inside the city, enabling the existence of a series of species of urban flora and fauna that encounter some *naturalness* in the inhospitable urban environment.

The theory of Gilles Clément has the merit of keeping the spaces *empty*, regardless of its destiny of use, dissociating the value of the space from its functionality, *rushing the nature* in the abandoned area and educating a new strategy of the uncultivated.

Also, the studies of urban ecology indicate the importance of safeguarding margins and interstitial areas, contributing to define rules and fundamental principles, namely to the construction of the *urban countryside*32 [20] or of the CPULs.

The emerging city is developed through multiple places of life, public or private, where the pulsating of the natural systems constitutes a third dimension of the city.

The hypothesis of construction either of the *urban countryside*, or of a CPUL (underlying the practice of agriculture) can found over the new idea of emerging city, given that it invites to consider the interstitial void as a positive property of the space and, consequently to favor every means of occupation that will provide value to this void, assuming it as a structuring element of the landscape and integrating part of the urban fabric. To the citizen, *nature* is first of all, the desire of a non-city or of another city, of a providential refuge, of a break. The *city-nature* project implies that the countryside turns into city, that the *nature-countryside* urbanizes itself and that the city naturalizes itself or ruralizes itself.

Outside of the built space, the emerging *city-nature* territory is composed by the three *naturas*, bound by singular ties, and that haven found over the centuries, namely in the roman *villae* and in the Portuguese *Quintas de Recreio* (recreational farms).

Interpreted according to this model, the voids constitute the interstices of the city and can be considered an evolutionary and reversible system, where its natural shape assumes a spatial and social importance that varies according to the production of the space, of the local policies and of the users – for example the family garden becomes, sometimes, the frontier of transition between the second and the third *natura*; the open space that is along the road network depends, almost always, of the urban functionality and the public parks are, often, stage of decorative intention.

<sup>32</sup> Urban countryside or rural city? Two different points of view to two complementary and inseparable concepts – citycountryside and countryside-city: a countryside that is built with the city or a city that takes form with the countryside. The peri-urban countryside shoud provide the city. In the urban countryside a multiple activity should be developed (multifunctionality) that satisfies simultaneously the agricultural needs of the city provisioning and the recreational activities necessary to the quality of life of the populations.

It is reinforced the idea that urban interstices are ideal spaces to include open spaces' projects that may contain urban agriculture and, simultaneously, spaces of ecological and social multifunctionality that are characterized by the continuity, polarity, differences in gradient and social diversity.

492 Advances in Landscape Architecture

to contain, however, the promise of valuing.

*naturalness* in the inhospitable urban environment.

the abandoned area and educating a new strategy of the uncultivated.

pulsating of the natural systems constitutes a third dimension of the city.

urbanizes itself and that the city naturalizes itself or ruralizes itself.

stage of decorative intention.

activities necessary to the quality of life of the populations.

roman *villae* and in the Portuguese *Quintas de Recreio* (recreational farms).

construction of the *urban countryside*32 [20] or of the CPULs.

flexible pretense made infraction from the collective interest point of view and of a mono functional vision. The interstitial space calls for a vacant spot, the abandonment, being able

Similarly to the *Third Landscape* by Gilles Clément, ecology approaches the interstitial space as a space where nature applies its projectuality, returning to the uncultivated the evolutionary dynamic of a natural *habitat*, more effective if it is near or inside the city, enabling the existence of a series of species of urban flora and fauna that encounter some

The theory of Gilles Clément has the merit of keeping the spaces *empty*, regardless of its destiny of use, dissociating the value of the space from its functionality, *rushing the nature* in

Also, the studies of urban ecology indicate the importance of safeguarding margins and interstitial areas, contributing to define rules and fundamental principles, namely to the

The emerging city is developed through multiple places of life, public or private, where the

The hypothesis of construction either of the *urban countryside*, or of a CPUL (underlying the practice of agriculture) can found over the new idea of emerging city, given that it invites to consider the interstitial void as a positive property of the space and, consequently to favor every means of occupation that will provide value to this void, assuming it as a structuring element of the landscape and integrating part of the urban fabric. To the citizen, *nature* is first of all, the desire of a non-city or of another city, of a providential refuge, of a break. The *city-nature* project implies that the countryside turns into city, that the *nature-countryside*

Outside of the built space, the emerging *city-nature* territory is composed by the three *naturas*, bound by singular ties, and that haven found over the centuries, namely in the

Interpreted according to this model, the voids constitute the interstices of the city and can be considered an evolutionary and reversible system, where its natural shape assumes a spatial and social importance that varies according to the production of the space, of the local policies and of the users – for example the family garden becomes, sometimes, the frontier of transition between the second and the third *natura*; the open space that is along the road network depends, almost always, of the urban functionality and the public parks are, often,

32 Urban countryside or rural city? Two different points of view to two complementary and inseparable concepts – citycountryside and countryside-city: a countryside that is built with the city or a city that takes form with the countryside. The peri-urban countryside shoud provide the city. In the urban countryside a multiple activity should be developed (multifunctionality) that satisfies simultaneously the agricultural needs of the city provisioning and the recreational As it has been referred, *urban agriculture* is a term that refers to a description of what is pretended to be done but, can be, as well, quite conditioning. In an apparently radical idea it continues the western tendency to create meaning and to make decisions through the creation of opposite binaries [23].

Urban agriculture is innovative given that it is in contrast with rural agriculture. The interstices are left out of this opposition – the exterior rings of the cities, frequently neglecting and rudimentary, as well as the suburbs besides them, are often underutilized, producing a feeling of restlessness that guaranties, once again, the garbage deposit, the persistence of industrial parks with low rent warehouses, of abandoned allotments and of the existence of underutilized and insecure urban parks.

If we are capable of thinking in these interstices and other spaces as intense as, if not as more intense than, than consolidated areas with which they are related and connected, then the urban agriculture becomes one of the several intensification strategies, without being necessarily exclusive. It is one among many interventions of landscaping architecture.

The chances of building a productive landscape infra-structure may be based upon the new idea of an emerging city, for it invites us to view urban voids as a positive property of space, and consequently, to favor all occupation means valuing that void and setting it both as a structuring element of landscape and as part of the urban fabric.

Therefore, the notion that urban voids are the perfect spots for open space projects allowing urban farming and, at the same time, ecologic multifunctionality spaces characterized by continuity, polarity, gradient differences, and social diversity is strengthened.

In order for these allotment gardens to be successful, it is vital to create simple regulations ensuring that society will protect the value of natural processes, and itself. At the conceptual level, these spaces will provide an open space source essential to metropolitan areas, given the absolutely irresponsible way urbanization has been occurring (concerning natural processes and their values), generally, through the increase of the density of buildings inside the cities and extension to the peripheries, always at the cost of open spaces.

## **3.7. Allotment gardens in the context of** *landscape urbanism*

Despite the strong structuralism potential offered by the design of allotment gardens, the matter of urban agriculture is not included in the *landscape urbanism* debate*.* The most frequent typologies of this current concern the rehabilitation of old infra-structures and *brownfields*, favoring leisure and recreational activities for the benefit of users, and a deep ecological rehabilitation of these spaces.

However, given the potential of farming practices in urban space and their strong capability to support a conceptual structure, the subject of landscape design, *reference* must be made to allotment gardens, and to their inclusion in the scope of *landscape urbanism*.

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 495

these *landscape urbanisms'* examples, we can refer Adriaan Geuze, Christine Dalnoky, Florian Beigel, James Corner, Joaquin Sabaté, McGregor+Partners, Michel Desvigne, Philip Christou,

The landscape design appear as an essential motor in an urban and regional sustainable development and, the landscape architects, through their holistic and synthetic attitude, should appear as the major actors in an emerging approach to the system of spaces of collective use. In these spaces the landscape architect recognizes their organizing and structuring skills and their qualities, that can be flexibility, reversibility, inclusiveness and,

From the above mentioned principles we can therefore say that, nowadays, open space projects respond to a great variety of wishes and programs, and their themes do not vary as much as their users — occasional or permanent —, culminating in a multitude of approaches and solutions. Urban space has many different types of open space: fantastic new and old squares, urban parks, riverfronts, forests, and urban beaches. Nevertheless, the idea of a *productive and continual structure* is rare [5]*.* However, both, as well as other urban agriculture models, namely urban allotment gardens, community or pedagogical gardens,

In [20] is referred that the fact of describing urban space as an urban surface does not mean that it is relative only to the spaces between buildings, namely parking lots, plantation areas or residual spaces. Nor just the so-called urban parks, the neighborhoods or the few

The landscape present in the urban space corresponds to the living and energetic structure that organizes and supports a vast range of fixed and transformable activities in the city. The landscape is dynamic and literally makes events happen in time. In this sense, the urban surface can be considered similar to an agricultural field, assuming different roles and geometries, distributive regimes and appearances, as the circumstances demand it. This adaptability will be conditioned, in part, by the topography, for a smooth and uninterrupted continuity to be achieved, but also for the equipment and services existent. This way, if the purpose of the project design of the urban surface is to increase the support and diversify activities in time – even activities that could not be determined from the start – then one of the first strategies of the urban drawing is to broaden its continuity while it diversifies its range of services. That is, fewer project design as passive improvement and understood more as an active accelerator, establishing and creating new conditions to the uncertainty of the future.

For the character presented by urban agriculture, for its potentialities and its pertinence we think that we can consider the agricultural space, in the broadest sense of the term, as a *natural infra-structure of public interest*, in the same level of roads, dams, or electrical networks; in the same level of public or private woods, for social, economical and ecological reasons. The structure of the agricultural landscape, namely the productive allotments, the hedges for the wind, wells, canals, pathways, vegetable and aquatic surfaces, are other ways that break the mineral compactness of the agglomerate, contributing to the purification of

the urban micro-climate, among many other benefits.

allow a centered approach in the management of urban spaces in a notable way.

and Teresa Galí.

above all, multifunctionality.

remaining natural spaces.

We must also emphasize that, although this current does not include the productive dimension of landscape, and always keeping in mind our present goal to include the productive landscape system of urban space as well as, above all, the recovery of the landscape's multifunctionality, it's important to consider it in this project, for many different reasons:


The most clear proof of this are the countless prominent international landscape architects who coordinate projects proposing a great scale development in which landscape assumes ecological roles and is both a cultural authority reference and an identity mark. Among these *landscape urbanisms'* examples, we can refer Adriaan Geuze, Christine Dalnoky, Florian Beigel, James Corner, Joaquin Sabaté, McGregor+Partners, Michel Desvigne, Philip Christou, and Teresa Galí.

494 Advances in Landscape Architecture

reasons:

urbanism.

*urbanism* aims to enforce and potentiate [45].

mechanisms, and framings [47].

the landscape's organic structure.

concept of landscape urbanism.

population, activities, building materials, and time [46].

However, given the potential of farming practices in urban space and their strong capability to support a conceptual structure, the subject of landscape design, *reference* must be made to

We must also emphasize that, although this current does not include the productive dimension of landscape, and always keeping in mind our present goal to include the productive landscape system of urban space as well as, above all, the recovery of the landscape's multifunctionality, it's important to consider it in this project, for many different









The most clear proof of this are the countless prominent international landscape architects who coordinate projects proposing a great scale development in which landscape assumes ecological roles and is both a cultural authority reference and an identity mark. Among

and project design, so persistent since the impact of Ian McHarg's work.



allotment gardens, and to their inclusion in the scope of *landscape urbanism*.

The landscape design appear as an essential motor in an urban and regional sustainable development and, the landscape architects, through their holistic and synthetic attitude, should appear as the major actors in an emerging approach to the system of spaces of collective use. In these spaces the landscape architect recognizes their organizing and structuring skills and their qualities, that can be flexibility, reversibility, inclusiveness and, above all, multifunctionality.

From the above mentioned principles we can therefore say that, nowadays, open space projects respond to a great variety of wishes and programs, and their themes do not vary as much as their users — occasional or permanent —, culminating in a multitude of approaches and solutions. Urban space has many different types of open space: fantastic new and old squares, urban parks, riverfronts, forests, and urban beaches. Nevertheless, the idea of a *productive and continual structure* is rare [5]*.* However, both, as well as other urban agriculture models, namely urban allotment gardens, community or pedagogical gardens, allow a centered approach in the management of urban spaces in a notable way.

In [20] is referred that the fact of describing urban space as an urban surface does not mean that it is relative only to the spaces between buildings, namely parking lots, plantation areas or residual spaces. Nor just the so-called urban parks, the neighborhoods or the few remaining natural spaces.

The landscape present in the urban space corresponds to the living and energetic structure that organizes and supports a vast range of fixed and transformable activities in the city. The landscape is dynamic and literally makes events happen in time. In this sense, the urban surface can be considered similar to an agricultural field, assuming different roles and geometries, distributive regimes and appearances, as the circumstances demand it. This adaptability will be conditioned, in part, by the topography, for a smooth and uninterrupted continuity to be achieved, but also for the equipment and services existent. This way, if the purpose of the project design of the urban surface is to increase the support and diversify activities in time – even activities that could not be determined from the start – then one of the first strategies of the urban drawing is to broaden its continuity while it diversifies its range of services. That is, fewer project design as passive improvement and understood more as an active accelerator, establishing and creating new conditions to the uncertainty of the future.

For the character presented by urban agriculture, for its potentialities and its pertinence we think that we can consider the agricultural space, in the broadest sense of the term, as a *natural infra-structure of public interest*, in the same level of roads, dams, or electrical networks; in the same level of public or private woods, for social, economical and ecological reasons. The structure of the agricultural landscape, namely the productive allotments, the hedges for the wind, wells, canals, pathways, vegetable and aquatic surfaces, are other ways that break the mineral compactness of the agglomerate, contributing to the purification of the urban micro-climate, among many other benefits.

The agricultural space creates the necessary voids to the comfort of their inhabitants or to their safety in case of a fire, for example. Its reversibility allows, mainly, the possibility of an open project, making available public opens spaces for leisure purposes, with the condition of being guaranteed the safety of people and their goods. It makes available a cultivated area from which the citizens can make a collective use, in the same way of a public park, that still produces food, offers walking routes and pedagogical services to the schools; and allows to recycle urban residues, namely a part of the water and urban organic garbage.

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 497

rurality adapted to the urban need of leisure is no longer an attraction. There's an alternative based on two compromising and not very changeable tendencies — on one hand, the urbanization of Western culture and its *need of countryside* as an alternative to urban environment; and, on the other hand, the farming economy diversification in response to an

A project such as this generally and effectively contradicts the principles of open space planning that usually eliminate agriculture in urban areas, replacing it with public parks and gardens. In addition, it contradicts the principles of a planning that divides urban spaces in many specialized areas with apparently incompatible roles (farming production, leisure, industrial and commercial activity, among others). To make things worse, local entities are always less capable of sustaining the high costs of the creation and maintenance of new *green*  spaces, and the social damages of urban planning zoning are very clear — space segregation,

We firmly believe that allotment gardens could and should integrate a continual structure of production and recreation. The arguments to give planning technicians and managers favoring a city with farming areas in an assumed form instead of a dense urban center, should present farming spaces, in a broader sense, as a *public interest natural infra-structure* at the same level of roads, dams, or electrical networks, and of public and private forest, for

The concept of *farming spatial infrastructure* requires cooperation between public administration and farmers. The price of these services to society from private companies

In practical terms, public and private services should assume a supplementary role to keep that *infrastructure* in time, and most of all, to confer the role privileged by administrators: natural areas, leisure space, farmland, etc. In order to last, the cooperation between public

Both the concepts of *urban field* in [20], and of *continual productive urban landscapes* in [5], are included in this concept of *farming spatial infrastructure*, in turn approaching the concept of *landscape urbanism* and, consequently, of landscape architecture philosophy and practice.

Although the implementation of productive landscapes can start at a small scale, the goal is to develop a productive and continual urban city. At the largest scale, it should include a network of open spaces throughout the urban fabric, which in turn includes farmlands in

Mainly following models of gardening centers, and gardens, and influenced in the last 20 years by the concept that links the ecology paradigm, open spaces, and the system they form, they should be now the tissue and the net on which the organization of *continual productive urban landscapes* or *the urban field* are based [20]. Not as inert spaces, but as living farmland, and forests, in a slow or quick, cyclic or continual future. The tool to build that future is the landscape project capable of mobilizing the people's community in that sense

social ghettos, functional inconsistencies, urban identity crisis, among other.

supplying them, and from farmers is set according to public interest goals.

organizations and communities must be ruled by an agreement.

the continual landscape, as suggested in *Plano Verde de Lisboa* (Figure 1).

urban question not exclusively connected to food.

social, economic and ecological reasons [20].

[52].

If they are not coordinated, these uses and utilizations are not spontaneously compatible and may even exclude one another. It is important to think in articulating them and accepting a juxtaposition by exclusion. The concept of *spatial agricultural infra-structure, CPULs,* or, we can say, of *urban countryside –* as it is understood by Pierre Donadieu – is not spontaneously born, it requires involvement and joint action of public administration, farmers and inhabitants. These services provide collectivity with a price that should be payed proportionally to the objectives of public interest, of private companies that provide it and of the farmers. In practical terms, the public and private services play a complementary role to keep this *infra-structure* in time and, mostly to attribute the one function deemed as a priority by the administrators: natural area, leisure space, agricultural terrain, etc. To be able to persist, the cooperation between public organizations and communities should be integrated in a contract.

For us, agriculture and less dense urbanization, together with the ecological and infrastructure tendencies, are part of the landscape architecture's contemporary discourse and, in this sense we corroborate the thoughts of Michel Hough, Richard Forman, Denis Delbaere and Pierre Donadieu, among others. The agriculture and gardens analogy is linked to an underlying quantifiable and infra-structural support, in which cultures follow the movements and dynamics of energy transfer demands, ever since the comprehensive and integrative conception of landscape architecture. This agricultural analogy shares similarities with *landscape urbanism* that can be very interesting at the theoretical and practical level.

## **4. Results**

## **4.1. Allotment gardens as a new approach to landscape project in urban space**

The lack of a clear reference to urban agriculture as a way to establish a clear relationship between production, safety, and leisure, and the fact that it is an essential activity in the face of the present and expected future energy and food crisis, has led us to see urban farming, not only as a production factor, but also as having a great recreational potential, under a social, economical, ecological, cultural, and aesthetic point of view. As such, we see it as an essential structure in the re-conceptualization of urban space project.

The project of the urban whole, an extensive metropolis, from which emerge small forest or rural islands, and the project of the city's strict containment facing a dying and inanimate countryside, are no longer sustainable nor realistic. The old utopia of the garden-city no longer promises Mumfordian functionality, and the city in the countryside reflecting rurality adapted to the urban need of leisure is no longer an attraction. There's an alternative based on two compromising and not very changeable tendencies — on one hand, the urbanization of Western culture and its *need of countryside* as an alternative to urban environment; and, on the other hand, the farming economy diversification in response to an urban question not exclusively connected to food.

496 Advances in Landscape Architecture

integrated in a contract.

practical level.

**4. Results** 

The agricultural space creates the necessary voids to the comfort of their inhabitants or to their safety in case of a fire, for example. Its reversibility allows, mainly, the possibility of an open project, making available public opens spaces for leisure purposes, with the condition of being guaranteed the safety of people and their goods. It makes available a cultivated area from which the citizens can make a collective use, in the same way of a public park, that still produces food, offers walking routes and pedagogical services to the schools; and allows to recycle urban residues, namely a part of the water and urban organic garbage.

If they are not coordinated, these uses and utilizations are not spontaneously compatible and may even exclude one another. It is important to think in articulating them and accepting a juxtaposition by exclusion. The concept of *spatial agricultural infra-structure, CPULs,* or, we can say, of *urban countryside –* as it is understood by Pierre Donadieu – is not spontaneously born, it requires involvement and joint action of public administration, farmers and inhabitants. These services provide collectivity with a price that should be payed proportionally to the objectives of public interest, of private companies that provide it and of the farmers. In practical terms, the public and private services play a complementary role to keep this *infra-structure* in time and, mostly to attribute the one function deemed as a priority by the administrators: natural area, leisure space, agricultural terrain, etc. To be able to persist, the cooperation between public organizations and communities should be

For us, agriculture and less dense urbanization, together with the ecological and infrastructure tendencies, are part of the landscape architecture's contemporary discourse and, in this sense we corroborate the thoughts of Michel Hough, Richard Forman, Denis Delbaere and Pierre Donadieu, among others. The agriculture and gardens analogy is linked to an underlying quantifiable and infra-structural support, in which cultures follow the movements and dynamics of energy transfer demands, ever since the comprehensive and integrative conception of landscape architecture. This agricultural analogy shares similarities with *landscape urbanism* that can be very interesting at the theoretical and

**4.1. Allotment gardens as a new approach to landscape project in urban space** 

essential structure in the re-conceptualization of urban space project.

The lack of a clear reference to urban agriculture as a way to establish a clear relationship between production, safety, and leisure, and the fact that it is an essential activity in the face of the present and expected future energy and food crisis, has led us to see urban farming, not only as a production factor, but also as having a great recreational potential, under a social, economical, ecological, cultural, and aesthetic point of view. As such, we see it as an

The project of the urban whole, an extensive metropolis, from which emerge small forest or rural islands, and the project of the city's strict containment facing a dying and inanimate countryside, are no longer sustainable nor realistic. The old utopia of the garden-city no longer promises Mumfordian functionality, and the city in the countryside reflecting A project such as this generally and effectively contradicts the principles of open space planning that usually eliminate agriculture in urban areas, replacing it with public parks and gardens. In addition, it contradicts the principles of a planning that divides urban spaces in many specialized areas with apparently incompatible roles (farming production, leisure, industrial and commercial activity, among others). To make things worse, local entities are always less capable of sustaining the high costs of the creation and maintenance of new *green*  spaces, and the social damages of urban planning zoning are very clear — space segregation, social ghettos, functional inconsistencies, urban identity crisis, among other.

We firmly believe that allotment gardens could and should integrate a continual structure of production and recreation. The arguments to give planning technicians and managers favoring a city with farming areas in an assumed form instead of a dense urban center, should present farming spaces, in a broader sense, as a *public interest natural infra-structure* at the same level of roads, dams, or electrical networks, and of public and private forest, for social, economic and ecological reasons [20].

The concept of *farming spatial infrastructure* requires cooperation between public administration and farmers. The price of these services to society from private companies supplying them, and from farmers is set according to public interest goals.

In practical terms, public and private services should assume a supplementary role to keep that *infrastructure* in time, and most of all, to confer the role privileged by administrators: natural areas, leisure space, farmland, etc. In order to last, the cooperation between public organizations and communities must be ruled by an agreement.

Both the concepts of *urban field* in [20], and of *continual productive urban landscapes* in [5], are included in this concept of *farming spatial infrastructure*, in turn approaching the concept of *landscape urbanism* and, consequently, of landscape architecture philosophy and practice.

Although the implementation of productive landscapes can start at a small scale, the goal is to develop a productive and continual urban city. At the largest scale, it should include a network of open spaces throughout the urban fabric, which in turn includes farmlands in the continual landscape, as suggested in *Plano Verde de Lisboa* (Figure 1).

Mainly following models of gardening centers, and gardens, and influenced in the last 20 years by the concept that links the ecology paradigm, open spaces, and the system they form, they should be now the tissue and the net on which the organization of *continual productive urban landscapes* or *the urban field* are based [20]. Not as inert spaces, but as living farmland, and forests, in a slow or quick, cyclic or continual future. The tool to build that future is the landscape project capable of mobilizing the people's community in that sense [52].

Source: Lisbon City Hall (CML)

**Figure 2.** Lisbon's Green Plan – Articulation between pathways and open spaces

in a structure of open spaces extending all over the city.

This plan makes it possible to obtain a continual landscape in which the productive aspect is strongly considered with the inclusion of existing urban vegetable fields and suggested farming parks, namely Quinta da Granja (Figure 3 and 4) and the Parque Hortícola de Chelas (Figure 5 and 6). This productive side is articulated with recreation and circulation,

Source: Lisbon City Hall (CML)

**Figure 1.** Lisbon's Green Plan - Strategic masterplan for the open spaces.

#### **4.2. Practical examples —** *Plano Verde de Lisboa*

Presented in 1997 by the landscape architect Ribeiro Telles [1] and now set in motion, *Plano Verde de Lisboa* is a system of corridors connecting recreational and production areas seeking the establishment of a *continuum naturale* (Figure 2)*.*

Source: Lisbon City Hall (CML)

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Source: Lisbon City Hall (CML)

**Figure 1.** Lisbon's Green Plan - Strategic masterplan for the open spaces.

Presented in 1997 by the landscape architect Ribeiro Telles [1] and now set in motion, *Plano Verde de Lisboa* is a system of corridors connecting recreational and production areas seeking

**4.2. Practical examples —** *Plano Verde de Lisboa*

the establishment of a *continuum naturale* (Figure 2)*.*

**Figure 2.** Lisbon's Green Plan – Articulation between pathways and open spaces

This plan makes it possible to obtain a continual landscape in which the productive aspect is strongly considered with the inclusion of existing urban vegetable fields and suggested farming parks, namely Quinta da Granja (Figure 3 and 4) and the Parque Hortícola de Chelas (Figure 5 and 6). This productive side is articulated with recreation and circulation, in a structure of open spaces extending all over the city.

Source: Lisbon City Hall (CML)

**Figure 6.** Section of Chelas valley

land plots they would form.

**Figure 5.** Landscape design masterplan for Horticultural Park of Chelas

In the first stages of the implementation of these *landscapes*, a series of interventions leading to a network of linked spaces were made. In time, this approach will create a sense of opening inside the urban space that would otherwise be uniformly occupied by buildings. The implementation of this strategy makes underused and/or abandoned spaces become active and used in a socially and environmentally productive way. A new meaning and sense of opening are locally introduced through the definition of *outward* sights and great panoramic views, as opposed to the series of isolated, disconnected, and largely underused

The benefits occur regardless of the intervention scale. Linear spaces can provide routes connecting different public or private spaces. Making that connection visible encourages movement among them. The relationship between the routes and the landscape can be seen as an intervention emphasizing it and highlighting. In Quinta da Granja and in Parque Hortícola de Chelas, daily routes become adjacent to spaces where food is grown (Figure 7).

Source: Lisbon City Hall (CML)

**Figure 3.** Figure 3 - Landscape design masterplan for Quinta da Granja

Source: Lisbon City Hall (CML)

**Figure 4.** Section of Quinta da Granja landscape design

Source: Lisbon City Hall (CML)

Source: Lisbon City Hall (CML)

Source: Lisbon City Hall (CML)

**Figure 4.** Section of Quinta da Granja landscape design

**Figure 3.** Figure 3 - Landscape design masterplan for Quinta da Granja

**Figure 5.** Landscape design masterplan for Horticultural Park of Chelas

**Figure 6.** Section of Chelas valley

In the first stages of the implementation of these *landscapes*, a series of interventions leading to a network of linked spaces were made. In time, this approach will create a sense of opening inside the urban space that would otherwise be uniformly occupied by buildings. The implementation of this strategy makes underused and/or abandoned spaces become active and used in a socially and environmentally productive way. A new meaning and sense of opening are locally introduced through the definition of *outward* sights and great panoramic views, as opposed to the series of isolated, disconnected, and largely underused land plots they would form.

The benefits occur regardless of the intervention scale. Linear spaces can provide routes connecting different public or private spaces. Making that connection visible encourages movement among them. The relationship between the routes and the landscape can be seen as an intervention emphasizing it and highlighting. In Quinta da Granja and in Parque Hortícola de Chelas, daily routes become adjacent to spaces where food is grown (Figure 7).

**Figure 8.** Pathway and sitting on Quinta da Granja

urban voids, parks, and recreational areas.

**4.3. Implementation strategies** 

interdependence.

Farming practices can generally be used as part of a strategy to increase development. Consequently, the increase of development will combine economical and environmental strategies. Those strategies are acquired by surveying, planning, designing, and articulating

The introduction of these *landscapes* will increase the number of *habitats* for animals and, therefore, biodiversity — an example of ecological intensification. At the same time, the development of composting systems as the base of organic farming will improve the soil and reduce the traffic of cars. Therefore, the improvement of biodiversity will reintroduce

The open spaces of a city *embracing* a *continual productive landscape infrastructure* will change the physical landscape and its occupation. Superficially, farmers will sculpt a new urban infrastructure, constantly changing, but always familiar, as crops come and go (Figure 9).

At the same time, a landscape of circulation and movement, and multifunctional, emerges as the populations move and interact in and with the farming landscape. Theoretical studies and practical applications will be adjacently rediscovered, not to destroy the city or let nature be conquered, but to enhance both sides through the acknowledgment of their

the chirping of birds, the buzzing of insects, and the sounds of nature in general.

**Figure 7.** Pathways on Quinta da Granja

Each walk among cultures accentuates the experience of seasonality and intensifies the notion of time, due to the density of space where nature is experienced. Time is intensified — more *nature* for its time.

*Productive urban landscapes* will be part of the idea of building from the *natural*, like parks and gardens, which are frequently understood as *natural.* Allotment gardens in particular will represent the idea of countryside, of rural life, and through that image, *nature* is also represented.

One of the most important characteristics of these landscapes is the way in which a great variety of occupations occur simultaneously, such as gardening, farming, sports, and leisure activities (Figure 8), practiced by many occupants, that can be articulated with one or more occupations found. The variety of possible permutations between an individual occupant and their activity, or the several activities or occupations is generally larger than in many public types of facilities, namely leisure centers. *Continual productive landscapes* combine the peaceful qualities of a park with physical activities. They expect to be occupied, both by someone looking for a place to relax and read, and by someone who wants to practice physical exercise.

The economical profits of land use can be measured in two ways: first, by the direct quantification of economical benefits, resulting from new jobs and companies; secondly, and following an argument that becomes more relevant in the long run, by measuring the reduction of environmental degradations through the action of *productive urban landscapes*. These benefits result from the reduced environmental impact and cut future costs of environmental correction work.

**Figure 8.** Pathway and sitting on Quinta da Granja

502 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 7.** Pathways on Quinta da Granja

— more *nature* for its time.

represented.

physical exercise.

environmental correction work.

Each walk among cultures accentuates the experience of seasonality and intensifies the notion of time, due to the density of space where nature is experienced. Time is intensified

*Productive urban landscapes* will be part of the idea of building from the *natural*, like parks and gardens, which are frequently understood as *natural.* Allotment gardens in particular will represent the idea of countryside, of rural life, and through that image, *nature* is also

One of the most important characteristics of these landscapes is the way in which a great variety of occupations occur simultaneously, such as gardening, farming, sports, and leisure activities (Figure 8), practiced by many occupants, that can be articulated with one or more occupations found. The variety of possible permutations between an individual occupant and their activity, or the several activities or occupations is generally larger than in many public types of facilities, namely leisure centers. *Continual productive landscapes* combine the peaceful qualities of a park with physical activities. They expect to be occupied, both by someone looking for a place to relax and read, and by someone who wants to practice

The economical profits of land use can be measured in two ways: first, by the direct quantification of economical benefits, resulting from new jobs and companies; secondly, and following an argument that becomes more relevant in the long run, by measuring the reduction of environmental degradations through the action of *productive urban landscapes*. These benefits result from the reduced environmental impact and cut future costs of Farming practices can generally be used as part of a strategy to increase development. Consequently, the increase of development will combine economical and environmental strategies. Those strategies are acquired by surveying, planning, designing, and articulating urban voids, parks, and recreational areas.

The introduction of these *landscapes* will increase the number of *habitats* for animals and, therefore, biodiversity — an example of ecological intensification. At the same time, the development of composting systems as the base of organic farming will improve the soil and reduce the traffic of cars. Therefore, the improvement of biodiversity will reintroduce the chirping of birds, the buzzing of insects, and the sounds of nature in general.

### **4.3. Implementation strategies**

The open spaces of a city *embracing* a *continual productive landscape infrastructure* will change the physical landscape and its occupation. Superficially, farmers will sculpt a new urban infrastructure, constantly changing, but always familiar, as crops come and go (Figure 9).

At the same time, a landscape of circulation and movement, and multifunctional, emerges as the populations move and interact in and with the farming landscape. Theoretical studies and practical applications will be adjacently rediscovered, not to destroy the city or let nature be conquered, but to enhance both sides through the acknowledgment of their interdependence.


these interstitial spaces by several means:

As we have already seen here, and contrary to the common belief, in densely urbanized areas a surprising number of urban voids can be found and used for farming on a temporary or permanent basis. City governments can ease the access of urban farmers to






Government organizations and the private sector should be encouraged to provide training, technical advice, and services to urban farmers, with a strong emphasis on ecological farming, adequate health risk management, farming development (for instance, intensification and diversification), company management and advertising. Cost sharing systems (among farmers, local authorities, sector organizations, and private companies) will

Municipalities can also encourage the city's universities, non-governmental organizations, and community organizations, to actively support farmers' organizations, their development capabilities, and their connections to other groups of farmers, private

The municipalities and other local participants can communicate the research and technology development needs of their urban farmers to research institutes and to the national government. On the other hand, there should be a better promotion of the coordination of research institutes, farming organizations, non-governmental organizations,

An increasing number of Portuguese cities are creating urban farming policies and programs, with the establishment of multi partnerships in planning approaches to find

who need to give a temporary or permanent use to their properties.


removing debris or providing access to drinkable water for irrigation).

practices to be adopted by urban farming in several locations.

projects, and upgrading plans for poor neighborhoods.

companies, consumption organizations, and support organizations.

be needed to ensure the system's sustainability.

and urban farmers groups.

**Figure 9.** Allotment gardens on Quinta da Granja

In this context and in order to assure and increased the chances of success, farming in urban spaces requires:


Although urban farming is conditioned by many social and political circumstances and political regimes, urban legislators and support institutions may make a substantial contribution to the development of a safe and sustainable farming through:



504 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 9.** Allotment gardens on Quinta da Granja

spaces requires:

ecologically active.

gardens as an urban feature;

organizations;

In this context and in order to assure and increased the chances of success, farming in urban



Although urban farming is conditioned by many social and political circumstances and political regimes, urban legislators and support institutions may make a substantial




satisfy the provision of space for the population [53].

contribution to the development of a safe and sustainable farming through:

As we have already seen here, and contrary to the common belief, in densely urbanized areas a surprising number of urban voids can be found and used for farming on a temporary or permanent basis. City governments can ease the access of urban farmers to these interstitial spaces by several means:


Government organizations and the private sector should be encouraged to provide training, technical advice, and services to urban farmers, with a strong emphasis on ecological farming, adequate health risk management, farming development (for instance, intensification and diversification), company management and advertising. Cost sharing systems (among farmers, local authorities, sector organizations, and private companies) will be needed to ensure the system's sustainability.

Municipalities can also encourage the city's universities, non-governmental organizations, and community organizations, to actively support farmers' organizations, their development capabilities, and their connections to other groups of farmers, private companies, consumption organizations, and support organizations.

The municipalities and other local participants can communicate the research and technology development needs of their urban farmers to research institutes and to the national government. On the other hand, there should be a better promotion of the coordination of research institutes, farming organizations, non-governmental organizations, and urban farmers groups.

An increasing number of Portuguese cities are creating urban farming policies and programs, with the establishment of multi partnerships in planning approaches to find effective ways to integrate it in urban planning and sector policies and to promote the development of safe, sustainable and multifunctional farming practices. An example of these initiatives is the regulation made by Lisbon's City Council legitimizing the existence of its vegetable gardens in order to safeguard them from political whim.

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 507

In the long run, allotment gardens become sustainable through the acknowledgment and the full development of their multifunctional use potential. Their sustainability is strongly connected to the development of a sustainable city, that is, an inclusive city, ensuring food

In short, urban areas are generally characterized by their organic growth, resulting in a multitude of different public and private open spaces. The design and management of those spaces depend on many factors. Although some have been planned and continue being positively managed, others were *forgotten* in terms of a clear sense of ownership and responsibility, and are left in a natural or artificial wild state, requiring respect and protection. These are transitional, landscapes, made of time, and registering its passage. The past becomes the present, and as the future draws near, acquiring larger and larger dimensions, we see a magnificent and silent presence, which is a kind of empty spot within

Finding positive uses for these spaces has been one of the challenges facing urban planning from the late 20th century on, with a growing number of architecture, landscape architecture, and *landscape urbanism* projects now proposing the inclusion of urban farming. We need to go towards more efficient, and cyclic urban systems; a perspective which naturally includes land use within the cities and in their peripheries for food production.

We also believe the inclusion of allotment gardens in landscape projects reflects a new landscape, new symbols, and renewed aesthetic values, setting new patterns reaching from the memory of the past to the future, where nature, culture, leisure, and production are present, mutually complementary, and giving birth to public spaces with a strong involvement of the population. The development of these spaces may be suggested as a reference illustrating a seemingly contradictory response to contemporary callings, and which is both the cultural strengthening of the truthfulness of humanization processes, and the creation of a nature that is simultaneously wild and familiar, near and distant, planned and spontaneous, dangerous and comfortable, tedious and ordained, alive and waste free.

Our approach to urban design is founded on a global and multifunctional concept of landscape, through the fulfillment of the idea of *cultural and natural continuum*, and its intermingling with the built space, materialized in a complex and dynamic landscape, structured both by technological networks, and by heritage, ecological, continual, productive, and active networks. Therefore, it matches a global design inspired by *nature*, culture, and landscape, with the fundamental goal to recreate the city-countryside unity, to reinvent the landscape multifunctionality, and to develop forces allowing life, in the sense of an ever-growing biologic activity of systems integrated in the landscape, and responding to

In urban configurations, and the resulting landscapes, through an active interpretation, the system of urban voids and the city peripheries matches the genuine *infrastructure* of the city,

the aesthetic restlessness and to current social and cultural needs.

safety, productivity, and a healthy environment [54].

**5. Conclusion** 

the storm.

Besides measures such as these, we think it's necessary to explore the relationship between urban agriculture multifunctionality and sustainability. This involves the positive or negative study of environmental roles, as well as their collective impact. In [3] , it is also important for the effectiveness of farming in urban spaces: to research and develop subjects such as land ownership, legislation, and planning, concerning urban land use; to develop work methodologies with all the participants, namely research actions with urban farmers or planners to include agriculture in planning (as part of green belts, city parks, and open spaces); to create new institutions or institutional structures, such as urban and peri-urban institutions; and to create means of support (commercial and of subsistence) for horticulture, aquaculture, and systems involving animal raising.

Such research and development actions require an institutional framework providing allotment gardens with an institutional foundation, and involving active direct or indirect players in the formulation and implementation of urban farming policies and action programs.

Once accepted, urban farming will become sustainable and adapt to the ever-changing urban conditions, and to its demands, strengthening its productivity and diversifying its roles in the city, while reducing the associated health and environmental hazards. This is the way to win political and social acceptance. In certain parts of the city, the typologies of the existing farming practices can fade away or drastically change their methods and actions, while new methods may develop in other parts of that same city (Figure 10).

**Figure 10.** Organic allotment gardens on Cascais

In the long run, allotment gardens become sustainable through the acknowledgment and the full development of their multifunctional use potential. Their sustainability is strongly connected to the development of a sustainable city, that is, an inclusive city, ensuring food safety, productivity, and a healthy environment [54].

## **5. Conclusion**

506 Advances in Landscape Architecture

effective ways to integrate it in urban planning and sector policies and to promote the development of safe, sustainable and multifunctional farming practices. An example of these initiatives is the regulation made by Lisbon's City Council legitimizing the existence of

Besides measures such as these, we think it's necessary to explore the relationship between urban agriculture multifunctionality and sustainability. This involves the positive or negative study of environmental roles, as well as their collective impact. In [3] , it is also important for the effectiveness of farming in urban spaces: to research and develop subjects such as land ownership, legislation, and planning, concerning urban land use; to develop work methodologies with all the participants, namely research actions with urban farmers or planners to include agriculture in planning (as part of green belts, city parks, and open spaces); to create new institutions or institutional structures, such as urban and peri-urban institutions; and to create means of support (commercial and of subsistence) for horticulture,

Such research and development actions require an institutional framework providing allotment gardens with an institutional foundation, and involving active direct or indirect players in the formulation and implementation of urban farming policies and action programs. Once accepted, urban farming will become sustainable and adapt to the ever-changing urban conditions, and to its demands, strengthening its productivity and diversifying its roles in the city, while reducing the associated health and environmental hazards. This is the way to win political and social acceptance. In certain parts of the city, the typologies of the existing farming practices can fade away or drastically change their methods and actions,

while new methods may develop in other parts of that same city (Figure 10).

its vegetable gardens in order to safeguard them from political whim.

aquaculture, and systems involving animal raising.

**Figure 10.** Organic allotment gardens on Cascais

In short, urban areas are generally characterized by their organic growth, resulting in a multitude of different public and private open spaces. The design and management of those spaces depend on many factors. Although some have been planned and continue being positively managed, others were *forgotten* in terms of a clear sense of ownership and responsibility, and are left in a natural or artificial wild state, requiring respect and protection. These are transitional, landscapes, made of time, and registering its passage. The past becomes the present, and as the future draws near, acquiring larger and larger dimensions, we see a magnificent and silent presence, which is a kind of empty spot within the storm.

Finding positive uses for these spaces has been one of the challenges facing urban planning from the late 20th century on, with a growing number of architecture, landscape architecture, and *landscape urbanism* projects now proposing the inclusion of urban farming.

We need to go towards more efficient, and cyclic urban systems; a perspective which naturally includes land use within the cities and in their peripheries for food production.

We also believe the inclusion of allotment gardens in landscape projects reflects a new landscape, new symbols, and renewed aesthetic values, setting new patterns reaching from the memory of the past to the future, where nature, culture, leisure, and production are present, mutually complementary, and giving birth to public spaces with a strong involvement of the population. The development of these spaces may be suggested as a reference illustrating a seemingly contradictory response to contemporary callings, and which is both the cultural strengthening of the truthfulness of humanization processes, and the creation of a nature that is simultaneously wild and familiar, near and distant, planned and spontaneous, dangerous and comfortable, tedious and ordained, alive and waste free.

Our approach to urban design is founded on a global and multifunctional concept of landscape, through the fulfillment of the idea of *cultural and natural continuum*, and its intermingling with the built space, materialized in a complex and dynamic landscape, structured both by technological networks, and by heritage, ecological, continual, productive, and active networks. Therefore, it matches a global design inspired by *nature*, culture, and landscape, with the fundamental goal to recreate the city-countryside unity, to reinvent the landscape multifunctionality, and to develop forces allowing life, in the sense of an ever-growing biologic activity of systems integrated in the landscape, and responding to the aesthetic restlessness and to current social and cultural needs.

In urban configurations, and the resulting landscapes, through an active interpretation, the system of urban voids and the city peripheries matches the genuine *infrastructure* of the city, through which it's structured and organized. Those spaces are no longer considered fragments, residual elements, or discontinuities, and are acknowledged as spaces that being part of the new model of organization and territorial management, unite, interconnect, create continuity and articulation. They're active.

Urban Agriculture: The Allotment Gardens as Structures of Urban Sustainability 509

*CHAIA (Center of Art History and Artistic Investigation), University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal* 

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[3] Veenhuizen, R. van. Cities farming for the future. Urban agriculture for green and productive cities. Philippines : International Institute of Rural Reconstruction and ETC

[4] Mougeot, L. AGROPOLIS, the social, political, and environmental dimensions of urban

[5] Viljoen, A. CPULs, continuous productive urban landscapes – designing urban

[9] Hough, M. Naturaleza y ciudad. Planificación urbana y procesos ecológicos. Barcelona:

[10] Shane, G. Recombinant landscapes in the American city. In: M. Spens (Ed.). Landscape architecture: site/non-site. AD Architectural Design. Wiley InterScience. 2007,

[14] Iles, J. The social role of community farms and gardens in the city*.* In A. Viljoen (Ed.). CPULs, continuous productive urban landscapes – designing urban agriculture for

[15] Thorpe, H. The homely allotment: from rural dole to urban amenity. Geography 1975 ;

[16] Urruela, E. Dinâmica agrária en la crisis industrial. El microfundio periurbano del Gran Bilbao y las Encartaciones. II Congreso Mundial Vasco de Geografia. Espacios rurales y

[12] Remy, J., & Voyé, L. La ville: vers une nouvelle definition. Paris: Hartmattan. 1992. [13] Cook, H., Lee, H., & Perez-Vasquez, A. Allotments, plots and crops in Britain. In A.Viljoen (Ed.). CPULs, continuous productive urban landscapes – designing urban agriculture for

Editorial Gustavo Gili. Coleção Arquitectura y Diseño+Ecologia. 1998.

sustainable cities. Oxford: Architectural Press. Elsevier. 2005, pp. 206-216.

sustainable cities. Oxford: Architectural Press. Elsevier. 2005, pp. 82-88.

urbanos en áreas industrializadas. AA.VV. Vitoria, Brasil. 1988.

[11] Carvalho, J. (2003). *Ordenar a cidade*. Coimbra: Quarteto Editora.

agriculture for sustainable cities. Oxford: Architectural Press. Elsevier. 2005. [6] Southall, A. The city in time and space. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2001. [7] Mininni, M. Abitare il territorio e costruire paesaggi. In: P. Donadieu (Ed.) Campagne urbane, una nuova proposta di paesaggio della città*.* Roma: Donzelli Editore. 2006, pp. 22. [8] Sierra, P. Periferias y nueva ciudad – el problema del paisage en los procesos de dispersión urbana. Sevilla: Universidad de Sevilla, Departamento de Urbanística y

[1] Ribeiro Telles, G. Plano verde de Lisboa. Lisboa: Edições Colibri;1997.

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Urban Agriculture. 2006.

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(268)169–183.

**6. References** 

Therefore, the strength and vitality of the urban void and the periphery emerge, not as abandoned areas — a residual space of buildings and urbanizations — but as continual, adequate, felt, and experienced spaces with ecological, cultural, recreational, aesthetic, productive and economical purposes, as valuable as the spaces with buildings, articulating different parts and promoting connections in the urban area [55].

Capable of significantly changing current mobility trends, and of integrating the existing urban fabric without causing a great impact, this new approach is directly linked to urban sustainability and to landscape sustainability and multifunctionality. The employment of the sustainability and multifunctionality concept and principles underlying the advised design model implies a process in which the continued use and preservation of resources, the spatial organization and management, and the associated institutional changes are consistent with the goal to perpetuate in time the quality of life and the environment, the cultural heritage, the landscape identity and balance, and the ecosystems' social, and economic roles.

By sharing the idea that the world includes complex, interdependent, and interlinked social and natural systems that, reconciled and sustainable, provide a set of principles centered in the organization of soil uses according to their ecological capability which help preserve natural systems and resources in the long run, and create strong, well-knit social communities, we seek a systemic view of a multifunctional, productive, and recreational landscape, emphasizing the multifunctional landscape. The landscape is transformed into something different: a place sensitive to different transformations that records the movements and the events that occur. An active entity structuring conditions to new relationships and interactions between the elements that constitute it. In this new concept the landscape is no longer based on a naturalist image, suggesting instead a continuous structure where we can operate through the occurrence of different activities. It is not only the space between the two buildings or the platform in which the process of construction is organized, but a true energy field, a sensitive and dynamic membrane. It is constituted of systems that establish relationships, flows and process that occur there [55].

On the other hand, 21st century urban design should start by getting closer to the design of natural ecosystems. We should learn with the natural systems' metabolism, where all waste is recycled in resources for future growth [56]. This is a matter for politicians to deal with, but that also concerns the public in general, because we all need to pressure central and local governments as well as investors to adopt practical views.

## **Author details**

Rute Sousa Matos *CHAIA (Center of Art History and Artistic Investigation), University of Évora, Évora, Portugal* 

#### Desidério Sales Batista

*CHAIA (Center of Art History and Artistic Investigation), University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal* 

### **6. References**

508 Advances in Landscape Architecture

create continuity and articulation. They're active.

different parts and promoting connections in the urban area [55].

landscape identity and balance, and the ecosystems' social, and economic roles.

systems that establish relationships, flows and process that occur there [55].

governments as well as investors to adopt practical views.

**Author details** 

Rute Sousa Matos

through which it's structured and organized. Those spaces are no longer considered fragments, residual elements, or discontinuities, and are acknowledged as spaces that being part of the new model of organization and territorial management, unite, interconnect,

Therefore, the strength and vitality of the urban void and the periphery emerge, not as abandoned areas — a residual space of buildings and urbanizations — but as continual, adequate, felt, and experienced spaces with ecological, cultural, recreational, aesthetic, productive and economical purposes, as valuable as the spaces with buildings, articulating

Capable of significantly changing current mobility trends, and of integrating the existing urban fabric without causing a great impact, this new approach is directly linked to urban sustainability and to landscape sustainability and multifunctionality. The employment of the sustainability and multifunctionality concept and principles underlying the advised design model implies a process in which the continued use and preservation of resources, the spatial organization and management, and the associated institutional changes are consistent with the goal to perpetuate in time the quality of life and the environment, the cultural heritage, the

By sharing the idea that the world includes complex, interdependent, and interlinked social and natural systems that, reconciled and sustainable, provide a set of principles centered in the organization of soil uses according to their ecological capability which help preserve natural systems and resources in the long run, and create strong, well-knit social communities, we seek a systemic view of a multifunctional, productive, and recreational landscape, emphasizing the multifunctional landscape. The landscape is transformed into something different: a place sensitive to different transformations that records the movements and the events that occur. An active entity structuring conditions to new relationships and interactions between the elements that constitute it. In this new concept the landscape is no longer based on a naturalist image, suggesting instead a continuous structure where we can operate through the occurrence of different activities. It is not only the space between the two buildings or the platform in which the process of construction is organized, but a true energy field, a sensitive and dynamic membrane. It is constituted of

On the other hand, 21st century urban design should start by getting closer to the design of natural ecosystems. We should learn with the natural systems' metabolism, where all waste is recycled in resources for future growth [56]. This is a matter for politicians to deal with, but that also concerns the public in general, because we all need to pressure central and local

*CHAIA (Center of Art History and Artistic Investigation), University of Évora, Évora, Portugal* 


[17] Carrasqueno, M. (1996). Espacio urbano y socialidad: un analisis de las huertas submetropolitanas en el barrio bilbaíno de Bolueta*.* Ciudad y território. Estudios territoriales 1996; (110) 765-783.

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[31] Petts, J. The economics of urban and peri-urban agriculture*.* In: A. Viljoen, (Ed.). CPULs, continuous productive urban landscapes – designing urban agriculture for

[33] Secchi, B. Urban scenarios and policies. In: N. Portas, A Domingues, J. Cabral (Eds.). Políticas urbanas. Tendências, estratégias e oportunidades. Lisboa: Fundação Calouste

[34] Brook, R., & Davila, J. (Ed.). The peri-urban interface, a tale of two cities. Bethesda, Wales: School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences. University of Wales and

[35] Sangeetha, P., Brook R., & Purohit, S. Transcending rural-urban boundaries. Habitat

[36] Bryant, C. R., Russwurm, L., & McLellan, G. The city's countryside: land and its

[37] Qvistrom, M. Landscapes out of order: studying the inner urban fringe beyond the rural urban divide*.* Journal Compilation. Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography

[38] Hough, M. Out of place. Restoring identity to the regional landscape. New

[39] Allen, A. Environmental planning and management of the peri-urban interface: perspectives on an emerging field*.* Environment and Urbanization 2003 ; 15 (1) ,135. [40] Jakle, J. A., & Wilson, D. Derelict landscapes: the wasting of America's built

[41] Marot, S. The reclaiming of sites. In J. Corner (ed.), Recovering landscape. New York:

[42] Gravagnolo, B. La progettazione urbana in Europa. 1750-1960. Roma-Bari: Laterza. (a

[43] Donadieu, P. Landscape urbanism in Europe: from brownfields to sustainable urban

[44] Weller, R. An art of instrumentality: thinking through landscape urbanism. In: C. Waldheim (Ed.). The landscape urbanism reader. New York: Princeton Architectural

[45] Mostafavi, M. (Ed.) with Doherty, G. Ecologycal Urbanism. Baden: Lars Muller

[46] Shane, G. The emergence of landscape urbanism. In C. Waldheim (ed.). The landscape

[47] Corner, J. Terra Fluxus. In: C. Waldheim (ed.). The landscape urbanism reader. New

[48] Reed, P. Groundswell. Constructing the contemporary landscape. New York: The

[49] Beigel, F., & Christou, P. (cited in M. Mostafavi, & C. Najle, (Ed.). Landscape urbanism:

urbanism reader. New York: Princeton Architectural Press; 2006. p.55-68.

a manual for the machinic landscape. London: AA Publications. 2004.

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[32] Mumford, L. La cité à travers l'histoire. Paris: Le Seuil. 1994.

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environment. Lanham, MD: Rowman &Littlefield. 1992.

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development*. JoLA, Journal of landscape Architecture* 2006; (2) 36-45.

Gulbenkian. 2003b. pp. 275-283.

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[17] Carrasqueno, M. (1996). Espacio urbano y socialidad: un analisis de las huertas submetropolitanas en el barrio bilbaíno de Bolueta*.* Ciudad y território. Estudios

[18] Magalhães, M. A arquitectura paisagista, morfologia e complexidade. Lisboa: Editorial

[19] Bohn, K., & Viljoen, A. More space with less Space: an urban design strategy. In A. Viljoen, (Ed.). CPULs, continuous productive urban landscapes – designing urban agriculture for sustainable cities. Oxford: Architectural Press. Elsevier. 2005. pp. 10-16. [20] Donadieu, P. Campagne urbane, una nuova proposta di paesaggio della città. Roma:

[21] Burckhardt, L. Esthétique et Écologie. In : L. Burckhardt (Ed.). Le Design au-delà du

[22] Baud, I. Coping with globalisation. The need for research concerning the local response

[23] Hagan, S. Plant it: an inclusive approach to environmentally sustainable planning*.* In A. Viljoen (Ed.). CPULs, continuous productive urban landscapes – designing urban agriculture for sustainable cities. Oxford: Architectural Press. Elsevier. 2005. pp. 52-55 [24] Berg L. van den & Veenhuizen R. van (2005). Multiple functions of urban agriculture.

[25] Argenti, O. Food for the cities: food supply and distribution policies to reduce urban

[26] Nugent, R. The impact of urban agriculture on the household and local economies. In N. Bakker; M. Dubbeling; S. Gündel.; U. Sabel-Koschella; H. de Zeeuw. Growing cities, growing food: urban agriculture on the policy agenda. A reader on urban agriculture.

[27] Armar-Klemesu, M., & Maxwell, D. Urban agriculture as an asset strategy, supplementing income and diets. A case study of Accra. In N. Bakker, M. Dubbeling, S. Gündel, U. Sabel-Koschella, & H. Zeeuw (Ed.). Growing cities, growing food: urban agriculture on the policy agenda. A reader on urban agriculture*.* Feldafing: DSE/ETC.

[28] Gonzalez, N., & Murphy, C. Urban agriculture in the city of Havana: a popular response to crisis. In N. Bakker, S. Dubbeling, U. Guendel, K. Sabel & H. de Zeeuw (Ed.). Growing cities, growing food, urban agriculture on the policy agenda. Feldafing:

[29] Howe, J., Bohn, K., & Viljoen, A. Food in time: the history of english open urban space as a european example*.* In: A. Viljoen, (Ed.). *CPULs, continuous productive urban landscapes – designing urban agriculture for sustainable cities.* Oxford: Architectural Press.

[30] Allen, A. Environmental planning and management of the peri-urban interface. In : Managing the Environment of the Peri-urban interface : proceedings of Conference

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Visible. Paris : Éditions du Centre Georges-Pompidou. 1991. pp – 53-60

to globalization in developing countries. Den Haag: RAWOO. 2000.

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[50] Diedrich, L. Hacia el paisaje!. In: Diedrich, L. (Ed.). On Site. Arquitectura del paisaje en Europa. Barcelona: Gustavo Gili; 2009, pp.256-261.

**Chapter 19** 

© 2013 Memluk, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The effects of fast changing economic and social conditions have increasingly become significant on how people use and shape their environments. The urban population has been dramatically increasing worldwide and consequently physical structure of the cities changes constantly, mostly in negative ways. As the population increases, the demand for infrastructure and facilities also increases. Privatization and decentralization are the two

Contemporary urban environment is complex in many ways. It is more heterogeneous; more multicultural and more multiethnic. Increasing mobility, communication technologies and globalization leads to expansion of urban areas causing life style changes, thus use of public spaces. Carmona groups critiques of public space issues in two categories; (i) undermanagement of public spaces, and (ii) over-management of public spaces [1]. The first group focuses on poor design and function loss of public spaces. Increasing vehicle traffic, segregation of the user groups, neglecting public space, increasing private relations of individuals are among the reasons why "public life" declines and public spaces degrade. On the other hand the second group criticizes designers and authorities for undermining "publicness" of public spaces through commodification and homogenization. However, despite there is a dichotomy in criticism of public space issues, Carmona also states "these

Public squares are one of the significant public spaces in an urban environment. Urban squares are open public spaces which reflect the cities' identity and the communities' cultural background. They are where people of the community gather and "urban life" takes place since the ancient times. As the fundamental component of the city structure, urban squares contribute to the image and prestige of the city. According to Levy (2012), the main difference between a public park and a public square is that "*on a square, citizens are not connected to manifestations of nature, but to the heart of urban culture, history and memory*" [3]. In the last few decades, many urban squares have lost their function and role due to the

**Designing Urban Squares** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

major concerns on the future of the cities and open public spaces.

critiques represent two sides of the same coin" [2].

Murat Z. Memluk

**1. Introduction** 

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55826


**Chapter 19** 

## **Designing Urban Squares**

Murat Z. Memluk

512 Advances in Landscape Architecture

1995.

[50] Diedrich, L. Hacia el paisaje!. In: Diedrich, L. (Ed.). On Site. Arquitectura del paisaje en

[51] Wall, A. Programming the urban surface*.* In J. Corner, James (Ed.) Recovering landscape. Essays in contemporary landscape architecture. New York: Princeton

[52] Arosemena, G. Urban agriculture. Spaces of cultivation for a sustainable city.

[53] McHarg, I. Design with nature, (25th aniversary edition). USA: John Wiley and Sons.

[54] Battle, E. El jardín de la metrópoli. Del paisaje romántico al espacio libre para una

[55] Matos, R. Urban Landscape: Interstitial Spaces. Landscape Review 2009 ; 13(1) 61-71. [56] Girardet, H. Urban agriculture and sustainable urban development. In A.Viljoen (ed.). CPULs, continuous productive urban landscapes – designing urban agriculture for

sustainable cities. Oxford: Architectural Press. Elsevier. 2005. p. 32-39.

Europa. Barcelona: Gustavo Gili; 2009, pp.256-261.

ciudad sostenible. Barcelona. Gustavo Gili. 2011.

Architectural Press. 1999. pp. 233-249.

Barcelona : Gustavo Gili. 2012.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55826

## **1. Introduction**

The effects of fast changing economic and social conditions have increasingly become significant on how people use and shape their environments. The urban population has been dramatically increasing worldwide and consequently physical structure of the cities changes constantly, mostly in negative ways. As the population increases, the demand for infrastructure and facilities also increases. Privatization and decentralization are the two major concerns on the future of the cities and open public spaces.

Contemporary urban environment is complex in many ways. It is more heterogeneous; more multicultural and more multiethnic. Increasing mobility, communication technologies and globalization leads to expansion of urban areas causing life style changes, thus use of public spaces. Carmona groups critiques of public space issues in two categories; (i) undermanagement of public spaces, and (ii) over-management of public spaces [1]. The first group focuses on poor design and function loss of public spaces. Increasing vehicle traffic, segregation of the user groups, neglecting public space, increasing private relations of individuals are among the reasons why "public life" declines and public spaces degrade. On the other hand the second group criticizes designers and authorities for undermining "publicness" of public spaces through commodification and homogenization. However, despite there is a dichotomy in criticism of public space issues, Carmona also states "these critiques represent two sides of the same coin" [2].

Public squares are one of the significant public spaces in an urban environment. Urban squares are open public spaces which reflect the cities' identity and the communities' cultural background. They are where people of the community gather and "urban life" takes place since the ancient times. As the fundamental component of the city structure, urban squares contribute to the image and prestige of the city. According to Levy (2012), the main difference between a public park and a public square is that "*on a square, citizens are not connected to manifestations of nature, but to the heart of urban culture, history and memory*" [3]. In the last few decades, many urban squares have lost their function and role due to the

© 2013 Memluk, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

changes in use of public spaces. Hence, designing urban squares as both public and open spaces now require more importance and attention.

Designing Urban Squares 515

shrines, temples, the hall of justice and the council houses) with more formal order [8]. Especially, during the republican period, the forum was the heart of the city. In the last years of the Roman Empire the Roman Forum lost its importance and was used less by the

Following the collapse of Roman Empire, basilicas were transformed into churches and both cathedrals and churches became the focus of daily life in the middle ages. Most of the open public spaces were shaped around religious buildings. During this period commercial activities took place also in public spaces [8]. Therefore in middle ages, open public spaces were used mainly for religious ceremonies, and as marketplaces. In some European

In the neo-classical period (the Renaissance and Baroque period), there were some apparent changes in city morphology. With the changing economical, political and philosophical perspectives, approaches to planning and design of the towns shifted with the influence of rationalization during the Renaissance. Formal designs and plans were very common in this period. Symmetry and order were the essential principles in design of the squares. Italian piazzas are the very well-known examples of the Renaissance public squares. Monuments and fountains were added to the design to create aesthetically pleasant environments

Axial order, balance and hierarchy became main design principles during the Baroque period. In this period, open spaces were designed to create visual and ceramonial effects [6]. Piazza del Campidoglio, designed by Michelangelo, is one of the earliest examples of Baroques style open spaces. According to Zeka, the Baroque concept of "dynamic motion in

space" was introduced in piazza del Campidoglio [6] (Figure 4).

countries civic squares and piazzas emerged during this period [10].

public.

(Figure 3).

**Figure 2.** The Roman Forum [9].

Designing urban squares should be a part of urban design. Otherwise they become disconnected and meaningless, rather than being an integral part of the city. This chapter aims to investigate the current role and situation of urban squares and to develop design strategies in context of landscape architecture. First, I will begin with the history of public squares, and then explain the role of urban squares as open spaces. Finally, I will discuss design strategies for contemporary urban squares with design examples.

## **1.1. History of public squares**

The first city formations appeared 6000 years ago and city squares were established at the crossroads of important trade routes [4].

A well-known earliest example of today's public squares is Greek's "Agora". Democracy played an important role in shaping Greek cities. The Agora was an open place in the city center where political, social and economic activities took place. Greek agoras were public spaces for all kinds of gatherings; such as political meetings, athletic and musical games, theatre performances and commercial activities [5]. The geometrical form of the agora was usually square or rectangle [6] (Figure 1).

**Figure 1.** Agora of Priene (Aydn, Turkey) [7].

Similarly, the Roman Forum was a large open space where people gather for political, economic and social activities (Figure 2). According to Mumford (1961) the Roman forum was the combination of agora and acropolis since it included more activities (such as shrines, temples, the hall of justice and the council houses) with more formal order [8]. Especially, during the republican period, the forum was the heart of the city. In the last years of the Roman Empire the Roman Forum lost its importance and was used less by the public.

Following the collapse of Roman Empire, basilicas were transformed into churches and both cathedrals and churches became the focus of daily life in the middle ages. Most of the open public spaces were shaped around religious buildings. During this period commercial activities took place also in public spaces [8]. Therefore in middle ages, open public spaces were used mainly for religious ceremonies, and as marketplaces. In some European countries civic squares and piazzas emerged during this period [10].

In the neo-classical period (the Renaissance and Baroque period), there were some apparent changes in city morphology. With the changing economical, political and philosophical perspectives, approaches to planning and design of the towns shifted with the influence of rationalization during the Renaissance. Formal designs and plans were very common in this period. Symmetry and order were the essential principles in design of the squares. Italian piazzas are the very well-known examples of the Renaissance public squares. Monuments and fountains were added to the design to create aesthetically pleasant environments (Figure 3).

**Figure 2.** The Roman Forum [9].

514 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**1.1. History of public squares** 

crossroads of important trade routes [4].

usually square or rectangle [6] (Figure 1).

**Figure 1.** Agora of Priene (Aydn, Turkey) [7].

spaces now require more importance and attention.

changes in use of public spaces. Hence, designing urban squares as both public and open

Designing urban squares should be a part of urban design. Otherwise they become disconnected and meaningless, rather than being an integral part of the city. This chapter aims to investigate the current role and situation of urban squares and to develop design strategies in context of landscape architecture. First, I will begin with the history of public squares, and then explain the role of urban squares as open spaces. Finally, I will discuss

The first city formations appeared 6000 years ago and city squares were established at the

A well-known earliest example of today's public squares is Greek's "Agora". Democracy played an important role in shaping Greek cities. The Agora was an open place in the city center where political, social and economic activities took place. Greek agoras were public spaces for all kinds of gatherings; such as political meetings, athletic and musical games, theatre performances and commercial activities [5]. The geometrical form of the agora was

Similarly, the Roman Forum was a large open space where people gather for political, economic and social activities (Figure 2). According to Mumford (1961) the Roman forum was the combination of agora and acropolis since it included more activities (such as

design strategies for contemporary urban squares with design examples.

Axial order, balance and hierarchy became main design principles during the Baroque period. In this period, open spaces were designed to create visual and ceramonial effects [6]. Piazza del Campidoglio, designed by Michelangelo, is one of the earliest examples of Baroques style open spaces. According to Zeka, the Baroque concept of "dynamic motion in space" was introduced in piazza del Campidoglio [6] (Figure 4).

Designing Urban Squares 517

In 19th century, industrial revolution caused a dramatic changes in urban design and planning. The establishment of broad railway networks leaded to population increase in urban areas which stimulated growth of cities. New industrial areas were developed near cities and labor class began to move into cities to dwell. As the bourgeoisie raised, women became more participant in the city life. The emerge of shopping arcades, shopping streets, bazaars and department stores created a new form of public space, especially for women [10]. The changing social, economical and political structure of the city also affected city morphology. Increased population meant more needs, more services and more waste. The city structure began to deteriorate. At the end of 19th century, concerns for environmental deterioration and community well-being triggered the parks movement. Instead of streets and squares, huge green areas emerged as new public places [13]. Population increase in urban areas continued during 20th century and cities become more and more expanded, heterogeneous, and fragmented. Private automobile ownership showed a rapid increase and cities become motor vehicle dominant environments. As a result pedestrian movement and freedom were limited. In the second half of the 20th century, many urban squares turned into crossroads especially in developing countries (Figure 5). New consumer habits and trends also caused decline in open public space use. Shopping malls have become new leisure centers. At the end of the 20th century, following the spread of internet use, virtual

environments appeared as new "social platforms".

**Figure 5.** Left:Kzlay Square, Ankara in 1940s [14], Right: Kzlay Square, Ankara today [15].

In Islamic countries, religion has had an important influence on development and use of open public spaces. The mosque has been the centre of the social life and examples of the western style of urban squares cannot be seen in Islamic countries. Similarly throughout the history of Turkish settlements, the squares were formed around the mosques. Since markets and commercial regions were also located around mosques, these squares were where the social life took place, especially in Ottoman Empire period. Although one can easily find the traces of Roman/Byzantine influence in İstanbul's current city structure, still urban squares are located near mosques and other religious buildings. For instance, today's Sultanahmet square which was once known as hippodrome of Constantinople is surrounded by religious buildings such as Sultanahmet Mosque and Hagia Sofia Museum (Figure 6). In relatively

**Figure 3.** Piazza Navona, Italy [11].

**Figure 4.** Piazza del Campidoglio [12].

In 19th century, industrial revolution caused a dramatic changes in urban design and planning. The establishment of broad railway networks leaded to population increase in urban areas which stimulated growth of cities. New industrial areas were developed near cities and labor class began to move into cities to dwell. As the bourgeoisie raised, women became more participant in the city life. The emerge of shopping arcades, shopping streets, bazaars and department stores created a new form of public space, especially for women [10]. The changing social, economical and political structure of the city also affected city morphology. Increased population meant more needs, more services and more waste. The city structure began to deteriorate. At the end of 19th century, concerns for environmental deterioration and community well-being triggered the parks movement. Instead of streets and squares, huge green areas emerged as new public places [13]. Population increase in urban areas continued during 20th century and cities become more and more expanded, heterogeneous, and fragmented. Private automobile ownership showed a rapid increase and cities become motor vehicle dominant environments. As a result pedestrian movement and freedom were limited. In the second half of the 20th century, many urban squares turned into crossroads especially in developing countries (Figure 5). New consumer habits and trends also caused decline in open public space use. Shopping malls have become new leisure centers. At the end of the 20th century, following the spread of internet use, virtual environments appeared as new "social platforms".

516 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 3.** Piazza Navona, Italy [11].

**Figure 4.** Piazza del Campidoglio [12].

**Figure 5.** Left:Kzlay Square, Ankara in 1940s [14], Right: Kzlay Square, Ankara today [15].

In Islamic countries, religion has had an important influence on development and use of open public spaces. The mosque has been the centre of the social life and examples of the western style of urban squares cannot be seen in Islamic countries. Similarly throughout the history of Turkish settlements, the squares were formed around the mosques. Since markets and commercial regions were also located around mosques, these squares were where the social life took place, especially in Ottoman Empire period. Although one can easily find the traces of Roman/Byzantine influence in İstanbul's current city structure, still urban squares are located near mosques and other religious buildings. For instance, today's Sultanahmet square which was once known as hippodrome of Constantinople is surrounded by religious buildings such as Sultanahmet Mosque and Hagia Sofia Museum (Figure 6). In relatively

smaller Anatolian cities, squares have also been used to celebrate wedding ceremonies, feasts and festivals.

Designing Urban Squares 519

Being a part of transport system: public squares are the intersection, gathering and waiting

Commercial activities: public squares are civic centers where citizens engage in commercial activities. Markets have been one of the essential elements of the public squares throughout

Games and sports: games and sports activities have always been an important part of public life and there have been many examples in the history where games and sports activities

Kostof also believed that the links between public squares within a city forms a "system". He also stated that this approach was one of the primary issues in city planning and design

Urban public squares are open spaces surrounded by buildings and other structures within a city. Therefore they play an important role in the context of mass and void composition of a city. Cities are formed of combination of masses and voids. The amount and ratio of masses and voids determine the structure of a city. Too many masses (e.g. buildings and structures) without connection to any voids (e.g. streets, parks and squares) would make a city cramped, illegible and chaotic. Hence, urban public squares serve as a stabilizing force

Public squares provide citizens with places for various leisure and outdoor activities. People of the city can relax, sit, read a book, play games, meet with friends etc. in these public areas. The activities are not predefined or limited in the urban squares. Public squares can also be used for ceremonies, rituals, political activities, musical events, even theatre, and as

Public squares have also ecological benefits to the urban environment. Green areas and water surfaces within a square provide habitat for living organisms. Existence of green areas within a public square also helps to improve air quality, lessen surface water runoff, reduce noise levels and screen unwanted or undesirable views, and reduce negative effects of urban

Well-designed public squares increase the visual landscape value and contribute to environmental aesthetics. While contributing to the overall city image, visual landscapes appreciated by individuals also have positive psychological impacts on the users of the place. Another psychological benefit that urban squares provide is that they are where

Urban public squares might also provide some economic benefits for the community. It is a well-known fact that existence of open and green spaces increases the real estate prices nearby [19]. Urban squares can also be used as marketplaces or they can be a part of commercial activities, such as shopping malls. There are also examples of squares where marketing is the dominating feature. Times Square in New York City is one of the wellknown examples (Figure 7). It is also one of the most famous and visited tourist attractions

people can relax and enjoy their spare time during their busy urban daily lives.

points for both the pedestrian and vehicle traffic.

during the Renaissance and Baroque periods [18].

especially in contemporary crowded cities.

the history.

marketplaces.

heat islands.

took place in public squares.

During the early republican period, new urban squares were established around administrative and government buildings where national ceremonies took place. After 1950's, urbanization increased dramatically in Turkey. City centres gradually became more and more crowded and cramped with people and cars. In metropolitan areas, new city centres emerged and cities expanded uncontrollably. Political developments also influenced the use of open public spaces. During 1970s the city squares, especially in Ankara and İstanbul, witnessed many protests and gatherings of different groups of the society. However after 1980 military coup in Turkey, urban squares were transformed to "nonpolitical"and more passive places. After 1990's globalization has a massive impact on both life styles and use of public space. People have begun to prefer to spend their spare time more indoors, rather than open public spaces. As a result, Turkish urban squares have lost their importance and functions within the city, like in many other countries worldwide.

## **2. Roles and functions of urban squares**

According to Lewis Mumford, primary function of cities is the acculturation and humanization of its inhabitants [17] and for these purposes public spaces are the essential tools in the city. Kostof (1992) defines some basic functions of the urban squares as [18];

**Figure 6.** Sultanahmet Mosque and Sultanahmet square [16].

Being a part of transport system: public squares are the intersection, gathering and waiting points for both the pedestrian and vehicle traffic.

518 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**2. Roles and functions of urban squares** 

**Figure 6.** Sultanahmet Mosque and Sultanahmet square [16].

feasts and festivals.

smaller Anatolian cities, squares have also been used to celebrate wedding ceremonies,

During the early republican period, new urban squares were established around administrative and government buildings where national ceremonies took place. After 1950's, urbanization increased dramatically in Turkey. City centres gradually became more and more crowded and cramped with people and cars. In metropolitan areas, new city centres emerged and cities expanded uncontrollably. Political developments also influenced the use of open public spaces. During 1970s the city squares, especially in Ankara and İstanbul, witnessed many protests and gatherings of different groups of the society. However after 1980 military coup in Turkey, urban squares were transformed to "nonpolitical"and more passive places. After 1990's globalization has a massive impact on both life styles and use of public space. People have begun to prefer to spend their spare time more indoors, rather than open public spaces. As a result, Turkish urban squares have lost their importance and functions within the city, like in many other countries worldwide.

According to Lewis Mumford, primary function of cities is the acculturation and humanization of its inhabitants [17] and for these purposes public spaces are the essential tools in the city. Kostof (1992) defines some basic functions of the urban squares as [18];

Commercial activities: public squares are civic centers where citizens engage in commercial activities. Markets have been one of the essential elements of the public squares throughout the history.

Games and sports: games and sports activities have always been an important part of public life and there have been many examples in the history where games and sports activities took place in public squares.

Kostof also believed that the links between public squares within a city forms a "system". He also stated that this approach was one of the primary issues in city planning and design during the Renaissance and Baroque periods [18].

Urban public squares are open spaces surrounded by buildings and other structures within a city. Therefore they play an important role in the context of mass and void composition of a city. Cities are formed of combination of masses and voids. The amount and ratio of masses and voids determine the structure of a city. Too many masses (e.g. buildings and structures) without connection to any voids (e.g. streets, parks and squares) would make a city cramped, illegible and chaotic. Hence, urban public squares serve as a stabilizing force especially in contemporary crowded cities.

Public squares provide citizens with places for various leisure and outdoor activities. People of the city can relax, sit, read a book, play games, meet with friends etc. in these public areas. The activities are not predefined or limited in the urban squares. Public squares can also be used for ceremonies, rituals, political activities, musical events, even theatre, and as marketplaces.

Public squares have also ecological benefits to the urban environment. Green areas and water surfaces within a square provide habitat for living organisms. Existence of green areas within a public square also helps to improve air quality, lessen surface water runoff, reduce noise levels and screen unwanted or undesirable views, and reduce negative effects of urban heat islands.

Well-designed public squares increase the visual landscape value and contribute to environmental aesthetics. While contributing to the overall city image, visual landscapes appreciated by individuals also have positive psychological impacts on the users of the place. Another psychological benefit that urban squares provide is that they are where people can relax and enjoy their spare time during their busy urban daily lives.

Urban public squares might also provide some economic benefits for the community. It is a well-known fact that existence of open and green spaces increases the real estate prices nearby [19]. Urban squares can also be used as marketplaces or they can be a part of commercial activities, such as shopping malls. There are also examples of squares where marketing is the dominating feature. Times Square in New York City is one of the wellknown examples (Figure 7). It is also one of the most famous and visited tourist attractions

in the world. Located in Manhattan, it has a busy pedestrian traffic and density all year. Times Square also hosts various activities and ceremonies throughout the year such as annual New Year's celebrations. It is one of the landmarks of the New York City and an important part of the city image.

Designing Urban Squares 521

**3. Designing urban squares** 

squares.

It is quite challenging to define universal design principles that would fit for all the squares in the world. On the other hand it is possible to identify some basics that would help designers and planners through the design process. However, it is necessary to know and understand the modern city concept first. Therefore, it might be a good idea to consider the characteristics of contemporary urban environments before focusing on the design of the

Today's urban environments are discontinuous, diverse and multipolar as Ascher states [21]. Changing economic and social structure, triggered by globalization, has led to expansion of urban areas uncontrollably and decentralization of cities. Globalization has been one of the significant factors that shape our physical and social environments worldwide during the last few decades. Social and spatial segregation have been increased in today's metropolitan areas because of globalization [21]. Another consequence of globalization process is that today's cities are multi-cultural and multi-ethnical more than ever. Therefore public realm is more heterogeneous today and designers and planners need to find ways to create places that serve for "everyone" in these culturally diverse communities. Finally one of the major and significant challenges of globalizing cities is the loss of identity in public spaces. Urban designers, planners and authorities should be aware of the future threats on local identity in decision making, design and planning processes.

Keeping in mind that today's urban environments are more complex and diverse, some

Design of urban public realm involves two dimensions; functionality and visual appearance. Functionality refers to the activities and the degree of activities fitting to that place. On the other hand visual appearance is about form, image and aesthetics. While some researchers focus on the spatial arrangement of public spaces, others suggest that functionality comes first in urban space design. However, neither of them should be neglected in the design process. In fact, the relationship between these two dimensions determines the character

Many researchers have tried to identify the criteria of the ideal and successful urban space. Some of them might be useful mentioning here. For example, Carr et al. believe that public

1. Responsive: a public place should serve the needs of the community; provide the citizens with spaces that allow relaxation, discovery, and active and passive

3. Meaningful: People should be able to make connections between the place, their lives

Rogers define successful public places as the places which pay dividends for cities, build civic pride, increase tourism and economic investment, and contribute to health and quality

design strategies for public squares are presented below.

2. Democratic: Public spaces need to be accessible to all groups.

and success of the urban space.

places should be [22]:

engagement.

and the world.

of life [23].

**Figure 7.** Times Square, New York City, USA [20].

Besides their physical and ecological roles, public squares contribute hugely to the social cohesion and local identity. They act like social catalysts. The main function of urban squares is gathering citizens together for various reasons and activities. They have a symbolic meaning of "coexistence". Hence, urban public squares are the essential elements of the city in terms of democracy. Citizens from different social, economic, and cultural backgrounds, age groups, etc. all have equal accessibility to the public spaces. Urban squares are one of these public spaces where individuals and groups learn to respect and tolerate "others". Hence, urban squares are the places where the social interaction and social cohesion occurs. The way and context of this social interaction displays the local identity. Many public squares have also historical importance for the city's identity and they usually reflect the collective values of the community.

All the roles and functions of urban public squares mentioned above also contribute to the well-being of individuals and communities. Thus, it is important to reconsider and review urban public square design approaches in order to sustain and improve our existing squares or create enjoyable new ones.

## **3. Designing urban squares**

520 Advances in Landscape Architecture

important part of the city image.

**Figure 7.** Times Square, New York City, USA [20].

reflect the collective values of the community.

or create enjoyable new ones.

in the world. Located in Manhattan, it has a busy pedestrian traffic and density all year. Times Square also hosts various activities and ceremonies throughout the year such as annual New Year's celebrations. It is one of the landmarks of the New York City and an

Besides their physical and ecological roles, public squares contribute hugely to the social cohesion and local identity. They act like social catalysts. The main function of urban squares is gathering citizens together for various reasons and activities. They have a symbolic meaning of "coexistence". Hence, urban public squares are the essential elements of the city in terms of democracy. Citizens from different social, economic, and cultural backgrounds, age groups, etc. all have equal accessibility to the public spaces. Urban squares are one of these public spaces where individuals and groups learn to respect and tolerate "others". Hence, urban squares are the places where the social interaction and social cohesion occurs. The way and context of this social interaction displays the local identity. Many public squares have also historical importance for the city's identity and they usually

All the roles and functions of urban public squares mentioned above also contribute to the well-being of individuals and communities. Thus, it is important to reconsider and review urban public square design approaches in order to sustain and improve our existing squares It is quite challenging to define universal design principles that would fit for all the squares in the world. On the other hand it is possible to identify some basics that would help designers and planners through the design process. However, it is necessary to know and understand the modern city concept first. Therefore, it might be a good idea to consider the characteristics of contemporary urban environments before focusing on the design of the squares.

Today's urban environments are discontinuous, diverse and multipolar as Ascher states [21]. Changing economic and social structure, triggered by globalization, has led to expansion of urban areas uncontrollably and decentralization of cities. Globalization has been one of the significant factors that shape our physical and social environments worldwide during the last few decades. Social and spatial segregation have been increased in today's metropolitan areas because of globalization [21]. Another consequence of globalization process is that today's cities are multi-cultural and multi-ethnical more than ever. Therefore public realm is more heterogeneous today and designers and planners need to find ways to create places that serve for "everyone" in these culturally diverse communities. Finally one of the major and significant challenges of globalizing cities is the loss of identity in public spaces. Urban designers, planners and authorities should be aware of the future threats on local identity in decision making, design and planning processes.

Keeping in mind that today's urban environments are more complex and diverse, some design strategies for public squares are presented below.

Design of urban public realm involves two dimensions; functionality and visual appearance. Functionality refers to the activities and the degree of activities fitting to that place. On the other hand visual appearance is about form, image and aesthetics. While some researchers focus on the spatial arrangement of public spaces, others suggest that functionality comes first in urban space design. However, neither of them should be neglected in the design process. In fact, the relationship between these two dimensions determines the character and success of the urban space.

Many researchers have tried to identify the criteria of the ideal and successful urban space. Some of them might be useful mentioning here. For example, Carr et al. believe that public places should be [22]:


Rogers define successful public places as the places which pay dividends for cities, build civic pride, increase tourism and economic investment, and contribute to health and quality of life [23].

### *Form*

A public squares form is influenced by the surrounding environment. Even though the word "square" points out a form itself, a public square can be in any form such as rectangle, square, circle, triangle or amorphous.

Designing Urban Squares 523

**Figure 8.** Modulating factors of urban space [26].

**Figure 9.** Some typologies of Krier's urban spaces [adopted from 26].

Camillo Sitte, in his work "City Planning According to Artistic Principles" focuses on the visual appearance rather than the functionality and defines the ideal morphologicalaesthetic criteria of the urban square as [3]:


Sitte also emphasizes that the main requirement of a square is "the sense of enclosure" [6]. Enclosure is one of the perceptual organization principles of the Gestalt psychology. Grouping is the fundamental concept of the Gestalt approach. People tend to group objects that look similar and close to each other. Furthermore enclosure or closure helps us to perceive objects as a whole. The easiest and straightforward way of creating enclosure is grouping buildings around a central space [24].

One of the well-known works based on enclosure in the public squares is Rob Krier's work. In contrast to Sitte, Krier focused on elementary geometry when developing a typology of urban squares [24]. Krier introduces concepts of angling, segment, addition, overlapping, and distortion as modulating factors in context of urban space typology (Figure 8). According to Krier, combining these modulating factors with basic shapes of urban space (square, circle and triangle) results in either regular or irregular urban space forms [6]. Figure 9 shows some of the Krier's typologies of the urban square. On the other hand Hsu criticizes Krier's approach for ignoring the social and historical context of public squares [25].

Zucker suggests five types of urban square forms [24];

The closed square: it often has a regular geometric form. The only interruption to the closed square is the streets that are leading to it.

The dominated square: the space is directed to a building or a group of buildings.

The nuclear square: it has a central feature which creates a tension that keeps the whole together.

Grouped squares: individual squares linked organically and/or aesthetically.

The amorphous square: it is unorganized and formless when compared to other types.

#### *Location and size*

The first factor to be considered in design of urban squares is the location and the size of the square. Throughout the history squares and plazas have always been at the intersection of

**Figure 8.** Modulating factors of urban space [26].

square, circle, triangle or amorphous.

The center should be free,

aesthetic criteria of the urban square as [3]: Enclosure; closed and protected space,

 Existence of the elements of surprise, Attractiveness of architectural façades, Concavity and aesthetic pavement.

Monuments that are placed on the perimeter,

grouping buildings around a central space [24].

for ignoring the social and historical context of public squares [25].

Zucker suggests five types of urban square forms [24];

square is the streets that are leading to it.

together.

*Location and size* 

A public squares form is influenced by the surrounding environment. Even though the word "square" points out a form itself, a public square can be in any form such as rectangle,

Camillo Sitte, in his work "City Planning According to Artistic Principles" focuses on the visual appearance rather than the functionality and defines the ideal morphological-

Sitte also emphasizes that the main requirement of a square is "the sense of enclosure" [6]. Enclosure is one of the perceptual organization principles of the Gestalt psychology. Grouping is the fundamental concept of the Gestalt approach. People tend to group objects that look similar and close to each other. Furthermore enclosure or closure helps us to perceive objects as a whole. The easiest and straightforward way of creating enclosure is

One of the well-known works based on enclosure in the public squares is Rob Krier's work. In contrast to Sitte, Krier focused on elementary geometry when developing a typology of urban squares [24]. Krier introduces concepts of angling, segment, addition, overlapping, and distortion as modulating factors in context of urban space typology (Figure 8). According to Krier, combining these modulating factors with basic shapes of urban space (square, circle and triangle) results in either regular or irregular urban space forms [6]. Figure 9 shows some of the Krier's typologies of the urban square. On the other hand Hsu criticizes Krier's approach

The closed square: it often has a regular geometric form. The only interruption to the closed

The nuclear square: it has a central feature which creates a tension that keeps the whole

The first factor to be considered in design of urban squares is the location and the size of the square. Throughout the history squares and plazas have always been at the intersection of

The amorphous square: it is unorganized and formless when compared to other types.

The dominated square: the space is directed to a building or a group of buildings.

Grouped squares: individual squares linked organically and/or aesthetically.

*Form* 

**Figure 9.** Some typologies of Krier's urban spaces [adopted from 26].

main routes of transportation and pedestrian traffic. Moreover, as Dewitte states the public squares' main function is to symbolize the archetype of human encounters and encourage urban contemplation [3] .Since human presence and activity is the essence of public squares; they should be easily accessible (both physically and visually) to public and should be created in central locations within the city.

Designing Urban Squares 525

special type of activity. On the contrary they should be designed to provide opportunity for different kinds of activities at any time. Location and scale of a public square might also affect the activity types associated with a square. For instance, larger squares near to government buildings might be preferred to be used for protests or national celebrations by the public or squares near commercial centers might be mainly used as meeting points, performing arts venues or as marketplaces. Designers should well analyze possible user profile, their needs and expectations as well as surrounding environment's character. Some other activities might be associated with the square during design phase to attract people. For instance, nearby places to eat and drink may increase the use of space. Or placing an underground parking place might encourage people from different neighborhoods or districts using the space. However, activities aiming to attract people should never dominate the character of the square. Besides, designers should ensure involvement and

"*Successful urban squares are designed for people to walk in, stand in, sit in, dance in and to* 

Generally, hard surface dominates the landscape of an urban square. Therefore selection of pavement materials is great of importance in the design phase in terms of both visual appearance and functionality. Various materials (e.g. stone, concrete, brick etc.) can be used in public square design. Pavement materials must be durable and aesthetically appealing. Durability degree of the materials can decrease or increase the maintenance costs. Surrounding architecture and streetscape should also be taken into account to ensure continuity of the character and coherence. Focal areas can be created by changing the color, form or texture, as well as pavement material itself. Similarly, by using the same strategy different uses within a square (such as seating areas) might be separated. Pavement material should be non-slippery, and suitable for walking or standing. Reflection of heat and glare should also be noted when selecting the material. Handicapped or elderly people should not be forgotten in the design phase in terms of accessibility. Drainage is another factor that

*perform in, and to look at other people participating in these activities*" [27].

should be taken into account to provide comfort in different weather conditions.

using too many plants to preserve the square's main character.

Different kinds of plants (trees, shrubs, flowers, grass etc.) can be used in the design of urban squares for different purposes such as aesthetics, shading, or visual screening. Plants also help to soften the strong and sometimes disturbing effects of hard surfaces or sharp lines. Flowering plants may also add variety to the perceived environment in terms of color and scent. Green is known for its calming and relaxing effect; hence plants might be used in order to create places for relaxation and resting. In hot climates, trees provide users with shade areas. If there is a focal point within the square like a monument, plants can be used to create a background to emphasize its visual effect. However designers should avoid

Plant material should be selected based on the climate. This will reduce the maintenance costs and increase the success of plantation. There are many plants which present aesthetically pleasing and attractive changes in color and texture (like *Acer* species), in

participation of all social groups within a public space.

*Landscaping* 

On the other hand decentralization is one of the problems faced in contemporary cities, which makes it difficult to select central locations, since there are too many. Therefore it should also be noted that links and connections between different squares within the city should be established in order to sustain continuity of urban form.

Traditionally, squares were located next to religious and government buildings which are central to "public" life. However, as life styles change, today's cities involve many other focuses. For many, work is the central issue in our daily lives with a limited time to spare for other activities. Emerge of shopping malls also have changed/or a consequence of changing leisure patterns. Besides shopping activity, shopping malls offer many other recreational activities and facilities in one place. Therefore, people tend to prefer going to such places where they can meet their various needs in one facility. As a result, people spend their spare times more indoors than outdoors and public spaces today. There are many examples of public squares which are located around shopping malls or commercial centers/buildings in contemporary cities. Hence, designers and planners should consider the ways of bringing public squares to people when selecting the location.

Size is another aspect of urban public square design. It is often thought that public squares must be large in size. However, the size should be determined according to the location, surrounding uses, and activities nearby. The most and conventional way of determining size of a square is to calculate the number of possible users. Thus, designers and planners should focus on the "concept" of the place and possible user activity before determination of the size. Several researchers attempted to identify the ideal size of public squares. For instance according to Lynch 12 to 24 meters along each side and 100 meters for larger squares are ideal for successful urban squares, while Alexander suggests a maximum of 22 meters for small squares [6]. On the other hand Gehl suggests a dimension of 30-35 meters for the optimum size of a square in order to enable people being able to recognize the other people in the space from one side to other [27].

When determining the size of an urban square, visual perception should also be taken into account. The scale and density of the surrounding buildings and structures of a square might affect the perceived size. Squares surrounded by taller and dense buildings may appear smaller than they actually are. A ratio of 1:2 and a maximum of 1.5:2 between building height and space width can be successful to create a strong sense of definition of space [26]. Edges are also important in creating the sense of definition of an urban square. According to Alexander et al. (1977) "if the edge fails, then the space never becomes lively" [6].

#### *Activities*

Urban public squares are venues for various activities that help social cohesion and individual restoration. Generally, urban public squares are not designed to serve for any special type of activity. On the contrary they should be designed to provide opportunity for different kinds of activities at any time. Location and scale of a public square might also affect the activity types associated with a square. For instance, larger squares near to government buildings might be preferred to be used for protests or national celebrations by the public or squares near commercial centers might be mainly used as meeting points, performing arts venues or as marketplaces. Designers should well analyze possible user profile, their needs and expectations as well as surrounding environment's character. Some other activities might be associated with the square during design phase to attract people. For instance, nearby places to eat and drink may increase the use of space. Or placing an underground parking place might encourage people from different neighborhoods or districts using the space. However, activities aiming to attract people should never dominate the character of the square. Besides, designers should ensure involvement and participation of all social groups within a public space.

"*Successful urban squares are designed for people to walk in, stand in, sit in, dance in and to perform in, and to look at other people participating in these activities*" [27].

#### *Landscaping*

524 Advances in Landscape Architecture

created in central locations within the city.

should be established in order to sustain continuity of urban form.

public squares to people when selecting the location.

in the space from one side to other [27].

*Activities* 

main routes of transportation and pedestrian traffic. Moreover, as Dewitte states the public squares' main function is to symbolize the archetype of human encounters and encourage urban contemplation [3] .Since human presence and activity is the essence of public squares; they should be easily accessible (both physically and visually) to public and should be

On the other hand decentralization is one of the problems faced in contemporary cities, which makes it difficult to select central locations, since there are too many. Therefore it should also be noted that links and connections between different squares within the city

Traditionally, squares were located next to religious and government buildings which are central to "public" life. However, as life styles change, today's cities involve many other focuses. For many, work is the central issue in our daily lives with a limited time to spare for other activities. Emerge of shopping malls also have changed/or a consequence of changing leisure patterns. Besides shopping activity, shopping malls offer many other recreational activities and facilities in one place. Therefore, people tend to prefer going to such places where they can meet their various needs in one facility. As a result, people spend their spare times more indoors than outdoors and public spaces today. There are many examples of public squares which are located around shopping malls or commercial centers/buildings in contemporary cities. Hence, designers and planners should consider the ways of bringing

Size is another aspect of urban public square design. It is often thought that public squares must be large in size. However, the size should be determined according to the location, surrounding uses, and activities nearby. The most and conventional way of determining size of a square is to calculate the number of possible users. Thus, designers and planners should focus on the "concept" of the place and possible user activity before determination of the size. Several researchers attempted to identify the ideal size of public squares. For instance according to Lynch 12 to 24 meters along each side and 100 meters for larger squares are ideal for successful urban squares, while Alexander suggests a maximum of 22 meters for small squares [6]. On the other hand Gehl suggests a dimension of 30-35 meters for the optimum size of a square in order to enable people being able to recognize the other people

When determining the size of an urban square, visual perception should also be taken into account. The scale and density of the surrounding buildings and structures of a square might affect the perceived size. Squares surrounded by taller and dense buildings may appear smaller than they actually are. A ratio of 1:2 and a maximum of 1.5:2 between building height and space width can be successful to create a strong sense of definition of space [26]. Edges are also important in creating the sense of definition of an urban square. According to Alexander

Urban public squares are venues for various activities that help social cohesion and individual restoration. Generally, urban public squares are not designed to serve for any

et al. (1977) "if the edge fails, then the space never becomes lively" [6].

Generally, hard surface dominates the landscape of an urban square. Therefore selection of pavement materials is great of importance in the design phase in terms of both visual appearance and functionality. Various materials (e.g. stone, concrete, brick etc.) can be used in public square design. Pavement materials must be durable and aesthetically appealing. Durability degree of the materials can decrease or increase the maintenance costs. Surrounding architecture and streetscape should also be taken into account to ensure continuity of the character and coherence. Focal areas can be created by changing the color, form or texture, as well as pavement material itself. Similarly, by using the same strategy different uses within a square (such as seating areas) might be separated. Pavement material should be non-slippery, and suitable for walking or standing. Reflection of heat and glare should also be noted when selecting the material. Handicapped or elderly people should not be forgotten in the design phase in terms of accessibility. Drainage is another factor that should be taken into account to provide comfort in different weather conditions.

Different kinds of plants (trees, shrubs, flowers, grass etc.) can be used in the design of urban squares for different purposes such as aesthetics, shading, or visual screening. Plants also help to soften the strong and sometimes disturbing effects of hard surfaces or sharp lines. Flowering plants may also add variety to the perceived environment in terms of color and scent. Green is known for its calming and relaxing effect; hence plants might be used in order to create places for relaxation and resting. In hot climates, trees provide users with shade areas. If there is a focal point within the square like a monument, plants can be used to create a background to emphasize its visual effect. However designers should avoid using too many plants to preserve the square's main character.

Plant material should be selected based on the climate. This will reduce the maintenance costs and increase the success of plantation. There are many plants which present aesthetically pleasing and attractive changes in color and texture (like *Acer* species), in

different seasons. Some trees have appealing visual effects in winter because of their geometry or color of trunks and branches, such as *Betula alba* and *Cornus alba*. Plants with poisonous fruits (e.g. *Taxus baccata, Aucuba japonica, Viburnum lantana* etc.) should not be used, especially within the reach of children. Plants can also be used for creating enclosure or dividing the space into subareas.

Designing Urban Squares 527

conditions. Sharp corners or edges may harm people. The surrounding architectural character should also be considered when selecting the materials and forms. Designers should avoid selecting too many different materials for different items. All site furniture

Seats can be placed either at regular intervals or as groups in different parts of the urban square. Moveable chairs or seats may make it more fun and enjoyable. They can also allow use of space for different activities at different times. Benches or seats are not necessary for providing users with a place to sit on. Walls or steps can also be used as seating places.

Seating is one of the key elements in a public square. Seating makes it possible for users to view, observe, and enjoy the environment. It also increases the users' time spent within the space. Therefore view of the space and orientation should be taken into account in the placement of seats. Seats should not be back directly to roads or passing users [27]. Designers should keep in mind that seating can act like social catalyst when well-designed.

Good quality lighting is necessary for users' safety and comfort at night. Lighting can also be combined with other design elements to create attractive and visually appealing environments. Direction signs should be legible and clear. Too many direction signs may

Site furniture should be placed carefully and in coherence with the overall space design. Pedestrian movement and activity areas should not be obstructed. Site furniture contributes to the quality of overall design, but they should not be the dominant items in the square.

Focal points elements might be useful to attract users while contributing to the square's identity and image. A focal point can be created by using any design element (e.g. water fountain) or public art works (e.g. sculptures, monuments). However, placing focal point elements at the center of the square is not always necessary. Sitte (1965) suggests that the centre of the squares should be kept free and focal elements should be placed along to edge,

Today as public spaces decline, concerns for the vitality and liveability of the cities increase. People are the main ingredients of the city and without public spaces it is impossible to establish a physical and mental connection between public and urban environment. Urban public spaces have been negatively affected by globalization and privatization. Furthermore increasing individualism has caused social fragmantation within the communities which presents itself in the changing use of public spaces. Internet has become a major component of our daily lives. Besides its economical, educational and time saving benefits, it has also dramatically changed public life. Internet has created virtual environments where people prefer to spend their time rather than going out. Social relations are necessary for the

should be harmonious with each other in order to provide integrity in design.

Social comfort enables spontaneous social interactions and activities [29].

cause confusion and create a chaotic environment.

*Focal Point Elements* 

close to pedestrian routes [6].

**4. Conclusions** 

Water surfaces are landscape elements commonly used in public squares to create a focal point or aesthetically pleasing views. Water can be used in different types; as still water, running water, fountains, or combination of these. Still water surfaces create a more relaxing and tranquil environment while fountains, cascades and other running water surfaces add movement, vibrancy and dynamism to the space. For environmentally sustainable and lowcost maintenance, use of recycled water and rain-water systems should be integrated into the design. Together with lighting, water bodies and plants can be very attractive for users at night time (Figure 10).

**Figure 10.** Victoria square, Birmingham, UK [28].

#### *Site furniture*

Seats/benches, outdoor luminaries, trash bins, direction signs are the most used site furniture items in open public spaces. Functionality comes first when selecting or designing the right site furniture. Materials used must be durable to outdoor and changing climate conditions. Sharp corners or edges may harm people. The surrounding architectural character should also be considered when selecting the materials and forms. Designers should avoid selecting too many different materials for different items. All site furniture should be harmonious with each other in order to provide integrity in design.

Seats can be placed either at regular intervals or as groups in different parts of the urban square. Moveable chairs or seats may make it more fun and enjoyable. They can also allow use of space for different activities at different times. Benches or seats are not necessary for providing users with a place to sit on. Walls or steps can also be used as seating places.

Seating is one of the key elements in a public square. Seating makes it possible for users to view, observe, and enjoy the environment. It also increases the users' time spent within the space. Therefore view of the space and orientation should be taken into account in the placement of seats. Seats should not be back directly to roads or passing users [27]. Designers should keep in mind that seating can act like social catalyst when well-designed. Social comfort enables spontaneous social interactions and activities [29].

Good quality lighting is necessary for users' safety and comfort at night. Lighting can also be combined with other design elements to create attractive and visually appealing environments. Direction signs should be legible and clear. Too many direction signs may cause confusion and create a chaotic environment.

Site furniture should be placed carefully and in coherence with the overall space design. Pedestrian movement and activity areas should not be obstructed. Site furniture contributes to the quality of overall design, but they should not be the dominant items in the square.

### *Focal Point Elements*

526 Advances in Landscape Architecture

at night time (Figure 10).

or dividing the space into subareas.

**Figure 10.** Victoria square, Birmingham, UK [28].

*Site furniture* 

different seasons. Some trees have appealing visual effects in winter because of their geometry or color of trunks and branches, such as *Betula alba* and *Cornus alba*. Plants with poisonous fruits (e.g. *Taxus baccata, Aucuba japonica, Viburnum lantana* etc.) should not be used, especially within the reach of children. Plants can also be used for creating enclosure

Water surfaces are landscape elements commonly used in public squares to create a focal point or aesthetically pleasing views. Water can be used in different types; as still water, running water, fountains, or combination of these. Still water surfaces create a more relaxing and tranquil environment while fountains, cascades and other running water surfaces add movement, vibrancy and dynamism to the space. For environmentally sustainable and lowcost maintenance, use of recycled water and rain-water systems should be integrated into the design. Together with lighting, water bodies and plants can be very attractive for users

Seats/benches, outdoor luminaries, trash bins, direction signs are the most used site furniture items in open public spaces. Functionality comes first when selecting or designing the right site furniture. Materials used must be durable to outdoor and changing climate Focal points elements might be useful to attract users while contributing to the square's identity and image. A focal point can be created by using any design element (e.g. water fountain) or public art works (e.g. sculptures, monuments). However, placing focal point elements at the center of the square is not always necessary. Sitte (1965) suggests that the centre of the squares should be kept free and focal elements should be placed along to edge, close to pedestrian routes [6].

## **4. Conclusions**

Today as public spaces decline, concerns for the vitality and liveability of the cities increase. People are the main ingredients of the city and without public spaces it is impossible to establish a physical and mental connection between public and urban environment. Urban public spaces have been negatively affected by globalization and privatization. Furthermore increasing individualism has caused social fragmantation within the communities which presents itself in the changing use of public spaces. Internet has become a major component of our daily lives. Besides its economical, educational and time saving benefits, it has also dramatically changed public life. Internet has created virtual environments where people prefer to spend their time rather than going out. Social relations are necessary for the

cohesion of communities, and local and national identity. In this context, urban public spaces are important venues for creating social relations between people.

Designing Urban Squares 529

**5. References** 

2012; 156-173.

Journal of Urban Design 2010; 15(1) 123-148.

and Robin Osborne, Blackwell Publishing, 2007; 164-181.

Design 2010; 15(2) 157-173.

East Technical University, 2007.

[16] The Greater Municipality of İstanbul.

g, (Accessed:13.11.2012).

(Accessed:13.11.2012).

[20] Times Square Alliance.

[14] http://www.sozluk.org/p/415, (Accessed:13.11.2012). [15] http:// hurriyet.com.tr# (Accessed:13.11.2012).

[17] The European Square Conference Report, 2002,

College of Art and Heriot-Watt University: 2003.

Masaryk University,

[1] Carmona M. Contemporary public space: critique and classification, Part one: critique.

[2] Carmona M. Contemporary public space, Part two: classification. Journal of Urban

[3] Levy B. Urban Square as the Place of History, Memory, Identity, In : Dusica Drazic, Slavica Radisic, Marijana Simu (eds), Memory of the City, Kulturklammer, Belgrade,

[6] Zeka B. The humanistic meaning of urban squares: the case of Çayyolu urban square project. MSc Thesis, Middle East Technical University, Ankara. 2011; 241 pages. [7] http://www.upf.edu/materials/fhuma/portal\_geos/tag/t2/t2.htm, (Accessed:15.11.2012). [8] Xing N. and Siu KWM. Historic definitions of public space: Inspiration for high quality

[9] http://courses.umass.edu/latour/Italy/RomanForum/index.html, (Accessed:13.11.2012). [10] İlkay Y. The political struggle on and at public space. Master of Science thesis, Middle

[13] Sedláková M. Social Meaning of a Market on Husitská Street in Brno. Diploma Work,

http://www.ibb.gov.tr/sites/ks/Gallery/IstanbulGallery/\_w/sultanahmet\_camii\_1\_jpg.jp

[18] Büyükcivelek A.B. Meydan- Kent Meydan (Square- Urban square). In: Ersoy M. (ed.) Kentsel Planlama Ansiklopedik Sözlük. Ankara: Ninova Publishing; 2012. p.342-344. [19] Morris N. Health, well-being and open open space: literature review. Edinburgh

[21] Hamel P. Contemporary cities and the renewal of local democracy. In: Booth P. and Jouve B. (eds.) Metropolitan Democracies: transformations of the state and urban policy

[4] www.urbansquares.com/images/resources/lecturetext.pdf, (Accessed:01.11.2012). [5] Hölscher T. Urban Spaces and Central Places, Classical Archeology, Ed:Susan E. Alcock

public space. The International Journal of Humanities, 2010; 7(11) 39-56.

[11] http://webs.wofford.edu/davisgr/i2006/intinerary.htm, (Accessed:13.11.2012). [12] http://unicaroma2010.it/drupal6/content/contact-us, (Accessed:13.11.2012).

http://is.muni.cz/th/103165/fss\_m/diploma\_final.pdf, Accessed:15.11.2012.

http://www.livablecities.org/articles/european-square-conference-report,

http://www.timessquarenyc.org/index.aspx (accessed:01.12.2012).

in Canada, France and Great Britain. England: Ashgate; 2005. p.31-46.

Besides the social dimension, urban open spaces also contribute to the city image and overall quality of the physical environment. Decentralization and urban expansion are major issues in the sustainability of contemporary urban environments. If urban public spaces had not been ignored by urban designers and planners, decentralization might have been prevented to some point.

As one of the significant open public spaces, urban squares are fundamental city elements in democratic and livable cities. Therefore it is needed to recreate and design urban squares to enliven the public life and establish social cohesion. In this chapter besides the literature review, I recommended some design basics in creating successful urban public squares. Besides the physical dimension of design process, psychological aspects should also be taken into account by urban designers and planners. Physical design of urban public spaces can only be successful if safety, comfort, engagement and satisfaction of users are provided. In summary basic design principles for urban squares can be listed as:


Urban public squares are more than just physical spaces; they have symbolic meaning for people. They are vibrant, active and interesting places. Most of the contemporary urban squares involve a historical value or importance for the community, as well as for the tourists and visitors. Hence, authorities should realize that urban public squares are essential for enhancing city image and community development.

Unfortunately, modern Turkey couldn't preserve many of its public squares, especially in metropolitan areas. What is now called a "square" often functions as crossroads and is occupied by vehicle traffic. Although traditional public squares in Turkish cities differ from European examples, they still have a cultural and social importance in public life. Hence, it is urgently needed to develop design and management strategies for urban public squares in order to prevent losing a vital part of the city and the community.

## **Author details**

Murat Z. Memluk *Department of Landscape Architecture, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey*

### **5. References**

528 Advances in Landscape Architecture

prevented to some point.

**Author details** 

Murat Z. Memluk

cohesion of communities, and local and national identity. In this context, urban public

Besides the social dimension, urban open spaces also contribute to the city image and overall quality of the physical environment. Decentralization and urban expansion are major issues in the sustainability of contemporary urban environments. If urban public spaces had not been ignored by urban designers and planners, decentralization might have been

As one of the significant open public spaces, urban squares are fundamental city elements in democratic and livable cities. Therefore it is needed to recreate and design urban squares to enliven the public life and establish social cohesion. In this chapter besides the literature review, I recommended some design basics in creating successful urban public squares. Besides the physical dimension of design process, psychological aspects should also be taken into account by urban designers and planners. Physical design of urban public spaces can only be successful if safety, comfort, engagement and satisfaction of users are provided.

To achieve environmental sustainability and low-cost maintenance through

Urban public squares are more than just physical spaces; they have symbolic meaning for people. They are vibrant, active and interesting places. Most of the contemporary urban squares involve a historical value or importance for the community, as well as for the tourists and visitors. Hence, authorities should realize that urban public squares are

Unfortunately, modern Turkey couldn't preserve many of its public squares, especially in metropolitan areas. What is now called a "square" often functions as crossroads and is occupied by vehicle traffic. Although traditional public squares in Turkish cities differ from European examples, they still have a cultural and social importance in public life. Hence, it is urgently needed to develop design and management strategies for urban public squares

spaces are important venues for creating social relations between people.

In summary basic design principles for urban squares can be listed as:

To promote public use and participation,

To enhance the character of the environment,

environmental friendly design strategies.

To promote art, cultural activities and entertainment.

essential for enhancing city image and community development.

in order to prevent losing a vital part of the city and the community.

*Department of Landscape Architecture, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey*

To create identity, sense of place and contribute to the overall city image,

To encourage social activities, communication and social integration,

 To create a public square which is legible, enjoyable and long-lasting, To create both physically and socially accessible environments,

	- http://is.muni.cz/th/103165/fss\_m/diploma\_final.pdf, Accessed:15.11.2012.

[22] Carr S., Francis M., Rivlin, L. and Stone, A. Public Space. Cambridge: University Press: 1992. 400 pages.

**Chapter 20** 

© 2013 Aina et al., licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

**Towards an Integrative Theory Approach to** 

Sustainable urban design connotes a new relationship between the natural environment, urban form and structure, economic and institutional processes, and social livelihood. It requires a transformation of the existing socio-economic, environmental and urban design settings. Atkinson and Ting (2002) conceptualize sustainable urban design as an attempt to recognize the complex and hitherto-neglected relationship between the natural environment (sustainable) and the city as artefact (urban design). It seeks to enable the natural processes that sustain life to remain intact and to continue functioning alongside initiatives for the improvement of individual quality of life and the well being of the society. Sustainable urban design adopts a systemic and synergistic reorganization of environmental, economic and socio-economic goals that enhances the long-term health of natural systems and the vitality of urban communities (Wheeler, 1998). The concept of sustainable urban design requires a comprehensive framework of new urban design ethic to promote sustainable cities. Different authors have elaborated on the frameworks and guidelines of incorporating the principles of sustainable development in urban design (Carmona, 2001; Frey, 1999; Jenks and Burgess, 2000; Jabareen, 2006; Adhya et al., 2010). However, there is no agreed straitjacket framework of sustainable urban design. The context in which the principle is applied determines the form of sustainable urban design. The challenge is to develop the

In Saudi Arabia, the spate of modernization has led to the replacement of traditional urban structure and form by Western models of urban form and design. This has resulted in problematic urban development (Fathy, 1973; Brown, 1973; Alshuwaikhat and Khaled, 1993; Al-Hathloul, 1981; Elaraby, 1996; Bianca, 2000; Al-Hemaidi, 2001; Eben Saleh, 2002) as

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Sustainable Urban Design in Saudi Arabia:** 

**The Value of GeoDesign** 

Y.A. Aina, A. Al-Naser and S.B. Garba

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55888

**1. Introduction** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

appropriate urban design guidelines for a particular local context.


## **Towards an Integrative Theory Approach to Sustainable Urban Design in Saudi Arabia: The Value of GeoDesign**

Y.A. Aina, A. Al-Naser and S.B. Garba

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55888

## **1. Introduction**

530 Advances in Landscape Architecture

1992. 400 pages.

and USA: Elsevier; 2010.

in Famagusta. Cities 2004; 21 (3): 225-32.

[27] Anonymous. Urban Squares. 2009. Available from:

Type%20-%20Urban%20Squares.pdf (accessed: 03.12.2012).

[29] http://www.pps.org/reference/generalseating/ (accessed 07.12.2012)

[22] Carr S., Francis M., Rivlin, L. and Stone, A. Public Space. Cambridge: University Press:

[23] Pasaogullar N. and Doratli N. measuring accessibility and utilization of public spaces

[24] Carmona M., Tiesdell S., Heath T., Oc T. Public Places Urban Spaces, 2nd Edition. UK

[25] Hsu B. urban Square as a Theatre: Issues of continuity and discontinuity in urban design. Master of Science Thesis. Massachusetts nstitute of technology: 1993. [26] Anonymous. http://predmet.fa.uni-lj.si/siwinds/s1/u2/su1/ (accessed:01.12.2012)

http://www.healthyplaces.org.au/userfiles/file/Development%20type/Development%20

[28] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victoria\_Square\_at\_Night.jpg (accessed 07.12.2012)

Sustainable urban design connotes a new relationship between the natural environment, urban form and structure, economic and institutional processes, and social livelihood. It requires a transformation of the existing socio-economic, environmental and urban design settings. Atkinson and Ting (2002) conceptualize sustainable urban design as an attempt to recognize the complex and hitherto-neglected relationship between the natural environment (sustainable) and the city as artefact (urban design). It seeks to enable the natural processes that sustain life to remain intact and to continue functioning alongside initiatives for the improvement of individual quality of life and the well being of the society. Sustainable urban design adopts a systemic and synergistic reorganization of environmental, economic and socio-economic goals that enhances the long-term health of natural systems and the vitality of urban communities (Wheeler, 1998). The concept of sustainable urban design requires a comprehensive framework of new urban design ethic to promote sustainable cities. Different authors have elaborated on the frameworks and guidelines of incorporating the principles of sustainable development in urban design (Carmona, 2001; Frey, 1999; Jenks and Burgess, 2000; Jabareen, 2006; Adhya et al., 2010). However, there is no agreed straitjacket framework of sustainable urban design. The context in which the principle is applied determines the form of sustainable urban design. The challenge is to develop the appropriate urban design guidelines for a particular local context.

In Saudi Arabia, the spate of modernization has led to the replacement of traditional urban structure and form by Western models of urban form and design. This has resulted in problematic urban development (Fathy, 1973; Brown, 1973; Alshuwaikhat and Khaled, 1993; Al-Hathloul, 1981; Elaraby, 1996; Bianca, 2000; Al-Hemaidi, 2001; Eben Saleh, 2002) as

<sup>© 2013</sup> Aina et al., licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Western models are adopted without recourse to the underlying principles and sociocultural background of the traditional form. In the drive towards sustainable cities through design, the challenge is to develop a framework that will adapt traditional urban form to changes in the face of Western models of urban form. This chapter proposes that there is a need to reorient the approach to urban design and development in favour of an approach that is integrative in terms of theory and provides for sustainable development. It examines the urban design problems in Saudi urban development, highlights the sustainability issues, proposes an integrative framework to address the issues and lays out the basic parameters of the framework and some cases of its application.

Towards an Integrative Theory Approach to

Sustainable Urban Design in Saudi Arabia: The Value of GeoDesign 533

governance and management (Jenks and Burgess, 2000). Planning and urban design are interlinked with the dynamics of urban transformation and have been recognized as having a vital role in the management of urban development. Land use planning and urban design influence urban structure and form which eventually generate social and economic activities within the city. The BEQUEST framework for sustainable urban development identified urban design as one of the activities that influence sustainability (Deakin et al., 2002). Jenks and Burgess (2000) also observed that the manipulation of urban form, and the provision of better forms of governance, may go some way to overcome city problems. In addition, the study by Banister et al. (1997) concluded that significant relationship exists between energy use in transport and physical characteristics of the city such as density, size and amount of

Further empirical studies have shown that urban form and structure influence the social configuration (Burton, 2000), economic efficiency (Cervero, 2001) and environmental performance (Adolphe, 2001) of the city. Adolphe (2001) asserted that urban configuration influences outdoor climate conditions, energy balance of building and diffusion of pollutants while Burton (2000) highlighted the negative and positive influences of urban compactness on social equity. The findings by Cervero (2001) suggested that the urban form and mobility characteristics of metropolitan areas have some bearing on economic performance. In essence, there is an interrelationship between the spatial, physical, and structural characteristics of a city and its functional, socio-economic and environmental

qualities and this relationship should be explored to foster liveable cities (Frey, 1999).

sustainability into urban design through sustainable urban design.

Traditionally, urban design considers the relationship between urban structural elements, socio-economic activities and environmental quality. Lynch (1960) elaborated on the visual quality of the city and highlighted elements that are crucial to the imageability of a city. His emphasis on the interrelationship of these elements and the physical environmental quality of the city became analytical means of promoting city liveability. Gosling and Maitland (1984) lucidly stated that the physical design of the city cannot be isolated from the problematic context of existing cities and highlighted the problems that concern designers as economic, engineering considerations, social and ecological. Evidently, the emergence of the concept of sustainable development has boosted the incorporation of social, economic and environmental dimensions in urban design process. The principles of sustainable development require a balance consideration of social, economic and environmental implications of development activities. Urban designers seek to incorporate the principles of

In Saudi Arabia, like other Middle East countries, there is growing awareness of the unsustainable water and energy consumption. Domestic energy demand is increasing due to automobile dependence and use of energy dependent air conditioners for cooling (Elgendy, 2011; Taleb and Sharples, 2011; Almatawa et al., 2012). Saudi Arabia consumes about one third of its oil production (Elgendy, 2011) and buildings are consuming about 30% of domestic usage (Almatawa et al., 2012). Water production by desalination depends on fossil energy and high water demand influences energy demand. There are indications that the usage of water has not been efficient due to wastage (Garba, 2004; Elgendy, 2011)

open space.

## **2. The integrative theory approach**

The integrative theory approach was suggested by Sternberg (2000) in an effort to establish a theoretical foundation for urban design. Sternberg (2000) observed that urban design had been relying on techniques and ideas that have no clear theoretical basis and suggested an integrative approach to defining the foundations of urban design. He posited that "ideas that inform urban design usually coalesce around contending approaches" and shared principles of these approaches should be integrated to establish a general theory of urban design. Sternberg (2000) highlighted four elements of integrative urban design that include good form, legibility, vitality and meaning. The principles are mainly related to the substantive aspect of urban design due to the need for "a complement to procedural theory: a substantive planning theory that sheds light on the specific concerns of the urban designer" (Sternberg, 2000).

In his article, Sternberg (2000) highlighted some criteria (referred to as challenges) that an integrative theory should fulfill. The set of criteria include highlighting the underlying principles of contending approaches, addressing substantive urban design issues, awareness of the "constituents of human experience of built form", unifying economic and architectural traditions and being realistic and practical. These criteria are used as reference in developing an integrative framework for sustainable urban design in Saudi Arabia. Urban design principles in Saudi could be considered to be generating from, at least, three sources; traditional urban design principles, contemporary or conventional urban design principles and recently emerging sustainable urban design principles. The idea is to integrate the underlying principles of these sources.

## **3. Sustainable urban design: A paradigm shift**

## **3.1. The rationale for sustainable urban design**

The spatial organization of cities in terms of structure and forms is rapidly being influenced by economic forces at the detriment of social and environmental factors. For this reason, cities are characterized by physical and environmental problems in terms of inadequate infrastructure, deteriorating environmental quality and congestion. Urban problems do not arise from the inherent nature of the cities but due to the absence of effective urban governance and management (Jenks and Burgess, 2000). Planning and urban design are interlinked with the dynamics of urban transformation and have been recognized as having a vital role in the management of urban development. Land use planning and urban design influence urban structure and form which eventually generate social and economic activities within the city. The BEQUEST framework for sustainable urban development identified urban design as one of the activities that influence sustainability (Deakin et al., 2002). Jenks and Burgess (2000) also observed that the manipulation of urban form, and the provision of better forms of governance, may go some way to overcome city problems. In addition, the study by Banister et al. (1997) concluded that significant relationship exists between energy use in transport and physical characteristics of the city such as density, size and amount of open space.

532 Advances in Landscape Architecture

of the framework and some cases of its application.

integrate the underlying principles of these sources.

**3.1. The rationale for sustainable urban design** 

**3. Sustainable urban design: A paradigm shift** 

**2. The integrative theory approach** 

designer" (Sternberg, 2000).

Western models are adopted without recourse to the underlying principles and sociocultural background of the traditional form. In the drive towards sustainable cities through design, the challenge is to develop a framework that will adapt traditional urban form to changes in the face of Western models of urban form. This chapter proposes that there is a need to reorient the approach to urban design and development in favour of an approach that is integrative in terms of theory and provides for sustainable development. It examines the urban design problems in Saudi urban development, highlights the sustainability issues, proposes an integrative framework to address the issues and lays out the basic parameters

The integrative theory approach was suggested by Sternberg (2000) in an effort to establish a theoretical foundation for urban design. Sternberg (2000) observed that urban design had been relying on techniques and ideas that have no clear theoretical basis and suggested an integrative approach to defining the foundations of urban design. He posited that "ideas that inform urban design usually coalesce around contending approaches" and shared principles of these approaches should be integrated to establish a general theory of urban design. Sternberg (2000) highlighted four elements of integrative urban design that include good form, legibility, vitality and meaning. The principles are mainly related to the substantive aspect of urban design due to the need for "a complement to procedural theory: a substantive planning theory that sheds light on the specific concerns of the urban

In his article, Sternberg (2000) highlighted some criteria (referred to as challenges) that an integrative theory should fulfill. The set of criteria include highlighting the underlying principles of contending approaches, addressing substantive urban design issues, awareness of the "constituents of human experience of built form", unifying economic and architectural traditions and being realistic and practical. These criteria are used as reference in developing an integrative framework for sustainable urban design in Saudi Arabia. Urban design principles in Saudi could be considered to be generating from, at least, three sources; traditional urban design principles, contemporary or conventional urban design principles and recently emerging sustainable urban design principles. The idea is to

The spatial organization of cities in terms of structure and forms is rapidly being influenced by economic forces at the detriment of social and environmental factors. For this reason, cities are characterized by physical and environmental problems in terms of inadequate infrastructure, deteriorating environmental quality and congestion. Urban problems do not arise from the inherent nature of the cities but due to the absence of effective urban Further empirical studies have shown that urban form and structure influence the social configuration (Burton, 2000), economic efficiency (Cervero, 2001) and environmental performance (Adolphe, 2001) of the city. Adolphe (2001) asserted that urban configuration influences outdoor climate conditions, energy balance of building and diffusion of pollutants while Burton (2000) highlighted the negative and positive influences of urban compactness on social equity. The findings by Cervero (2001) suggested that the urban form and mobility characteristics of metropolitan areas have some bearing on economic performance. In essence, there is an interrelationship between the spatial, physical, and structural characteristics of a city and its functional, socio-economic and environmental qualities and this relationship should be explored to foster liveable cities (Frey, 1999).

Traditionally, urban design considers the relationship between urban structural elements, socio-economic activities and environmental quality. Lynch (1960) elaborated on the visual quality of the city and highlighted elements that are crucial to the imageability of a city. His emphasis on the interrelationship of these elements and the physical environmental quality of the city became analytical means of promoting city liveability. Gosling and Maitland (1984) lucidly stated that the physical design of the city cannot be isolated from the problematic context of existing cities and highlighted the problems that concern designers as economic, engineering considerations, social and ecological. Evidently, the emergence of the concept of sustainable development has boosted the incorporation of social, economic and environmental dimensions in urban design process. The principles of sustainable development require a balance consideration of social, economic and environmental implications of development activities. Urban designers seek to incorporate the principles of sustainability into urban design through sustainable urban design.

In Saudi Arabia, like other Middle East countries, there is growing awareness of the unsustainable water and energy consumption. Domestic energy demand is increasing due to automobile dependence and use of energy dependent air conditioners for cooling (Elgendy, 2011; Taleb and Sharples, 2011; Almatawa et al., 2012). Saudi Arabia consumes about one third of its oil production (Elgendy, 2011) and buildings are consuming about 30% of domestic usage (Almatawa et al., 2012). Water production by desalination depends on fossil energy and high water demand influences energy demand. There are indications that the usage of water has not been efficient due to wastage (Garba, 2004; Elgendy, 2011)

and high energy consumption and automobile dependence might have led to air and noise pollution in a typical Saudi city (Alshuwaikhat and Aina, 2006). Therefore, there is the imperative to charter a new course that is more sustainable. Elgendy (2010) and Mills et al. (2012) highlighted the recent drive by Middle East governments to start initiatives that will foster sustainable built environment.

Towards an Integrative Theory Approach to

Sustainable Urban Design in Saudi Arabia: The Value of GeoDesign 535

Saudi Arabia does have some specific characteristics that are peculiar to it. The old Jeddah town was significantly different from other Islamic cities by its lack of central space allocated to governmental or religious institutions (Fig. 2). The core of old Jeddah emerged around the central 'suq' or market surrounded by residential quarters (Khan, 1981). Nevertheless, the social and communal activity still centred on the mosque. The main arteries are very few numbering about five, including the major axis along the 'suq' or market. The width of the roads varied according to function and location. The narrower lanes were located within residential quarter (Fig. 3) while the wider streets served the

shopping areas and transportation of goods.

**Figure 2.** Street patterns in old Jeddah (Source: Google earth)

"Mashrabiyah" for privacy)

**Figure 3.** A narrow street in Old Jeddah (buildings have traditional wooden window screen

## **3.2. Saudi pattern of urban development**

## *3.2.1. Traditional urban form in Saudi Arabia*

The traditional urban form in Saudi Arabia is similar to that of most traditional Muslim cities. The traditional urban fabric is characterized by organic narrow winding street pattern, with homogeneous arrangement of housing plots. The houses open inward in form of courtyards (Fig. 1) and are centred on mosques, markets 'suqs' and madrassas. As noted by Bianca (2000), "the formation of the urban structure is not subject to the purely quantitative division of large space into smaller fragments but based on an incremental or 'organic' aggregation process, originating in the definition of socially relevant micro-spaces which are then connected into larger units. The enclosure of voids by correlated solids, repeated in countless variations, is the generating principle of urban form". Pacione (2001) highlighted the elements of traditional Islamic city as the obviation of the need for public buildings; the centring of city on mosques that provide a range of welfare and education functions; the bazaar or 'suq'; the residential fabric that is composed of a compact structure of open courtyard houses; and the irregular street pattern. The irregularity of forms of the traditional urban fabric does not necessarily connote lack of order but depicts coherent and harmonious integration of diverse elements to make a whole.

**Figure 1.** Traditional courtyards (Source: Arriyadh Development Authority)

In spite of the general elements attributed to the traditional urban fabric, there are notable variations from place to place. The old Jeddah as a typical example of traditional town in Saudi Arabia does have some specific characteristics that are peculiar to it. The old Jeddah town was significantly different from other Islamic cities by its lack of central space allocated to governmental or religious institutions (Fig. 2). The core of old Jeddah emerged around the central 'suq' or market surrounded by residential quarters (Khan, 1981). Nevertheless, the social and communal activity still centred on the mosque. The main arteries are very few numbering about five, including the major axis along the 'suq' or market. The width of the roads varied according to function and location. The narrower lanes were located within residential quarter (Fig. 3) while the wider streets served the shopping areas and transportation of goods.

**Figure 2.** Street patterns in old Jeddah (Source: Google earth)

534 Advances in Landscape Architecture

foster sustainable built environment.

**3.2. Saudi pattern of urban development** 

*3.2.1. Traditional urban form in Saudi Arabia* 

harmonious integration of diverse elements to make a whole.

**Figure 1.** Traditional courtyards (Source: Arriyadh Development Authority)

In spite of the general elements attributed to the traditional urban fabric, there are notable variations from place to place. The old Jeddah as a typical example of traditional town in

and high energy consumption and automobile dependence might have led to air and noise pollution in a typical Saudi city (Alshuwaikhat and Aina, 2006). Therefore, there is the imperative to charter a new course that is more sustainable. Elgendy (2010) and Mills et al. (2012) highlighted the recent drive by Middle East governments to start initiatives that will

The traditional urban form in Saudi Arabia is similar to that of most traditional Muslim cities. The traditional urban fabric is characterized by organic narrow winding street pattern, with homogeneous arrangement of housing plots. The houses open inward in form of courtyards (Fig. 1) and are centred on mosques, markets 'suqs' and madrassas. As noted by Bianca (2000), "the formation of the urban structure is not subject to the purely quantitative division of large space into smaller fragments but based on an incremental or 'organic' aggregation process, originating in the definition of socially relevant micro-spaces which are then connected into larger units. The enclosure of voids by correlated solids, repeated in countless variations, is the generating principle of urban form". Pacione (2001) highlighted the elements of traditional Islamic city as the obviation of the need for public buildings; the centring of city on mosques that provide a range of welfare and education functions; the bazaar or 'suq'; the residential fabric that is composed of a compact structure of open courtyard houses; and the irregular street pattern. The irregularity of forms of the traditional urban fabric does not necessarily connote lack of order but depicts coherent and

**Figure 3.** A narrow street in Old Jeddah (buildings have traditional wooden window screen "Mashrabiyah" for privacy)

Religious, environmental, socio-economic and cultural factors have been cited as having influences on the elements of the traditional urban fabric. For instance, the introverted housing pattern of courtyards have stemmed from the religious concept of privacy and adaptation to the local climate. Also, the irregular street pattern reflects an adaptation to the local climate by maximizing shade. In essence the traditional urban fabric exemplified adaptation to local environment, integration of socio-economic and religious-cultural principles in developing harmonious and liveable society. The balance of socio-economic, environmental, religious and cultural factors in development of traditional urban fabric is exemplary and noteworthy. In the first instance, the origin of the city could be based on environmental, socio-economic or religious considerations. Availability of water or good agricultural land could serve as considerable environmental factor for locating traditional cities. After which the city is developed in an incremental manner without a 'formalized' planning but with a general concept of harmony, coherence and liveability.

Towards an Integrative Theory Approach to

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1373/1957 when government headquarters was moved from Makkah to Riyadh. Al-Malaz was planned following a grid-iron pattern with an hierarchy of streets, rectangular blocks, and large lots which in most cases are square in shape (Fig. 4) (Al-Said, 1992). The main thoroughfares are 30 meters in width, secondary streets 20 meters, and minor streets or access streets of 10 and 15 meters. The block areas are 100 by 50 meters. The typical lot size is 25 by 25 meters, with some variations in width (Al-Said, 1992). The Al-Malaz neighbourhood structural pattern was consequent upon the contemporary building requirements which stipulated the planning of the land, subdivision with cement poles,

heights of the buildings, setbacks and square lot ratio of the buildings.

**Figure 4.** Structural pattern of Al-Malaz neighbourhood (Source: Google earth)

mechanical while the traditional model is static and human in scale.

The contemporary urban pattern is mainly driven by economic considerations and formalized planning legislations. The streets are widened (Fig. 5) to maintain fast connectivity among different sectors of the city through the automobile. Urban development activities are evaluated mainly by economic efficiency and traffic considerations with the neglect of socio-cultural and environmental dimensions. The contemporary model of urban design encourages the extensive use of space and the fragmentation of functional spaces. In essence, the contemporary model contrasts the traditional model by being dynamic and

The contemporary/modern model of urban form has been found to be in conflict with some indigenous socio-cultural, environmental, economic and structural concepts. For instance, in the traditional Arab-Islamic society privacy was very important but the introduction of setbacks allowed adjoining buildings to open their windows outward thereby infringing on the privacy of other dwellings (Eben Saleh, 2002). Also, the introduction of glazed glasses as building materials results in additional costs of cooling and heating during the extremes of climate in summer and winter. These notable conflicts rendered contemporary model of urban design to be problematic. The residents have rejected contemporary urban form by

*3.2.3. Issues and problems in contemporary urban form* 

The spatial geometry of the traditional urban fabric seems to have developed from lack of planning. Far from that, the structures are planned but the planning principles are flexible enough to allow for acceptable diversity and the principles are applied by the individuals in the society as there was limited civic planning. The main sources of these principles are the religious tenets derived from the Shari'ah (Qur'an and Sunnah). Examples are the principles of privacy, private and public space. The principle of privacy might have contributed to the development of the narrow and winding streets apart from the climatic adaptation by "shading".

### *3.2.2. Contemporary urban form in Saudi Arabia*

The emergence of contemporary urban form in Saudi Arabia started in the 1930's when building regulations were enacted to guide building construction and street patterns. During this period, imported modern technologies and planning models were introduced to the country without due consideration of the local traditions and socio-cultural factors. Notable among the contemporary building regulations were the 1358/1938 King Abdulaziz's order to found Alkhobar city, the 1371/1951 ARAMCO home ownership plan and the 1960 circular by the Deputy Ministry of Interior for Municipalities. These orders and regulations set the background for the contemporary urban fabric in Saudi Arabia and the structure and pattern of cities and towns are influenced by the different regulations. Greater degree of urban transformation set in during the 1970's as a result of the economic boom and the inauguration of the Five Year Development Planning. Then, the government began a campaign of modern urban planning and systematic intervention in urban production (Eben Saleh, 2002). The new urban form was established with the grid-iron patterns and building regulations and zoning outlined compulsory setbacks and site-coverage limits. The new spatial models engendered the construction of freestanding, low-density "villa" dwellings (Eben Saleh, 2002).

Al-Malaz neighbourhood in Riyadh represents a typical Saudi contemporary urban structure. The neighbourhood, which is located 4.5 km north east of Riaydh, was planned in 1373/1957 when government headquarters was moved from Makkah to Riyadh. Al-Malaz was planned following a grid-iron pattern with an hierarchy of streets, rectangular blocks, and large lots which in most cases are square in shape (Fig. 4) (Al-Said, 1992). The main thoroughfares are 30 meters in width, secondary streets 20 meters, and minor streets or access streets of 10 and 15 meters. The block areas are 100 by 50 meters. The typical lot size is 25 by 25 meters, with some variations in width (Al-Said, 1992). The Al-Malaz neighbourhood structural pattern was consequent upon the contemporary building requirements which stipulated the planning of the land, subdivision with cement poles, heights of the buildings, setbacks and square lot ratio of the buildings.

**Figure 4.** Structural pattern of Al-Malaz neighbourhood (Source: Google earth)

## *3.2.3. Issues and problems in contemporary urban form*

536 Advances in Landscape Architecture

"shading".

(Eben Saleh, 2002).

Religious, environmental, socio-economic and cultural factors have been cited as having influences on the elements of the traditional urban fabric. For instance, the introverted housing pattern of courtyards have stemmed from the religious concept of privacy and adaptation to the local climate. Also, the irregular street pattern reflects an adaptation to the local climate by maximizing shade. In essence the traditional urban fabric exemplified adaptation to local environment, integration of socio-economic and religious-cultural principles in developing harmonious and liveable society. The balance of socio-economic, environmental, religious and cultural factors in development of traditional urban fabric is exemplary and noteworthy. In the first instance, the origin of the city could be based on environmental, socio-economic or religious considerations. Availability of water or good agricultural land could serve as considerable environmental factor for locating traditional cities. After which the city is developed in an incremental manner without a 'formalized'

The spatial geometry of the traditional urban fabric seems to have developed from lack of planning. Far from that, the structures are planned but the planning principles are flexible enough to allow for acceptable diversity and the principles are applied by the individuals in the society as there was limited civic planning. The main sources of these principles are the religious tenets derived from the Shari'ah (Qur'an and Sunnah). Examples are the principles of privacy, private and public space. The principle of privacy might have contributed to the development of the narrow and winding streets apart from the climatic adaptation by

The emergence of contemporary urban form in Saudi Arabia started in the 1930's when building regulations were enacted to guide building construction and street patterns. During this period, imported modern technologies and planning models were introduced to the country without due consideration of the local traditions and socio-cultural factors. Notable among the contemporary building regulations were the 1358/1938 King Abdulaziz's order to found Alkhobar city, the 1371/1951 ARAMCO home ownership plan and the 1960 circular by the Deputy Ministry of Interior for Municipalities. These orders and regulations set the background for the contemporary urban fabric in Saudi Arabia and the structure and pattern of cities and towns are influenced by the different regulations. Greater degree of urban transformation set in during the 1970's as a result of the economic boom and the inauguration of the Five Year Development Planning. Then, the government began a campaign of modern urban planning and systematic intervention in urban production (Eben Saleh, 2002). The new urban form was established with the grid-iron patterns and building regulations and zoning outlined compulsory setbacks and site-coverage limits. The new spatial models engendered the construction of freestanding, low-density "villa" dwellings

Al-Malaz neighbourhood in Riyadh represents a typical Saudi contemporary urban structure. The neighbourhood, which is located 4.5 km north east of Riaydh, was planned in

planning but with a general concept of harmony, coherence and liveability.

*3.2.2. Contemporary urban form in Saudi Arabia* 

The contemporary urban pattern is mainly driven by economic considerations and formalized planning legislations. The streets are widened (Fig. 5) to maintain fast connectivity among different sectors of the city through the automobile. Urban development activities are evaluated mainly by economic efficiency and traffic considerations with the neglect of socio-cultural and environmental dimensions. The contemporary model of urban design encourages the extensive use of space and the fragmentation of functional spaces. In essence, the contemporary model contrasts the traditional model by being dynamic and mechanical while the traditional model is static and human in scale.

The contemporary/modern model of urban form has been found to be in conflict with some indigenous socio-cultural, environmental, economic and structural concepts. For instance, in the traditional Arab-Islamic society privacy was very important but the introduction of setbacks allowed adjoining buildings to open their windows outward thereby infringing on the privacy of other dwellings (Eben Saleh, 2002). Also, the introduction of glazed glasses as building materials results in additional costs of cooling and heating during the extremes of climate in summer and winter. These notable conflicts rendered contemporary model of urban design to be problematic. The residents have rejected contemporary urban form by

erecting additional structures over fences to ensure privacy and by not using their yards for female activities (Al-Hemaidi, 2001). Social sustainability is also affected by the use of cars for movements within neighbourhood such as going to school, mosque or shops instead of walking (Al-Hemaidi, 2001). Thus, Elaraby (1996) opined that the new mix of Western styles of design and characters that have appeared recently have changed the spatial environment of many Islamic countries for worse. The challenge is to develop a framework of adopting the modern technology and design principles without jeopardizing the elements of traditional values, forms and design.

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In a bid to present the sustainable urban design principles in an applicable manner, Carmona (2001) elaborated on the key principles and highlighted ten basic tenets of

stewardship – integrated planning, enhancement through change and town centre

resource efficiency – economy of means, minimal environmental harm, reducing

diversity and choice – variety, permeability, mixed development and hierarchy of

human needs – legibility, aesthetics, security, low crime, social mix and imageability;

pollution reduction – low pollution and noise, water strategy, climate and air quality;

self-sufficiency – environmental literacy, local autonomy, consultation and

He also noted that the spatial scale of urban design (from local to metropolitan) should be considered in applying urban design principles. In the same vein, Frey (1999) suggested three levels of urban design interventions that include individual space, city district and city/conurbation levels. In order to be effective, urban design interventions should have development frameworks generated at these levels. Choguill (2008) argued for paying more attention to the development of sustainable neighbourhood since the city cannot be

Jabareen (2006) identified seven concepts of sustainable design that are similar to the ones developed by Carmona (2001). His principles are more specific about the issues to be

sustainable transport – design that promotes walking, cycling and transit-oriented

A number of the sustainable urban design principles enunciated above need further research to clarify effect of applying the principles on the urban environment and the direction (increasing or decreasing) of application. For instance, although different authors have tried to document the negative effects of sprawl development, the principle of concentration in form of compact city development is still debatable. As noted by Frey

addressed in fostering sustainable urban design. The concepts include:

 diversity – diversity of land uses, rents and architectural styles passive solar design – reduction of fossil fuel consumption greening – provision of adequate urban green areas

 concentration – polycentric city, compact intensification and support services; distinctiveness – heritage, creative relationship, sense of place and regional identity; biotic support – urban greening, open space, biotic support and symbiotic

sustainable urban design that are found in expounded literature. These include:

rejuvenation;

town/country;

participation.

development

services and facilities;

travel/energy reduction and recycling;

sustainable with unsustainable neighbourhood.

compactness – intensification of built form

mixed land uses – diversity of functional land uses

density – high density development

resilience – flexibility and ability to adapt to change;

**Figure 5.** A wide street of the contemporary urban form

## **3.3. Overview of sustainable urban design principles**

It is recognized that urban design could foster sustainability by incorporating the principles of sustainable development with urban design guidelines and process. Different research studies have elaborated on the key principles that should be incorporated into urban design to promote sustainability. Selman (1996) and Carmona (2001) highlighted the major tenets of sustainable development that should be integrated with urban design. These principles include intergenerational equity, public trust doctrine (maintaining environmental diversity and carrying capacity), precautionary principle, intra-generational equity, participation and polluter pays principle. Atkinson and Ting (2002) proposed a framework of transformative sustainable urban design with the following principles: acknowledgement of fundamental ecological patterns and limits, environmental and social restoration and regeneration, seeking better quality of life through liveability, employing integrative and holistic strategies and solutions and recognizing sustainable urban design as a process and product. Adhya et al. (2010) opined that sustainable urban design should be able to provide adequate answers to questions on the aesthetics of the urban form, functionality of the built environment and the sustainability of the social and economic processes.

In a bid to present the sustainable urban design principles in an applicable manner, Carmona (2001) elaborated on the key principles and highlighted ten basic tenets of sustainable urban design that are found in expounded literature. These include:


538 Advances in Landscape Architecture

traditional values, forms and design.

**Figure 5.** A wide street of the contemporary urban form

**3.3. Overview of sustainable urban design principles** 

environment and the sustainability of the social and economic processes.

It is recognized that urban design could foster sustainability by incorporating the principles of sustainable development with urban design guidelines and process. Different research studies have elaborated on the key principles that should be incorporated into urban design to promote sustainability. Selman (1996) and Carmona (2001) highlighted the major tenets of sustainable development that should be integrated with urban design. These principles include intergenerational equity, public trust doctrine (maintaining environmental diversity and carrying capacity), precautionary principle, intra-generational equity, participation and polluter pays principle. Atkinson and Ting (2002) proposed a framework of transformative sustainable urban design with the following principles: acknowledgement of fundamental ecological patterns and limits, environmental and social restoration and regeneration, seeking better quality of life through liveability, employing integrative and holistic strategies and solutions and recognizing sustainable urban design as a process and product. Adhya et al. (2010) opined that sustainable urban design should be able to provide adequate answers to questions on the aesthetics of the urban form, functionality of the built

erecting additional structures over fences to ensure privacy and by not using their yards for female activities (Al-Hemaidi, 2001). Social sustainability is also affected by the use of cars for movements within neighbourhood such as going to school, mosque or shops instead of walking (Al-Hemaidi, 2001). Thus, Elaraby (1996) opined that the new mix of Western styles of design and characters that have appeared recently have changed the spatial environment of many Islamic countries for worse. The challenge is to develop a framework of adopting the modern technology and design principles without jeopardizing the elements of


He also noted that the spatial scale of urban design (from local to metropolitan) should be considered in applying urban design principles. In the same vein, Frey (1999) suggested three levels of urban design interventions that include individual space, city district and city/conurbation levels. In order to be effective, urban design interventions should have development frameworks generated at these levels. Choguill (2008) argued for paying more attention to the development of sustainable neighbourhood since the city cannot be sustainable with unsustainable neighbourhood.

Jabareen (2006) identified seven concepts of sustainable design that are similar to the ones developed by Carmona (2001). His principles are more specific about the issues to be addressed in fostering sustainable urban design. The concepts include:


A number of the sustainable urban design principles enunciated above need further research to clarify effect of applying the principles on the urban environment and the direction (increasing or decreasing) of application. For instance, although different authors have tried to document the negative effects of sprawl development, the principle of concentration in form of compact city development is still debatable. As noted by Frey (1999) that the exact forms and structure that would render the city more sustainable remain elusive and the claims in support of one or the other urban structure are not substantiated. The compactness of the city must be decided with due consideration to the cultural, social and environmental context of the city.

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Sustainable Urban Design in Saudi Arabia: The Value of GeoDesign 541

institutional aspects (Abdulgader and Aina, 2005), are not directly under the control of urban designers. Yet, urban designers need the skills to manoeuvre the institutional framework and also promote the implementation of sustainable policies. The procedural dimension that is adapted from the study of Alshuwaikhat and Nkwenti (2002) has been highlighted above. That is, the procedure should consist of at least five principal stages of objective, guidelines, statements, design and scheme. The integration of sustainability in urban design process is necessary because the process of urban design determines the transformation of the design and the process cannot be divorced from the product. If the design process is sustainable there is likelihood that the design itself will be sustainable and consequently the community will advance towards sustainability. The issue of implementation is very important in the procedural aspect and efforts should be made to monitor and improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the implementation mechanism.

The substantive dimension proceeds from the idea of Sternberg (2000), as mentioned in section two above, that the underlying principles of the contending approaches be integrated. Thus, the underlying substantive principles of sustainable urban design should be integrated with the traditional values and principles of urban form. Elaraby (1996) expatiated on the underlying principles of traditional Islamic design and highlighted six

Unity – functional and aesthetic forms that expresses an integrated, indivisible whole

Openness of space – positive, active spaces interact with negative spaces to express

Simplicity of form and design – use of basic geometric shape and a pure modification

Simplicity of structural expression – organic relationship between structural

Scale – respect for human scale in both the whole environment and particular

Harmony, compatibility and balance – harmonious integration of structure and form;

The traditional urban and legislative elements which interacted to shape the urban form and spatial structure should also be integrated into the design process. Some of these elements are identified by Hakim (1988) as Hisba institution, Waqf, allocation of land, traditional energy saving techniques, symbolic manifestations, water extraction and surveying and

A set of principles and elements from traditional and contemporary design are selected to be integrated with the principles of sustainable urban design to engender better urban form and design (Fig. 6). As shown in figure 6, the sustainability principles include mainly the

principles which are fundamental to traditional design. These principles include:

(unity in space and pattern, in light and colour and in space and form);

**4.1. Substantive dimension – a synergy of principles** 

interrelationship between form and space;

and abstraction of geometrical form;

Privacy – respect individual right to privacy.

components;

construction techniques.

buildings;

and

The principles highlighted above are substantive, in line with the criteria by Sternberg (2000), and might not achieve sustainability without sustainable design procedure. The design process and the outcome of design should be sustainable. Alshuwaikhat and Nkwenti (2002) and Abdulgader and Aina (2005) suggested frameworks for ensuring sustainability in the urban design process. Abdulgader and Aina (2005) identified five aspects of the urban design process that should be integrated. The aspects include substantive, procedural, methodological, policy and institutional. Alshuwaikhat and Nkwenti (2002) expatiated on the procedural aspect by suggesting a design framework that is within a balanced structure of "Top-Down" and "Down-Top" dialoguing with reflection of various components of the society. The sustainable design process approach consists of five principal stages: sustainable design objectives, sustainable design guidelines, sustainable design statements, preliminary design and sustainable design scheme. This framework has to be integrated with the planning process to promote sustainability of cities. The planning and urban design process should be incremental and adaptive due to the need for flexibility and adaptation to changes in social, economic and environmental contexts. The section below includes further discussion on sustainable design process.

## **4. The integrated approach to sustainable urban design**

As illustrated in the sections above, there are at least three contending issues/concepts of urban form and design in Saudi Arabia; the heritage of the traditional urban form, modern concept of urban pattern and the emerging and overarching concept of sustainable urban design. Contemporary urban design cannot be based solely on the traditional models as the variables that have contribution to the development of urban development are fast changing and it could be very difficult and impracticable to conceptualize these changes in the light of traditional concepts alone. On the other hand, indiscriminate adoption of modern models has been found to be problematic and incompatible with the traditional city forms. "The total neglect of the traditional forms, and the implications of their meanings and values, will cause us to lose forever our heritage and architectural identity" (Al-Hemaidi, 2001). Sustainable urban design could provide the opportunity of integrating the traditional and contemporary models in a resourceful manner, as some of the relevant elements of both models are embedded in the principles of sustainable design. As noted by Liddell and Mackie (2002) that the more sustainability principles are applied to design and planning (in Northern Europe) the more these tend to take on traditional forms. However, there should be a framework that lays emphasis on the consideration of traditional concepts for the appropriate integration of these concepts in the principles of sustainable urban design.

The integrated approach to sustainable urban design should have at least three dimensions; substantive, procedural and methodological. The other two dimensions, policies and institutional aspects (Abdulgader and Aina, 2005), are not directly under the control of urban designers. Yet, urban designers need the skills to manoeuvre the institutional framework and also promote the implementation of sustainable policies. The procedural dimension that is adapted from the study of Alshuwaikhat and Nkwenti (2002) has been highlighted above. That is, the procedure should consist of at least five principal stages of objective, guidelines, statements, design and scheme. The integration of sustainability in urban design process is necessary because the process of urban design determines the transformation of the design and the process cannot be divorced from the product. If the design process is sustainable there is likelihood that the design itself will be sustainable and consequently the community will advance towards sustainability. The issue of implementation is very important in the procedural aspect and efforts should be made to monitor and improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the implementation mechanism.

## **4.1. Substantive dimension – a synergy of principles**

540 Advances in Landscape Architecture

and environmental context of the city.

(1999) that the exact forms and structure that would render the city more sustainable remain elusive and the claims in support of one or the other urban structure are not substantiated. The compactness of the city must be decided with due consideration to the cultural, social

The principles highlighted above are substantive, in line with the criteria by Sternberg (2000), and might not achieve sustainability without sustainable design procedure. The design process and the outcome of design should be sustainable. Alshuwaikhat and Nkwenti (2002) and Abdulgader and Aina (2005) suggested frameworks for ensuring sustainability in the urban design process. Abdulgader and Aina (2005) identified five aspects of the urban design process that should be integrated. The aspects include substantive, procedural, methodological, policy and institutional. Alshuwaikhat and Nkwenti (2002) expatiated on the procedural aspect by suggesting a design framework that is within a balanced structure of "Top-Down" and "Down-Top" dialoguing with reflection of various components of the society. The sustainable design process approach consists of five principal stages: sustainable design objectives, sustainable design guidelines, sustainable design statements, preliminary design and sustainable design scheme. This framework has to be integrated with the planning process to promote sustainability of cities. The planning and urban design process should be incremental and adaptive due to the need for flexibility and adaptation to changes in social, economic and environmental contexts.

The section below includes further discussion on sustainable design process.

As illustrated in the sections above, there are at least three contending issues/concepts of urban form and design in Saudi Arabia; the heritage of the traditional urban form, modern concept of urban pattern and the emerging and overarching concept of sustainable urban design. Contemporary urban design cannot be based solely on the traditional models as the variables that have contribution to the development of urban development are fast changing and it could be very difficult and impracticable to conceptualize these changes in the light of traditional concepts alone. On the other hand, indiscriminate adoption of modern models has been found to be problematic and incompatible with the traditional city forms. "The total neglect of the traditional forms, and the implications of their meanings and values, will cause us to lose forever our heritage and architectural identity" (Al-Hemaidi, 2001). Sustainable urban design could provide the opportunity of integrating the traditional and contemporary models in a resourceful manner, as some of the relevant elements of both models are embedded in the principles of sustainable design. As noted by Liddell and Mackie (2002) that the more sustainability principles are applied to design and planning (in Northern Europe) the more these tend to take on traditional forms. However, there should be a framework that lays emphasis on the consideration of traditional concepts for the appropriate integration of these concepts in the principles of sustainable urban design.

The integrated approach to sustainable urban design should have at least three dimensions; substantive, procedural and methodological. The other two dimensions, policies and

**4. The integrated approach to sustainable urban design** 

The substantive dimension proceeds from the idea of Sternberg (2000), as mentioned in section two above, that the underlying principles of the contending approaches be integrated. Thus, the underlying substantive principles of sustainable urban design should be integrated with the traditional values and principles of urban form. Elaraby (1996) expatiated on the underlying principles of traditional Islamic design and highlighted six principles which are fundamental to traditional design. These principles include:


The traditional urban and legislative elements which interacted to shape the urban form and spatial structure should also be integrated into the design process. Some of these elements are identified by Hakim (1988) as Hisba institution, Waqf, allocation of land, traditional energy saving techniques, symbolic manifestations, water extraction and surveying and construction techniques.

A set of principles and elements from traditional and contemporary design are selected to be integrated with the principles of sustainable urban design to engender better urban form and design (Fig. 6). As shown in figure 6, the sustainability principles include mainly the concepts from Jabareen (2006) and some issues that were not explicitly mentioned in his framework. For example, resilience to climate change and natural hazards has become an important issue in recent time due to global environmental change. Human needs such as social relationship are also very important. So, these concepts are selected from Carmona's (2001) principles. The traditional principles are deduced from issues raised by Al-Hathloul (1981), Hakim (1988), Al-Hemaidi (2001) and Eben Saleh (2002).

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show the overlap between some of the contending principles. Some challenges might arise from the issues that are conflicting among the principles. For example, promoting urban greening might conflict with conservation in a desert environment. Maintaining green areas require a lot of water and it might impact on energy demand. Also, it might be difficult to achieve high density neighbourhood with design of courtyards. The principles highlighted in this study are not conclusive and other principles could still be valid and relevant. In essence, the paper proposes that different principles of traditional, modern and the overarching sustainable urban design should be applied in an integrative approach to

The methodological dimension involves the utilization of different analytical, descriptive and modelling techniques to fully grasp the complexity of different factors involved in sustainable urban design. No single method is capable of analyzing the components of urban systems in a comprehensive manner. Thus, there is the need to integrate different methods of analysis with a view to further understand and model the urban system. Efforts have been made in this direction with the development of space syntax, cellular automata, GIS and the collaborative planning support systems. It has been noted by Batty et al. (1998) that the advances in computer models and information systems have hardly been fully utilized in urban design. It is highly pertinent now to find ways of utilizing the powerful potentials of different computer models and information systems to support urban design. Batty et al. (1998) identified about four ways in which urban system can be represented (by the information systems) at the level of urban design. These include the representations of socio-economic, functional, behavioural and physical information. Virtually all the information can be stored and analyzed digitally by the current level of technology. There is just the need to fully integrate the available information systems and make them amenable

Efforts towards the integration of information systems for urban design have led to the emerging concept of GeoDesign. It is the adaptation of geography, geographic information system and other information systems in a synergetic way to support urban design. That is, "integrating geospatial technologies into the design process with the goal of living more harmoniously with nature" (Artz, 2010). Goodchild (2010) defined GeoDesign as "planning informed by scientific knowledge of how the world works, expressed in GIS-based simulations". Apart from utilizing the sketching and simulation capability of GIS (Goodchild, 2010), with geographic reference, GeoDesign uses web and visualization technologies to enhance collaboration and stakeholders participation during the design process. The broad idea is to have all design related technologies, such as computer-aided design (CAD) and building information modelling (BIM), integrated into GIS to be able to

GeoDesign has been demonstrated to include the following essential elements

(Dangermond, 2009; Abukhater and Walker, 2010; Goodchild, 2010, Wheeler, 2010):

achieve better and liveable cities.

**4.2. Methodological dimension – a case for GeoDesign** 

to supporting sustainable urban design process and product.

design in a spatially aware environment.

Sketching – drawing proposed designs or plans

The process issues such as public participation and institutional framework are not substantive but they are also important. So, they are shown in red boxes outside the substantive triangle (Fig. 6). Some of the issues feature in more than one set of principles to

**Figure 6.** Conceptualization of the integrative theory approach

show the overlap between some of the contending principles. Some challenges might arise from the issues that are conflicting among the principles. For example, promoting urban greening might conflict with conservation in a desert environment. Maintaining green areas require a lot of water and it might impact on energy demand. Also, it might be difficult to achieve high density neighbourhood with design of courtyards. The principles highlighted in this study are not conclusive and other principles could still be valid and relevant. In essence, the paper proposes that different principles of traditional, modern and the overarching sustainable urban design should be applied in an integrative approach to achieve better and liveable cities.

## **4.2. Methodological dimension – a case for GeoDesign**

542 Advances in Landscape Architecture

concepts from Jabareen (2006) and some issues that were not explicitly mentioned in his framework. For example, resilience to climate change and natural hazards has become an important issue in recent time due to global environmental change. Human needs such as social relationship are also very important. So, these concepts are selected from Carmona's (2001) principles. The traditional principles are deduced from issues raised by Al-Hathloul

The process issues such as public participation and institutional framework are not substantive but they are also important. So, they are shown in red boxes outside the substantive triangle (Fig. 6). Some of the issues feature in more than one set of principles to

(1981), Hakim (1988), Al-Hemaidi (2001) and Eben Saleh (2002).

**Figure 6.** Conceptualization of the integrative theory approach

The methodological dimension involves the utilization of different analytical, descriptive and modelling techniques to fully grasp the complexity of different factors involved in sustainable urban design. No single method is capable of analyzing the components of urban systems in a comprehensive manner. Thus, there is the need to integrate different methods of analysis with a view to further understand and model the urban system. Efforts have been made in this direction with the development of space syntax, cellular automata, GIS and the collaborative planning support systems. It has been noted by Batty et al. (1998) that the advances in computer models and information systems have hardly been fully utilized in urban design. It is highly pertinent now to find ways of utilizing the powerful potentials of different computer models and information systems to support urban design. Batty et al. (1998) identified about four ways in which urban system can be represented (by the information systems) at the level of urban design. These include the representations of socio-economic, functional, behavioural and physical information. Virtually all the information can be stored and analyzed digitally by the current level of technology. There is just the need to fully integrate the available information systems and make them amenable to supporting sustainable urban design process and product.

Efforts towards the integration of information systems for urban design have led to the emerging concept of GeoDesign. It is the adaptation of geography, geographic information system and other information systems in a synergetic way to support urban design. That is, "integrating geospatial technologies into the design process with the goal of living more harmoniously with nature" (Artz, 2010). Goodchild (2010) defined GeoDesign as "planning informed by scientific knowledge of how the world works, expressed in GIS-based simulations". Apart from utilizing the sketching and simulation capability of GIS (Goodchild, 2010), with geographic reference, GeoDesign uses web and visualization technologies to enhance collaboration and stakeholders participation during the design process. The broad idea is to have all design related technologies, such as computer-aided design (CAD) and building information modelling (BIM), integrated into GIS to be able to design in a spatially aware environment.

GeoDesign has been demonstrated to include the following essential elements (Dangermond, 2009; Abukhater and Walker, 2010; Goodchild, 2010, Wheeler, 2010):

Sketching – drawing proposed designs or plans

 Spatially aware simulations – modelling different systems (environmental, economic and so on) and how they will respond to proposed design in terms of impacts and change (with geographic reference)

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Sustainable Urban Design in Saudi Arabia: The Value of GeoDesign 545

countries. In Saudi Arabia, GeoDesign is gaining momentum because GIS technology (backbone of GeoDesign) is already being used in the kingdom to solve different geospatial and design problems. Aina (2012) highlighted some of the recent applications of GIS in Saudi Arabia and affirmed that the utilization of the technology is growing in the Kingdom. Another indicator of the growing application of GIS and GeoDesign is the GeoDesign conference that took place in Riyadh in 2011. The conference (http://www.iqpc.com/ Event.aspx?id=554952) recognized the need to enhance Saudi's GeoDesign capabilities to

Saudi Arabia has carried out some projects that are exemplary for sustainable urban design. One of the projects is the Mashair metro project, which was inaugurated to improve transportation system during the yearly pilgrimage (Hajj). The Mashair trains have the capacity to transport about 550,000 pilgrims between the holy sites (Arab News, 2012). The project could promote sustainable urban design, by reducing carbon emissions and encouraging transit-oriented development, as the trains will replace about 53,000 buses (Barry, 2009). Due to the initial success of the project, other metro projects have been initiated for Jeddah and Riyadh cities and to link Makkah with Madinah (Haramain Metro). Another prominent design project is King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) campus project. This is the first project to be awarded LEED certificate in Saudi Arabia (Almatawa et al., 2012). The project was based on sustainability principles from the scratch and they implemented a sort of GeoDesign for the design of the campus and monitoring of different sustainability parameters (Elgendy, 2010). The sustainable and traditional design principles implemented in the project include; compact city planning, traditional suq (market), traditional passive ventilation, mashrabiyah (Fig. 8), passive

**Figure 8.** Building facade with window screen similar to traditional mashrabiyah (Source: A. T. Service

support the increasing infrastructure expansion projects.

design, energy and water conservation (Elgendy, 2010).

– Wikimedia commons)

**4.3. Case studies – Mashair metro and KAUST campus** 


In their article, Abukhater and Walker (2010) exemplified how GeoDesign can be used in making cities grow smarter. GeoDesign has also been applied in planning new electricity networks (Moreno-Marimbaldo et al., 2012), green infrastructure design (Hehl-lange et al., 2012) and landscape planning (Pietsch, 2012). The capabilities of GeoDesign make it a valuable tool for urban designers in promoting sustainable built environment. Urban designers need capable analytical, modelling and visualization tools to synthesize the varying issues of urban complexity, climate change and human social needs.

A model by Dangermond (2009) successfully highlighted the importance of GeoDesign in design process (Fig. 7). The model incorporates the design process with the elements of GeoDesign such as designing, sketching and geo-accounting. It showed that Geodesign could be a veritable box of tools that enables "a rapid and adaptive process for creating a sustainable future" (Dangermond, 2009). In terms of usage, most of the applications of GeoDesign are still in Europe and North America but there is a growing adoption in other

**Figure 7.** GeoDesign in the sustainable design process (Source: Dangermond, 2009) Graphic used by permission. Copyright © Esri. All rights reserved.

countries. In Saudi Arabia, GeoDesign is gaining momentum because GIS technology (backbone of GeoDesign) is already being used in the kingdom to solve different geospatial and design problems. Aina (2012) highlighted some of the recent applications of GIS in Saudi Arabia and affirmed that the utilization of the technology is growing in the Kingdom. Another indicator of the growing application of GIS and GeoDesign is the GeoDesign conference that took place in Riyadh in 2011. The conference (http://www.iqpc.com/ Event.aspx?id=554952) recognized the need to enhance Saudi's GeoDesign capabilities to support the increasing infrastructure expansion projects.

### **4.3. Case studies – Mashair metro and KAUST campus**

544 Advances in Landscape Architecture

change (with geographic reference) Fast feedback – supporting collaboration

Iteration – trying and visualizing different alternatives

 Spatially aware simulations – modelling different systems (environmental, economic and so on) and how they will respond to proposed design in terms of impacts and

In their article, Abukhater and Walker (2010) exemplified how GeoDesign can be used in making cities grow smarter. GeoDesign has also been applied in planning new electricity networks (Moreno-Marimbaldo et al., 2012), green infrastructure design (Hehl-lange et al., 2012) and landscape planning (Pietsch, 2012). The capabilities of GeoDesign make it a valuable tool for urban designers in promoting sustainable built environment. Urban designers need capable analytical, modelling and visualization tools to synthesize the

A model by Dangermond (2009) successfully highlighted the importance of GeoDesign in design process (Fig. 7). The model incorporates the design process with the elements of GeoDesign such as designing, sketching and geo-accounting. It showed that Geodesign could be a veritable box of tools that enables "a rapid and adaptive process for creating a sustainable future" (Dangermond, 2009). In terms of usage, most of the applications of GeoDesign are still in Europe and North America but there is a growing adoption in other

**Figure 7.** GeoDesign in the sustainable design process (Source: Dangermond, 2009) Graphic used by

permission. Copyright © Esri. All rights reserved.

3D visualization – presenting design alternatives and impacts in three dimension

varying issues of urban complexity, climate change and human social needs.

Saudi Arabia has carried out some projects that are exemplary for sustainable urban design. One of the projects is the Mashair metro project, which was inaugurated to improve transportation system during the yearly pilgrimage (Hajj). The Mashair trains have the capacity to transport about 550,000 pilgrims between the holy sites (Arab News, 2012). The project could promote sustainable urban design, by reducing carbon emissions and encouraging transit-oriented development, as the trains will replace about 53,000 buses (Barry, 2009). Due to the initial success of the project, other metro projects have been initiated for Jeddah and Riyadh cities and to link Makkah with Madinah (Haramain Metro). Another prominent design project is King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) campus project. This is the first project to be awarded LEED certificate in Saudi Arabia (Almatawa et al., 2012). The project was based on sustainability principles from the scratch and they implemented a sort of GeoDesign for the design of the campus and monitoring of different sustainability parameters (Elgendy, 2010). The sustainable and traditional design principles implemented in the project include; compact city planning, traditional suq (market), traditional passive ventilation, mashrabiyah (Fig. 8), passive design, energy and water conservation (Elgendy, 2010).

**Figure 8.** Building facade with window screen similar to traditional mashrabiyah (Source: A. T. Service – Wikimedia commons)

These highlighted constitute a very bold start in embracing the principles of sustainable urban design in the Kingdom. The challenge is in replicating such projects across the Kingdom and making the adoption of sustainability principle the norm. Al-Hemaidi (2001) noted that there few promising traditional designs here and there but there is no coordinated effort to implement them on a general level. Another challenge is the ability to change the behavioural pattern of the populace. Authors like Abdulgader and Aina (2005) and Choguill (2008) have noted the requirement and importance of changing living pattern to achieving sustainability. Implementing sustainability principles is necessary but not enough for sustainable urban development (Choguill, 2008).

Towards an Integrative Theory Approach to

Sustainable Urban Design in Saudi Arabia: The Value of GeoDesign 547

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## **5. Conclusion**

The concept of sustainable urban design is an overarching concept that can serve as a platform to resolve the conflicting values of the traditional urban form and modern design models. However, the principles of these models both traditional and modern should be integrated with the sustainable urban design principles to effectively incorporate them in urban planning and development. This chapter has tried to highlight some of the pertinent and core principles of traditional urban form and sustainable urban design that should be integrated to foster liveable cities. It also highlights the importance and value of GeoDesign to sustainable urban design. Although the approach that has been proposed by this chapter evolves from the analysis of Saudi Arabian urban design context, it could be applied in any other planning and design environment with little variations. As it is evident that the tendency in almost every society is to follow the new trend of the globalization of cities, by which forces that are 'alien' to cities dictate their structure and morphology. There is the need to further examine how to operationalize these integrated principles especially in the local context of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

## **Author details**

Y.A. Aina *Geomatics Technologies Department, Yanbu Industrial College, Yanbu, Saudi Arabia* 

A. Al-Naser *Department of City and Regional Planning, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia* 

S.B. Garba *Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman* 

## **Acknowledgement**

The authors acknowledge the support of King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals for the research. The authors are also grateful to the editorial board for its comments.

### **6. References**

546 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**5. Conclusion** 

**Author details** 

*Dhahran, Saudi Arabia* 

**Acknowledgement** 

Y.A. Aina

A. Al-Naser

S.B. Garba

These highlighted constitute a very bold start in embracing the principles of sustainable urban design in the Kingdom. The challenge is in replicating such projects across the Kingdom and making the adoption of sustainability principle the norm. Al-Hemaidi (2001) noted that there few promising traditional designs here and there but there is no coordinated effort to implement them on a general level. Another challenge is the ability to change the behavioural pattern of the populace. Authors like Abdulgader and Aina (2005) and Choguill (2008) have noted the requirement and importance of changing living pattern to achieving sustainability. Implementing sustainability principles is necessary but not

The concept of sustainable urban design is an overarching concept that can serve as a platform to resolve the conflicting values of the traditional urban form and modern design models. However, the principles of these models both traditional and modern should be integrated with the sustainable urban design principles to effectively incorporate them in urban planning and development. This chapter has tried to highlight some of the pertinent and core principles of traditional urban form and sustainable urban design that should be integrated to foster liveable cities. It also highlights the importance and value of GeoDesign to sustainable urban design. Although the approach that has been proposed by this chapter evolves from the analysis of Saudi Arabian urban design context, it could be applied in any other planning and design environment with little variations. As it is evident that the tendency in almost every society is to follow the new trend of the globalization of cities, by which forces that are 'alien' to cities dictate their structure and morphology. There is the need to further examine how to operationalize these integrated principles especially in the

*Geomatics Technologies Department, Yanbu Industrial College, Yanbu, Saudi Arabia* 

*Department of City and Regional Planning, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,* 

*Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman* 

for the research. The authors are also grateful to the editorial board for its comments.

The authors acknowledge the support of King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals

enough for sustainable urban development (Choguill, 2008).

local context of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.


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**Chapter 21** 

© 2013 Cengiz, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The importance of urban rivers have always been recognized [1-6] for water resources, protection of nature, fisheries and recreation in view of their considerable contributions to landscape [3, 7]. In addition, rivers have certain definite environmental, social, cultural and economic values, as well. They are used by humans on a wide variety of purposes such as drinking water, irrigation, industry, power production, transportation, flood control,

Rivers have many functions like providing connection between landscapes and communities and they also gather people around the same idea for a creative and sustainable environment. People from all parts of society should and also private and public stakeholders should be included in the development of river management plan in order to

There is an apparent interaction between cultural level of societies and the use of water in all fields [9]. Many cities in the world have been established along the river banks [6, 9-10]. For instance, many civilizations settled along the Euphrates- the Tigris Rivers in Mesopotamia, the Nile in Egypt, the Ganges in India, the Indus in Pakistan and the Huang-Ho in China throughout the history [11]. The current examples of cities include the Thames in London, the Seine in Paris, the Tiber in Rome, the Vlvata in Prague, the Danube in Budapest [12-13], the Hudson in New York, the Yarra in Melbourne [6] and Turkish cities as the Seyhan in Adana, the Yeşilrmak in Amasya, the Asi in Antakya, the Tigris in Diyarbakr, the Meriç in

On the other hand, besides their advantages, this kind of settlement also has some disadvantages. Floodplains are susceptible to dangers of flooding in relation with the human and natural activities. Loss of life and property and damages to wildlife habitats can be cited among the risks caused by civilization on water sides [10]. Past uses of rivers and social tendencies are effective on the present condition of rivers. Despite the unsatisfactory

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Urban River Landscapes** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

fishing, boating, swimming and aesthetic enjoyment [8].

find effective solutions for the use of natural resources [8].

Edirne, the Porsuk in Eskişehir and the Bartn River in Bartn [9].

Bülent Cengiz

**1. Introduction** 

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/56156

**Chapter 21** 

## **Urban River Landscapes**

Bülent Cengiz

550 Advances in Landscape Architecture

pp. 16-19 Available from

Wheeler, C. (2010). Designing GeoDesign: Next steps in GeoDesign. *ArcUser*, Spring 2010,

http://www.esri.com/news/arcuser/0410/files/geodesign.pdf

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/56156

## **1. Introduction**

The importance of urban rivers have always been recognized [1-6] for water resources, protection of nature, fisheries and recreation in view of their considerable contributions to landscape [3, 7]. In addition, rivers have certain definite environmental, social, cultural and economic values, as well. They are used by humans on a wide variety of purposes such as drinking water, irrigation, industry, power production, transportation, flood control, fishing, boating, swimming and aesthetic enjoyment [8].

Rivers have many functions like providing connection between landscapes and communities and they also gather people around the same idea for a creative and sustainable environment. People from all parts of society should and also private and public stakeholders should be included in the development of river management plan in order to find effective solutions for the use of natural resources [8].

There is an apparent interaction between cultural level of societies and the use of water in all fields [9]. Many cities in the world have been established along the river banks [6, 9-10]. For instance, many civilizations settled along the Euphrates- the Tigris Rivers in Mesopotamia, the Nile in Egypt, the Ganges in India, the Indus in Pakistan and the Huang-Ho in China throughout the history [11]. The current examples of cities include the Thames in London, the Seine in Paris, the Tiber in Rome, the Vlvata in Prague, the Danube in Budapest [12-13], the Hudson in New York, the Yarra in Melbourne [6] and Turkish cities as the Seyhan in Adana, the Yeşilrmak in Amasya, the Asi in Antakya, the Tigris in Diyarbakr, the Meriç in Edirne, the Porsuk in Eskişehir and the Bartn River in Bartn [9].

On the other hand, besides their advantages, this kind of settlement also has some disadvantages. Floodplains are susceptible to dangers of flooding in relation with the human and natural activities. Loss of life and property and damages to wildlife habitats can be cited among the risks caused by civilization on water sides [10]. Past uses of rivers and social tendencies are effective on the present condition of rivers. Despite the unsatisfactory

<sup>© 2013</sup> Cengiz, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

conditions of water sources in many parts, the increasing efficacy of sewage treatment systems provides new opportunities for inhabitants and improvement of rivers in morphological and economic sense. For attaining a normal level of life quality along river banks, necessary consideration and importance should be given to flood control systems and water quality in urban areas. In this regard, there is an increasing concern in the world over rivers in urban areas in terms of green spaces, urban ecology and life quality [14]. The major part of works conducted on urban rivers has been carried out in North America (mainly the USA), Asia (mainly China) and Europe (mainly western Europe) [6].

Urban River Landscapes 553

**Figure 1.** Major physiographic elements of a typical floodplain [10].

these flood events [8], (Figure 2).

flood proofing is established (Figure 3) [15]**.** 

downstream flood problems [16].

similarly, there is a 5-percent chance of occurrence for a 20-year flood event. Many factors including the years of high rainfall and changes in land use are effective for the frequency of

The definition of 100-year floodplain is considered as the basis in the U.S. National Flood Insurance Program. The boundaries of this zone are drawn by associating the discharge data and flow elevations to the topography of the stream valley. In this program, two main zones are defined: the first of which is **floodway**, lowest part in floodplain where flood flows deepest and most frequently; and the second of which is **floodway fringe**, an area on the margin of regulatory floodway and less frequently and lightly flooded in 100-year flood. Settlements along regulatory floodway are not found qualified for flood insurance; on the other hand, settlements on floodway fringe are qualified for insurance if a certain amount of

A developed landscape is confined to the river channel or wider flood-channel. Buildings and roads are flooded in the event of a 10-year or 100-year flood, which is not a pleasant situation for users and residents, but their inconvenience should be compared with other considerations. The preventive efforts for flood events are quite costly from both financial and environmental considerations, and it is also possible that these events will worsen the

In this chapter, the main emphasis has put on the understanding of floodplain resources, principles for an ecologically sound riverfront design, baselines of urban water rehabilitation and some samples of urban river landscape throughout the world. In line with the obtained results, certain recommendations have been made for planning of urban river landscapes in Turkey.

## **2. Floodplain resources**

## **2.1. Understanding floodplain resources**

In this section, floodplain natural resources are introduced with an explanation of floodplains, watersheds, ecosystems and natural communities.

A typical river corridor has several features brought by geological and hydrological processes effective on landscapes (Figure 1). The **river channel** wanders through the landscape, carving through the terrain and depositing sediment on places where it goes. Sediment deposits and depressions on water banks might form **wetlands**, which are always or periodically flooded with water [10].

**Floodplains** are the areas bordering rivers and streams**.** These parts in river valleys are frequently defined as areas where the likelihood of flooding is high in a given year. Therefore, the term of "100-year" flood is used to define the flood with 1% of occurrence possibility in any given year (Similar definitions can be expanded to include 25-or 50-year floods). As a river goes downward in an area, it may leave **terraces**, formed in time as the river flows at higher elevations. These landforms are part of a larger river corridor and play an extremely important role in the functioning of floodplain ecosystems [10].

Floods are natural outcomes of river ecology. Therefore, it is important to be ready for floods. The job of flood experts is focused on determining the size of floods in statistical terms to present the frequency of water flow that passes through a stream channel in a certain period of time. The frequency of floods is calculated as the time between the same or greater levels of floods. For instance, a 10-year flood is used to represent the event of flood occurring about every 10 years. Based on this calculation, there is a 1-in-10 change of occurrence for a 10-year flood. Historical data is considered in calculation of flood frequencies such as 10-year flood, 25-year flood and 100-year flood. From this regard, there is a 1-percent chance of occurrence for a 100-year flood event for any given year, and

**Figure 1.** Major physiographic elements of a typical floodplain [10].

landscapes in Turkey.

**2. Floodplain resources** 

**2.1. Understanding floodplain resources** 

or periodically flooded with water [10].

floodplains, watersheds, ecosystems and natural communities.

conditions of water sources in many parts, the increasing efficacy of sewage treatment systems provides new opportunities for inhabitants and improvement of rivers in morphological and economic sense. For attaining a normal level of life quality along river banks, necessary consideration and importance should be given to flood control systems and water quality in urban areas. In this regard, there is an increasing concern in the world over rivers in urban areas in terms of green spaces, urban ecology and life quality [14]. The major part of works conducted on urban rivers has been carried out in North America

In this chapter, the main emphasis has put on the understanding of floodplain resources, principles for an ecologically sound riverfront design, baselines of urban water rehabilitation and some samples of urban river landscape throughout the world. In line with the obtained results, certain recommendations have been made for planning of urban river

In this section, floodplain natural resources are introduced with an explanation of

A typical river corridor has several features brought by geological and hydrological processes effective on landscapes (Figure 1). The **river channel** wanders through the landscape, carving through the terrain and depositing sediment on places where it goes. Sediment deposits and depressions on water banks might form **wetlands**, which are always

**Floodplains** are the areas bordering rivers and streams**.** These parts in river valleys are frequently defined as areas where the likelihood of flooding is high in a given year. Therefore, the term of "100-year" flood is used to define the flood with 1% of occurrence possibility in any given year (Similar definitions can be expanded to include 25-or 50-year floods). As a river goes downward in an area, it may leave **terraces**, formed in time as the river flows at higher elevations. These landforms are part of a larger river corridor and play

Floods are natural outcomes of river ecology. Therefore, it is important to be ready for floods. The job of flood experts is focused on determining the size of floods in statistical terms to present the frequency of water flow that passes through a stream channel in a certain period of time. The frequency of floods is calculated as the time between the same or greater levels of floods. For instance, a 10-year flood is used to represent the event of flood occurring about every 10 years. Based on this calculation, there is a 1-in-10 change of occurrence for a 10-year flood. Historical data is considered in calculation of flood frequencies such as 10-year flood, 25-year flood and 100-year flood. From this regard, there is a 1-percent chance of occurrence for a 100-year flood event for any given year, and

an extremely important role in the functioning of floodplain ecosystems [10].

(mainly the USA), Asia (mainly China) and Europe (mainly western Europe) [6].

similarly, there is a 5-percent chance of occurrence for a 20-year flood event. Many factors including the years of high rainfall and changes in land use are effective for the frequency of these flood events [8], (Figure 2).

The definition of 100-year floodplain is considered as the basis in the U.S. National Flood Insurance Program. The boundaries of this zone are drawn by associating the discharge data and flow elevations to the topography of the stream valley. In this program, two main zones are defined: the first of which is **floodway**, lowest part in floodplain where flood flows deepest and most frequently; and the second of which is **floodway fringe**, an area on the margin of regulatory floodway and less frequently and lightly flooded in 100-year flood. Settlements along regulatory floodway are not found qualified for flood insurance; on the other hand, settlements on floodway fringe are qualified for insurance if a certain amount of flood proofing is established (Figure 3) [15]**.** 

A developed landscape is confined to the river channel or wider flood-channel. Buildings and roads are flooded in the event of a 10-year or 100-year flood, which is not a pleasant situation for users and residents, but their inconvenience should be compared with other considerations. The preventive efforts for flood events are quite costly from both financial and environmental considerations, and it is also possible that these events will worsen the downstream flood problems [16].

Urban River Landscapes 555

**Watersheds**: Watersheds have an important place in understanding and managing the resources in floodplains. **Watershed** is an area drained by a river and its tributaries. Different watersheds are separated with ridges or divides. Similar to floodplains, they are formed in time with the effects of various climatic, hydrological and geological processes. On the other hand, watershed differs from floodplain with its much larger size, and therefore, it can be more difficult to manage because larger areas are usually covered by various municipalities that have different governments and land-use strategies. However, it should be understood that upstream uses of land and water in a watershed have negative effects on downstream areas and bring along the potential for increased flooding [10] (see

**Figure 4.** The Bartn River Watershed and stream orders [4, 9, 22].

sediment deposits that can alter the appearance of the landscape [10].

**Natural Resources and Ecosystems**: Not only the hydrological features of landscape but also the geological characteristics have an important role in determining the type of vegetation in the area. There are a number of plant species grown in floodplains and adapted to the specific conditions of soil types and water flow cycles, which are the characteristics of river corridors. In turn, vegetation becomes important to determine how water flows in land and it is an indispensable factor in the management of erosion and

The living and non-living components of natural floodplains are interrelated with each other and create a dynamic system where one helps another to maintain the properties of

Figure 4).

**Figure 2.** Flood backwaters in relation to valley contours. (b) The influence of valley shape on the extent of the 25-year and 100-year floods [15].

**Figure 3.** Presentation of the regulator floodway and floodway fringe by U.S. National Flood Insurance Program [15].

As a solution, management of flood events can be integrated into the land-use planning system. The present and recommended contours for each flood event can be drawn for each town:


**Watersheds**: Watersheds have an important place in understanding and managing the resources in floodplains. **Watershed** is an area drained by a river and its tributaries. Different watersheds are separated with ridges or divides. Similar to floodplains, they are formed in time with the effects of various climatic, hydrological and geological processes. On the other hand, watershed differs from floodplain with its much larger size, and therefore, it can be more difficult to manage because larger areas are usually covered by various municipalities that have different governments and land-use strategies. However, it should be understood that upstream uses of land and water in a watershed have negative effects on downstream areas and bring along the potential for increased flooding [10] (see Figure 4).

**Figure 4.** The Bartn River Watershed and stream orders [4, 9, 22].

554 Advances in Landscape Architecture

of the 25-year and 100-year floods [15].

Program [15].

town:

**Figure 2.** Flood backwaters in relation to valley contours. (b) The influence of valley shape on the extent

**Figure 3.** Presentation of the regulator floodway and floodway fringe by U.S. National Flood Insurance

As a solution, management of flood events can be integrated into the land-use planning system. The present and recommended contours for each flood event can be drawn for each

 100-year: large urban areas, excluding hospitals or other essential services [16]. The effective areas of river form the overflow boundary, which was evaluated considering

the following studies in the literature on landscape planning: [2, 4, 8, 10, 15-21].

 One-year: needless car parks, light traffic roads, flood-tolerant buildings. 25-year: many roads and car-parks, the ground floors of needless buildings.

Half-year: natural reserves, playgrounds, gardens;

**Natural Resources and Ecosystems**: Not only the hydrological features of landscape but also the geological characteristics have an important role in determining the type of vegetation in the area. There are a number of plant species grown in floodplains and adapted to the specific conditions of soil types and water flow cycles, which are the characteristics of river corridors. In turn, vegetation becomes important to determine how water flows in land and it is an indispensable factor in the management of erosion and sediment deposits that can alter the appearance of the landscape [10].

The living and non-living components of natural floodplains are interrelated with each other and create a dynamic system where one helps another to maintain the properties of

the environment to sustain them in a mutually supportive cycle. These interrelated systems forming both commercial and recreational sides of physical and biological worlds are known as **ecosystems**. These components of floodplain ecosystem work together in storing and conveying floodwaters, protecting water quality, preventing erosion and sustaining rich habitats of fish and wildlife. The recognition of these relations among hydrological, geological and biological characteristics of these systems, one can comprehend how changing one character can significantly change an entire system [10].

Urban River Landscapes 557

















archeological sites)

other studies

The following three main parts in this section demonstrate concrete examples of principles

**General Principle 1:** Ecological targets and economic development targets should

**General Principle 2:** Protect and restore the characteristics and functions of natural

**General Principle 4:** Compromises are necessary to achieve multiple objectives **General Principle 5:** Obtain broad participation in the process of planning and

be mutually beneficial

**General Principle 3:** Regenerate the riverfront as a human realm

designing riverfront

surface flows

**Water Resources** 

**Biological Resources** 

**Social Resources**  Natural Flood and Erosion Control

> Water Quality Maintenance

Groundwater Recharge

Biological Productivity

Fish and Wildlife Habitats

Harvests of Wild and Cultivated Products

> Recreational Opportunities

Areas for Scientific Study and Outdoor Education

\*Adopted from: A Unified Program for Floodplain Management, 1994. **Table 1.** Natural resources and functions of floodplain [10].

in planning and design (Table 2) [21].

**GENERAL PRINCIPLES**

**3. Principles for an ecologically sound riverfront design** 

rivers

**Natural Communities**: There can be many different **ecological communities**, groups of plant and animal species existing together in a certain area along the floodplain and its adjacent landforms. Various types of plant species in an ecological community might need the same type of soil or level of soil moisture available only in a particular area in the floodplain. Wet meadows, bottomland hardwood forests, and riparian shrub wetlands can be cited among the examples of such communities. Landform, soil and plant types present in a certain part of floodplain can identify the boundaries of these ecological communities [10].

## **2.2. Natural resources and functions of floodplain**

The three main categories of floodplain resources and functions include water resources, biological resources and societal resources (Table 1) [10].

## **2.3. Multiple uses of floodplain**

Different levels of settlement development and disturbance to natural systems have various effects on natural resources. For instance, the management objectives can be different for an already fully developed floodplain community than a community with large open spaces [10].

There are four main levels with corresponding considerations [10].



\*Adopted from: A Unified Program for Floodplain Management, 1994.

556 Advances in Landscape Architecture

[10].

[10].

the environment to sustain them in a mutually supportive cycle. These interrelated systems forming both commercial and recreational sides of physical and biological worlds are known as **ecosystems**. These components of floodplain ecosystem work together in storing and conveying floodwaters, protecting water quality, preventing erosion and sustaining rich habitats of fish and wildlife. The recognition of these relations among hydrological, geological and biological characteristics of these systems, one can comprehend how

**Natural Communities**: There can be many different **ecological communities**, groups of plant and animal species existing together in a certain area along the floodplain and its adjacent landforms. Various types of plant species in an ecological community might need the same type of soil or level of soil moisture available only in a particular area in the floodplain. Wet meadows, bottomland hardwood forests, and riparian shrub wetlands can be cited among the examples of such communities. Landform, soil and plant types present in a certain part of floodplain can identify the boundaries of these ecological communities

The three main categories of floodplain resources and functions include water resources,

Different levels of settlement development and disturbance to natural systems have various effects on natural resources. For instance, the management objectives can be different for an already fully developed floodplain community than a community with large open spaces

 **Urban Areas:** The floodplain in an urban community is probably highly developed already. Restoration of natural areas and the relocation of structures particularly threatened by flood hazards are included in the management options for these areas. **Suburban Areas/Urban Fringe**: Urban fringe areas are frequently threatened by great development pressures, but there might be enough open spaces to work with. Effective planning is of critical importance in these communities, and a special focus can be put on maintaining existing open areas along waterways and restoration of vegetation. **Rural Areas**: Agricultural communities have different concerns of floodplain. The large open spaces in the floodplain of these areas are an advantage. In these areas, management strategies should focus on controlling erosion and excessive nutrient loadings, as well as vegetation of stream banks to restore natural ecosystem functions. **Wild-lands:** The natural system in these communities with very low-density development and much more open spaces should already be functioning. In these areas, there is the opportunity to safeguard floodplain functions at the outset and to

changing one character can significantly change an entire system [10].

**2.2. Natural resources and functions of floodplain** 

biological resources and societal resources (Table 1) [10].

There are four main levels with corresponding considerations [10].

maintain valuable habitats and superior water quality.

**2.3. Multiple uses of floodplain** 

**Table 1.** Natural resources and functions of floodplain [10].

## **3. Principles for an ecologically sound riverfront design**

The following three main parts in this section demonstrate concrete examples of principles in planning and design (Table 2) [21].



Urban River Landscapes 559

*3.1.2. Protect and restore the characteristics and functions of natural rivers* 

*3.1.3. Regenerate the riverfront as a human realm* 

*3.1.4. Compromises are necessary to achieve multiple objectives* 

the same vision, and that all important thoughts are known.

rivers.

for nature.

well.

Rivers provide their regions with some natural benefits of critical importance and therefore that must be protected. Natural characteristics of river like meanders, backwaters, wetlands, and gradually sloped banks have important ecological functions. There are also benefits for inhabitant such as cleaner water and flood storage. It might not be possible to restore these features in many urban areas, but even a little effort can bring about a positive effect. Environmental improvements can be achieved on even the most heavily impacted

There could be some obstacles including physical, political, social and economic barriers for a riverfront project to overcome and increase public use and enjoyment of these public resources. There have been many successful projects designed to include spaces that specially accommodate parks, walkways, docks, and special events such as concerts and festivals. In a good riverfront design, the need of all neighborhoods, ages, and cultures in the community should be taken into account. Community members should be enabled to experience the river closely. In turn, these physical and visual experiences will help creating lively and diverse places to encourage a sense of community and an appreciation

Sometimes, there could be competing interests in urban waterfronts. Recreational trails and wetlands are often linked to waterfront condos and port facilities. It cannot be always possible to give special focus on economic development and environmental concerns on urban river banks. On account of the present structures, only a few cities can really achieve to create a fully natural river environment. On the other hand, a development project of riverfront to enhance economic livelihood of a city should not rule out natural features, compound riverfront damage, or limit public access. Communities of a riverfront should take advantage of integrating and balancing ecological, social and economic concerns, as

*3.1.5. Obtain broad participation in the process of planning and designing riverfront* 

The design and planning processes of riverfront should obtain the participation of a wide variety of community members. The process should be extended beyond the identification of traditional stakeholders groups and include the neighborhoods that might not have used the riverfront in the past. There can be different needs of various neighborhoods and constituencies. Riverfront can be designed more lively, inclusive, and successful if these different priorities are taken into account. The participation of local officials, developers, and planning staff in public meetings should be acquired to ensure that everyone aims for

**Table 2.** Principles for an ecologically sound riverfront design [21].

## **3.1. General principles for an ecologically sound riverfront design**

Five general principles set the stage for the success of planning [21].

## *3.1.1. Ecological goals and economic development targets should be mutually beneficial*

Public and private developments build a sense of connection and stewardship for the river by attracting people to the waterfront live, eat, shop, relax, recreate, and participate in cultural events.

Healthy and functioning river systems are appealing and attractive to residents and businesses. A society engaged in enjoying riverfront features and activities also cares about the long-term sustainability of river systems. Communities have started to understand the appeal of a more natural riverfront for residents and visitors. Apart from touristic advantages, there are some other benefits as well, including cost-effective flood control, improved water quality, reduced infrastructure costs and increased property values and tax base.

## *3.1.2. Protect and restore the characteristics and functions of natural rivers*

Rivers provide their regions with some natural benefits of critical importance and therefore that must be protected. Natural characteristics of river like meanders, backwaters, wetlands, and gradually sloped banks have important ecological functions. There are also benefits for inhabitant such as cleaner water and flood storage. It might not be possible to restore these features in many urban areas, but even a little effort can bring about a positive effect. Environmental improvements can be achieved on even the most heavily impacted rivers.

## *3.1.3. Regenerate the riverfront as a human realm*

558 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**DESIGN PRINCIPLES**

cultural events.

base.

**PLANNING PRINCIPLES**

**Planning Principle 1:** Demonstrate characteristics of the city's unique relationship with the river in the riverfront design **Planning Principle 2:** Know the river ecosystem and plan for a scale larger than the

**Planning Principle 3:** Because rivers are dynamic, minimize new floodplain

**Planning Principle 4:** Provide public access, connections, and recreational

**Planning Principle 5:** Celebrate the river's environmental and cultural history

**Design Principle 4:** Use nonstructural alternatives to manage water resources

**Design Principle 6:** Manage stormwater on site and use nonstructural approaches **Design Principle 7:** Balance recreational and public access targets with river

**Design Principle 8:** Incorporate information about a river's natural resources and

art, and interpretive signs

*3.1.1. Ecological goals and economic development targets should be mutually beneficial* 

Public and private developments build a sense of connection and stewardship for the river by attracting people to the waterfront live, eat, shop, relax, recreate, and participate in

Healthy and functioning river systems are appealing and attractive to residents and businesses. A society engaged in enjoying riverfront features and activities also cares about the long-term sustainability of river systems. Communities have started to understand the appeal of a more natural riverfront for residents and visitors. Apart from touristic advantages, there are some other benefits as well, including cost-effective flood control, improved water quality, reduced infrastructure costs and increased property values and tax

**3.1. General principles for an ecologically sound riverfront design** 

Five general principles set the stage for the success of planning [21].

through public education programs, riverfront signage and

cultural history into the design of riverfront features, public

riverfront

development

opportunities

**Design Principle 1:** Protect features and functions of natural river

**Design Principle 3:** Restore riparian and in-stream habitats

protection

**Table 2.** Principles for an ecologically sound riverfront design [21].

events

**Design Principle 2:** Buffer sensitive natural areas

**Design Principle 5:** Reduce hardscapes

There could be some obstacles including physical, political, social and economic barriers for a riverfront project to overcome and increase public use and enjoyment of these public resources. There have been many successful projects designed to include spaces that specially accommodate parks, walkways, docks, and special events such as concerts and festivals. In a good riverfront design, the need of all neighborhoods, ages, and cultures in the community should be taken into account. Community members should be enabled to experience the river closely. In turn, these physical and visual experiences will help creating lively and diverse places to encourage a sense of community and an appreciation for nature.

## *3.1.4. Compromises are necessary to achieve multiple objectives*

Sometimes, there could be competing interests in urban waterfronts. Recreational trails and wetlands are often linked to waterfront condos and port facilities. It cannot be always possible to give special focus on economic development and environmental concerns on urban river banks. On account of the present structures, only a few cities can really achieve to create a fully natural river environment. On the other hand, a development project of riverfront to enhance economic livelihood of a city should not rule out natural features, compound riverfront damage, or limit public access. Communities of a riverfront should take advantage of integrating and balancing ecological, social and economic concerns, as well.

## *3.1.5. Obtain broad participation in the process of planning and designing riverfront*

The design and planning processes of riverfront should obtain the participation of a wide variety of community members. The process should be extended beyond the identification of traditional stakeholders groups and include the neighborhoods that might not have used the riverfront in the past. There can be different needs of various neighborhoods and constituencies. Riverfront can be designed more lively, inclusive, and successful if these different priorities are taken into account. The participation of local officials, developers, and planning staff in public meetings should be acquired to ensure that everyone aims for the same vision, and that all important thoughts are known.

## **3.2. Planning principles**

Some important aspects such as regional development patterns, natural and cultural history, flood control, public access, recreation and education should be taken into account in planning the revitalization of a riverfront. The five principles below must be incorporated into master plans and conducted by zoning and building codes, engineering standards and site plans and designs [21].

Urban River Landscapes 561

disastrous results. Extreme flooding events, often intensified by settlement developments in

Undeveloped and connected floodplains are of crucial importance for river health. Future developments on riverfront like trails and parks should be designed to minimize floodplain intrusions. From this regard, structures and facilities must be designed to ensure that there will be no release of contaminants during flooding, no decrease in flood storage capacity,

There should be no large permanent structure built in 100-year floodplain as they increase the size of resistant surface, aggravate runoff problems, and increase the risk of costly

Easy access is necessary to attract people to a riverfront. Another important point is visual connection to the river from nearby commercial and residential areas. Physical and visual access should not be confined only to the selected neighborhoods or businesses along the redeveloped river. Riverfronts might offer many recreational usages, like bicycling and bird watching. Riverfront communities should be provided with areas or facilities offering a

Weather it is through wading, fishing, launching a boat, or sitting on the riverfront, people should be given opportunities to touch and interact with the river in appropriate locations. Economic revitalization projects on riverfronts like new developments of mixed-usage with housing, restaurants or cafes and open spaces become more successful when visual and

*3.2.5. Celebrate the river's environmental and cultural history through public education* 

Riverfronts have a rich human and natural history. Informative and path-finding systems can define the river, its environment and how river and city history are connected. Certain activities like educational and cultural programs, performances and public art events can be

Ecological education is especially meaningful along urban rivers because most of the original forms of ecosystems have been damaged. Rivers can be used as a powerful tool in science and nature education thanks to their active and visually rich environments. Raising awareness of public about rivers and their natural systems will provide a sense of

*3.2.4. Provide public access, connections, and recreational opportunities* 

floodplain, are among the most destructive natural disasters.

and no flooding or other downstream impacts.

flooding damages.

large variety of usage possibilities.

physical access to the water is included.

*programs, riverfront signage, and events* 

organized to attract people to the riverfront.

**3.3. Design principles** 

stewardship and connection to the history of rivers.

Eight general principles set the stage for design success [21].

## *3.2.1. Demonstrate characteristics of the city's unique relationship to the river in the riverfront design*

Any river city has a unique relation and a nested history with its river. There should a special feel and appearance of riverfronts that is directly associated with the history of city and inspires and celebrates city's character.

It should be known by inhabitants that the river in their city grants the identity of their region and also provides wildlife habitat, recreation, drinking water and jobs in their area. Once these values are appreciated by inhabitants, they become supporters for protecting and restoring their riverfronts.

## *3.2.2. Know the river ecosystem and plan for a scale larger than the riverfront*

Planners must regard riverfront development from the aspects of the natural structures of river, which includes:


Another important point is to understand how the structure of a river has been altered and how it might change in the future. Rivers are affected by any events occurring in their watersheds and riverfront activity, in turn, they affect areas beyond the edge of river. Planners should not disregard the possible effects of design and activities of riverfront on all areas of the watershed.

## *3.2.3. Because rivers are dynamic, minimize new floodplain development*

Rivers are in a constant change by their nature. For instance, spring flood elevations might exceed nonflood levels by 30 cm or more on some rivers and some rivers freeze in winter, while some others show little seasonal change. These natural variations can be considerably affected by the changes in upstream and the surrounding watershed, often causing disastrous results. Extreme flooding events, often intensified by settlement developments in floodplain, are among the most destructive natural disasters.

Undeveloped and connected floodplains are of crucial importance for river health. Future developments on riverfront like trails and parks should be designed to minimize floodplain intrusions. From this regard, structures and facilities must be designed to ensure that there will be no release of contaminants during flooding, no decrease in flood storage capacity, and no flooding or other downstream impacts.

There should be no large permanent structure built in 100-year floodplain as they increase the size of resistant surface, aggravate runoff problems, and increase the risk of costly flooding damages.

## *3.2.4. Provide public access, connections, and recreational opportunities*

Easy access is necessary to attract people to a riverfront. Another important point is visual connection to the river from nearby commercial and residential areas. Physical and visual access should not be confined only to the selected neighborhoods or businesses along the redeveloped river. Riverfronts might offer many recreational usages, like bicycling and bird watching. Riverfront communities should be provided with areas or facilities offering a large variety of usage possibilities.

Weather it is through wading, fishing, launching a boat, or sitting on the riverfront, people should be given opportunities to touch and interact with the river in appropriate locations. Economic revitalization projects on riverfronts like new developments of mixed-usage with housing, restaurants or cafes and open spaces become more successful when visual and physical access to the water is included.

## *3.2.5. Celebrate the river's environmental and cultural history through public education programs, riverfront signage, and events*

Riverfronts have a rich human and natural history. Informative and path-finding systems can define the river, its environment and how river and city history are connected. Certain activities like educational and cultural programs, performances and public art events can be organized to attract people to the riverfront.

Ecological education is especially meaningful along urban rivers because most of the original forms of ecosystems have been damaged. Rivers can be used as a powerful tool in science and nature education thanks to their active and visually rich environments. Raising awareness of public about rivers and their natural systems will provide a sense of stewardship and connection to the history of rivers.

## **3.3. Design principles**

560 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**3.2. Planning principles** 

site plans and designs [21].

and restoring their riverfronts.

river, which includes:

Water chemistry, and

mammals.

areas of the watershed.

and inspires and celebrates city's character.

Hydrology (water flows and timing);

*riverfront design* 

Some important aspects such as regional development patterns, natural and cultural history, flood control, public access, recreation and education should be taken into account in planning the revitalization of a riverfront. The five principles below must be incorporated into master plans and conducted by zoning and building codes, engineering standards and

*3.2.1. Demonstrate characteristics of the city's unique relationship to the river in the* 

Any river city has a unique relation and a nested history with its river. There should a special feel and appearance of riverfronts that is directly associated with the history of city

It should be known by inhabitants that the river in their city grants the identity of their region and also provides wildlife habitat, recreation, drinking water and jobs in their area. Once these values are appreciated by inhabitants, they become supporters for protecting

Planners must regard riverfront development from the aspects of the natural structures of

The biological needs of wildlife, such as insects, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and

Another important point is to understand how the structure of a river has been altered and how it might change in the future. Rivers are affected by any events occurring in their watersheds and riverfront activity, in turn, they affect areas beyond the edge of river. Planners should not disregard the possible effects of design and activities of riverfront on all

Rivers are in a constant change by their nature. For instance, spring flood elevations might exceed nonflood levels by 30 cm or more on some rivers and some rivers freeze in winter, while some others show little seasonal change. These natural variations can be considerably affected by the changes in upstream and the surrounding watershed, often causing

Characteristics of the watershed (the land area drained by a river and its tributaries);

*3.2.2. Know the river ecosystem and plan for a scale larger than the riverfront* 

The floodplain and the river channel with the structure of its bed and banks;

*3.2.3. Because rivers are dynamic, minimize new floodplain development* 

Eight general principles set the stage for design success [21].

## *3.3.1. Protect natural river features and functions*

The water flow and sediment supply are controlled by natural equilibrium in stable streams and rivers. However, dams and flood control systems have dramatically changed the structure of many urban rivers. Protection of natural river features and functions necessitates avoiding the use of new dams and other engineering solutions, such as a straightening, channelizing, or placing streams in underground pipes and culverts.

Urban River Landscapes 563

*3.3.3. Restore riparian and in-stream habitats* 

must be provided to protect wildlife habitat.

opportunities for natural river functions.

other contaminants into river and streams.

*3.3.5. Reduce hardscapes* 

drought periods [23].

The restoration of riparian habitats requires taking other actions than simply replanting indigenous plants. First of all, watershed and regional factors should be considered by planners to establish healthy hydrological cycles and acquire a good quality of water. For example, the planted buffer zones must be created and maintained, stormwater must be controlled and cleaned, and new dams and reservoirs should be avoided or removed if possible. Similarly, the good management of in-stream flows from reservoirs and dams

Also, new researches can be conducted on upstream and downstream natural communities in order to identify possible restoration areas and habitat types for fish, birds, and other animals. These areas should be taken into consideration by planners especially in larger river systems. Following the improvement of water quality and habitat, it will be possible to

In the past, hard engineering approach caused many damages on water quality and wildlife habitat and also triggered many flooding events. Therefore, a recent and "softer" engineering approach has emerged to offer protection from flood as well as restoration

It has acquired a wide acceptance as an alternative to hard engineering-bioengineering (also known as soft engineering)- among the departments of civil engineers and public works [19]. In this soft engineering approach, the same performance standards as hard engineering are achieved; at the same time, it is possible for bioengineering to use plants and other natural materials to simulate natural forces, and in this way, to control floods, maintain water

Hardscapes are such places as roads, parking lots, sidewalks, driveways, paved paths, roottops, and other impermeable surfaces that prevent rainwater from filtering through soil and replenishing rivers and stream as groundwater. Nearly half of all stream flows are provided by groundwater. This percentage can increase to a much higher level during

The urban rivers are also adversely affected by these impermeable surfaces of hardscapes as they do not absorb stormwater. In fact, they result in considerable increases in the volume and velocity of rainwater runoff. Another adverse effect of paved surfaces is their contribution to pollution as they washes surface oils, fertilizers, heavy metals, bacteria, and

Through the reduction of hardscapes and installation of natural landscapes, it can be possible to restore natural watershed functions, filter pollutant, and prevent erosion of

quality, provide access to recreation, reduce erosion and create wildlife habitat.

introduce native as well as new fish species to a healthy aquatic ecosystem.

*3.3.4. Use nonstructural alternatives to manage water resources* 

It might be possible to fully restore the ecological features and functions in most urban rivers and streams. However, there are many other opportunities for communities to protect the critical areas to provide a more natural riverfront. There are surprisingly rich and extensive predevelopment features in many urban rivers, including forested banks, fish and bird habitat, and wetlands. Preservation of these properties of natural watershed can also be cost saving.

## *3.3.2. Buffer sensitive natural areas*

Buffer zones are areas situated next to a shoreline, wetland, or stream where development is restricted or prohibited. They facilitate the protection of ecological integrity of rivers, enhance connections between wildlife habitats, and allow rivers to function more naturally. A buffer network serves as "right-of-way" for a river or stream and it is an indispensable part of the stream ecosystem. Various sizes of buffers help protecting the natural areas close to rivers and streams, and especially fragile zone like steep slopes and wetlands.

They also reduce the impermeability of an area and filter sediments and storm-water pollutants like fertilizers and pesticides. They act like a filter and reduce the cost of water treatment systems by preventing pollutants from entering in the sources of potable water. Through the protection of open spaces along the river as buffer zones, storm-water and flood control can be achieved in a cost-effective way. Buffers also play an important role in reducing the risk of erosion caused by uncontrolled runoff and stabilize riverbanks with vegetation.

A well designed buffer zone helps protecting the quality of water and habitats for plant and wildlife. Buffers also provide shadow areas which decrease the temperature of water and thus protect aquatic habitat. With trees, shrubs, grasses and other native plants, they provide cover and food for birds, mammals, and other animals along the river. There are also benefits for humans as flourishing buffers are visually appealing and can often be used as greenbelts, parks and recreation areas.

On the other hand, the traditional norm of "attractive" can be abandoned to create buffer zones beneficial to river ecosystem. There is no advantage for biodiversity in keeping manicured lawns, formal landscape designs, and pruned shrubs as they frequently require the use harmful pesticides, and do not provide the food or shelter for wildlife.

## *3.3.3. Restore riparian and in-stream habitats*

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cost saving.

wetlands.

vegetation.

*3.3.2. Buffer sensitive natural areas* 

as greenbelts, parks and recreation areas.

*3.3.1. Protect natural river features and functions* 

The water flow and sediment supply are controlled by natural equilibrium in stable streams and rivers. However, dams and flood control systems have dramatically changed the structure of many urban rivers. Protection of natural river features and functions necessitates avoiding the use of new dams and other engineering solutions, such as a

It might be possible to fully restore the ecological features and functions in most urban rivers and streams. However, there are many other opportunities for communities to protect the critical areas to provide a more natural riverfront. There are surprisingly rich and extensive predevelopment features in many urban rivers, including forested banks, fish and bird habitat, and wetlands. Preservation of these properties of natural watershed can also be

Buffer zones are areas situated next to a shoreline, wetland, or stream where development is restricted or prohibited. They facilitate the protection of ecological integrity of rivers, enhance connections between wildlife habitats, and allow rivers to function more naturally. A buffer network serves as "right-of-way" for a river or stream and it is an indispensable part of the stream ecosystem. Various sizes of buffers help protecting the natural areas close to rivers and streams, and especially fragile zone like steep slopes and

They also reduce the impermeability of an area and filter sediments and storm-water pollutants like fertilizers and pesticides. They act like a filter and reduce the cost of water treatment systems by preventing pollutants from entering in the sources of potable water. Through the protection of open spaces along the river as buffer zones, storm-water and flood control can be achieved in a cost-effective way. Buffers also play an important role in reducing the risk of erosion caused by uncontrolled runoff and stabilize riverbanks with

A well designed buffer zone helps protecting the quality of water and habitats for plant and wildlife. Buffers also provide shadow areas which decrease the temperature of water and thus protect aquatic habitat. With trees, shrubs, grasses and other native plants, they provide cover and food for birds, mammals, and other animals along the river. There are also benefits for humans as flourishing buffers are visually appealing and can often be used

On the other hand, the traditional norm of "attractive" can be abandoned to create buffer zones beneficial to river ecosystem. There is no advantage for biodiversity in keeping manicured lawns, formal landscape designs, and pruned shrubs as they frequently require

the use harmful pesticides, and do not provide the food or shelter for wildlife.

straightening, channelizing, or placing streams in underground pipes and culverts.

The restoration of riparian habitats requires taking other actions than simply replanting indigenous plants. First of all, watershed and regional factors should be considered by planners to establish healthy hydrological cycles and acquire a good quality of water. For example, the planted buffer zones must be created and maintained, stormwater must be controlled and cleaned, and new dams and reservoirs should be avoided or removed if possible. Similarly, the good management of in-stream flows from reservoirs and dams must be provided to protect wildlife habitat.

Also, new researches can be conducted on upstream and downstream natural communities in order to identify possible restoration areas and habitat types for fish, birds, and other animals. These areas should be taken into consideration by planners especially in larger river systems. Following the improvement of water quality and habitat, it will be possible to introduce native as well as new fish species to a healthy aquatic ecosystem.

## *3.3.4. Use nonstructural alternatives to manage water resources*

In the past, hard engineering approach caused many damages on water quality and wildlife habitat and also triggered many flooding events. Therefore, a recent and "softer" engineering approach has emerged to offer protection from flood as well as restoration opportunities for natural river functions.

It has acquired a wide acceptance as an alternative to hard engineering-bioengineering (also known as soft engineering)- among the departments of civil engineers and public works [19].

In this soft engineering approach, the same performance standards as hard engineering are achieved; at the same time, it is possible for bioengineering to use plants and other natural materials to simulate natural forces, and in this way, to control floods, maintain water quality, provide access to recreation, reduce erosion and create wildlife habitat.

### *3.3.5. Reduce hardscapes*

Hardscapes are such places as roads, parking lots, sidewalks, driveways, paved paths, roottops, and other impermeable surfaces that prevent rainwater from filtering through soil and replenishing rivers and stream as groundwater. Nearly half of all stream flows are provided by groundwater. This percentage can increase to a much higher level during drought periods [23].

The urban rivers are also adversely affected by these impermeable surfaces of hardscapes as they do not absorb stormwater. In fact, they result in considerable increases in the volume and velocity of rainwater runoff. Another adverse effect of paved surfaces is their contribution to pollution as they washes surface oils, fertilizers, heavy metals, bacteria, and other contaminants into river and streams.

Through the reduction of hardscapes and installation of natural landscapes, it can be possible to restore natural watershed functions, filter pollutant, and prevent erosion of

banks and channelization of streambeds. The replacement of hardscape with soft, permeable surfaces, such as native grasses, shrubs, and trees in older, industrial or abandoned riverfront areas will improve environment from both aesthetic and ecological aspects.

Urban River Landscapes 565

Water rehabilitation involves cultural works as well as ecological issues in urban areas, which requires the consideration of social, economic and aesthetic aspects of issue. A good balance has to be established among all targets with respect to the sustainability principles. And a special consideration should be given to ecological concerns by the requirements of the Water Framework Directive (WFD). The site-specific conditions are effective in the creation of this balance that has to be established among these diverse and often competing

Considering this background, there are different scopes of rehabilitation, which can be

 **Restoration:** Restoration is aimed at reviving the pristine physical, chemical and biological states of rivers. In its simplest form, it requires a full structural and functional

 **Renaturalisation** or **naturalisation:** Renaturalisation or naturalisation represents a natural method of recovering the natural state of a (river-) ecosystem without really

 **Rehabilitation:** In rehabilitation stage, it is primarily aimed to recover the partly functional and/or structural conditions of rivers or enabling a functional condition. It is generally considered with regard to ecologic state (biological, hydromorphological and

 **Enhancement:** Like its lexical meaning, enhancement is the improvement of the present state of rivers and its surrounding areas. In this stage, it is aimed to evaluate the

Two terms have a special importance in the URBEM (Urban River Basin Enhancement Methods) research project: one of which is the rehabilitation in its all sense including partial functional and/or structural recovery of the former or pre-degradation conditions. The other is enhancement including the social, economic and aesthetic properties in a wider viewpoint. Actually, the term of rehabilitation would apply better to the inevitable constraints of urban rivers than the term of restoration. It cannot be always possible to obtain a pristine state of rivers in towns and cities. It becomes more appropriate to use the term of enhancement when the rehabilitation of urban waters is considered in a more comprehensive way for sustainable urban development. This involves the ecological, social, economic and aesthetic multifunctionality of urban waters with their riparian areas. Ecological conditions are given a special importance in enhancement despite in contrast to

It is not always possible to make a distinction between the economic advantages of restoring riverfronts and the value of restoring rivers themselves. The protection of watershed and restoration of upstream could be more effective than the activities of ecological design on riverfront. On the other hand, it cannot be forgotten that the efforts of restoring riverfront

However, the past experiences have demonstrated that the restoration of rivers and

ecologically sensitive redevelopment efforts can have the following advantages [21]:

physico-chemical) through structural and partly non-structural measures.

requirements [24].

summarized as follows [24]:

the background of the WFD [24].

recovery of a pre-disturbance state.

aiming the pristine, predisturbance state.

ecological, social, economic and aesthetic properties.

could be more effective on river condition in general [21].

Planners must minimize the amount of hardscapes if they cannot be avoided. The reduction of hardscapes in new development projects can offer cost efficiency for local governments, developers, and homeowners. It is expensive to install and maintain infrastructure- roads, sidewalks, sewer liner, curbs and gutters, and parking spaces.

## *3.3.6. Manage stormwater on-site and use nonstructural approaches*

An ecologically designed riverfront can capture, store, and infiltrate stormwater, or otherwise, naturally treat and release it. Wildlife habitats and aesthetic value can also be obtained through systems with natural process, such as wetlands and bioswales (small linear wetland planted with riparian and water-tolerant trees). These natural systems can be used to replace the old stormwater pipes and other engineered infrastructures, most of which give high volumes of untreated stormwater directly into rivers and streams.

## *3.3.7. Balance recreational and public access goals with river protection*

Riverfront communities should be provided with facilities with as many recreational usage as possible; on the other hand, some conflicting usages should be balanced (e.g. between power boats and birdwatching platforms) and possible overuse of the river corridor should be managed.

## *3.3.8. Incorporate information about a river's natural resources and cultural history into the design of riverfront features, public art, and interpretive signs*

Ecological interpretation and education is especially meaningful along urban rivers because most of the original forms of ecosystems have been damaged. The history and function of rivers may not be known well by the public. A conscious and well-informed society will understand the river ecology and regeneration potentials and know how to use their river safely; therefore, communities should be informed about water quality issues and hazards to swimming and boat navigation.

## **4. Baselines of urban water rehabilitation**

It is a new approach to improve ecological functions of waters and maintain their anthropogenic use at the same time. In the past uses of waters, human usage was dominant over all other uses of water. And, this had certain effects on ecological properties and restricted the consistency with other uses. In the recent times, there have efforts on the rehabilitation of urban rivers to reverse the adverse effects on ecology including the changes in hydromorphological properties and water quality, which considerably affected the availability and biodiversity of aquatic habitat [24].

Water rehabilitation involves cultural works as well as ecological issues in urban areas, which requires the consideration of social, economic and aesthetic aspects of issue. A good balance has to be established among all targets with respect to the sustainability principles. And a special consideration should be given to ecological concerns by the requirements of the Water Framework Directive (WFD). The site-specific conditions are effective in the creation of this balance that has to be established among these diverse and often competing requirements [24].

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be managed.

to swimming and boat navigation.

**4. Baselines of urban water rehabilitation** 

availability and biodiversity of aquatic habitat [24].

banks and channelization of streambeds. The replacement of hardscape with soft, permeable surfaces, such as native grasses, shrubs, and trees in older, industrial or abandoned riverfront areas will improve environment from both aesthetic and ecological aspects.

Planners must minimize the amount of hardscapes if they cannot be avoided. The reduction of hardscapes in new development projects can offer cost efficiency for local governments, developers, and homeowners. It is expensive to install and maintain infrastructure- roads,

An ecologically designed riverfront can capture, store, and infiltrate stormwater, or otherwise, naturally treat and release it. Wildlife habitats and aesthetic value can also be obtained through systems with natural process, such as wetlands and bioswales (small linear wetland planted with riparian and water-tolerant trees). These natural systems can be used to replace the old stormwater pipes and other engineered infrastructures, most of

Riverfront communities should be provided with facilities with as many recreational usage as possible; on the other hand, some conflicting usages should be balanced (e.g. between power boats and birdwatching platforms) and possible overuse of the river corridor should

*3.3.8. Incorporate information about a river's natural resources and cultural history into* 

Ecological interpretation and education is especially meaningful along urban rivers because most of the original forms of ecosystems have been damaged. The history and function of rivers may not be known well by the public. A conscious and well-informed society will understand the river ecology and regeneration potentials and know how to use their river safely; therefore, communities should be informed about water quality issues and hazards

It is a new approach to improve ecological functions of waters and maintain their anthropogenic use at the same time. In the past uses of waters, human usage was dominant over all other uses of water. And, this had certain effects on ecological properties and restricted the consistency with other uses. In the recent times, there have efforts on the rehabilitation of urban rivers to reverse the adverse effects on ecology including the changes in hydromorphological properties and water quality, which considerably affected the

which give high volumes of untreated stormwater directly into rivers and streams.

*3.3.7. Balance recreational and public access goals with river protection* 

*the design of riverfront features, public art, and interpretive signs* 

sidewalks, sewer liner, curbs and gutters, and parking spaces.

*3.3.6. Manage stormwater on-site and use nonstructural approaches* 

Considering this background, there are different scopes of rehabilitation, which can be summarized as follows [24]:


Two terms have a special importance in the URBEM (Urban River Basin Enhancement Methods) research project: one of which is the rehabilitation in its all sense including partial functional and/or structural recovery of the former or pre-degradation conditions. The other is enhancement including the social, economic and aesthetic properties in a wider viewpoint. Actually, the term of rehabilitation would apply better to the inevitable constraints of urban rivers than the term of restoration. It cannot be always possible to obtain a pristine state of rivers in towns and cities. It becomes more appropriate to use the term of enhancement when the rehabilitation of urban waters is considered in a more comprehensive way for sustainable urban development. This involves the ecological, social, economic and aesthetic multifunctionality of urban waters with their riparian areas. Ecological conditions are given a special importance in enhancement despite in contrast to the background of the WFD [24].

It is not always possible to make a distinction between the economic advantages of restoring riverfronts and the value of restoring rivers themselves. The protection of watershed and restoration of upstream could be more effective than the activities of ecological design on riverfront. On the other hand, it cannot be forgotten that the efforts of restoring riverfront could be more effective on river condition in general [21].

However, the past experiences have demonstrated that the restoration of rivers and ecologically sensitive redevelopment efforts can have the following advantages [21]:

 The improvement of water quality and cost effective cleanup and treatment of drinking water sources.

Urban River Landscapes 567

**Figure 6.** Minneapolis Riverfront District, Minneapolis, Minnesota-USA (Original, 2006).

**Figure 7.** Park areas along Mississippi River in Baton Rouge, Louisiana-USA (Original, 2007).

Figure 7-8.

The views of riverfront park areas along Mississippi River in Baton Rouge are given in


## **5. Case studies**

## **5.1. Some samples of urban river landscape throughout the world**

## *5.1.1. The Mississippi River*

The places where Mississippi River pours in Minneapolis Minnesota State of USA and Mexican Gulf and the river course in Baton Rouge and New Orleans in Louisiana were investigated.

The views of riverfront in Minneapolis are given in Figure 5-6 below.

**Figure 5.** The view of Minneapolis Riverfront District, Minneapolis, Minnesota-USA (Original, 2006).

**Figure 6.** Minneapolis Riverfront District, Minneapolis, Minnesota-USA (Original, 2006).

566 Advances in Landscape Architecture

water sources.

businesses.

support.

**5. Case studies** 

investigated.

*5.1.1. The Mississippi River* 

The improvement of water quality and cost effective cleanup and treatment of drinking

Reactivation of the downtown riverfront with new opportunities for housing, offices,

Creation of new job opportunities for residents in the construction and commercial

Acquiring funds from state and federal governments, volunteers and broad financial

The places where Mississippi River pours in Minneapolis Minnesota State of USA and Mexican Gulf and the river course in Baton Rouge and New Orleans in Louisiana were

**Figure 5.** The view of Minneapolis Riverfront District, Minneapolis, Minnesota-USA (Original, 2006).

The moderation of damages of flood and the costs of flood control systems.

and commercial services that attract new residents, businesses and visitors.

Provision of recreational opportunities, open spaces and park areas.

**5.1. Some samples of urban river landscape throughout the world** 

The views of riverfront in Minneapolis are given in Figure 5-6 below.

 Low costs of stormwater management systems. Low costs of sprawl and related infrastructures.

Higher values of property and new tax revenues.

The views of riverfront park areas along Mississippi River in Baton Rouge are given in Figure 7-8.

**Figure 7.** Park areas along Mississippi River in Baton Rouge, Louisiana-USA (Original, 2007).

Urban River Landscapes 569

**Figure 10.** The view of Mississippi River in New Orleans, Louisiana-USA (Original, 2007).

that the restoration provided economic advantages to the city [19].

completely involved with edges and land uses of the project [13].

Streams and rivers were restored in a number of small towns and large cities to attract and

The restoration of San Antonio River in San Antonio-Texas, known as San Antonio River Walk at present, has developed the tourism in the region to an extent to include the city in touristic places. The river has gained many additional downtown features such as continuous promenade following both sides of the river and shops, restaurants, and hotels facing the river. In the survey conducted on citizens of San Antonio in 1973, it was revealed that public had a strong positive response to the Project, which later even increased further to include more riverfront restoration. It was reported that almost all of the population (96.6%) believed that the restoration created a tourism attraction and an important part of population (80%) believed

The origin of River Walk was based on a flood prevention project developed following a devastating flood in 1921. The initial plan was aimed at locating the river in a larger underground culvert and paving the area into a street. This plan was adopted and considered to act like a channel to circumvent a downtown horseshoes bends in the river in order to avoid flooding in the area. And the bend was embellished by the Works Progress Administration (WPA) in 1939 [19]. San Antonio's riverfront is a small scale reminder of Amsterdam and shows the successful development of a very narrow water concourse into a major land-use development. Barges are available for various organizations to create a joyful entertainment atmosphere. The bridge element serves as a romantic element connecting sides of the city and creating an image, which allows the visitor to become

*5.1.2. The San Antonio River Walk* 

improve a tourism economy [19].

**Figure 8.** The view of Mississippi River in Baton Rouge, Louisiana-USA (Original, 2007).

Views of fair and exhibition spaces along Mississippi in New Orleans are given in Figure 9- 10.

**Figure 9.** Fair and exhibition spaces along Mississippi in New Orleans, Louisiana-USA (Original, 2007).

**Figure 10.** The view of Mississippi River in New Orleans, Louisiana-USA (Original, 2007).

## *5.1.2. The San Antonio River Walk*

568 Advances in Landscape Architecture

10.

**Figure 8.** The view of Mississippi River in Baton Rouge, Louisiana-USA (Original, 2007).

Views of fair and exhibition spaces along Mississippi in New Orleans are given in Figure 9-

**Figure 9.** Fair and exhibition spaces along Mississippi in New Orleans, Louisiana-USA (Original, 2007).

Streams and rivers were restored in a number of small towns and large cities to attract and improve a tourism economy [19].

The restoration of San Antonio River in San Antonio-Texas, known as San Antonio River Walk at present, has developed the tourism in the region to an extent to include the city in touristic places. The river has gained many additional downtown features such as continuous promenade following both sides of the river and shops, restaurants, and hotels facing the river. In the survey conducted on citizens of San Antonio in 1973, it was revealed that public had a strong positive response to the Project, which later even increased further to include more riverfront restoration. It was reported that almost all of the population (96.6%) believed that the restoration created a tourism attraction and an important part of population (80%) believed that the restoration provided economic advantages to the city [19].

The origin of River Walk was based on a flood prevention project developed following a devastating flood in 1921. The initial plan was aimed at locating the river in a larger underground culvert and paving the area into a street. This plan was adopted and considered to act like a channel to circumvent a downtown horseshoes bends in the river in order to avoid flooding in the area. And the bend was embellished by the Works Progress Administration (WPA) in 1939 [19]. San Antonio's riverfront is a small scale reminder of Amsterdam and shows the successful development of a very narrow water concourse into a major land-use development. Barges are available for various organizations to create a joyful entertainment atmosphere. The bridge element serves as a romantic element connecting sides of the city and creating an image, which allows the visitor to become completely involved with edges and land uses of the project [13].

With the San Antonio's River Walk, a wide variety of recreational opportunities as well as a very narrow drainage canal have been created [13], (Figure 11-12).

Urban River Landscapes 571

wetlands and riverfront forests are of special importance in the basin. The Nine Mile Creek provides an ideal habitat for trout production with its high quality of water and water

Wetlands play an important role in the protection of water quality of nine mile creek. At the same time, wetlands act like a tampon zone against floods. Various commissions (Save the Country Land Trust and Nine Mile Creek Conservation Council) actively work in the protection of many wetlands present along the corridor of Nine Mile Creek [25]. One of the

Just like wetlands in the basin, riverfront forests are also important for the protection of water quality of Nine Mile Creek. They control the erosion along the stream and provide food sources and shelter for most of the aquatic and fish species. The protection of all

The important areas in greenway of Nine Mile Creek Corridor and their usages are as

unique characteristics of Nine Mile Creek is the forests along riverfront.

riverfront forests will positively affect the water flow and quality [25].

In addition, the restoration application along stream is given in Figure 14.

**Figure 13.** Erie Canal Park in Syracuse, New York-USA (Original, 2006).

temperature [25].

follows [25];

1. Baltimore Woods (trekking)

3. Fishing lakes and park areas (fishing) 4. Martisco Station (historical site)

8. Camillus Forest Unique Space (trekking) 9. Onondaga Lake Wetlands (trekking)

5. Camillus Valley Natural Park (trekking, fishing) 6. Erie Canal Park (trekking, fishing) (see Figure 13) 7. Canoeing and park areas (trekking, canoe access)

2. Disappearing Lake

**Figure 11.** View of the San Antonio River Walk in San Antonio, Texas-USA (Original, 2007).

**Figure 12.** The San Antonio River Walk in San Antonio, Texas-USA (Original, 2007).

## *5.1.3. The Nine Mile Creek*

The Nine Mile Creek extending from the Otisco Lake near Syracuse city north east to New York in USA to Onondaga Lake has a basin of 300 km² and 28,98 km in length. Fishery, wetlands and riverfront forests are of special importance in the basin. The Nine Mile Creek provides an ideal habitat for trout production with its high quality of water and water temperature [25].

Wetlands play an important role in the protection of water quality of nine mile creek. At the same time, wetlands act like a tampon zone against floods. Various commissions (Save the Country Land Trust and Nine Mile Creek Conservation Council) actively work in the protection of many wetlands present along the corridor of Nine Mile Creek [25]. One of the unique characteristics of Nine Mile Creek is the forests along riverfront.

Just like wetlands in the basin, riverfront forests are also important for the protection of water quality of Nine Mile Creek. They control the erosion along the stream and provide food sources and shelter for most of the aquatic and fish species. The protection of all riverfront forests will positively affect the water flow and quality [25].

The important areas in greenway of Nine Mile Creek Corridor and their usages are as follows [25];


570 Advances in Landscape Architecture

With the San Antonio's River Walk, a wide variety of recreational opportunities as well as a

**Figure 11.** View of the San Antonio River Walk in San Antonio, Texas-USA (Original, 2007).

**Figure 12.** The San Antonio River Walk in San Antonio, Texas-USA (Original, 2007).

The Nine Mile Creek extending from the Otisco Lake near Syracuse city north east to New York in USA to Onondaga Lake has a basin of 300 km² and 28,98 km in length. Fishery,

*5.1.3. The Nine Mile Creek* 

very narrow drainage canal have been created [13], (Figure 11-12).


In addition, the restoration application along stream is given in Figure 14.

**Figure 13.** Erie Canal Park in Syracuse, New York-USA (Original, 2006).

Urban River Landscapes 573

**Figure 15.** The Onondaga Creek riverside park in Syracuse, New York-USA (Original, 2006).

**Figure 16.** The Onondaga Creek in Syracuse, New York-USA (Original, 2006).

The Trinity River Corridor Project in Dallas City of Texas, USA is consists of flood protection, environment management, recreation, transportation and socio-economic sections. The project is investigated in 4 regions. The following recommendations were

*5.1.5. The Trinity River Corridor* 

made for these 4 regions in the project [27];

**Figure 14.** The Nine Mile Creek in Syracuse, New York-USA (Original, 2006).

## *5.1.4. The Onondaga Creek*

The Onondaga Creek is a revitalization plan in 14.49 km length along the Syracuse city in New York, USA. This community-based revitalization plan designed for Onondaga Creek Basin provides guidance for widening social and economic opportunities along Onondaga Creek and improvement of habitat and water quality. It is aimed to obtain economic and ecological benefits as well as revitalization of the creek in Syracuse. The reduction of water quality along the creek, habitat changes and limited public access are the main problems related to the creek. Therefore, the following options can be realized to attract public attention to the Onondaga Creek again [26]:


It is quite important to provide functions attracting public preference with smart planning and restore the creek for a healthier environment in order to solve the environmental problems of the Onondaga Creek [26].

The views of Onondaga Creek across Syracuse City are given in the Figure 15-16.

**Figure 15.** The Onondaga Creek riverside park in Syracuse, New York-USA (Original, 2006).

**Figure 16.** The Onondaga Creek in Syracuse, New York-USA (Original, 2006).

#### *5.1.5. The Trinity River Corridor*

572 Advances in Landscape Architecture

*5.1.4. The Onondaga Creek* 

public interest.

the creek.

Creek is continued.

problems of the Onondaga Creek [26].

attention to the Onondaga Creek again [26]:

**Figure 14.** The Nine Mile Creek in Syracuse, New York-USA (Original, 2006).

The Onondaga Creek is a revitalization plan in 14.49 km length along the Syracuse city in New York, USA. This community-based revitalization plan designed for Onondaga Creek Basin provides guidance for widening social and economic opportunities along Onondaga Creek and improvement of habitat and water quality. It is aimed to obtain economic and ecological benefits as well as revitalization of the creek in Syracuse. The reduction of water quality along the creek, habitat changes and limited public access are the main problems related to the creek. Therefore, the following options can be realized to attract public

The efforts are still continued to increase the water quality of Onondaga Creek.

Onondaga Creek Festivals were organized in 2004 and 2005 and there is a growing

The construction of a walking trail from Armory Square of Syracuse City to Onondaga

Stabilization projects along riverfront reduce the sediment load in south tributaries of

It is quite important to provide functions attracting public preference with smart planning and restore the creek for a healthier environment in order to solve the environmental

The views of Onondaga Creek across Syracuse City are given in the Figure 15-16.

The Trinity River Corridor Project in Dallas City of Texas, USA is consists of flood protection, environment management, recreation, transportation and socio-economic sections. The project is investigated in 4 regions. The following recommendations were made for these 4 regions in the project [27];

1. In the region of "Dallas Floodway Extension", construction of bank, wetland development, protection-improvement of area, restoration of river tributaries, fill area and public spaces within the boundaries of flood area,

Urban River Landscapes 575

**Figure 18.** The Trinity River Corridor parks in Fort Worth-Dallas, Texas-USA (Original, 2007).

south to north direction passing through the city [28] (see Figure 19).

Munich is located 80 kilometers to the north from the Alps in the Munich plain, a glacial and postglacial outwash of limestone gravel. There are only a few geomorphologic features of the plain affecting urban development except for the floodplain of the river Isar with its sequence of river banks and terraces. In spite of the homogeneous appearance of the area, it contains a wide variety of habitats reflecting the interconnected ecological conditions in the Munich plain. There are only small patches of natural woodland types which are predominantly oak and the cultural landscapes such as the once extensive grassy heathlands and fenlands in the northern Munich plain. The river Isar provides a wide green passage in

The river Isar acts like a backbone of the green structure system of the Munich city. There have been many efforts to control the wild nature of this braiding alpine river with its sudden and large floods since the first establishment of the city. And the river has been largely exploited since 1889. The main driving forces of turning the river into a bed of concrete and build canals are the protection from flood and the generation of energy, which is known as "the white gold". Almost all of the water (95%) was cut by such means. A large water reservoir was built in the Alps in 1959, which had a deep effect on the river dynamics. Afterwards, it helped to reduce the amount of gravel and sand carried by the river, which caused continual deepening of the river bed. On the other hand, the water quality of river was not good, which then created many problems for the bathing facilities in Munich. The river Isar was called by environmentalists as a "dead river" in 1980s, and there was an evident need for a reconstruction project. For this reason, Bavarian state and the city of Munich have taken serious actions since 1989. For instance, the contract of power generating

*5.1.6. The River Isar* 


The Trinity River Corridor parks in Fort Worth-Dallas city are given in Figure 17-18.

**Figure 17.** The Trinity River Corridor in Fort Worth-Dallas, Texas-USA (Original, 2007).

**Figure 18.** The Trinity River Corridor parks in Fort Worth-Dallas, Texas-USA (Original, 2007).

## *5.1.6. The River Isar*

574 Advances in Landscape Architecture

areas against flood water,

1. In the region of "Dallas Floodway Extension", construction of bank, wetland development, protection-improvement of area, restoration of river tributaries, fill area

2. For "Elm Fork Region", walking trails, football field, green belts, improvement of

3. For "Dallas Waterway", 2 ponds without canal connection, meandering river, water properties, wetlands, pavilion and walking trails, flood protection to create protected

4. For "Great Trinity Forest", green belt, other parks and green belts, Trinity River Corridor parks, ponds, suggested wetland connection, Elm Fork region protection

The Trinity River Corridor parks in Fort Worth-Dallas city are given in Figure 17-18.

**Figure 17.** The Trinity River Corridor in Fort Worth-Dallas, Texas-USA (Original, 2007).

and public spaces within the boundaries of flood area,

study, and areas like banks etc. are suggested.

underground drainage, banks, wetlands and recreational areas,

Munich is located 80 kilometers to the north from the Alps in the Munich plain, a glacial and postglacial outwash of limestone gravel. There are only a few geomorphologic features of the plain affecting urban development except for the floodplain of the river Isar with its sequence of river banks and terraces. In spite of the homogeneous appearance of the area, it contains a wide variety of habitats reflecting the interconnected ecological conditions in the Munich plain. There are only small patches of natural woodland types which are predominantly oak and the cultural landscapes such as the once extensive grassy heathlands and fenlands in the northern Munich plain. The river Isar provides a wide green passage in south to north direction passing through the city [28] (see Figure 19).

The river Isar acts like a backbone of the green structure system of the Munich city. There have been many efforts to control the wild nature of this braiding alpine river with its sudden and large floods since the first establishment of the city. And the river has been largely exploited since 1889. The main driving forces of turning the river into a bed of concrete and build canals are the protection from flood and the generation of energy, which is known as "the white gold". Almost all of the water (95%) was cut by such means. A large water reservoir was built in the Alps in 1959, which had a deep effect on the river dynamics. Afterwards, it helped to reduce the amount of gravel and sand carried by the river, which caused continual deepening of the river bed. On the other hand, the water quality of river was not good, which then created many problems for the bathing facilities in Munich. The river Isar was called by environmentalists as a "dead river" in 1980s, and there was an evident need for a reconstruction project. For this reason, Bavarian state and the city of Munich have taken serious actions since 1989. For instance, the contract of power generating

Urban River Landscapes 577

swimming without health risks and allowing natural dynamics to form and enrich the

There have been actions planned and carried out by public staff to cut trees in order to restore the dams, all of which faced strong criticism by local press in the beginning phase. However, their positive effects became apparent to public in the next summer. Consequently, the Munich citizens welcomed the second rebuilt section. The third section to redesign now provides the inner city with a prominent waterfront. Compared to the earlier sections, it has a different character in terms of morphology and function. Therefore, there is a need for well-planned and consistent solutions to improve the recreational, ecological and technical urban functions of the river. And for this purpose, there was an international competition in 2003 organized for teams of landscape architects, town planners and river

The Isar has a very high flow velocity and transports a huge quantity of bed load. The riverbed was improved before the rehabilitation with low drops to prevent erosion in the riverbed and reduce gravel transport. The efforts for creating a natural hydromorfologic process removed the hard confinement, replace the low drops by sills and created the input of gravel and boulders along the banks and as islands. These gravel banks will be relocated by natural processes in time. These areas are densely used by many people on recreation

The Cheonggyecheon Restoration Project is especially important as it is aimed to revive the historical and cultural environment of Seoul. This project is an indispensable part Seoul's urban planning but it is also a symbolic project to regain an important part of Korea's historical and natural heritage at the start of the twenty-first century. The capital city of Korea will become even more environmentally and human friendly once the project is finished. It is also expected from the project to create a new pattern for urban management

altering the look of city by removing repulsive structures and creating beautiful

The following recommendations are recommended by the Seoul Agenda 21 to construct

The main targets of the Cheonggyecheon Restoration can be given as follows [30]:

presenting the historical and cultural heritages of Cheonggyecheon

different biological corridors and habitat network to create an eco-city [30]:

reviving the economy in the downtown and northern Seoul.

floodplain for wildlife [29].

engineers [29].

purposes in summer [24] (see Figure 20).

*5.1.7. The Cheonggyecheon Restoration Project* 

in the new century and help boosting the image of Seoul [30].

restoring history, culture and the environment in Seoul

riverside landscape in downtown of Seoul

creating a new environmentally friendly Seoul

 connecting the axes of ecological green areas enhancing urban green areas (public sector)

**Figure 19.** The River Isar in Munich-Germany (Original, 2007).

**Figure 20.** Gravel banks used for recreation in the River Isar in Munich-Germany (Original, 2011).

industry expired in 1993 and a renegotiation was required. Consequently, The main aim of the next planning and design processes was to increase the water flow rate from 5 m³/sec to 12 m³/sec. Accordingly, the "Isarplan" was developed in 1995, which was a comprehensive and detailed plan involving every aspects of the river. A very important decision was taken by the civil board of the city of Munich in 2000 for the urban section of the river. The project primarily aimed to restructure the dams on the river Isar, increase the retention capacity of the floodplain, regain the river and its banks as living spaces, including the possibility for swimming without health risks and allowing natural dynamics to form and enrich the floodplain for wildlife [29].

There have been actions planned and carried out by public staff to cut trees in order to restore the dams, all of which faced strong criticism by local press in the beginning phase. However, their positive effects became apparent to public in the next summer. Consequently, the Munich citizens welcomed the second rebuilt section. The third section to redesign now provides the inner city with a prominent waterfront. Compared to the earlier sections, it has a different character in terms of morphology and function. Therefore, there is a need for well-planned and consistent solutions to improve the recreational, ecological and technical urban functions of the river. And for this purpose, there was an international competition in 2003 organized for teams of landscape architects, town planners and river engineers [29].

The Isar has a very high flow velocity and transports a huge quantity of bed load. The riverbed was improved before the rehabilitation with low drops to prevent erosion in the riverbed and reduce gravel transport. The efforts for creating a natural hydromorfologic process removed the hard confinement, replace the low drops by sills and created the input of gravel and boulders along the banks and as islands. These gravel banks will be relocated by natural processes in time. These areas are densely used by many people on recreation purposes in summer [24] (see Figure 20).

## *5.1.7. The Cheonggyecheon Restoration Project*

576 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 19.** The River Isar in Munich-Germany (Original, 2007).

**Figure 20.** Gravel banks used for recreation in the River Isar in Munich-Germany (Original, 2011).

industry expired in 1993 and a renegotiation was required. Consequently, The main aim of the next planning and design processes was to increase the water flow rate from 5 m³/sec to 12 m³/sec. Accordingly, the "Isarplan" was developed in 1995, which was a comprehensive and detailed plan involving every aspects of the river. A very important decision was taken by the civil board of the city of Munich in 2000 for the urban section of the river. The project primarily aimed to restructure the dams on the river Isar, increase the retention capacity of the floodplain, regain the river and its banks as living spaces, including the possibility for The Cheonggyecheon Restoration Project is especially important as it is aimed to revive the historical and cultural environment of Seoul. This project is an indispensable part Seoul's urban planning but it is also a symbolic project to regain an important part of Korea's historical and natural heritage at the start of the twenty-first century. The capital city of Korea will become even more environmentally and human friendly once the project is finished. It is also expected from the project to create a new pattern for urban management in the new century and help boosting the image of Seoul [30].

The main targets of the Cheonggyecheon Restoration can be given as follows [30]:


The following recommendations are recommended by the Seoul Agenda 21 to construct different biological corridors and habitat network to create an eco-city [30]:


transforming rivers into natural places for flora and fauna.

With the restoration of historical areas, the modern era is harmoniously integrated with the 600 years old history of Seoul as the capital city of Korea. The restored Cheonggyecheon area will attract many tourists to Seoul from all over the world. In the project, a special focus is given to the improvement of the environment for living and business, and the project is expected to help Seoul to become the financial and commercial center of the East Asia. The new look of Seoul will also increase the expectations of Seoul citizens from the future [30].

Urban River Landscapes 579

The main theme of the project is to encourage and incite well-qualified spatial construction

As a result of the surveys, the project and its surrounding area are concluded qualified with interesting characteristics. For this reason, open spaces within the project area have been vegetated and opened for limited public use. However, the construction of fairground,

Especially, the wet space property of the project area for flora is always emphasized. The main theme of the project is to develop a landscape approach for rehabilitation and enhancement of natural structure in the area. It is aimed to attract people to this area not only for entertainment but also to experience the nature and the conditions it provides.

Consequently, below is given the recommended structure for the project designed to embellish and revive the Porsuk Creek, one of the most important parts of Eskisehir and

Citizens can freely walk in the green areas along the creek and experience the water-green

with the new organization and rehabilitation of the creek and canals.

picnic and commercial spaces has been avoided.

**Figure 22.** The Porsuk Creek riverside in Eskişehir-Turkey [33].

integrated with the city.

coherence (Figure 22-23).

**Figure 21.** Digital model of Cheonggyecheon linear park [31].

## **5.2. Some samples of urban river landscape in Turkey**

## *5.2.1. The Porsuk Creek*

The summary information is given below about the ''Landscape Planning Project for Eskişehir Urban Course of Porsuk Creek" in the Central Anatolia supported by World Bank and prepared by Memlük [32].

The project involves the green areas to be formed as a result of planning and restoration of open and green spaces 10 km along the Porsuk Creek and irrigation canals.

Except for a part of 1.5 km in city center, the entire creek remains in the natural riverbed. This natural river bed is meandering and polluted. In addition, the rehabilitation of Porsuk Creek and its tributaries was brought to agenda due to flooding events and the necessary efforts were immediately started.

As a result of these rehabilitation efforts, green areas have been formed on both sides of Porsuk Creek and its tributaries along the course within city center. Most of the large open and green spaces on both sides of creek and canal were rehabilitated. However, new riverfront tracts as well as open and green spaces created with the enforcement of new structuring and master plan are investigated in this study.

The main theme of the project is to encourage and incite well-qualified spatial construction with the new organization and rehabilitation of the creek and canals.

578 Advances in Landscape Architecture

transforming rivers into natural places for flora and fauna.

**Figure 21.** Digital model of Cheonggyecheon linear park [31].

*5.2.1. The Porsuk Creek* 

and prepared by Memlük [32].

efforts were immediately started.

**5.2. Some samples of urban river landscape in Turkey** 

structuring and master plan are investigated in this study.

With the restoration of historical areas, the modern era is harmoniously integrated with the 600 years old history of Seoul as the capital city of Korea. The restored Cheonggyecheon area will attract many tourists to Seoul from all over the world. In the project, a special focus is given to the improvement of the environment for living and business, and the project is expected to help Seoul to become the financial and commercial center of the East Asia. The new look of Seoul will also increase the expectations of Seoul citizens from the future [30].

The summary information is given below about the ''Landscape Planning Project for Eskişehir Urban Course of Porsuk Creek" in the Central Anatolia supported by World Bank

The project involves the green areas to be formed as a result of planning and restoration of

Except for a part of 1.5 km in city center, the entire creek remains in the natural riverbed. This natural river bed is meandering and polluted. In addition, the rehabilitation of Porsuk Creek and its tributaries was brought to agenda due to flooding events and the necessary

As a result of these rehabilitation efforts, green areas have been formed on both sides of Porsuk Creek and its tributaries along the course within city center. Most of the large open and green spaces on both sides of creek and canal were rehabilitated. However, new riverfront tracts as well as open and green spaces created with the enforcement of new

open and green spaces 10 km along the Porsuk Creek and irrigation canals.

As a result of the surveys, the project and its surrounding area are concluded qualified with interesting characteristics. For this reason, open spaces within the project area have been vegetated and opened for limited public use. However, the construction of fairground, picnic and commercial spaces has been avoided.

Especially, the wet space property of the project area for flora is always emphasized. The main theme of the project is to develop a landscape approach for rehabilitation and enhancement of natural structure in the area. It is aimed to attract people to this area not only for entertainment but also to experience the nature and the conditions it provides.

Consequently, below is given the recommended structure for the project designed to embellish and revive the Porsuk Creek, one of the most important parts of Eskisehir and integrated with the city.

Citizens can freely walk in the green areas along the creek and experience the water-green coherence (Figure 22-23).

**Figure 22.** The Porsuk Creek riverside in Eskişehir-Turkey [33].

Urban River Landscapes 581

focus in these studies is to meet the growing demands of population and create protection strategies from the damages of flood and protect landscape characteristics of the Bartn River [9]. Therefore, landscape characteristics of Bartn River Floodplain Corridor should be evaluated and assessed to protected its valuable natural and cultural resources and to

In this study, urban and rural landscape characteristics of research area are determined at first through Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and then some planning principles and recommendations are used to address the factors which negatively affect the river landscape and will be important to reduce flood risk, improve water transportation and connect natural, cultural and historical environments of the Bartn River in order to protect landscape and develop tourism in the region. In the study area experiencing such destructions, necessary plans are developed to protect river landscapes. The main target is to restore the Bartn River and to develop strategies to transform the riverbank and urban enhancement areas. This study is expected to contribute to national and regional economies for a long time by creating a balance between preservation and land use as well as

maintain balanced land use and development (Figure 26) [4].

protecting landscape characteristics of the Bartn River [4].

**Figure 24.** View of the Bartn River in Bartn-Turkey (Original, 2007).

**Figure 23.** The Porsuk Creek in Eskişehir-Turkey [33].

In addition to forestation and vegetation, large grass-plots have been created for human use (for recreation purpose). In the project area, spaces with abundant structures have not been formed except for plazas.

Insofar as the master plan permits, walking trails and fortune balconies are given emphasis along the riverfront.

About every 100-150 m, steps between trail and canal paths are kept large enough to provide them with functionality of watching-thinking amphitheater. Rural-like fences are used to give picturesque appearance to the project area. Besides, a suggestion is made for trail forestation and canal vegetation.

With this project, Eskisehir comes into prominence as a city that offers modern standards of living comfort.

## *5.2.2. The Bartn River*

The Bartn River flows through the Western Black Sea Basin in North Turkey. It is the only river in Turkey enabling 12 km of water transportation from the Black Sea to center of the Bartn City. Thanks to this feature, the trade made on Bartn River played an important role in the development of Bartn, which is the center of its region especially during the period of Ottoman Empire. Besides rich natural sources in Bartn City, there are also valuable cultural landscape characteristics in the city [34] (Figure 24-25). Due to these special properties of Bartn River both on regional and national scales. There are many advantages for next generations in protecting the landscape characteristics of Bartn River and landscape planning studies with regard to the rising population and urbanization pressure. The main focus in these studies is to meet the growing demands of population and create protection strategies from the damages of flood and protect landscape characteristics of the Bartn River [9]. Therefore, landscape characteristics of Bartn River Floodplain Corridor should be evaluated and assessed to protected its valuable natural and cultural resources and to maintain balanced land use and development (Figure 26) [4].

580 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 23.** The Porsuk Creek in Eskişehir-Turkey [33].

formed except for plazas.

trail forestation and canal vegetation.

along the riverfront.

living comfort.

*5.2.2. The Bartn River* 

In addition to forestation and vegetation, large grass-plots have been created for human use (for recreation purpose). In the project area, spaces with abundant structures have not been

Insofar as the master plan permits, walking trails and fortune balconies are given emphasis

About every 100-150 m, steps between trail and canal paths are kept large enough to provide them with functionality of watching-thinking amphitheater. Rural-like fences are used to give picturesque appearance to the project area. Besides, a suggestion is made for

With this project, Eskisehir comes into prominence as a city that offers modern standards of

The Bartn River flows through the Western Black Sea Basin in North Turkey. It is the only river in Turkey enabling 12 km of water transportation from the Black Sea to center of the Bartn City. Thanks to this feature, the trade made on Bartn River played an important role in the development of Bartn, which is the center of its region especially during the period of Ottoman Empire. Besides rich natural sources in Bartn City, there are also valuable cultural landscape characteristics in the city [34] (Figure 24-25). Due to these special properties of Bartn River both on regional and national scales. There are many advantages for next generations in protecting the landscape characteristics of Bartn River and landscape planning studies with regard to the rising population and urbanization pressure. The main In this study, urban and rural landscape characteristics of research area are determined at first through Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and then some planning principles and recommendations are used to address the factors which negatively affect the river landscape and will be important to reduce flood risk, improve water transportation and connect natural, cultural and historical environments of the Bartn River in order to protect landscape and develop tourism in the region. In the study area experiencing such destructions, necessary plans are developed to protect river landscapes. The main target is to restore the Bartn River and to develop strategies to transform the riverbank and urban enhancement areas. This study is expected to contribute to national and regional economies for a long time by creating a balance between preservation and land use as well as protecting landscape characteristics of the Bartn River [4].

**Figure 24.** View of the Bartn River in Bartn-Turkey (Original, 2007).

Urban River Landscapes 583

**6. Discussion** 

tourism [5].

As stated by OECD [35] historical development patterns of urban centers have a general tendency of destroying ecosystem resources accounting for their own creation, development and typical characteristics. With well-planned restoration of urban river, multiple ecosystem services that have been lost or deteriorated can be recovered to some extent. Previous case studies have demonstrated the apparent benefits of these restoration works to human wellbeing such as health, economic value, life quality and contribution to regional renewal. In addition, through planning river management or urban developments for rivers with potential impacts on ecosystem, the adverse effects can be prevented or minimized and appropriate mitigation methods can also be determined to deal with damages to important and socially beneficial river functions. There has been a particular growing agreement on the value of ecosystem services for handling a wide variety of sustainability challenges including the demands of land use planning, agriculture and forestry, as well as carbon and microclimate management, and the management of fisheries, watersheds, biodiversity and

Base on the results of Cengiz et al. [4], the following recommendations are made for

 Natural and cultural landscape values of the river and historically important areas should be integrated with potential tourism centers in the region in order to improve river tourism and recreation. The main aims of river restoration studies are to provide

 Sustainable ecological characteristics of rivers and boundaries of flooding areas (2-5-10- 25-50-100-500-year floods) should be determined and dealt with in the city

 It is important to evaluate urban open and green space systems of these areas for public benefit. Therefore, it could be possible to provide protection from flood risk through specifying flooding area boundaries on river banks and also to create modern

 Basin Management Plans and Urban Flood Risk Management Plans should be prepared with respect to the European Water Framework Directive (WFD). Afterwards, these

The main objectives should be to protect, develop and use the current landscape

 It is quite important to plan river landscape studies for protecting landscape characteristics and alleviating the effects of rising population and urbanization pressure in order to hand them down the future generations. The main aims of landscape studies planned on different scales should be to meet increasing demands of future population growth and develop strategies for the protection of the valuable valued landscape characteristics of the river basin. Otherwise, a multifunctional river can disappear from

characteristics of the river and to hand them down the next generations.

the city landscape as it happened in many other cities of Turkey.

ecological planning of urban river landscape in Turkey.

ecological and economic benefits.

recreational places for public use in city.

plans should be considered in the city development plans.

development plans.

**Figure 25.** The Bartn River in Bartn-Turkey (Original, 2007).

A new method is developed by Cengiz [9] for determining and evaluating the landscape characteristics of Bartn River. This study can be seen as an example in planning the revitalization projects on urban river landscapes in similar hydrologic regions and further studies can be conducted based on the guidelines of this study [4].

**Figure 26.** Alternative land use planning for the Bartn River Floodplain Corridor [4, 9].

## **6. Discussion**

582 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 25.** The Bartn River in Bartn-Turkey (Original, 2007).

studies can be conducted based on the guidelines of this study [4].

**Figure 26.** Alternative land use planning for the Bartn River Floodplain Corridor [4, 9].

A new method is developed by Cengiz [9] for determining and evaluating the landscape characteristics of Bartn River. This study can be seen as an example in planning the revitalization projects on urban river landscapes in similar hydrologic regions and further As stated by OECD [35] historical development patterns of urban centers have a general tendency of destroying ecosystem resources accounting for their own creation, development and typical characteristics. With well-planned restoration of urban river, multiple ecosystem services that have been lost or deteriorated can be recovered to some extent. Previous case studies have demonstrated the apparent benefits of these restoration works to human wellbeing such as health, economic value, life quality and contribution to regional renewal. In addition, through planning river management or urban developments for rivers with potential impacts on ecosystem, the adverse effects can be prevented or minimized and appropriate mitigation methods can also be determined to deal with damages to important and socially beneficial river functions. There has been a particular growing agreement on the value of ecosystem services for handling a wide variety of sustainability challenges including the demands of land use planning, agriculture and forestry, as well as carbon and microclimate management, and the management of fisheries, watersheds, biodiversity and tourism [5].

Base on the results of Cengiz et al. [4], the following recommendations are made for ecological planning of urban river landscape in Turkey.


## **Author details**

Bülent Cengiz

*Bartn University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

## **6. References**

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Urban River Landscapes 585

[16] Turner T. Landscape Planning and Environmental Impact Design. 2nd edition. The

[17] Averitt E., Steiner F., Yabes RA., Patents D. An Assessment of the Verde River Corridor

[18] Morris M. Subdivision Design in Flood Hazard Areas. Series: Report (American Planning Association. Planning Advisory Service) No: 473rd Federal Emergency

[19] Riley AL. Restoring Streams in Cities: A Guide for Planners, Policymakers and Citizens.

[20] Hulse DW., Gregory SV. Alternative Futures as an Integrative Framework for Riparian Restoration of Large Rivers. In: Dale VH., Haeuber RA. (ed.) Applying Ecological

[21] Otto B., McCormick K., Leccese M. Ecological Riverfront Design: Restoring Rivers, Connecting Communities. American Planning Association, Planning Advisory Service

[22] Turoglu H., Özdemir H. Floods and Flash Floods in Bartn Causes, Effects, Prevention-

[23] Alley WM., Thomas ER., Franke OL. Sustainability of Ground-Water Resources. U.S.

[24] URBEM (Urban River Basin Enhancement Methods) Existing Urban River

[26] Onondaga Creek Conceptual Revitalization Plan. http://www.esf.edu/onondagacreek

[28] Oppermann B., Pauleit S. The Greenstructure of Munich The need for and risk of regional cooperation. In: (Werquin AC., Duhem B., Lindholm G., Oppermann B., Pauleit S., Tjallingii S.) COST Action C11-Green Structure and Urban Planning Final

[29] Oppermann B. Redesign of the River Isar in Munich, Germany Getting coherent quality for green structures through competitive process design? In: (Werquin AC., Duhem B., Lindholm G., Oppermann B., Pauleit S., Tjallingii S.) COST Action C11-Green Structure

[30] Nam-Choon K. Ecological Restoration and Revegetation Works in Korea. Landscape

[31] Rinaldi BM. Landscapes of metropolitan hedonism The Cheonggyecheon Linear Park in

[32] Memlük Y. Landscape Planning Project for Eskişehir Urban Course of Porsuk Creek

[33] http://www.eskisehir-bld.gov.tr/eskisehir\_resimler.php. (accessed 30 March 2013).

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 http://www.urbem.net/WP2/WP2\_case\_studies.pdf. (accessed 10 January 2013). [25] Smardon RC. Nine Mile Creek Watershed an Eco-tourism Guide. Prepared by: Cornell Cooperative Extension of Onondaga County, Nine Mile Creek Conservation Council,

Principles to Land Management. Springer-Verlag New York; 2001. p194-212.

Mitigation. Cantay Publisher, İstanbul; 2005. (original text in Turkish)

Project in Arizona. Landscape and Urban Planning 1994;28 161-178.

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Management Agency, Chicago, IL.; 1997.

Report Number: 518-519, Chicago, IL; 2004.

Geological Survey Circular 1186. Danver; 1999.

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Rehabilitation Schemes. (Work package 2) Final Report.

Save The County Land Trust, Syracuse, New York; 2006.

and Urban Planning Final Report. Belgium; 2005. p372-378.

Seoul. Journal of Landscape Architecture 2007;Autumn 60-73.

Island Press, Washington, D.C.; 1998.


[16] Turner T. Landscape Planning and Environmental Impact Design. 2nd edition. The Natural and Built Environment Series; 1998.

584 Advances in Landscape Architecture

*Bartn University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

[1] Baschak LA., Brown RD. An Ecological Framework for the Planning, Design and Management of Urban River Greenways. Landscape and Urban Planning 1995;33 211-

[2] Cook EA. Ecosystem Modeling as A Method for Designing Synthetic Fluvial Landscapes: A Case Study of the Salt River in Arizona. Landscape and Urban Planning

[3] Gardiner JL. River Landscapes and Sustainable Development: A Framework for Project Appraisal and Catchment Management. Landscape Research 1997;22(1) 85-114. [4] Cengiz B., Smardon RC., Memlük Y. Assessment of River Landscapes in terms of Preservation and Usage Balance: A Case Study of The Bartn River Floodplain Corridor (Western Black Sea Region, Turkey). Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 2011;20(7) 1673-

[5] Everard M., Moggridge HL. Rediscovering the Value of Urban Rivers. Urban

[6] Francis RA. Positioning Urban Rivers within Urban Ecology. Urban Ecosystem 2012;15

[7] Grimm NB., Faeth SH., Golubiewski NE., Redman CL., Wu JG., Bai XM., Briggs JM.

[8] Anonymous. A handbook for Stream Enhancement & Stewardship / The Izaak Walton League of America. Blacksburg, Va. : McDonald & Woodward Pub. Co. ; Gaithersburg,

[9] Cengiz B. A research on the determination and assessment of landscape characteristics of the Bartn River. PhD thesis. Ankara University, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Department of Landscape Architecture. Ankara; 2007. (original text

[10] Smardon RC., Felleman JP., Senecah S. Protecting Floodplain Resources: A Guidebook for Communities. Federal Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force, FEMA

[14] Jormala J. Urban Rivers. In: Gumiero B, Rinaldi M, Fokkens B (eds.) proceedings of the 4th ECRR International Conference on River Restoration, 16-19 June 2008, Venice, Italy;

[15] Marsh WM. Landscape Planning: Environmental Applications, Fifth Edition. John

Global Change and the Ecology of Cities. Science 2008;319 756-760.

[11] Novaresio P. Great Rivers of the World. Barnes&Noble. New York; 2006. [12] Mann R. Rivers in the City. Newton Abbot, David and Charles; 1973.

[13] Torre LA. Waterfront Development. Van Nostrand Reinhold. New York; 1989.

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Bülent Cengiz

**6. References** 

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[34] Cengiz B., Memlük Y. The Bartn River (Turkey) and its planning strategies. proceedings of the International Conference on Urban River Rehabilitation. September 21-23, 2005, Dresden, Germany; 2005. p296-302.

**Chapter 22** 

© 2013 Timur and Karaca, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

**Vertical Gardens** 

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55763

**1. Introduction** 

**1.1. Green Walls** 

Özgür Burhan Timur and Elif Karaca

roof organization 2008, Sharp R. 2007).

**2. Green facades** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Green Wall with the another name Vertical Garden is the term of used to refer to all form of vegetaded wall surfaces (Gren roof organization 2008). Green walls are not only spectacularly beautiful, but also helpful in enlivening the ambiance. Green walls can absorb heated gas in the air, lower both indoor and outdoor temperature, providing a healthier indoor air quality as well as a more beautiful space (Yeh 2012). They holds or slows rainwater, providing food and shelter for wildlife (Thompson and Sorvig 2000). As already mentioned, some plants are able to grow on walls by taking root in the substance of the wall itself. Typical of these are the small herbaceous species such as ivy-leaved toadflax, wallflower and plants such as mosses, lichens and grasses. But other species are naturally adapted to climbing up and over obstacles such as rock faces, trees and shrubs. For these to grow successfully on walls and buildings some kind of support structure is usually essential (Johnson and Newton 2004). Also Green walls can be constructed with many systems. This systems include the following structural concepts (fig 1) (Thompson and Sorvig 2000):

Gren walls can examine two major categories: Gren Facades and Living Walls. This categories can be divided into other categories (fig2). Green façades are made up of climbing plants either growing directly on a wall or in specially designed supporting structures. The plant shoot system grows up the side of the building while being rooted to the ground. On the other hand, in a living wall the modular panels are often comprised of polypropylene plastic containers, geotextiles, irrigation systems, a growing medium and vegetation (Gren

Green facades are a type of green wall system in which climbing plants or cascading vegetation. Green facades can be anchored to existing walls or built as freestanding

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

[35] OECD. Paying for Biodiversity: Enhancing the Cost-Effectiveness of Payments for Ecosystem Services. OECD Publishing. doi:10.1787/9789264090279-en; 2010.

## **Vertical Gardens**

586 Advances in Landscape Architecture

21-23, 2005, Dresden, Germany; 2005. p296-302.

[34] Cengiz B., Memlük Y. The Bartn River (Turkey) and its planning strategies. proceedings of the International Conference on Urban River Rehabilitation. September

[35] OECD. Paying for Biodiversity: Enhancing the Cost-Effectiveness of Payments for

Ecosystem Services. OECD Publishing. doi:10.1787/9789264090279-en; 2010.

Özgür Burhan Timur and Elif Karaca

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55763

## **1. Introduction**

## **1.1. Green Walls**

Green Wall with the another name Vertical Garden is the term of used to refer to all form of vegetaded wall surfaces (Gren roof organization 2008). Green walls are not only spectacularly beautiful, but also helpful in enlivening the ambiance. Green walls can absorb heated gas in the air, lower both indoor and outdoor temperature, providing a healthier indoor air quality as well as a more beautiful space (Yeh 2012). They holds or slows rainwater, providing food and shelter for wildlife (Thompson and Sorvig 2000). As already mentioned, some plants are able to grow on walls by taking root in the substance of the wall itself. Typical of these are the small herbaceous species such as ivy-leaved toadflax, wallflower and plants such as mosses, lichens and grasses. But other species are naturally adapted to climbing up and over obstacles such as rock faces, trees and shrubs. For these to grow successfully on walls and buildings some kind of support structure is usually essential (Johnson and Newton 2004). Also Green walls can be constructed with many systems. This systems include the following structural concepts (fig 1) (Thompson and Sorvig 2000):

Gren walls can examine two major categories: Gren Facades and Living Walls. This categories can be divided into other categories (fig2). Green façades are made up of climbing plants either growing directly on a wall or in specially designed supporting structures. The plant shoot system grows up the side of the building while being rooted to the ground. On the other hand, in a living wall the modular panels are often comprised of polypropylene plastic containers, geotextiles, irrigation systems, a growing medium and vegetation (Gren roof organization 2008, Sharp R. 2007).

## **2. Green facades**

Green facades are a type of green wall system in which climbing plants or cascading vegetation. Green facades can be anchored to existing walls or built as freestanding

© 2013 Timur and Karaca, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

structures, such as fences or columns (Gonchar 2009, Green roof organization 2008, Yeh 2012).

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**Figure 2.** Types of Vertical Garden (Yeh 2012 , Greenroof organization 2008,

can also be used for freestanding green walls (Gren roof organization 2008).

**2.1. Modular trellis panel system** 

**2.2. Grid and wire-rope net systems** 

www.landscapeurbanism.blogspot.com 2013, www.landscape-design-advisor.com 2013, Köhler 2008).

The building block of this modular system is a rigid, light weight, three-dimensional panel made from a powder coated galvanized and welded steel wire that supports plants with both a face grid and a panel depth. This system is designed to hold a green facade off the wall surface so that plant materials do not attach to the building, provides a "captive" growing environment for the plant with multiple supports for the tendrils, and helps to maintain the integrity of a building membrane. Panels can be stacked and joined to cover large areas, or formed to create shapes and curves, are made from recycledcontent steel and are recyclable (fig3, fig4). Because the panels are rigid, they can span between structures and

Planning the Grid and wire-rope net systems used cables and wires (fig5, fig6). Grids are employed on green facades that are designed to support faster growing climbing plants with denser foliage. Wire-nets are often used to support slower growing plants that need the added support these systems provide at closer intervals. Both systems use high tensile steel cables, anchors and supplementary equipment. Various sizes and patterns can be

Three green facade systems that are frequently used are *Modular Trellis Panel, Grid System and Wire – Rope Net System* (Green roof organization 2008, Yeh 2012).

Block : Engineered with gaps where plants root through the wall

Crib Wall : In this system, elements of like tile, concrete, wood stacked log – cabin style

Frame : In this system, interlocking flor coverings stacked like massonry

Trough : Used soil filled tubs

Gabion : Used wire baskets filled with Stones to provide strong

Mesh : Like mini gabions

Cell : Used flexible and strong honeycombs which filled with soil

Sendbag : Make with geotextiles wrapped around soil. This systems formally called "vegetated geogrid"

**Figure 1.** Structural concepts of Vertical Garden (Thompson and Sorvig 2000).

**Figure 2.** Types of Vertical Garden (Yeh 2012 , Greenroof organization 2008, www.landscapeurbanism.blogspot.com 2013, www.landscape-design-advisor.com 2013, Köhler 2008).

## **2.1. Modular trellis panel system**

588 Advances in Landscape Architecture

2012).

structures, such as fences or columns (Gonchar 2009, Green roof organization 2008, Yeh

Three green facade systems that are frequently used are *Modular Trellis Panel, Grid System* 

*and Wire – Rope Net System* (Green roof organization 2008, Yeh 2012).

Block : Engineered with gaps where plants root through the wall

Gabion : Used wire baskets filled with Stones to provide strong

Cell : Used flexible and strong honeycombs which filled with soil

Trough : Used soil filled tubs

Mesh : Like mini gabions

Frame : In this system, interlocking flor coverings stacked like massonry

Crib Wall : In this system, elements of like tile, concrete, wood stacked log – cabin style

**Figure 1.** Structural concepts of Vertical Garden (Thompson and Sorvig 2000).

Sendbag : Make with geotextiles wrapped around soil. This systems formally called "vegetated geogrid"

The building block of this modular system is a rigid, light weight, three-dimensional panel made from a powder coated galvanized and welded steel wire that supports plants with both a face grid and a panel depth. This system is designed to hold a green facade off the wall surface so that plant materials do not attach to the building, provides a "captive" growing environment for the plant with multiple supports for the tendrils, and helps to maintain the integrity of a building membrane. Panels can be stacked and joined to cover large areas, or formed to create shapes and curves, are made from recycledcontent steel and are recyclable (fig3, fig4). Because the panels are rigid, they can span between structures and can also be used for freestanding green walls (Gren roof organization 2008).

## **2.2. Grid and wire-rope net systems**

Planning the Grid and wire-rope net systems used cables and wires (fig5, fig6). Grids are employed on green facades that are designed to support faster growing climbing plants with denser foliage. Wire-nets are often used to support slower growing plants that need the added support these systems provide at closer intervals. Both systems use high tensile steel cables, anchors and supplementary equipment. Various sizes and patterns can be

accommodated as flexible vertical and horizontal wire-ropes are connected through cross clamps (Gren roof organization 2008, Yeh 2012).

Vertical Gardens 591

**Figure 5.** Grid System, Ex Ducati Office İtaly (http://preprodtest.archdaily.com 2013,

**Figure 6.** Grid and Wire-Rope Net Systems, MFO Park Switzerland (http://commons.wikimedia.org

Living walls, also called bio-walls or vertical gardens. Living wall systems are composed of pre vegetated panels, vertical modules or planted blankets These panels can be made of plastic, expanded polystyrene, synthetic fabric, clay, metal, and concrete, and support a

http://www.archdaily.com 2013).

**3. Living walls**

2013, http://christianbarnardblog.blogspot.com 2013).

**Figure 3.** Freestanding trellis fence (left), coloumn trellis (bottom), custom trellis shapes (right) (www.greenscrren.com2013).

**Figure 4.** Modular wall hung trellis (left), curved trellis (right) (www.greenroof.com 2013).

**Figure 5.** Grid System, Ex Ducati Office İtaly (http://preprodtest.archdaily.com 2013, http://www.archdaily.com 2013).

**Figure 6.** Grid and Wire-Rope Net Systems, MFO Park Switzerland (http://commons.wikimedia.org 2013, http://christianbarnardblog.blogspot.com 2013).

## **3. Living walls**

590 Advances in Landscape Architecture

(www.greenscrren.com2013).

clamps (Gren roof organization 2008, Yeh 2012).

accommodated as flexible vertical and horizontal wire-ropes are connected through cross

**Figure 3.** Freestanding trellis fence (left), coloumn trellis (bottom), custom trellis shapes (right)

**Figure 4.** Modular wall hung trellis (left), curved trellis (right) (www.greenroof.com 2013).

Living walls, also called bio-walls or vertical gardens. Living wall systems are composed of pre vegetated panels, vertical modules or planted blankets These panels can be made of plastic, expanded polystyrene, synthetic fabric, clay, metal, and concrete, and support a

great diversity and density of plant species. Living walls need more protection than green facades because of its diversity and density of vegetation. Living Walls are made with three parts: a metal frame, a PVC layer and an air layer (do not need soil). This system supports a variety of plant species, such as a mixture of vegetation, perennial flowers, low shrubs, and ferns etc (fig 7). It performs well in various climate environments. However, the selection of better species may adapt to the prevailing climatic condition, so that the maintenance of the system be made easy. Generally is used self-automated watering and nutrition system, to make maintenance of the living walls easy (Gren roof organization 2008, Yeh 2012).

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**5. Vegetated mat walls** 

system down (Gren roof organization 2008).

The 'Mur Vegetal' is a unique form of green wall pioneered by Patrick Blanc (fig 9). It is composed of two layers of synthetic fabric with pockets that physically support plants and growing media. The fabric walls are supported by a frame and backed by a waterproof membrane against the building wall because of its high moisture content. Nutrients are primarily distributed through an irrigation system that cycles water from the top of the

**Figure 9.** Vegetated Mat Walls, Madrid Spain (http://www.museumofthecity.org 2013,

http://www.eyeonspain.com 2013).

**Figure 7.** Living wall, Semiahmoo Library in South Surrey (http://www.vancouversun.com 2013).

## **4. Landscape walls**

These walls are an evolution of landscape 'berms' and a strategic tool in an approach to 'living' architecture. Landscape walls are typically sloped as opposed to vertical and have the primary function of noise reduction and slope stabilization (fig 8). They usually are structured from some form of stacking material made of plastic or concrete with room for growing media and plants (Gren roof organization 2008).

**Figure 8.** Landscape Walls (http://www.landscapeonline.com 2013).

## **5. Vegetated mat walls**

592 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**4. Landscape walls** 

great diversity and density of plant species. Living walls need more protection than green facades because of its diversity and density of vegetation. Living Walls are made with three parts: a metal frame, a PVC layer and an air layer (do not need soil). This system supports a variety of plant species, such as a mixture of vegetation, perennial flowers, low shrubs, and ferns etc (fig 7). It performs well in various climate environments. However, the selection of better species may adapt to the prevailing climatic condition, so that the maintenance of the system be made easy. Generally is used self-automated watering and nutrition system, to

make maintenance of the living walls easy (Gren roof organization 2008, Yeh 2012).

**Figure 7.** Living wall, Semiahmoo Library in South Surrey (http://www.vancouversun.com 2013).

growing media and plants (Gren roof organization 2008).

**Figure 8.** Landscape Walls (http://www.landscapeonline.com 2013).

These walls are an evolution of landscape 'berms' and a strategic tool in an approach to 'living' architecture. Landscape walls are typically sloped as opposed to vertical and have the primary function of noise reduction and slope stabilization (fig 8). They usually are structured from some form of stacking material made of plastic or concrete with room for The 'Mur Vegetal' is a unique form of green wall pioneered by Patrick Blanc (fig 9). It is composed of two layers of synthetic fabric with pockets that physically support plants and growing media. The fabric walls are supported by a frame and backed by a waterproof membrane against the building wall because of its high moisture content. Nutrients are primarily distributed through an irrigation system that cycles water from the top of the system down (Gren roof organization 2008).

**Figure 9.** Vegetated Mat Walls, Madrid Spain (http://www.museumofthecity.org 2013, http://www.eyeonspain.com 2013).

## **6. Modular living walls**

A modular living wall system emerged in part from the use of modules for green roof applications, with a number of technological innovations. Modular systems consist of square or rectangular panels that hold growing media to support plant material (fig 10). (Gren roof organization 2008).

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In 1920's Britania and North America promote trellis structures and self-climbing plants on

Early 1990's cable and wire-rope net systems (fig 12) and modular trellis panel systems (fig

In 1988 started to use stainless steel cable system for green facades

13) enter the North American marketplace.

**Figure 11.** Babylon (http://purpleopurple.com 2013).

**Figure 12.** Cable and wire-rope net systems (Green roofs organization 2008).

houses and gardens

**Figure 10.** Modular Living Wall Canada (above), Atlanta Botanical Garden (below) (http://www.greenthinkers.org 2013, http://blog.phyllisodessey.com 2013).

## **7. History of vertical garden**

The ancient concept of Gren walls was built in Babylon (fig 11) about 2500 years ago. In ancient Babylon, King Nebuchadnezzar II built the Hanging Gardens of Babylon: a wonder of the ancient world, and ancestor of the modern green wall (Ashmawy 2006, Hamilton 2009, Green roofs for healthy cities, 2008).

Between 3rd BC 17th AD Romans train grape on garden trellies and on villa walls.

In 1920's Britania and North America promote trellis structures and self-climbing plants on houses and gardens

In 1988 started to use stainless steel cable system for green facades

594 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**6. Modular living walls** 

(Gren roof organization 2008).

A modular living wall system emerged in part from the use of modules for green roof applications, with a number of technological innovations. Modular systems consist of square or rectangular panels that hold growing media to support plant material (fig 10).

**Figure 10.** Modular Living Wall Canada (above), Atlanta Botanical Garden (below) (http://www.greenthinkers.org 2013, http://blog.phyllisodessey.com 2013).

The ancient concept of Gren walls was built in Babylon (fig 11) about 2500 years ago. In ancient Babylon, King Nebuchadnezzar II built the Hanging Gardens of Babylon: a wonder of the ancient world, and ancestor of the modern green wall (Ashmawy 2006, Hamilton

Between 3rd BC 17th AD Romans train grape on garden trellies and on villa walls.

**7. History of vertical garden** 

2009, Green roofs for healthy cities, 2008).

Early 1990's cable and wire-rope net systems (fig 12) and modular trellis panel systems (fig 13) enter the North American marketplace.

**Figure 11.** Babylon (http://purpleopurple.com 2013).

**Figure 12.** Cable and wire-rope net systems (Green roofs organization 2008).

Vertical Gardens 597

Green walls are not only spectacularly beautiful, but also helpful in enlivening the ambiance. Green walls can absorb heated gas in the air, lower both indoor and outdoor temperature, providing a healthier indoor air quality as well as a more beautiful space. (Yeh

Vertical Gardens provide economic and ecologic benets as well as aesthetic value. The benets change with options such as different buildings, green wall technologies, plant selections and plant coverage. In this part is examined important values of Green Walls.

Plants are one of the fastest, most cost effective agents for rectifying negative perceptions of an area, enhancing a buildings public profile and significantly improving the visual amenity, economic, and social conditions of the city. The application of vertical gardens is shown to increase property values by dramatically increasing the amenity of buildings, and establishing higher public acclaim, transforming them into recognisable landmarks

2012, http://www.nodai.ac.jp)

(http://www.greenology.sg 2013)

**8. Benefits of vertical gardening** 

1. Beauty abounds and adds visual drama (fig 16)

**Figure 16.** Quai Branly Museum (http://www.minus25.com 2013).

2. Covers up views of plain or ugly walls (fig 17) and provide building protection

Building protection is primarily produced by reducing temperature fluctuations of the building envelope. Decreased temperature fluctuations reduce the expansion and contraction of building materials and extend the building's lifespan. Green Walls shield the building envelope from ultra-violet rays and acidic rain by reducing cracking and

**Figure 13.** Modular trellis panel system (Green roofs organization 2008).

First major application of a trellis panel system had been used in Universal City Walk on California in 1993 and in 1994 (fig 14). Indoor living wall with bio filtration system installed in Canada Life Building in Toronto (fig 15) (Gren Roofs Organization 2008).

**Figure 14.** Universal City Walk on California (http://www.examiner.com 2013, http://pinterest.com 2013).

**Figure 15.** Longwood Gardens in Kennett Square (http://www.livingwallart.com 2013, http://gsky.com/projects 2013).

Green walls are not only spectacularly beautiful, but also helpful in enlivening the ambiance. Green walls can absorb heated gas in the air, lower both indoor and outdoor temperature, providing a healthier indoor air quality as well as a more beautiful space. (Yeh 2012, http://www.nodai.ac.jp)

## **8. Benefits of vertical gardening**

596 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 13.** Modular trellis panel system (Green roofs organization 2008).

in Canada Life Building in Toronto (fig 15) (Gren Roofs Organization 2008).

First major application of a trellis panel system had been used in Universal City Walk on California in 1993 and in 1994 (fig 14). Indoor living wall with bio filtration system installed

**Figure 14.** Universal City Walk on California (http://www.examiner.com 2013, http://pinterest.com 2013).

**Figure 15.** Longwood Gardens in Kennett Square (http://www.livingwallart.com 2013,

http://gsky.com/projects 2013).

Vertical Gardens provide economic and ecologic benets as well as aesthetic value. The benets change with options such as different buildings, green wall technologies, plant selections and plant coverage. In this part is examined important values of Green Walls.

1. Beauty abounds and adds visual drama (fig 16)

Plants are one of the fastest, most cost effective agents for rectifying negative perceptions of an area, enhancing a buildings public profile and significantly improving the visual amenity, economic, and social conditions of the city. The application of vertical gardens is shown to increase property values by dramatically increasing the amenity of buildings, and establishing higher public acclaim, transforming them into recognisable landmarks (http://www.greenology.sg 2013)

**Figure 16.** Quai Branly Museum (http://www.minus25.com 2013).

2. Covers up views of plain or ugly walls (fig 17) and provide building protection

Building protection is primarily produced by reducing temperature fluctuations of the building envelope. Decreased temperature fluctuations reduce the expansion and contraction of building materials and extend the building's lifespan. Green Walls shield the building envelope from ultra-violet rays and acidic rain by reducing cracking and carbonization of the building envelope, the buildings durability is improved and its servicelife extended (Doernach 1979, http://gsky.com).

Vertical Gardens 599

4. Conserves water and watering takes less effort

provementpages.com 2013).

**Figure 19.** Hydrophonic Vertical Garden.

**Figure 20.** Greywater Treatment (http://www.greenecowalls.com 2013).

One of the biggest benefits of vertical gardens is how they manage water. For starters, watering is very efficient as it is done using a drip irrigation system or a hydroponic system (fig 19). Any waste water is collected at the bottom of the garden in a special tray where it is drained away. Alternatively, it can be recycled and put back on the garden. This means that practically all the water is used up by the plants and there is very little waste. There is also no runoff into stormwater systems so natural waterways are not affected by pollutants that can be found in stormwater or waste water (fig 20) (http://www.homeim

3. Decrease voice level (fig 18)

Soil and plants which used for plantal arrengements in Vertical Gardens, have a voice absorption feature. For this reason they perform to decrease voice function which happened both in building and its close area Green Walls provide a noise buffer which significantly reduces outside noise and vibration (up to 40dB) inside our homes and workplaces. A small indoor hedge placed around a workspace will reduce noise by 5 decibels (Dunnett and Kingsbury 2004, Erdogan and Aliasghari Khabbazi 2013, http://gsky.com 2013, Jacobs 2008, Wong et al 2010).

**Figure 18.** Living Wall for voice level (Jacobs 2008).

#### 4. Conserves water and watering takes less effort

598 Advances in Landscape Architecture

3. Decrease voice level (fig 18)

**Figure 18.** Living Wall for voice level (Jacobs 2008).

Wong et al 2010).

life extended (Doernach 1979, http://gsky.com).

carbonization of the building envelope, the buildings durability is improved and its service-

**Figure 17.** Bridge in France (http://pixpeedia.blogspot.com 2013, http://twistedsifter.com 2013).

Soil and plants which used for plantal arrengements in Vertical Gardens, have a voice absorption feature. For this reason they perform to decrease voice function which happened both in building and its close area Green Walls provide a noise buffer which significantly reduces outside noise and vibration (up to 40dB) inside our homes and workplaces. A small indoor hedge placed around a workspace will reduce noise by 5 decibels (Dunnett and Kingsbury 2004, Erdogan and Aliasghari Khabbazi 2013, http://gsky.com 2013, Jacobs 2008, One of the biggest benefits of vertical gardens is how they manage water. For starters, watering is very efficient as it is done using a drip irrigation system or a hydroponic system (fig 19). Any waste water is collected at the bottom of the garden in a special tray where it is drained away. Alternatively, it can be recycled and put back on the garden. This means that practically all the water is used up by the plants and there is very little waste. There is also no runoff into stormwater systems so natural waterways are not affected by pollutants that can be found in stormwater or waste water (fig 20) (http://www.homeim provementpages.com 2013).

**Figure 19.** Hydrophonic Vertical Garden.

**Figure 20.** Greywater Treatment (http://www.greenecowalls.com 2013).

5. Reduces CO2 levels and increases oxygen and improved air quality

A greenwall offers immediate environmental advances in reducing existing greenhouse and other volatile organic compounds from our polluted cities. Plants act as bio-purifiers and can play a dramatic role in improving the quality of city air through a number of biochemical processes by removing and breaking down airborne contaminants from both inside and outside a building. When combined with plant photosynthesis, which produces clean, oxygen rich air, it becomes easy to see the value of employing living plants as biopurifiers in polluted urban environments. Approximately 1 square foot of vegetated wall area will filter the air for approximately 100 square feet of office area. Considered in very general sense, planting one wall of any house which situated 50 houses on the street is equal to plant 50 trees on this street (Erdogan and Aliasghari Khabbazi 2013, http://www.greenology.sg 2013, Truett 2003, ).

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**Figure 22.** Dom Aquitectura Unveils Green Master Plan to Clean Air and Reduce Pollution in Huizhou,

Plants reduce wind-speed also they prevent dust with wet environments (fig 23) which created with their roots and leafs. By means of this event, plants bring about extinction to harmful microorganisms with on site sap and juice. Air quality improvement from plants has been shown to reduce coughs by thirty percent and dry throat and irritation by twentyfour percent also, the plants clean the office air by absorbing pollutants into their leaves and transmitting the toxin to their roots, where they are turned into food for the plant. With cleaner office air building occupants are less likely to be sick and rooms with plants contain 50% to 60% fewer of airborne molds and bacteria than rooms without plants (Fjeld at al.

China LoriZimmer,10/12/12 (http://inhabitat.com 2013)

1998, Kemaloğlu and Ylmaz 1991, Wolf 2002).

**Figure 23.** Drawing about prevent dust with plants (Johnston and Newton 2004).

7. Acts as natural insulation for hot and cold air and a save energy for your building.

Indirectly, living walls reduce air-conditioning requirements and energy consumption of urban buildings through cooling the city. Vegetation on walls can assist in cooling buildings in summer and insulating them in winter. In winter, evergreen species offer a degree of

6. Prevent from dust and harmful microorganisms

Yet another benefit of vertical gardens is that they improve the air quality of built up areas, both inside the home and outside. This is because plants are natural filters – taking carbon dioxide from the air and replacing it with much needed oxygen (fig 21). They also help to filter pollutants from the air (fig 22). This means that the air that you breathe is much cleaner and healthier (http://www.homeimprovementpages.com.au 2013). Studies have shown that there are signicantly lower concentrations of toxins in the area surrounding a living wall (Loh 2008).

**Figure 21.** Indoor Air Quality (http://www.greenecowalls.com 2013)

**Figure 22.** Dom Aquitectura Unveils Green Master Plan to Clean Air and Reduce Pollution in Huizhou, China LoriZimmer,10/12/12 (http://inhabitat.com 2013)

#### 6. Prevent from dust and harmful microorganisms

600 Advances in Landscape Architecture

(Loh 2008).

http://www.greenology.sg 2013, Truett 2003, ).

**Figure 21.** Indoor Air Quality (http://www.greenecowalls.com 2013)

5. Reduces CO2 levels and increases oxygen and improved air quality

A greenwall offers immediate environmental advances in reducing existing greenhouse and other volatile organic compounds from our polluted cities. Plants act as bio-purifiers and can play a dramatic role in improving the quality of city air through a number of biochemical processes by removing and breaking down airborne contaminants from both inside and outside a building. When combined with plant photosynthesis, which produces clean, oxygen rich air, it becomes easy to see the value of employing living plants as biopurifiers in polluted urban environments. Approximately 1 square foot of vegetated wall area will filter the air for approximately 100 square feet of office area. Considered in very general sense, planting one wall of any house which situated 50 houses on the street is equal to plant 50 trees on this street (Erdogan and Aliasghari Khabbazi 2013,

Yet another benefit of vertical gardens is that they improve the air quality of built up areas, both inside the home and outside. This is because plants are natural filters – taking carbon dioxide from the air and replacing it with much needed oxygen (fig 21). They also help to filter pollutants from the air (fig 22). This means that the air that you breathe is much cleaner and healthier (http://www.homeimprovementpages.com.au 2013). Studies have shown that there are signicantly lower concentrations of toxins in the area surrounding a living wall

Plants reduce wind-speed also they prevent dust with wet environments (fig 23) which created with their roots and leafs. By means of this event, plants bring about extinction to harmful microorganisms with on site sap and juice. Air quality improvement from plants has been shown to reduce coughs by thirty percent and dry throat and irritation by twentyfour percent also, the plants clean the office air by absorbing pollutants into their leaves and transmitting the toxin to their roots, where they are turned into food for the plant. With cleaner office air building occupants are less likely to be sick and rooms with plants contain 50% to 60% fewer of airborne molds and bacteria than rooms without plants (Fjeld at al. 1998, Kemaloğlu and Ylmaz 1991, Wolf 2002).

**Figure 23.** Drawing about prevent dust with plants (Johnston and Newton 2004).

7. Acts as natural insulation for hot and cold air and a save energy for your building.

Indirectly, living walls reduce air-conditioning requirements and energy consumption of urban buildings through cooling the city. Vegetation on walls can assist in cooling buildings in summer and insulating them in winter. In winter, evergreen species offer a degree of insulation by trapping a layer of air against the facade and reducing convectional heat loss. An insulating effect of up to 30% has been recorded although such a high percentage is only likely when temperatures fall close to freezing. Energy savings are less significant on wellinsulated buildings, such as those with brick cavity walls. During the summer, hot walls cause temperatures to rise inside buildings, increasing demand on cooling systems and consuming more energy. A Green Wall surface temperature is reduced when covered with plants, reducing the wall temperature and building cooling load (fig 24). Green Walls can reduce wall temperature as much as 15°F which results in significant air conditioning savings (Baumann 1986, Doernach 1979, http://www.marthastewart.com 2013, Johnston and Newton 2004).

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thoughts and elicits a meditation-like state. They help ease physiological and psychological pressures of city life by providing a spiritual and physical connection to nature. The beauty of a green wall (covering concrete and steel) can rejuvenate our minds and physical fatigue is greatly reduced. The presence of plants in the office not only reduce stress but also helps

Participants of Texas A&M University and Surrey University study also reported feeling more attentive when plants were present. Participants of who worked in an environment with plants were 12% more productive and less stressed than those who worked in an

increase workers productivity (Peck et al 1999, http://gsky.com 2013).

**Figure 25.** Living walls at Gutman Library (http://isites.harvard.edu 2013, Kim 2011)

value of property by 6-15%. (http://www.greenology.sg 2013, Peck et al, 1999)

Plants are one of the fastest, most cost effective agents for rectifying negative perceptions of an area, enhancing a buildings public profile and significantly improving the visual amenity, economic, and social conditions of the city (fig 26). The application of vertical gardens is shown to increase property values by dramatically increasing the amenity of buildings, and establishing higher public acclaim, transforming them into recognisable landmarks. American and British Studies show that having a green plant can increase the

10. Increases value and salability of your home or office building

environment with no plants (Gilhooley 2002).

In Tokyo Institute of Technology Wall tests shown here, it was discovered that Green Wall panels reduce the wall temperature by 10°C. It was also concluded that Green Wall panel reduce energy transfer into a building by ~0.24kWh/m2. Green Wall energy savings calculations depend greatly on the direction the wall is facing, the sun's angle, and many other factors (http://gsky.com 2013).

**Figure 24.** Stacking green (http://www.dezeen.com 2013).

#### 8. Plants are less accessible to diseases and pests

As they grow vertically, many pests cannot even get to the plants. This means that you have very little problems with pests attacking your plants so you do not need to use pesticides or insecticides on your plants, saving you using chemicals. As well, air circulates well around the vertical garden and they also get plenty of sunshine, so there is much less risk of the plants suffering from mildew, fungus or disease (http://www.homeimprovement pages.com.au 2013).

9. Live plants decrease stress levels, create peaceful ambiance

Vertical gardens have demonstrated that restorative effect of natural scenery holds the viewer's attention (fig 25), diverts their awareness from themselves and from worrisome thoughts and elicits a meditation-like state. They help ease physiological and psychological pressures of city life by providing a spiritual and physical connection to nature. The beauty of a green wall (covering concrete and steel) can rejuvenate our minds and physical fatigue is greatly reduced. The presence of plants in the office not only reduce stress but also helps increase workers productivity (Peck et al 1999, http://gsky.com 2013).

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other factors (http://gsky.com 2013).

**Figure 24.** Stacking green (http://www.dezeen.com 2013).

8. Plants are less accessible to diseases and pests

9. Live plants decrease stress levels, create peaceful ambiance

pages.com.au 2013).

insulation by trapping a layer of air against the facade and reducing convectional heat loss. An insulating effect of up to 30% has been recorded although such a high percentage is only likely when temperatures fall close to freezing. Energy savings are less significant on wellinsulated buildings, such as those with brick cavity walls. During the summer, hot walls cause temperatures to rise inside buildings, increasing demand on cooling systems and consuming more energy. A Green Wall surface temperature is reduced when covered with plants, reducing the wall temperature and building cooling load (fig 24). Green Walls can reduce wall temperature as much as 15°F which results in significant air conditioning savings (Baumann 1986, Doernach 1979, http://www.marthastewart.com 2013, Johnston and Newton 2004).

In Tokyo Institute of Technology Wall tests shown here, it was discovered that Green Wall panels reduce the wall temperature by 10°C. It was also concluded that Green Wall panel reduce energy transfer into a building by ~0.24kWh/m2. Green Wall energy savings calculations depend greatly on the direction the wall is facing, the sun's angle, and many

As they grow vertically, many pests cannot even get to the plants. This means that you have very little problems with pests attacking your plants so you do not need to use pesticides or insecticides on your plants, saving you using chemicals. As well, air circulates well around the vertical garden and they also get plenty of sunshine, so there is much less risk of the plants suffering from mildew, fungus or disease (http://www.homeimprovement

Vertical gardens have demonstrated that restorative effect of natural scenery holds the viewer's attention (fig 25), diverts their awareness from themselves and from worrisome Participants of Texas A&M University and Surrey University study also reported feeling more attentive when plants were present. Participants of who worked in an environment with plants were 12% more productive and less stressed than those who worked in an environment with no plants (Gilhooley 2002).

**Figure 25.** Living walls at Gutman Library (http://isites.harvard.edu 2013, Kim 2011)

#### 10. Increases value and salability of your home or office building

Plants are one of the fastest, most cost effective agents for rectifying negative perceptions of an area, enhancing a buildings public profile and significantly improving the visual amenity, economic, and social conditions of the city (fig 26). The application of vertical gardens is shown to increase property values by dramatically increasing the amenity of buildings, and establishing higher public acclaim, transforming them into recognisable landmarks. American and British Studies show that having a green plant can increase the value of property by 6-15%. (http://www.greenology.sg 2013, Peck et al, 1999)

Vertical Gardens 605

**Figure 27.** Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, Spain (http://www.environmentalgraffiti.com 2013).

**Figure 28.** Urban Heat Island Effect, (Ottele, 2010).

**Figure 26.** BHV Homme in Paris (left) (http://retailsquare.blogspot.com 2013), Pacha, The Driver, London (right) (http://twistedsifter.com 2013).

11. Help restore the places where wildlife can survive

Natural habitats are disappearing at an alarming rate, and habitat loss is the number one threat to wildlife today. Green Walls are part of the solution to help restore wildlife habitats. By carefully choosing and planting attractive plant species, a Green Wall will attract birds and butterflies (fig 27). Green Walls can be designed to provide the ideal conditions for birds, bees and butterflies to survive. It can provide water, food sources, protection, and places to bear and raise offspring (Johnston and Newton 2004, http://gsky.com 2013).

12. There are also benefits to having an outdoor living wall. They help mitigate the Urban Heat Island Effect (fig 28)

An urban heat island (UHI) is a metropolitan area which is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural area (fig 29), especially in late afternoons and nights at winter season. To avoid confusion with global warming, scientists call this phenomenon the "Urban Heat Island Effect. "There are several reasons that may explain the Heat Island Effect, but the main reason is the excessive urban development. Green walls are by far the most popular way to cooling the city. Green Walls in cooling buildings and combating the Heat Island Effect and greatly reduce this effect by absorbing a lot of the heat through the evaporation process (http://www.marthastewart.com 2013, Yamada 2008, Yeh 2012 ).

**Figure 27.** Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, Spain (http://www.environmentalgraffiti.com 2013).

**Figure 28.** Urban Heat Island Effect, (Ottele, 2010).

London (right) (http://twistedsifter.com 2013).

http://gsky.com 2013).

Heat Island Effect (fig 28)

11. Help restore the places where wildlife can survive

**Figure 26.** BHV Homme in Paris (left) (http://retailsquare.blogspot.com 2013), Pacha, The Driver,

Natural habitats are disappearing at an alarming rate, and habitat loss is the number one threat to wildlife today. Green Walls are part of the solution to help restore wildlife habitats. By carefully choosing and planting attractive plant species, a Green Wall will attract birds and butterflies (fig 27). Green Walls can be designed to provide the ideal conditions for birds, bees and butterflies to survive. It can provide water, food sources, protection, and places to bear and raise offspring (Johnston and Newton 2004,

12. There are also benefits to having an outdoor living wall. They help mitigate the Urban

An urban heat island (UHI) is a metropolitan area which is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural area (fig 29), especially in late afternoons and nights at winter season. To avoid confusion with global warming, scientists call this phenomenon the "Urban Heat Island Effect. "There are several reasons that may explain the Heat Island Effect, but the main reason is the excessive urban development. Green walls are by far the most popular way to cooling the city. Green Walls in cooling buildings and combating the Heat Island Effect and greatly reduce this effect by absorbing a lot of the heat through the evaporation

process (http://www.marthastewart.com 2013, Yamada 2008, Yeh 2012 ).

Vertical Gardens 607

SPECİES Decidius (D)

*Parthenocissus tricuspidata*  (fig 30)

*Hydrangea petiolaris*  (fig 31)

*Euonymus fortunei*  (fig 31)

Evergreen (E) Annual (A)

ASPECT Bold:preffered Light:tolerated

D N **E** S W Fast Any E

D **N E W** Average Loam

E **N** E W Slow Any E

**Figure 30.** *Hedera helix*(left) (Erdoğan and Aliasghari Khabbazi 2012), *Parthenocissus quinquefolia*

**Figure 31.** *Hydrangea petiolaris* (left) (http://www.gardenwithoutdoors.org.uk 2013), *Euonymus fortunei*

(bottom) (http://www.henriettesherbal.com 2013), *Parthenocissus tricuspidata* (right)

(http://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org 2013)

(right) (http://commons.wikimedia.org 2013)

Growth Rate

Soil Native (N) Exotic (E)

y

Speciality

E *Good for nesting birds and* 

*other insects.* 

*produces nectar for bees and* 

**Figure 29.** Urban Heat Island Profile (http://www.ssbx.org 2013, http://www.lsgi.polyu.edu.hk 2013).

## **9. Some of suitable plants for vertical gardens**

A lot of plant species can be used for Vertical Gardens. For example there are 15000 plant from nearly 150 different species on the Caixa Forum Museum vertical garden who has designed Patrick Blank (http://www.greenroofs.com 2013). In this case, impossible to give all the plants one by one so in this part some plants given used for Vertical Gardens.

1. Self-clinging climbers (Generally no support needed. May need support on very smooth walls.) (Johnston and Newton 2004).



**Figure 29.** Urban Heat Island Profile (http://www.ssbx.org 2013, http://www.lsgi.polyu.edu.hk 2013).

A lot of plant species can be used for Vertical Gardens. For example there are 15000 plant from nearly 150 different species on the Caixa Forum Museum vertical garden who has designed Patrick Blank (http://www.greenroofs.com 2013). In this case, impossible to give

1. Self-clinging climbers (Generally no support needed. May need support on very smooth

Growth Rate

E **N** E S W Slow Rich N *Excellent wildlife plant.* 

D N **E** S W Average Any E *Useful for nesting birds if* 

Soil Native (N) Exotic (E) Speciality

*and hoverflies.* 

*May* 

*flycatcher.* 

*Good nesting site for robins and wrens, and hibernating butterflies – esp. brimstone. Nectar and pollen for bees* 

*grown on a trellis. Provides nectar and pollen for bees.* 

*attract nesting spotted* 

all the plants one by one so in this part some plants given used for Vertical Gardens.

**9. Some of suitable plants for vertical gardens** 

ASPECT Bold:preffered Light:tolerated

walls.) (Johnston and Newton 2004).

Evergreen (E) Annual (A)

SPECİES Decidius (D)

*Hedera helix* (fig 30)

*Parthenocissus quinquefolia*  (fig 30)

**Figure 30.** *Hedera helix*(left) (Erdoğan and Aliasghari Khabbazi 2012), *Parthenocissus quinquefolia* (bottom) (http://www.henriettesherbal.com 2013), *Parthenocissus tricuspidata* (right) (http://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org 2013)

**Figure 31.** *Hydrangea petiolaris* (left) (http://www.gardenwithoutdoors.org.uk 2013), *Euonymus fortunei* (right) (http://commons.wikimedia.org 2013)

2. Twining climbers (Suport needed. Thin steel wires, roughened plastic lines or timber battens running vertically will suffice for some species. Others will need a good network of wire or wooden trellis-work.) (Johnston and Newton 2004).

Vertical Gardens 609

Speciality

*bees.* 

*beetles. Seeds eaten by birds and small* 

*mammals. Food plant of small and large white* 

*butterflies.* 

SPECİES Decidius (D)

*Capsis radicans*  (fig 34)

*Passiflora caerulea*  (fig 35)

*Lathyrus odoratus*  (fig 35)

(fig 35)

*Tropaeolum spp.* 

Evergreen (E)

ASPECT Bold:preffered Light:tolerate

D E **S W** Slow Rich-

A **S** W Fast Rich

**Figure 32.** *Polygonum bauldschianicum* (left) *(*http://www.thegardeningbible.com 2013), *Lonicera* 

*periclymenum* (bottom) (http://www.about-garden.com 2013), *Clematis vitalba* (right)

(http://www.phytoimages.siu.edu 2013)

Growth Rate

Soil Native (N) Exotic (E)

E

E

Well drained

Well drained

Mainly A E **S** W Fast Poor E *Nectar/pollen for bees and* 

D E **S W** Fast Any E *Nectar and pollen for* 

d

Annual (A)



SPECİES Decidius (D)

*Polygonum bauldschianicum* 

(fig 32)

*Lonicera Periclymenum*  (fig 32)

*Clematis vitalba*  (fig 32)

*Humulus lupulus*  (fig 33)

(fig 33)

*Jasminum officinale*  (fig 33)

*Vitis spp.*  (fig 34)

*Wisteria spp*  (fig 34)

*Aristolochia spp.* 

Evergreen (E)

Annual (A)

2. Twining climbers (Suport needed. Thin steel wires, roughened plastic lines or timber battens running vertically will suffice for some species. Others will need a good

> Growth Rate

D N E **S** W Fast Any E *Good for nesting birds.* 

Loam

Rich

Alkaline

moist

drained

Rich Loamy Moist

Moist Loam

*Clematis spp.* D **E W** Fast Various E *Useful nectar and/or seed* 

Fast

Soil Native (N) Exotic (E) Speciality

N *Must be kept bushy for* 

E *Several varieties are* 

*plants.* 

N *Good for bees.* 

N *Seeds for birds. Nesting* 

E *Night-scented, attracting moths and other nightflying insects.* 

E *Provides fruit for birds* 

*bees.* 

E *Excellent nectar and* 

*and nectar and pollen for* 

*pollen for bees. Can be used by nesting.* 

*nesting birds. Excellent for insects, especially moths, due to nightscented flowers. Bark from older stems used by nesting birds. Berries eaten by birds.* 

*useful nectar and seed* 

*Evergreen honeysuckly trained up a trellis makes a good bird roosting site.* 

*sites. Nectar for insects.* 

*providers. Useful for nesting sites if trained thickly on a trellis.* 

network of wire or wooden trellis-work.) (Johnston and Newton 2004).

ASPECT Bold:preffered Light:tolerate

D **E** S **W** Average Good

D E S W Fast Prefers

D **E** S **W** Fast Rich

D **E W** Fast Well

D E **S W** Average Rich

D E **S** W Average

D **N** S **W** Average Most E

d

*Lonicera spp.* D-E N **E** S **W** Average Good

**Figure 32.** *Polygonum bauldschianicum* (left) *(*http://www.thegardeningbible.com 2013), *Lonicera periclymenum* (bottom) (http://www.about-garden.com 2013), *Clematis vitalba* (right) (http://www.phytoimages.siu.edu 2013)

Vertical Gardens 611

**Figure 35.** *Passiflora caerulea* (left) (http://davisla.wordpress.com 2013), *Lathyrus odoratus*(bottom) (http://loghouseplants.com 2013), *Tropaeolum tricolorum* (right) (http://www.anythinggarden.co.uk

or by tying to wall.) (Johnston and Newton 2004).

ASPECT Bold:preffered Light:tolerated

E N E S W Average Most

D N **S** W Average Most E

3. Rambling shrubs (Not true climbers but can be trained on wide meshed grid structures

Growth Rate

Soil Native (N) Exotic (E)

Like asid

D E **S** W Average Good N *Night-scented for* 

*Rosa spp.* D E **S** W Average Most E *Excellent nectar for* 

Speciality

N *Provides pollen for bees* 

*moths.* 

*birds.* 

*birds.* 

*moths. Nectar for insects, rosehips for birds and small mammals.* 

*Good nesting cover for* 

*bees. Nesting sites for* 

*and nectar for bees and butterflies. Berries for birds and small mammals, Nightscented and attracts* 

2013).

SPECİES Decidius (D)

*Rubus fruiticous* 

(fig 36)

*Jasminum nodiflorum*  (fig 36)

*Rosa canina*  (fig 36)

Evergreen (E)

Annual (A)

**Figure 33.** *Humulus lupulus* (left) (http://www.crocus.co.uk 2013), *Aristolochia macrophylla* (bottom) (http://www.pfaf.org 2013), *Jasminum officinale* (right) (http://www.gardenersworld.com 2013).

**Figure 34.** *Vitis amurensis* (left) (http://luirig.altervista.org 2013), *Wisteria floribunda* (bottom) (http://www.redbuttegarden.org 2013), *Capsis radicans* (right) (http://www.dhz-tuinwinkel.nl 2013).

**Figure 33.** *Humulus lupulus* (left) (http://www.crocus.co.uk 2013), *Aristolochia macrophylla* (bottom) (http://www.pfaf.org 2013), *Jasminum officinale* (right) (http://www.gardenersworld.com 2013).

**Figure 34.** *Vitis amurensis* (left) (http://luirig.altervista.org 2013), *Wisteria floribunda* (bottom) (http://www.redbuttegarden.org 2013), *Capsis radicans* (right) (http://www.dhz-tuinwinkel.nl 2013).

**Figure 35.** *Passiflora caerulea* (left) (http://davisla.wordpress.com 2013), *Lathyrus odoratus*(bottom) (http://loghouseplants.com 2013), *Tropaeolum tricolorum* (right) (http://www.anythinggarden.co.uk 2013).

3. Rambling shrubs (Not true climbers but can be trained on wide meshed grid structures or by tying to wall.) (Johnston and Newton 2004).



Vertical Gardens 613

**Figure 37.** *Forsythia suspensa* (left) (http://www.stevenfoster.com 2013), *Cotoneaster lacteus* (bottom) (http://commons.wikimedia.org 2013), *Pyracantha atalantiodes* (right) (http://www.ebay.co.uk 2013).

*Other typical plants for Vertical Gardens:* 

**Figure 36.** Figure 36. *Rubus fruiticous* (left) (http://www.gardenworldimages.com 2013), *Jasminum nodiflorum* (bottom) (http://digilander.libero.it 2013), *Rosa canina* (right) (http://www.pnwflowers.com 2013).

**Figure 37.** *Forsythia suspensa* (left) (http://www.stevenfoster.com 2013), *Cotoneaster lacteus* (bottom) (http://commons.wikimedia.org 2013), *Pyracantha atalantiodes* (right) (http://www.ebay.co.uk 2013).

*Other typical plants for Vertical Gardens:* 

612 Advances in Landscape Architecture

SPECİES Decidius (D)

D Some E

*Forsythia suspensa* (fig 37)

(fig 37)

*Pyracantha atalantiodes*  (fig 37)

2013).

*Cotoneaster spp.* 

Evergreen (E)

ASPECT Bold:preffered Light:tolerated

E **E** S W Slow Most

**Figure 36.** Figure 36. *Rubus fruiticous* (left) (http://www.gardenworldimages.com 2013), *Jasminum nodiflorum* (bottom) (http://digilander.libero.it 2013), *Rosa canina* (right) (http://www.pnwflowers.com

Growth Rate

D N E **S** W Average Most E *Nesting sites for birds,* 

Soil Native (N) Exotic (E)

**N E** Slow Any E *Thick growth may be* 

Well drain ed

Speciality

*as above* 

*bees.* 

E *Good for nesting birds* 

*e.g. thrushes, and provides nectar and pollen for bees and berries for birds, particularly blackbirds.* 

*used by nesting blackbirds and tbrushes. Berries for birds, especially blackbirds and small mammals. Nectar and pollen for* 

Annual (A)

**10. Applications from Turkey** 

**Figure 39.** İstanbul Siemens Building (http://tuketicidostu.net 2013).

**Figure 40.** Application from Balkesir (http://www.aktasplant.com 2013).

Rize.

Vertical Gardens applications have been just started as a new trend by Municipalities in Turkey. Applications are continued in a lot of cities such as İstanbul, Antalya, Balkesir,

Vertical Gardens 615


**Figure 38.** Plants for Vertical Gardens (http://www.ebay.com 2013, http://www.lillealternativet.no 2013, http://www.dracaena.com 2013, http://www.ikea.com 2013, http://www.agaclar.net 2013, http://www.cicekstra.com 2013, http://www.jrexotic.com 2013, http://www.krischanphoto.com 2013, http://hobibahcemiz.net 2013, http://www.csi.eu.com 2013, http://www.flowershopnetwork.com 2013, http://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu 2013, http://www.vert-espace.fr 2013, http://commons.wikimedia.org 2013, http://www.johnstowngardencentre.ie 2013, http://www.yaban.gen.tr 2013, http://ru.wikipedia.org 2013,http://www.kaliteliresimler.com 2013, http://www.doriangreen.fr 2013, http://fr.questmachine.org 2013, http://www.floweroffice.cz 2013, http://princelandscape.com 2013, http://tuteka.wordpress.com 2013).

## **10. Applications from Turkey**

614 Advances in Landscape Architecture

2013).

**Figure 38.** Plants for Vertical Gardens (http://www.ebay.com 2013, http://www.lillealternativet.no 2013, http://www.dracaena.com 2013, http://www.ikea.com 2013, http://www.agaclar.net 2013, http://www.cicekstra.com 2013, http://www.jrexotic.com 2013, http://www.krischanphoto.com 2013, http://hobibahcemiz.net 2013, http://www.csi.eu.com 2013, http://www.flowershopnetwork.com 2013, http://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu 2013, http://www.vert-espace.fr 2013, http://commons.wikimedia.org 2013, http://www.johnstowngardencentre.ie 2013, http://www.yaban.gen.tr 2013, http://ru.wikipedia.org 2013,http://www.kaliteliresimler.com 2013, http://www.doriangreen.fr 2013, http://fr.questmachine.org 2013, http://www.floweroffice.cz 2013, http://princelandscape.com 2013, http://tuteka.wordpress.com

Vertical Gardens applications have been just started as a new trend by Municipalities in Turkey. Applications are continued in a lot of cities such as İstanbul, Antalya, Balkesir, Rize.

**Figure 39.** İstanbul Siemens Building (http://tuketicidostu.net 2013).

**Figure 40.** Application from Balkesir (http://www.aktasplant.com 2013).

Vertical Gardens 617

**11. References** 

Landschaft 89(6)

Environment, 7(204)

design. Retrieved from

Jacobs, H. 2008. Green Plants for Green Buildings, http://greenplantsforgreenbuildings.org/about.htm

SUB Atrium. The University of British Columbia

New Industry in Canada, CMHC, Toronto.

Construction, BD&C News, Web Article,

http://www.bdcnetwork.com/article/CA6459410.html

Mimarlğ Dergisi, Cilt 2, Say 30

p.423-436

154-182

http://www.iuoe.org

Timber Press.

Baumann, I.R. 1986. The Constructural Importance of Climbing Plants.

aren't talking about money. Facilities Design and Management.

and Vancouver, Architectural Record, McGraw-Hill Construction.

pavements", Greater London Authority. London ISBN: 1 85261 637 7

http://archrecord.construction.com/features/digital/archives/0702dignews-1.asp

Doernach, R. 1979. Uber den Nutzungen von Biotektonischen Grunsystemen. Garten und

Dunnett NP, Kingsbury N. 2004. Planting Green Roofs and Living Walls. Portland (OR):

Erdoğan, E., Aliasghari Khabbazi, P. 2013. Yap Yüzeylerinde Bitki Kullanm, Dikey Bahçeler ve Kent Ekolojisi, Türk Bilimsel Derlemeler Dergisi 6(1) *ISSN: 1308-0040* Fjeld,T., Veiersted,B., Sandvik,l., Riise, G. & Levy, F. 1998. The Effect of Indoor Foliage Plants on Health and Discomfort Symptoms among Ofce Workers. Indoor and Built

Gilhooley,M. 2002. Green green grass of work: a little bit of green can go a long way, and we

Gonchar, J. 2009. Vertical and verdant, living wall systems sprout on two buildings, in Paris

Green roofs for healthy cities. 2008. Introduction to green walls technology, benets and

Johnston, J., Newton, J. 2004. Building Green "A guide to using plants on roofs, walls and

Kemaloğlu, A. Ylmaz, O. 1991. Cephe Yeşillendirmesinin Kent Ekolojisine Katklar. Peyzaj

Kim, K.S.J.W. 2011. An Investigation into the Application of Vertical Garden at the New

Köhler, M. 2008. Green Facades-A view back and some visions, Urban Ecosystem. Vol 11

Ottele, M., van Bohemen, H. & Fraaij, A. 2010. Quantifying the Deposition of Particulate Matter on Climber Vegetation on Living Walls. Ecological Engineering, Volume 36, p

Peck, S., Callahan, C., Kuhn, M., and Bass, B., 1999. Greenbacks from Green roofs: Forging a

Sharp,R. 2007. "*6 Things You Need to Know About Green Walls"*, Building Design and

 http://www.greenscreen.com/Resources/download\_it/IntroductionGreenWalls.pdf. Green Roof Organization, 2008. Introduction to Green Walls Technology, Benefits & Design.

**Figure 41.** İstanbul airport roadside (left), Antalya airport roadside (right) (http://www.aktasplant.com 2013).

**Figure 42.** Viaduct pillars from Rize (http://www.zaman53.com 2013).

## **Author details**

Özgür Burhan Timur

*Çankr Karatekin University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Çankr, Turkey* 

#### Elif Karaca

*Çankr Karatekin University, Kzlrmak Vocational School, Department of Landscape, Turkey* 

#### **11. References**

616 Advances in Landscape Architecture

2013).

**Author details** 

*Turkey* 

Elif Karaca

Özgür Burhan Timur

**Figure 41.** İstanbul airport roadside (left), Antalya airport roadside (right) (http://www.aktasplant.com

*Çankr Karatekin University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Çankr,* 

*Çankr Karatekin University, Kzlrmak Vocational School, Department of Landscape, Turkey* 

**Figure 42.** Viaduct pillars from Rize (http://www.zaman53.com 2013).

Baumann, I.R. 1986. The Constructural Importance of Climbing Plants.


http://archrecord.construction.com/features/digital/archives/0702dignews-1.asp

Green roofs for healthy cities. 2008. Introduction to green walls technology, benets and design. Retrieved from

http://www.greenscreen.com/Resources/download\_it/IntroductionGreenWalls.pdf.

Green Roof Organization, 2008. Introduction to Green Walls Technology, Benefits & Design.

Jacobs, H. 2008. Green Plants for Green Buildings,

http://greenplantsforgreenbuildings.org/about.htm


http://www.bdcnetwork.com/article/CA6459410.html

Thompson, J.W. and Sorving, K. 2000. Sustainable Landscape Construction, A Guide to Green Building Outdoors. Island Press, Washington D.C. p.105-131

Vertical Gardens 619

http://inhabitat.com/dom-aquitectura-designs-green-master-plan-for-huizhou-china-to-

http://isites.harvard.edu/icb/icb.do?keyword=k77982&pageid=icb.page552704, Access:

http://loghouseplants.com/plants/shop/lathyrus-odoratus-bijou-dwarf-sweet-pea/, Access:

http://luirig.altervista.org/schedenam/fnam.php?taxon=Vitis+amurensis, Access: January

http://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Plants%20of%20Upper%20Newport%20Bay%20(Robert%20De%

http://pixpeedia.blogspot.com/2011/12/vertical-gardens-of-patrick-blanc.html, Access:

http://purpleopurple.com/tourism/Architectural-wonders/hanging-gardens-of-babylon.jpg

http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB:Scindapsus\_aureus\_clean

http://tuketicidostu.net/haberler/odul/dikey-bahceler-projesi-siemense-felis-odulu-getirdi/,

http://twistedsifter.com/2011/10/incredible-vertical-gardens-patrick-blanc/, Access: January

http://www.anythinggarden.co.uk/plants-for-winter-winter-plants-discovered/tropaeolum-

http://www.archdaily.com/16863/ex-ducati-mario-cucinella-architects/869559981\_mca-exducati-gallery-with-grid-for-climbing-plants-domenicali, Access: January 2013. http://www.cicekstra.com/schefflera-gold-capella-semsiye-agaci.html, Access: January 2013. http://www.crocus.co.uk/plants/\_/climbers/other-climbers/classid.1664/, Access: January

20Ruff)/Urticaceae/Soleirolia%20soleirolii.htm, Access: January 2013. http://pinterest.com/caddetails/organic-architecture/, Access: January 2013.

http://preprodtest.archdaily.com/category/offices/page/28/ , Access: January 2013. http://princelandscape.com/onlineshop/by-categories/self-watering-plants/draceana-

http://retailsquare.blogspot.com/2010\_11\_01\_archive.html, Access: January 2013.

http://tuteka.wordpress.com/varios/asparagus20sprengeri/, Access: January 2013.

http://www.about-garden.com/se/en/fotoa-lonicera/, Access: January 2013. http://www.agaclar.net/forum/kaktus/29357.htm, Access: January 2013. http://www.agaclar.net/forum/orkide/3512.htm, Access: January 2013. http://www.aktasplant.com/duvar-bahce.html, Access: January 2013.

http://www.csi.eu.com/plants.aspx?range=1, Access: January 2013. http://www.dezeen.com/2012/07/09/stacking-green-by-vo-trong-nghia/

sanderana-in-designer-planter.html, Access: January 2013.

clean-air-and-reduce-pollution/, Access: January 2013.

January 2013.

January 2013.

January 2013.

2012, Access: January 2013.

ed.jpg, Access: January 2013.

tricolorum/, Access: January 2013.

Access: January 2013.

2013.

2013.

2013.


http://www.plantsinbuildings.com/whyplants.php?PHPSESSID=e653e7b957ce5bc2b6f


#### **11.1. References from web sites**

http://blog.phyllisodessey.com/2011/03/power-to-plants.html, Access: January 2013.


http://gsky.com/green-walls/benefits/building-protection/, Access: January 2013.

http://gsky.com/green-walls/benefits/energy-savings, Access: January 2013.

http://gsky.com/green-walls/benefits/health/, Access: January 2013.

http://gsky.com/green-walls/benefits/sound/, Access: January 2013.

http://gsky.com/green-walls/benefits/wildlife, Access: January 2013.


Volume 45

Thompson, J.W. and Sorving, K. 2000. Sustainable Landscape Construction, A Guide to

Wolf, K.L. 2002. Retail and Urban Nature: Creating a Consumer Habitat", at the

 http://www.plantsinbuildings.com/whyplants.php?PHPSESSID=e653e7b957ce5bc2b6f Wong, N. H., Tan, A.Y., Tan, P.Y., Chiang, K. & Wong, N.C. 2010. Acoustics Evolution of Vertical Greenery Systems for Building Walls. Building and Environment,

Yamada, H. 2008. How is energy usage reduced by green roof and walls, Gsky, Eco Innovations Inc. Engineering Department, Wakayama University. http://www.g-

Yeh, Y.P. 2012. Green Wall-The Creative Solution in Response to the Urban Heat Island

http://blog.phyllisodessey.com/2011/03/power-to-plants.html, Access: January 2013. http://christianbarnardblog.blogspot.com/2009/05/mfo-park-zurich-switzerland.html,

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MFO-Park\_Oerlikon\_2010-10-03\_14-05-

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cotoneaster\_lacteus\_F.jpg, Access: January 2013. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:(Benved)\_Euonymus\_fortunei.JPG, Access: January

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hoya\_kerrii\_with\_stems.jpg, Access: January 2013. http://davisla.wordpress.com/2012/07/23/plant-of-the-week-passiflora-caerulea/, Access:

http://digilander.libero.it/felrig/photos/jasminum\_nudiflorum.htm, Access: January 2013. http://fr.questmachine.org/wiki/Chamaedorea\_%C3%A9lev%C3%A9\_ou\_palmier\_de\_mont agne\_(Chamaedorea\_elegans),\_famille\_des\_Ar%C3%A9cac%C3%A9es, Access: January

http://greenwallandroof.wordpress.com/2011/11/17/green-facades-in-chile, Access: January

http://hobibahcemiz.net/viewtopic.php?f=39&t=8344, Access: January 2013. http://gsky.com/green-walls/benefits/building-protection/, Access: January 2013. http://gsky.com/green-walls/benefits/energy-savings, Access: January 2013.

http://gsky.com/green-walls/benefits/health/, Access: January 2013. http://gsky.com/green-walls/benefits/sound/, Access: January 2013. http://gsky.com/green-walls/benefits/wildlife, Access: January 2013.

Green Building Outdoors. Island Press, Washington D.C. p.105-131

Truett, R. 2003. 'Biofilters'. Furbish Company, Sustainable Building,

http://www.furbishco.com/products/biofilters

People/Plant Symposium, Amsterdam.

sky.com/Benefits\_EnergySavings\_Detailed.aspx

Effect. National Chung-Hsing University

08\_ShiftN.jpg , Access: January 2013.

**11.1. References from web sites** 

Access: January 2013.

2013.

2013.

2013.

January 2013.


http://www.dhz-tuinwinkel.nl/a-22351278/klimplanten/capsis-radicans-flamenco/, Access: January 2013.

Vertical Gardens 621

http://www.johnstowngardencentre.ie/fittonia--snakeskin-plant/fittoniapd.aspx, Access:

http://www.landscapeonline.com/products/listing.php?id=11441, Access: January 2013.

http://www.lillealternativet.no/helse-a-miljo/inneklima/planteoversikt/19-helse-a-miljo/78-

http://www.livingwallart.com/category/vertical-garden-installations 2012, Access: January

http://www.lsgi.polyu.edu.hk/geomatics/article/urban\_heat\_island\_from\_satellite\_images.ht

http://www.krischanphoto.com/gardens/fern/tropical/tropical.htm, Access: January

http://www.marthastewart.com/265725/vertical-gardens-or-living-walls, Access: January

http://www.nodai.ac.jp/cip/iss/english/9th\_iss/fullpaper/3-1-4nchu-yupengyeh.pdf, Access:

http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Aristolochia+macrophylla, Access:

http://www.phytoimages.siu.edu/imgs/pelserpb/r/Ranunculaceae\_Clematis\_vitalba\_15594.h

http://www.stevenfoster.com/photography/imageviewsf/forsythia/suspensa/fs10401110/con

http://www.vancouversun.com/homes/Transforming+ugly+concrete+walls+into+beautiful+v

finder/plant-details/kc/c882/parthenocissus-tricuspidata-fenway-park.aspx, Access:

http://www.kaskus.co.id/thread/000000000000000000916973, Access: January 2013.

http://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/gardens-gardening/your-garden/plant-

http://www.pnwflowers.com/flower/rosa-canina, Access: January 2013.

http://www.ssbx.org/images/projects/heat\_island\_big.gif, Access: January 2013.

http://www.vert-espace.fr/exec/fiche.asp?IDPRODUITS=485, Access: January 2013. http://www.yaban.gen.tr/tradescantia-zebrina-telgraf-cicegi/yaban-gen-tr-tradescantia-

tent/Forsythia\_suspensa\_4110431\_large.html, Access: January 2013. http://www.thegardeningbible.com/plants-for-the-pergola, Access: January 2013.

http://www.redbuttegarden.org/node/262, Access: January 2013.

ertical+gardens/5107779/story.html, Access: January 2013.

zebrina-telgraf-cicegi-17/, Access: January 2013.

http://www.jrexotic.com/library.html#thumb, Access: January 2013.

http://www.landscape-design-advisor.com, Access: January 2013. http://www.landscapeurbanism.blogspot.com, Access: January 2013.

http://www.kaliteliresimler.com/img7895.htm, Access: January 2013.

syngonium-podophyllum, Access: January 2013.

http://www.museumofthecity.org, Access: January 2013.

January 2013.

2013.

2013.

2013.

January 2013.

January 2013.

January 2013.

tml, Access: January 2013.

ml, Access: January 2013.

	- /170860523301?pt=UK\_HomeGarden\_Garden\_PlantsSeedsBulbs\_JN&hash=item27c814a f25, Access: January 2013.

http://www.johnstowngardencentre.ie/fittonia--snakeskin-plant/fittoniapd.aspx, Access: January 2013.

http://www.jrexotic.com/library.html#thumb, Access: January 2013.

620 Advances in Landscape Architecture

January 2013.

January 2013.

SHRUB-PLANT-

January 2013.

January 2013.

2013.

2013.

2013.

January 2013.

January 2013.

Access: January 2013.

ardens#ixzz2EwQvIPZG, Access: January 2013.

Access: January 2013.

f25, Access: January 2013.

/140548436201, Access: January 2013.

farms/1202?image=23, Access: January 2013.

http://www.floweroffice.cz/aktnab.htm, Access: January 2013.

http://www.dhz-tuinwinkel.nl/a-22351278/klimplanten/capsis-radicans-flamenco/, Access:

http://www.doriangreen.fr/plante-magnetique-sanseveria-panache,fr,4,PM008.cfm, Access:

http://www.ebay.com/itm/SILK-Philodendron-PALM-PLANT-REAL-TOUCH-Philo-51-

http://www.environmentalgraffiti.com/ecology/15-living-walls-vertical-gardens-sky-

http://www.eyeonspain.com/blogs/luislopezcortijo/8528/vertical-garden-in-spain.aspx,

http://www.gardenwithoutdoors.org.uk/?q=taxonomy/term/39, Access: January 2013.

http://www.greenecowalls.com/benefits\_airquality.html, Access: January 2013.

http://www.greenroofs.com/projects/pview.php?id=1457, Access: January 2013.

http://www.ikea.com/us/en/catalog/products/56804359/, Access: January 2013. http://www.ikea.com/us/en/catalog/products/80177170/, Access: January 2013.

http://www.ebay.co.uk/itm/2-PYRACANTHA-FIRE-THORN-ATALANTIODES-GARDEN-

/170860523301?pt=UK\_HomeGarden\_Garden\_PlantsSeedsBulbs\_JN&hash=item27c814a

http://www.examiner.com/article/green-walls-take-planting-to-another-dimension, , Access:

http://www.flowershopnetwork.com/blog/variegated-plant/ficus-elastica-variegata/, Access:

http://www.gardenersworld.com/plants/jasminum-officinale/3284.html, Access: January

http://www.gardenworldimages.com/Details.aspx?ID=29383&TypeID=1, Access: January

http://www.greenecowalls.com/benefits\_environmental\_greywater.html, Access: January

http://www.greenology.sg/2011/11/benefits-of-vertical-greening-a-discussion, Access:

http://www.greenthinkers.org/blog/2007/03/canada\_blooms\_elt\_easy\_green\_r.html, Access:

http://www.henriettesherbal.com/pictures/p10/pages/parthenocissus-quinquefolia-6.htm,

http://www.homeimprovementpages.com.au/article/environmental\_benefits\_for\_vertical\_g

http://www.dracaena.com/dracaena-warneckii.php, Access: January 2013.

http://www.landscapeonline.com/products/listing.php?id=11441, Access: January 2013.

http://www.landscape-design-advisor.com, Access: January 2013.


http://www.kaskus.co.id/thread/000000000000000000916973, Access: January 2013.

	- zebrina-telgraf-cicegi-17/, Access: January 2013.

http://www.zaman53.com/haber/35259/rizede-duvarlar-cicek-acti.html, Access: January 2013.

**Chapter 23** 

© 2013 Yücel, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Street Furniture and Amenities:** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

should also not obstruct the sight distance of pedestrians [3].

different items), *durability* (given expected usage), and *cost* [5].

designed to serve as artworks in themselves [4].

Gökçen Firdevs Yücel

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55770

**1. Introduction** 

**Designing the User-Oriented Urban Landscape** 

It is often difficult to understand fully how site design integrates the elements of furniture that are used for various designated purposes and create a sense of place. Such an understanding can open up creative possibilities for designers of outdoor areas and enable

If street furniture is properly integrated in the design of a public space, it creates an identity and develops a sense of place around it [2]. Items of street furniture comprising, for example, objects used to facilitate transportation or the use of land adjacent to a street, are commonly used in urban areas with the aim of making the street more aesthetically appealing; however, these objects, if placed near intersections, may obstruct the view of drivers, especially if crowds develop around them; and if they are close to the roadway, they

The furniture should be selected and set up based on an analysis of the site's current and desired patterns of use, so it can serve its purpose effectively; quality furniture is costly, so it should be used only where it is really needed. There are various approaches to selecting or designing street furniture: for example, there could be a coordinated selection which gives a consistent tone to streets and walkways; or various parts of the streetscape could be

Generally speaking, there are five basic criteria involved in selecting and placing items of street furniture: *function* (i.e. seeing how necessary an item is and how it can serve its purpose), *siting and layout* (i.e. deciding where each item should be places), *form and appearance* (i.e. making sure there a continuity or at least a linkage between the designs of

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

them to shape spaces that can succeed in achieving their aims over the long term [1].

## **Street Furniture and Amenities: Designing the User-Oriented Urban Landscape**

Gökçen Firdevs Yücel

622 Advances in Landscape Architecture

2013.

http://www.zaman53.com/haber/35259/rizede-duvarlar-cicek-acti.html, Access: January

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55770

## **1. Introduction**

It is often difficult to understand fully how site design integrates the elements of furniture that are used for various designated purposes and create a sense of place. Such an understanding can open up creative possibilities for designers of outdoor areas and enable them to shape spaces that can succeed in achieving their aims over the long term [1].

If street furniture is properly integrated in the design of a public space, it creates an identity and develops a sense of place around it [2]. Items of street furniture comprising, for example, objects used to facilitate transportation or the use of land adjacent to a street, are commonly used in urban areas with the aim of making the street more aesthetically appealing; however, these objects, if placed near intersections, may obstruct the view of drivers, especially if crowds develop around them; and if they are close to the roadway, they should also not obstruct the sight distance of pedestrians [3].

The furniture should be selected and set up based on an analysis of the site's current and desired patterns of use, so it can serve its purpose effectively; quality furniture is costly, so it should be used only where it is really needed. There are various approaches to selecting or designing street furniture: for example, there could be a coordinated selection which gives a consistent tone to streets and walkways; or various parts of the streetscape could be designed to serve as artworks in themselves [4].

Generally speaking, there are five basic criteria involved in selecting and placing items of street furniture: *function* (i.e. seeing how necessary an item is and how it can serve its purpose), *siting and layout* (i.e. deciding where each item should be places), *form and appearance* (i.e. making sure there a continuity or at least a linkage between the designs of different items), *durability* (given expected usage), and *cost* [5].

© 2013 Yücel, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

## **1.1. The significance of street furniture**

Street furnishings create the settings for resting, sitting and eating, and social encounters with others. Such settings may be of great importance to the elderly, those with limited mobility, and adults who have small children; but in addition to their functional aspect, items of urban furniture such as benches and tables in parks and squares can also be socially significant [6], as they give these sites a comforting and appealing air and draw people in together.

Street Furniture and Amenities: Designing the User-Oriented Urban Landscape 625

areas or telephone booths are set up where they will be used, such as at pedestrian

In addition, the furniture should not be hazardous for pedestrians; if it is used along a walking area it should be aligned to make passage easier, rather than staggered like an obstacle course [13, 14]. Varying the texture of the walking surface at key points can also

The furnishings of urban outdoor spaces should be designed with the needs of the disabled, children, and the elderly in mind, and also to enable triangulation – i.e. they should be linked together to stimulate social encounters and encourage people to talk to strangers.

In public spaces this stimulus can be created by the selection and arrangement of the street furniture; for instance, if benches, rubbish bins and telephones are far apart, they may have the effect of drawing people apart, whereas if they are arranged closely linked with other

Furniture items designed for outdoor spaces must be constructed of safe materials and designed to prevent injury, without sharp edges or exposed fasteners. They are usually either attached to the ground with anchor bolts (for example, using surface mounting, i.e. attaching a bench to a concrete slab), or embedded in the ground. Naturally, the technique used for mounting should be decided on in advance, so the furniture can be made

The type of furniture and its arrangement should also take into account visibility and sightlines, lighting, and accessibility issues that may be faced by women, children, the elderly and the disabled. Areas which are unsafe or pose risks should be designed taking

Furniture selection and design should take into account weather effects such as sunlight, expansion and contraction, wind stress, moisture, and in some cases, salt spray, frost, or ice. The best designs usually incorporate strong, simple shapes, native materials, and natural

The most popular materials used are steel and wood; other possibilities are stone, concrete, recycled plastic and various other materials. The choice of materials depends on the context and limitations of the design; for example, whether the furniture should be resistant to vandalism, whether ventilation is needed for drying it during wet weather spells, what the weather conditions may be, how frequently the furniture is likely to be used and by whom, what the initial costs are, including mounting, the costs and ease of maintenance, and whether there is a possibility of using eco-friendly materials [15]. Site furniture should be

finishes, generally in black, grays, and earth tones, accented with bright colors [17].

amenities such as a coffee cart, they tend to bring people together quite naturally.

junctions; and features like bollards are used minimally [12].

**3. Street furniture design** 

**Safety and Security** 

accordingly [15].

these factors into consideration [16]. **Materials Used in Street Furniture** 

help the visually impaired to find public amenities more easily [11].

Appropriately selected and placed furniture can draw people to outdoor spaces and add to the pleasure of using these spaces; the main challenge is getting them outdoors, with the aim of making them feel welcome, relaxed, and involved [1]. The quality of urban spaces is indicated by their character and how well they create a sense of identity, as well as by the quality and placement of their street furniture, as can be seen in various cities: London's red telephone booths and Paris' metro entrances, for example, have become iconic and essential to these cities' identities [7]. In addition to their functional and symbolic roles, items of street furniture may also set standards and expectations of quality for the development of the areas where they are found [8] and can serve as talking points for planning [9].

## **2. Furniture planning**

In order to plan the design of street furniture, one must first plan establish and define the type of space under consideration – whether it is a park, a street, a plaza, a waterfront, a recreational area, or a mall, for example. The initial defining questions are: who are the potential users of the space, for what purpose and at what times will it be used, and how will it serve users when they arrive there? [1].

Typically, installations where the furnishings have been planned and coordinated as part of a broader design concept are more successful than those where they have been selected piecemeal without taking account of users' needs, or the architectural character or weather conditions at the site.

As regards what furniture should be consistent across various sites and which unique to a particular site, this depends on the situation, but in general there can be some consistent elements, such as signage, or streetlighting (for quality of illumination, aesthetics, and to facilitate maintenance by standardizing the types of bulbs used) [10]. In brief, the goal is to create convenient, easily maintained and publicly accessible amenities that do not hinder pedestrians or traffic [11].

## **2.1. Placement of street furniture**

The location of the furnishings should be based on their functions [4], and coherent with the patterns and designs of the hard surfaces at the site**.** The items of furniture should not give the appearance of being cluttered, so that, for example, signs are attached to a single post or column rather than being distributed in several places; group amenities such as seating areas or telephone booths are set up where they will be used, such as at pedestrian junctions; and features like bollards are used minimally [12].

In addition, the furniture should not be hazardous for pedestrians; if it is used along a walking area it should be aligned to make passage easier, rather than staggered like an obstacle course [13, 14]. Varying the texture of the walking surface at key points can also help the visually impaired to find public amenities more easily [11].

## **3. Street furniture design**

624 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**2. Furniture planning** 

conditions at the site.

pedestrians or traffic [11].

**2.1. Placement of street furniture** 

will it serve users when they arrive there? [1].

together.

**1.1. The significance of street furniture** 

Street furnishings create the settings for resting, sitting and eating, and social encounters with others. Such settings may be of great importance to the elderly, those with limited mobility, and adults who have small children; but in addition to their functional aspect, items of urban furniture such as benches and tables in parks and squares can also be socially significant [6], as they give these sites a comforting and appealing air and draw people in

Appropriately selected and placed furniture can draw people to outdoor spaces and add to the pleasure of using these spaces; the main challenge is getting them outdoors, with the aim of making them feel welcome, relaxed, and involved [1]. The quality of urban spaces is indicated by their character and how well they create a sense of identity, as well as by the quality and placement of their street furniture, as can be seen in various cities: London's red telephone booths and Paris' metro entrances, for example, have become iconic and essential to these cities' identities [7]. In addition to their functional and symbolic roles, items of street furniture may also set standards and expectations of quality for the development of the

In order to plan the design of street furniture, one must first plan establish and define the type of space under consideration – whether it is a park, a street, a plaza, a waterfront, a recreational area, or a mall, for example. The initial defining questions are: who are the potential users of the space, for what purpose and at what times will it be used, and how

Typically, installations where the furnishings have been planned and coordinated as part of a broader design concept are more successful than those where they have been selected piecemeal without taking account of users' needs, or the architectural character or weather

As regards what furniture should be consistent across various sites and which unique to a particular site, this depends on the situation, but in general there can be some consistent elements, such as signage, or streetlighting (for quality of illumination, aesthetics, and to facilitate maintenance by standardizing the types of bulbs used) [10]. In brief, the goal is to create convenient, easily maintained and publicly accessible amenities that do not hinder

The location of the furnishings should be based on their functions [4], and coherent with the patterns and designs of the hard surfaces at the site**.** The items of furniture should not give the appearance of being cluttered, so that, for example, signs are attached to a single post or column rather than being distributed in several places; group amenities such as seating

areas where they are found [8] and can serve as talking points for planning [9].

The furnishings of urban outdoor spaces should be designed with the needs of the disabled, children, and the elderly in mind, and also to enable triangulation – i.e. they should be linked together to stimulate social encounters and encourage people to talk to strangers.

In public spaces this stimulus can be created by the selection and arrangement of the street furniture; for instance, if benches, rubbish bins and telephones are far apart, they may have the effect of drawing people apart, whereas if they are arranged closely linked with other amenities such as a coffee cart, they tend to bring people together quite naturally.

#### **Safety and Security**

Furniture items designed for outdoor spaces must be constructed of safe materials and designed to prevent injury, without sharp edges or exposed fasteners. They are usually either attached to the ground with anchor bolts (for example, using surface mounting, i.e. attaching a bench to a concrete slab), or embedded in the ground. Naturally, the technique used for mounting should be decided on in advance, so the furniture can be made accordingly [15].

The type of furniture and its arrangement should also take into account visibility and sightlines, lighting, and accessibility issues that may be faced by women, children, the elderly and the disabled. Areas which are unsafe or pose risks should be designed taking these factors into consideration [16].

#### **Materials Used in Street Furniture**

Furniture selection and design should take into account weather effects such as sunlight, expansion and contraction, wind stress, moisture, and in some cases, salt spray, frost, or ice. The best designs usually incorporate strong, simple shapes, native materials, and natural finishes, generally in black, grays, and earth tones, accented with bright colors [17].

The most popular materials used are steel and wood; other possibilities are stone, concrete, recycled plastic and various other materials. The choice of materials depends on the context and limitations of the design; for example, whether the furniture should be resistant to vandalism, whether ventilation is needed for drying it during wet weather spells, what the weather conditions may be, how frequently the furniture is likely to be used and by whom, what the initial costs are, including mounting, the costs and ease of maintenance, and whether there is a possibility of using eco-friendly materials [15]. Site furniture should be

made of nonflammable materials such as metal, brick, or stone, and wooden structures should be avoided in areas where there is a risk of fire [18].

Street Furniture and Amenities: Designing the User-Oriented Urban Landscape 627

which mark the edges of the street furniture and guide pedestrians around it to clear and

Paint or other finishing materials of furniture should be non-toxic and non-staining [14]. The use of recycled materials in street furniture enables manufacturers to conserve natural resources and reduce their carbon footprints; it also educates the users of the furniture, the public, on the importance and mental and physical benefits of recycling. In addition, such furniture items can be recycled again when they need to be replaced, further reducing

Local city administrations have been increasing initiatives to ensure the sustainability of their street furniture, including raising civic awareness, in order to reduce costs and fulfil legal requirements for emissions and energy efficiency. Most of these initiatives are demonstrably effective; replacing filament light bulbs with new LED bulbs, for example, can

With new, renewable energy sources other possibilities are emerging, such as, for example, converting street lamps into photovoltaic power sources which supply light, and at the same time supply energy to a city's power grid. Photovoltaic devices differ from solar panels, in that the power they generate can either be stored in batteries or added to the mains power grid [20]. In addition to this variation on solar energy generation, there are items of street furniture available that are wind-powered, or designed as photovoltaic-windpower hybrids; these items, according to their designers, optimize the use of renewable energy sources and also guarantee a power supply through two different sources of energy. Another new power source that is being explored for street furniture is geothermal energy, which arises from the subsoil; heat-controlled benches, for example, can be connected through bore holes in the

earth to a geothermal system which produces a comfortable seating temperature [21].

Seating facilities, such as benches, should be integrated within the outdoor spaces of the city wherever people wait, meet, or socialize; in public squares, for instance, they should be coherent with other elements, so that when seats are not in use they do not create a sense of isolation or emptiness. Being able to sit within a city landscape provides an opportunity to pause, and also a tactile and more intimate contact with a place than one has when standing

The best locations for benches are places where there is heavy pedestrian use: retail shopping corridors, transit stops, plazas, spaces outside cultural institutions, etc; poor locations are areas where there is little activity, such as in front of offices that close early or buildings without windows, and in spaces hidden from view or far away from active areas [23]. In high-activity areas there should be access to seating every 60m (or every 50m if there

unobstructed walking areas [19].

damage to the environment.

cut the energy consumption of street lighting by 40-70%.

**Sustainability** 

**3.1. Seating** 

or walking [22].

Location

### Steel

Stainless steel is a popular choice of material, because it is versatile, has a high strength/weight ratio and can be shaped to fit almost any design aesthetic. It is durable, resistant to corrosion and impact, and requires no maintenance; it is also cheap compared to all the other materials in terms of life-cycle cost, and is fully recyclable.

### Wood

Wood is another popular choice of material for street furniture, because it is a natural material that feels warmer in cold weather and cooler in hot weather, unlike metals. Its disadvantages are that it dries more slowly than metals after rain, needs more maintenance, and is easier to burn, break, carve graffiti into, or otherwise vandalize. Wood may be inexpensive, but the type of wood selected should depend on the location and frequency of use of the furniture. For example *Pinus spp.* is inexpensive and quite durable, but loses its color and longevity if it is not treated and maintained; the cost of maintaining or replacing it may outweigh the initial cost of purchasing it. *Cedrus spp.* weathers naturally, is non-toxic and has a pleasant odour, but it is not a hardwood, and can easily be carved into or chipped; it is therefore unsuitable for areas where there is frequent use of the furniture.

#### Concrete

Concrete furniture may not need to be mounted, as it is heavy; it is also difficult to vandalize (except with spray paint). Concrete has a long durability and may be aesthetically attractive if it is designed to be consistent with neighboring architecture; however, it does not drain or ventilate well after rain. Much of the concrete street furniture that exists today seems outmoded and appears to lack innovation.

#### Stone

Like concrete, stone is very durable, does not need to be mounted because it is heavy, and is resistant to vandalism except when spray paint is used. However, it has many of the same disadvantages: it does not ventilate or dry well after rain, and is limited in its aesthetic possibilities where design is concerned [15].

#### Plastic

Recycled furniture is generally made from plastics, which give it a smooth texture and appearance. The resulting furniture is highly durable, often lasting considerably longer than wood; low-maintenance; and therefore more cost-effective in the long term.

#### **Colour**

Items of street furniture should contrast significantly in color with the background where they are situated, and have a luminance contrast of at least 0.3 (30%) to increase their visibility to pedestrians. This can be supplemented by colored borders in the pavement, which mark the edges of the street furniture and guide pedestrians around it to clear and unobstructed walking areas [19].

#### **Sustainability**

626 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Steel

Wood

Concrete

Stone

Plastic

**Colour** 

outmoded and appears to lack innovation.

possibilities where design is concerned [15].

made of nonflammable materials such as metal, brick, or stone, and wooden structures

Stainless steel is a popular choice of material, because it is versatile, has a high strength/weight ratio and can be shaped to fit almost any design aesthetic. It is durable, resistant to corrosion and impact, and requires no maintenance; it is also cheap compared to

Wood is another popular choice of material for street furniture, because it is a natural material that feels warmer in cold weather and cooler in hot weather, unlike metals. Its disadvantages are that it dries more slowly than metals after rain, needs more maintenance, and is easier to burn, break, carve graffiti into, or otherwise vandalize. Wood may be inexpensive, but the type of wood selected should depend on the location and frequency of use of the furniture. For example *Pinus spp.* is inexpensive and quite durable, but loses its color and longevity if it is not treated and maintained; the cost of maintaining or replacing it may outweigh the initial cost of purchasing it. *Cedrus spp.* weathers naturally, is non-toxic and has a pleasant odour, but it is not a hardwood, and can easily be carved into or chipped;

Concrete furniture may not need to be mounted, as it is heavy; it is also difficult to vandalize (except with spray paint). Concrete has a long durability and may be aesthetically attractive if it is designed to be consistent with neighboring architecture; however, it does not drain or ventilate well after rain. Much of the concrete street furniture that exists today seems

Like concrete, stone is very durable, does not need to be mounted because it is heavy, and is resistant to vandalism except when spray paint is used. However, it has many of the same disadvantages: it does not ventilate or dry well after rain, and is limited in its aesthetic

Recycled furniture is generally made from plastics, which give it a smooth texture and appearance. The resulting furniture is highly durable, often lasting considerably longer than

Items of street furniture should contrast significantly in color with the background where they are situated, and have a luminance contrast of at least 0.3 (30%) to increase their visibility to pedestrians. This can be supplemented by colored borders in the pavement,

wood; low-maintenance; and therefore more cost-effective in the long term.

should be avoided in areas where there is a risk of fire [18].

all the other materials in terms of life-cycle cost, and is fully recyclable.

it is therefore unsuitable for areas where there is frequent use of the furniture.

Paint or other finishing materials of furniture should be non-toxic and non-staining [14]. The use of recycled materials in street furniture enables manufacturers to conserve natural resources and reduce their carbon footprints; it also educates the users of the furniture, the public, on the importance and mental and physical benefits of recycling. In addition, such furniture items can be recycled again when they need to be replaced, further reducing damage to the environment.

Local city administrations have been increasing initiatives to ensure the sustainability of their street furniture, including raising civic awareness, in order to reduce costs and fulfil legal requirements for emissions and energy efficiency. Most of these initiatives are demonstrably effective; replacing filament light bulbs with new LED bulbs, for example, can cut the energy consumption of street lighting by 40-70%.

With new, renewable energy sources other possibilities are emerging, such as, for example, converting street lamps into photovoltaic power sources which supply light, and at the same time supply energy to a city's power grid. Photovoltaic devices differ from solar panels, in that the power they generate can either be stored in batteries or added to the mains power grid [20]. In addition to this variation on solar energy generation, there are items of street furniture available that are wind-powered, or designed as photovoltaic-windpower hybrids; these items, according to their designers, optimize the use of renewable energy sources and also guarantee a power supply through two different sources of energy. Another new power source that is being explored for street furniture is geothermal energy, which arises from the subsoil; heat-controlled benches, for example, can be connected through bore holes in the earth to a geothermal system which produces a comfortable seating temperature [21].

#### **3.1. Seating**

Seating facilities, such as benches, should be integrated within the outdoor spaces of the city wherever people wait, meet, or socialize; in public squares, for instance, they should be coherent with other elements, so that when seats are not in use they do not create a sense of isolation or emptiness. Being able to sit within a city landscape provides an opportunity to pause, and also a tactile and more intimate contact with a place than one has when standing or walking [22].

#### Location

The best locations for benches are places where there is heavy pedestrian use: retail shopping corridors, transit stops, plazas, spaces outside cultural institutions, etc; poor locations are areas where there is little activity, such as in front of offices that close early or buildings without windows, and in spaces hidden from view or far away from active areas [23]. In high-activity areas there should be access to seating every 60m (or every 50m if there is intense activity) [24]; there should also be rest facilities at regular intervals of 100-200m, with the needs of the disabled kept in mind [11].

Street Furniture and Amenities: Designing the User-Oriented Urban Landscape 629

of 35-40cm and the back rest extending for 50cm. Benches with arm and back rests provide support to users' bodies; to provide appropriate back support for users, the back rests should be 32.5-37.5cm in height. Between the seating surface and the back rest there should be a 95°-100° angle, and the seating surface should slope back at an angle of 10°. Walls to be used as seat walls should be 37.5-60cm in height (42.5cm is recommended); and the depth of a seat wall should be at least 37.5cm if access is only available from one side, or 75cm (90cm

Moveable chairs to be used in open spaces are an alternative to benches and other seating elements; while these may not be ideal in every situation, they can be quite useful, as they are more comfortable than benches. While their cost varies, they are also less expensive: approximately ten moveable chairs can be purchased for the cost of one bench. In addition, users can arrange moveable furniture that they find at a site in any way they wish in order

For users with disabilities, some seating should be located near public toilets and telephones. In general, rest areas with benches should allow at least 1m of adjoining space to accommodate wheelchairs [14]; for the same reason, table surface heights should be within

The most common error in placing waste receptacles is putting them wherever there is an empty space, instead of in places where people will use them. If they are not placed appropriately they will remain empty while the surrounding space becomes dirtied: people will not change their habitual walking path to find a trash can, so the proper placement of

Waste receptacles should be highly visible and accessible in order to minimize littering. They should be located where they are most likely to be used, in crowded areas like busy intersections, close to crosswalks, beside take-out food shops or vendors, at bus stops, in plazas, outside building entrances such as offices, department stores and homes, and near other items of street furniture like benches, seats, shelters, walls, fences and telephones [27]. Receptacles should be situated far enough away from seating areas to minimize the unpleasant effects of trash odors and insects on users; and their fronts should be set back at

The number of waste receptacles to be provided depends on how many people use an area, how much litter is produced in the area, and on how efficient maintenance and sanitation programs are. On streets in the city center, 2-4 waste receptacles per block are usually sufficient: one should be at each end of the block next to the crosswalk, and one or two more in the middle of the block if there are benches or food stalls along it [13]. Trash cans are

the range 0.75-0.90m, and the minimum height under the table should be 0.6m [11].

is recommended) if it is available from both sides [25].

Disabilities

Location

**3.2. Waste receptacles** 

these items of furniture is crucial.

least 30cm from walkways [25].

to sit closer together or further apart, in the sun or under shade.

Benches should be set up near other amenities such as bus shelters, kiosks, news stands, waste receptacles, telephones, etc., and arranged where there is protection from the wind and to allow a choice of sitting in the sun or shade. Moveable chairs or lightweight benches allow the widest range of choices. They should be separated from the walking path by a space of 30-60cm, and with the seats level and having a maximum lengthwise slope of 4%; if the slope is greater, the ground should be built up to create a level surface [25].

Benches set at right angles to each other create situations conducive to socialization [26], whereas if they are lined up in a row they prevent group conversation (they could be lined up in areas with an exceptional view, or where there are many people passing by). In addition, they should not be set up directly facing each other (unless they are being used to play games), because people are reluctant to make direct eye contact with strangers and will turn or sit sideways to avoid it. If pairs of benches are set up at a 90-120̊ angle, the space they create facilitates both socialization and sitting alone. There should also be appropriate space left beside and in front of benches to accommodate wheelchairs and walkers for the disabled without hindering pedestrians [27].

#### Design

In designing benches, considerations of comfort are important, but the level of comfort provided depends on how they will be used: on a shopping street, for example, people may stop briefly to rest, so comfort is less important than it is, say, in a park, where people may spend half a day in seating areas. There may also be other things to consider: for example, large slats in benches might be less comfortable than small slats, but may be more appropriate in areas where teenagers tend to sit on the back rests of the benches. In general, the selection or design of benches should take into acount all relevant conditions of use.

Appearance is another important consideration: benches should be designed to fit in with their surroundings, because a bench functions like an extension of the property it adjoins, and gives a street a sense of ownership. As a result, it is more likely that business owners will take responsibility for the care of the bench and the street, and this, on a more general level, will contribute positively to the area's safety and security [27].

Armrests and back support are normal features of seating; these provide assistance to the elderly. Back supports, contoured seats and arm rests provide comfort when sitting and support when getting up and down; these are important design elements, especially in areas where people sit for longer periods of time. Adding armrests in the center of a bench should be considered in cases where it is desirable to prevent people from sleeping on benches. When space is available, steel seating is occasionally used in circular or curved forms to give an organic feel to an area [28].

The design options for a site can be increased if the types and heights of seating (stairs, benches, seat walls, etc.) are varied [18]. The length of seating elements should be 60cm per person. For benches, the recommended height of the seating surface is 42.5cm, with a width of 35-40cm and the back rest extending for 50cm. Benches with arm and back rests provide support to users' bodies; to provide appropriate back support for users, the back rests should be 32.5-37.5cm in height. Between the seating surface and the back rest there should be a 95°-100° angle, and the seating surface should slope back at an angle of 10°. Walls to be used as seat walls should be 37.5-60cm in height (42.5cm is recommended); and the depth of a seat wall should be at least 37.5cm if access is only available from one side, or 75cm (90cm is recommended) if it is available from both sides [25].

Moveable chairs to be used in open spaces are an alternative to benches and other seating elements; while these may not be ideal in every situation, they can be quite useful, as they are more comfortable than benches. While their cost varies, they are also less expensive: approximately ten moveable chairs can be purchased for the cost of one bench. In addition, users can arrange moveable furniture that they find at a site in any way they wish in order to sit closer together or further apart, in the sun or under shade.

#### Disabilities

628 Advances in Landscape Architecture

with the needs of the disabled kept in mind [11].

disabled without hindering pedestrians [27].

an organic feel to an area [28].

Design

is intense activity) [24]; there should also be rest facilities at regular intervals of 100-200m,

Benches should be set up near other amenities such as bus shelters, kiosks, news stands, waste receptacles, telephones, etc., and arranged where there is protection from the wind and to allow a choice of sitting in the sun or shade. Moveable chairs or lightweight benches allow the widest range of choices. They should be separated from the walking path by a space of 30-60cm, and with the seats level and having a maximum lengthwise slope of 4%; if

Benches set at right angles to each other create situations conducive to socialization [26], whereas if they are lined up in a row they prevent group conversation (they could be lined up in areas with an exceptional view, or where there are many people passing by). In addition, they should not be set up directly facing each other (unless they are being used to play games), because people are reluctant to make direct eye contact with strangers and will turn or sit sideways to avoid it. If pairs of benches are set up at a 90-120̊ angle, the space they create facilitates both socialization and sitting alone. There should also be appropriate space left beside and in front of benches to accommodate wheelchairs and walkers for the

In designing benches, considerations of comfort are important, but the level of comfort provided depends on how they will be used: on a shopping street, for example, people may stop briefly to rest, so comfort is less important than it is, say, in a park, where people may spend half a day in seating areas. There may also be other things to consider: for example, large slats in benches might be less comfortable than small slats, but may be more appropriate in areas where teenagers tend to sit on the back rests of the benches. In general, the selection or design of benches should take into acount all relevant conditions of use.

Appearance is another important consideration: benches should be designed to fit in with their surroundings, because a bench functions like an extension of the property it adjoins, and gives a street a sense of ownership. As a result, it is more likely that business owners will take responsibility for the care of the bench and the street, and this, on a more general

Armrests and back support are normal features of seating; these provide assistance to the elderly. Back supports, contoured seats and arm rests provide comfort when sitting and support when getting up and down; these are important design elements, especially in areas where people sit for longer periods of time. Adding armrests in the center of a bench should be considered in cases where it is desirable to prevent people from sleeping on benches. When space is available, steel seating is occasionally used in circular or curved forms to give

The design options for a site can be increased if the types and heights of seating (stairs, benches, seat walls, etc.) are varied [18]. The length of seating elements should be 60cm per person. For benches, the recommended height of the seating surface is 42.5cm, with a width

level, will contribute positively to the area's safety and security [27].

the slope is greater, the ground should be built up to create a level surface [25].

For users with disabilities, some seating should be located near public toilets and telephones. In general, rest areas with benches should allow at least 1m of adjoining space to accommodate wheelchairs [14]; for the same reason, table surface heights should be within the range 0.75-0.90m, and the minimum height under the table should be 0.6m [11].

### **3.2. Waste receptacles**

#### Location

The most common error in placing waste receptacles is putting them wherever there is an empty space, instead of in places where people will use them. If they are not placed appropriately they will remain empty while the surrounding space becomes dirtied: people will not change their habitual walking path to find a trash can, so the proper placement of these items of furniture is crucial.

Waste receptacles should be highly visible and accessible in order to minimize littering. They should be located where they are most likely to be used, in crowded areas like busy intersections, close to crosswalks, beside take-out food shops or vendors, at bus stops, in plazas, outside building entrances such as offices, department stores and homes, and near other items of street furniture like benches, seats, shelters, walls, fences and telephones [27]. Receptacles should be situated far enough away from seating areas to minimize the unpleasant effects of trash odors and insects on users; and their fronts should be set back at least 30cm from walkways [25].

The number of waste receptacles to be provided depends on how many people use an area, how much litter is produced in the area, and on how efficient maintenance and sanitation programs are. On streets in the city center, 2-4 waste receptacles per block are usually sufficient: one should be at each end of the block next to the crosswalk, and one or two more in the middle of the block if there are benches or food stalls along it [13]. Trash cans are usually spaced at 30m intervals, unless there is an increased need in a particular area; they are usually single units rather than groups of receptacles [24]. On commercial streets there should be at most one trash can every 60.96m; in areas where there is a lot of pedestrian traffic, the distance between receptacles can be decreased, but additional receptacles should be provided only if maintenance is provided by a private sponsor [29].

Street Furniture and Amenities: Designing the User-Oriented Urban Landscape 631

Waste receptacles should be sturdy; to bear the forces of activities such as sitting, leaning, etc., that may occur beside or on top of them [13]. They should especially be able to contain all kinds of chemical and flammable materials, and should also be robust enough to withstand the impact of children climbing on them or bicycles and other motor vehicles striking them [31]. If they are attached to streetlights they should not obstruct the flow of pedestrians, and should be painted in contrasting colors to assist those with low vision [32]. It is important to know how often waste receptacles will be emptied. In areas where the receptacles are being inspected regularly, they can be lined with plastic bags. If it is expected that the receptacles will be emptied daily, they may be lidless; otherwise there may be a need for them to have a hinged lid resistant to outdoor weather conditions. Lids are also important for receptacles outdoors, to prevent the garbage from getting wet. In addition to having the waste from them collected, the receptacles themselves should also be cleaned

The materials used for waste receptacles should be durable and resistant to vandalism, fire, rust, and stains. Among the choices of materials available are: enamels, which are graffitiand stain-resistant, but may chip easily; wood and rough-textured or porous surfaces, which are rust- and stain-resistant but easily vandalized and hard to clean; aluminum, which generally serves its purpose but may be vandalized to be used as scrap metal in some areas; and plastics, which may be problematic if they are solvent-sensitive, especially in parks, where discarded barbecue lighter fluids can erode them. Galvanized steel is a very durable material that can be used for receptacles in aeas where they may be heavily abused

In view of landll costs and the currently growing acceptance and understanding of recycling, it seems likely that the need for receptacles for recycling will increase in the

Signage systems play a number of important roles: they provide information and directions for people to find their way around a site, help maintain the site's image and coherence, and

The location of signs significantly reinforces their message. Besides conventional signboards, maps, kiosks, and other elements may also function as signs; and placing signs at other site amenities like benches, cafes, restrooms and intersections can help create mini-destinations

Signage can be used for various purposes: for example, directional signs can help people keep their bearings and give them a sense of security; and in parks where there are large natural areas or no specific destinations, micro-spaces can be created with a sign, a picnic table, a telephone, or other amenities, facilitating social encounters and enabling

from time to time.

[27].

future.

Location

**3.3. Signage** 

encourage learning.

in larger open spaces [33].

In some isolated natural areas trash cans may not be necessary, or if they are, they should be selected from a determined range; their location should not detract from the view and they should not have unnecessary decorations that clash with other items of street furniture. In these areas, discreet cigarette stubbers should be provided instead of ashtrays [28].

It should also be taken into consideration that waste receptacles will also be used at night in parks and squares; for this reason, they are most appropriately placed along lit-up pedestrian walkways or other lighted areas.

Design

Waste receptacles come in numerous forms, and may be designed with open, half-open, or closed tops, and mounted on colums (lighting, signs etc.), walls or vertical surfaces, free standing, fixed to the ground surface, moveable (generally for temporary use), built-in bins (benches, seats, walls etc.) [30,31]; however, appropriate receptacles should have certain qualities, of which the most important is that they should clearly look like places for discarding litter; if they blend in with the environment too well they will become unrecognizable. While they should certainly be compatible with other street furniture and with the local architecture, their function and purpose must be clearly recognizable.

Another important quality of a good waste receptacle is ease of use; the following characteristics are the most desirable. First, people should be able to dispose of waste without having to touch the receptacle or open a door to use it. Trash cans are most easily accessible when they are about 100cm in height with the receptacle at most 40cm from the outer edge [19]. The opening of the receptacle should be large enough for litter to be put in, but the size depends on the context; in parks, for example, people may dispose of larger items, so the opening should be bigger. In general, it should be at least 25cm wide, so a folded newspaper or take-out food container can be put into it; if the opening is too small, items can get stuck in it and litter will be strewn in the vicinity of the receptacle. The opening should also be at most 90cm above the ground to facilitate use by the disabled.

The size of the receptacle should be determined by its expected use and how often it will be emptied. Well-organized public spaces have several smaller receptacles that are emptied often, rather than one large receptacle that is only emptied at long intervals. In most areas, containers with a volume of 114-190 litres are sufficient. Wheelie bins are suitable for areas where there is a high volume of trash, if they can be emptied easily by collection equipment. In shopping centers, 120-litre wheelie bins with a framed cover over the top are required; while in town and district parks, 240-litre or 120-litre wheelie bins should be provided, depending on user needs [24].

Waste receptacles should be sturdy; to bear the forces of activities such as sitting, leaning, etc., that may occur beside or on top of them [13]. They should especially be able to contain all kinds of chemical and flammable materials, and should also be robust enough to withstand the impact of children climbing on them or bicycles and other motor vehicles striking them [31]. If they are attached to streetlights they should not obstruct the flow of pedestrians, and should be painted in contrasting colors to assist those with low vision [32].

It is important to know how often waste receptacles will be emptied. In areas where the receptacles are being inspected regularly, they can be lined with plastic bags. If it is expected that the receptacles will be emptied daily, they may be lidless; otherwise there may be a need for them to have a hinged lid resistant to outdoor weather conditions. Lids are also important for receptacles outdoors, to prevent the garbage from getting wet. In addition to having the waste from them collected, the receptacles themselves should also be cleaned from time to time.

The materials used for waste receptacles should be durable and resistant to vandalism, fire, rust, and stains. Among the choices of materials available are: enamels, which are graffitiand stain-resistant, but may chip easily; wood and rough-textured or porous surfaces, which are rust- and stain-resistant but easily vandalized and hard to clean; aluminum, which generally serves its purpose but may be vandalized to be used as scrap metal in some areas; and plastics, which may be problematic if they are solvent-sensitive, especially in parks, where discarded barbecue lighter fluids can erode them. Galvanized steel is a very durable material that can be used for receptacles in aeas where they may be heavily abused [27].

In view of landll costs and the currently growing acceptance and understanding of recycling, it seems likely that the need for receptacles for recycling will increase in the future.

## **3.3. Signage**

630 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Design

pedestrian walkways or other lighted areas.

depending on user needs [24].

usually spaced at 30m intervals, unless there is an increased need in a particular area; they are usually single units rather than groups of receptacles [24]. On commercial streets there should be at most one trash can every 60.96m; in areas where there is a lot of pedestrian traffic, the distance between receptacles can be decreased, but additional receptacles should

In some isolated natural areas trash cans may not be necessary, or if they are, they should be selected from a determined range; their location should not detract from the view and they should not have unnecessary decorations that clash with other items of street furniture. In

It should also be taken into consideration that waste receptacles will also be used at night in parks and squares; for this reason, they are most appropriately placed along lit-up

Waste receptacles come in numerous forms, and may be designed with open, half-open, or closed tops, and mounted on colums (lighting, signs etc.), walls or vertical surfaces, free standing, fixed to the ground surface, moveable (generally for temporary use), built-in bins (benches, seats, walls etc.) [30,31]; however, appropriate receptacles should have certain qualities, of which the most important is that they should clearly look like places for discarding litter; if they blend in with the environment too well they will become unrecognizable. While they should certainly be compatible with other street furniture and

with the local architecture, their function and purpose must be clearly recognizable.

Another important quality of a good waste receptacle is ease of use; the following characteristics are the most desirable. First, people should be able to dispose of waste without having to touch the receptacle or open a door to use it. Trash cans are most easily accessible when they are about 100cm in height with the receptacle at most 40cm from the outer edge [19]. The opening of the receptacle should be large enough for litter to be put in, but the size depends on the context; in parks, for example, people may dispose of larger items, so the opening should be bigger. In general, it should be at least 25cm wide, so a folded newspaper or take-out food container can be put into it; if the opening is too small, items can get stuck in it and litter will be strewn in the vicinity of the receptacle. The opening should also be at most 90cm above the ground to facilitate use by the disabled.

The size of the receptacle should be determined by its expected use and how often it will be emptied. Well-organized public spaces have several smaller receptacles that are emptied often, rather than one large receptacle that is only emptied at long intervals. In most areas, containers with a volume of 114-190 litres are sufficient. Wheelie bins are suitable for areas where there is a high volume of trash, if they can be emptied easily by collection equipment. In shopping centers, 120-litre wheelie bins with a framed cover over the top are required; while in town and district parks, 240-litre or 120-litre wheelie bins should be provided,

these areas, discreet cigarette stubbers should be provided instead of ashtrays [28].

be provided only if maintenance is provided by a private sponsor [29].

Signage systems play a number of important roles: they provide information and directions for people to find their way around a site, help maintain the site's image and coherence, and encourage learning.

## Location

The location of signs significantly reinforces their message. Besides conventional signboards, maps, kiosks, and other elements may also function as signs; and placing signs at other site amenities like benches, cafes, restrooms and intersections can help create mini-destinations in larger open spaces [33].

Signage can be used for various purposes: for example, directional signs can help people keep their bearings and give them a sense of security; and in parks where there are large natural areas or no specific destinations, micro-spaces can be created with a sign, a picnic table, a telephone, or other amenities, facilitating social encounters and enabling

communication in the event of an emergency. If the areas where signage is used incorporate other activities, these areas can enable visitors to fulfil various needs in one place, and also create a relaxing social environment in which to spend time.

Street Furniture and Amenities: Designing the User-Oriented Urban Landscape 633

graphic symbols to help people; directional arrows should be clearly marked. International

Different materials can be used for signage: carved wooden signs are attractive in natural environments, but they are not resistant to theft and damage; metals can become bent and rusted; plastics can be broken or burned. The most damage-resistant materials are concrete

All signage should be accessible, and durable in the long term (at least 7-10 years). In areas where there is a risk of vandalism, signs on two supports should be used rather than on single supports. Signs should be easily replaceable in case of damage; and the care of

The octagon is used only for stop signs [34]; information signboards should be rectangular,

There should be a strong color contrast between the text and its background, and between the sign and the surface or background against which it is seen; black text on a white background, for example, provides a good color contrast. Clashing colors, such as green text on a red background, should be avoided. The surface behind the sign should contrast with the sign to make it stand out; or if this is not feasible, the background within the sign should

The size of the letters used on signs should be proportional to the reading distance: The character width-to-height ratio should be between 3:5 and 1:1, and the character stroke width-to-height ratio should be between 1:5 and 1:10. The letters and graphic symbols should be raised at least 1mm from the background, so the visually impaired can read them by touching them. The smallest letter type should at least 15 mm, and there should be

The symbol for amenities for the disabled is composed of a wheelchair figure with a square background or border; the figure is distinguished from the background by contrasting colors, most commonly white for the figure and blue for the background, and the

Signs should be accessible to wheelchair users; permanently fixed street furniture will also clearly provide more wayfinding cues for the visually impaired than landmarks [36]. Signs should not be placed behind glass because reflection may hinder visibility. Signs placed on

There is no need for large numbers of directional signs; these should be placed at main entrances and doors and where there are changes in direction or level. Fixed signs indicating

the pedestrian path of travel are obstructive; so they should be detectable.

warning signboards triangular, and interdictory signboards circular [11].

symbols should particularly be utilized in outdoor areas used by foreign visitors.

and stone.

Shape

Colour

Lettering

Disabilities

signage should not be neglected.

be increased in size [19].

normal spacing between words and letters.

wheelchair figure should always be seen as facing right.

#### Design

When people know where they are in a space and know how to get to where they want to go, they feel safer. Instead of using restrictive signs warning that something "is prohibited," a more constructive approach should be used: signage should be positive and informative, and give people the confidence to act on their own. Signage can also be used to educate people on safety issues and to encourage them to report on any dubious activities they may see.

There are four basic kinds of sign: regulatory, warning, informational and educational [34].

*Regulatory signs* are used for traffic control, and include stop and yield, right-of-way, speed limit and exclusion signs. Directional signs, occasionally posted in natural areas in particular, help people keep their bearings and feel located and secure; they make use of landmarks and other places of interest and are required to indicate changes in direction [19].

*Warning signs* indicate existing or potentially dangerous conditions; they are usually found near intersections, bridges and crossings, and can also indicate changes in the gradient or surface conditions [34]. Warning signs should make use of all the languages in areas where more than one language is commonly spoken, and should be posted at all entrances to limited, controlled, and exclusion areas. The wording should clearly indicate restricted areas, and the signs (which should not be mounted on fences with intrusion-detection equipment) should be posted at intervals of less than 30.48m [35].

*Informational signs* inform visitors about a site; in this way they serve as outreach tools. *Maps* at entrances, within the site and at points along pathways can help increase users' knowledge, curiosity and interest about the area. They help visitors guide themselves, and also highlight places of interest. Maps should not be cluttered with too much or unnecessary information; they should clearly define important points.

*Educational signs* are a pleasurable way to get people interested in unique features of a site. Educational signage should be created with the types of audiences, their interests, and their reasons for visiting the site in mind.

Poor signage can be confusing rather than illuminating; signs should be posted off-site and at entrances, grouped on one support for clarity and ease of maintenance [24] and should include on-site directional, parking, and cautionary signs for visitors, employees, service vehicles, and pedestrians [35].

Signage should be clearly visible. Directional signs should be visible from a distance of at least 20m: for clear visibility, the sign should not be further away than 47m or closer than 6m. The design and placement of signs for pedestrian use must take into account such matters as their visibility, the size and proportions of the writing, and the relation between the writing and its background. The writing on signs should be complemented by standard graphic symbols to help people; directional arrows should be clearly marked. International symbols should particularly be utilized in outdoor areas used by foreign visitors.

Different materials can be used for signage: carved wooden signs are attractive in natural environments, but they are not resistant to theft and damage; metals can become bent and rusted; plastics can be broken or burned. The most damage-resistant materials are concrete and stone.

All signage should be accessible, and durable in the long term (at least 7-10 years). In areas where there is a risk of vandalism, signs on two supports should be used rather than on single supports. Signs should be easily replaceable in case of damage; and the care of signage should not be neglected.

#### Shape

632 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Design

see.

communication in the event of an emergency. If the areas where signage is used incorporate other activities, these areas can enable visitors to fulfil various needs in one place, and also

When people know where they are in a space and know how to get to where they want to go, they feel safer. Instead of using restrictive signs warning that something "is prohibited," a more constructive approach should be used: signage should be positive and informative, and give people the confidence to act on their own. Signage can also be used to educate people on safety issues and to encourage them to report on any dubious activities they may

There are four basic kinds of sign: regulatory, warning, informational and educational [34]. *Regulatory signs* are used for traffic control, and include stop and yield, right-of-way, speed limit and exclusion signs. Directional signs, occasionally posted in natural areas in particular, help people keep their bearings and feel located and secure; they make use of landmarks and other places of interest and are required to indicate changes in direction [19]. *Warning signs* indicate existing or potentially dangerous conditions; they are usually found near intersections, bridges and crossings, and can also indicate changes in the gradient or surface conditions [34]. Warning signs should make use of all the languages in areas where more than one language is commonly spoken, and should be posted at all entrances to limited, controlled, and exclusion areas. The wording should clearly indicate restricted areas, and the signs (which should not be mounted on fences with intrusion-detection

*Informational signs* inform visitors about a site; in this way they serve as outreach tools. *Maps* at entrances, within the site and at points along pathways can help increase users' knowledge, curiosity and interest about the area. They help visitors guide themselves, and also highlight places of interest. Maps should not be cluttered with too much or unnecessary

*Educational signs* are a pleasurable way to get people interested in unique features of a site. Educational signage should be created with the types of audiences, their interests, and their

Poor signage can be confusing rather than illuminating; signs should be posted off-site and at entrances, grouped on one support for clarity and ease of maintenance [24] and should include on-site directional, parking, and cautionary signs for visitors, employees, service

Signage should be clearly visible. Directional signs should be visible from a distance of at least 20m: for clear visibility, the sign should not be further away than 47m or closer than 6m. The design and placement of signs for pedestrian use must take into account such matters as their visibility, the size and proportions of the writing, and the relation between the writing and its background. The writing on signs should be complemented by standard

create a relaxing social environment in which to spend time.

equipment) should be posted at intervals of less than 30.48m [35].

information; they should clearly define important points.

reasons for visiting the site in mind.

vehicles, and pedestrians [35].

The octagon is used only for stop signs [34]; information signboards should be rectangular, warning signboards triangular, and interdictory signboards circular [11].

#### Colour

There should be a strong color contrast between the text and its background, and between the sign and the surface or background against which it is seen; black text on a white background, for example, provides a good color contrast. Clashing colors, such as green text on a red background, should be avoided. The surface behind the sign should contrast with the sign to make it stand out; or if this is not feasible, the background within the sign should be increased in size [19].

#### Lettering

The size of the letters used on signs should be proportional to the reading distance: The character width-to-height ratio should be between 3:5 and 1:1, and the character stroke width-to-height ratio should be between 1:5 and 1:10. The letters and graphic symbols should be raised at least 1mm from the background, so the visually impaired can read them by touching them. The smallest letter type should at least 15 mm, and there should be normal spacing between words and letters.

#### Disabilities

The symbol for amenities for the disabled is composed of a wheelchair figure with a square background or border; the figure is distinguished from the background by contrasting colors, most commonly white for the figure and blue for the background, and the wheelchair figure should always be seen as facing right.

Signs should be accessible to wheelchair users; permanently fixed street furniture will also clearly provide more wayfinding cues for the visually impaired than landmarks [36]. Signs should not be placed behind glass because reflection may hinder visibility. Signs placed on the pedestrian path of travel are obstructive; so they should be detectable.

There is no need for large numbers of directional signs; these should be placed at main entrances and doors and where there are changes in direction or level. Fixed signs indicating street names should be placed at a maximum height of 2.50m. Maps and information panels at building entrances, along roads, and on public buildings should be set at a height of 0.9- 1.8m; wall-mounted signs should be installed with the centre line 1.4-1.60m from the finished floor level; and overhanging signs should allow a minimum clearance of 2m. Orientation signs and push buttons in lifts should have a text in Braille or in relief for the visually impaired [11].

Street Furniture and Amenities: Designing the User-Oriented Urban Landscape 635

faced lights, shop windows, and other elements of the cityscape. In lighting, as in signage there is a hierarchical order of priority: at the highest priority level, activity areas and primary walkways should be lit to become the focus of pedestrian activity after dark; at the lowest level of priority one may find, for example, the decision not to light some areas at all

Site illumination enhances the safety of traffic and pedestrians crossing; it is used to provide warnings about hazards, and helps increase security and reduce vandalism. Within the plan of the site, it gives emphasis to focal and meeting points, and building entrances. Accent lighting can highlight fine architecture or areas of unusual significance or beauty [17].

Lighting fixtures can also be used to highlight trees and give accents to shrubbery; they can also be mounted in trees to light pathways below. When deciding on such usages, planning should take account of which trees are deciduous and which trees retain their foliage [38].

Steps or stairway lighting should provide sufficient light for people to see the stairs and differentiate between risers and treads: their visibility depends on the materials used for the steps, as well as the physical form of the stairs; dark materials require a higher level of light,

Appropriate light sources should be chosen, and fixtures should be designed to direct light precisely, with shielding used to prevent light trespass and glare. The intensity and color of the light should complement the elements to be illuminated. High-pressure sodium lighting, typically used in city street-light fixtures, casts a yellowish-orange glow that distorts colors, diminishes visual clarity and undermines the quality of the night-time urban environment; it should therefore be avoided. Metal halide lighting, in contrast, produces a soft, white glow that renders color accurately, provides better visual clarity, and requires less wattage for the same level of visibility. The quality of light is also influenced by the relationship between the brightness of a light source and one's distance from it: light becomes more diffuse further away from the source, so to produce the desired quality of light, the light

source should be located within the range of heights specified for a given brightness.

The illumination standard set for pedestrian walkways by the Canadian Standards Association, is 0.4 footcandles, at which level a person's face can be identified from a distance of 12-15 metres [41]. Street and road lights are usually installed on 9-15m high poles, spaced 45-75m apart. Fixed light poles should have durable marking strips in contrasting colors, at least 0.3m long, attached along the centre line at a height of 1.4-1.6m to warn visually impaired pedestrians [32]. Lamps supply an average illumination of one-half a footcandle on local roads and in all parking areas, and one footcandle on major roads and in large parking areas. Pedestrian paths require intensities varying from less than one-half footcandle for walkways to five footcandles for building entrances, steps, and intersections. Mall and walkway light poles are 3-4.5m in height. Although the mounting heights of luminaires have increased in recent decades with lamp technology allowing for higher and

and a change in color between risers and treads will increase visibility [40].

Quality and quantity of light

Height of luminaires

because using them at night would be unsafe or inappropriate.

Signals at crossings may be supplemented with audible or tactile messages to facilitate crossing for all users, including the visually impaired; however, audible pedestrian signals should be used judiciously, because they can create a noise problem [37].

## **3.4. Lighting**

Site lighting design focuses on illuminating the environment to anticipate and respond to the needs of users of the site. The lighting elements involved in a site may have diverse functions such as wayfinding, creating social spaces, interacting with the natural and built environments, and meeting security requirements; the overall design must enable all these functions to coexist experience for users [38].

Because of security concerns, there is often a tendency to over-light parks, plazas, streets, and other public spaces; a good design plan should relate lighting to the functions of a particular space in the evening or at night. Site lighting, beyond its practical functions, should be considered in terms of how the types of lights used, their location and their intensity, affect the way a street is perceived and used [39].

Aesthetically speaking, site lighting can add colour and vibrance to an area at night; however, its primary purpose is to provide safety and security after dark. Lighting is especially important at building entrances, intersections, stairs, sudden changes in grade, dead ends, and remote walkways. Areas with high crime rates should be well lit to provide some security for those using facilities in the evenings or at night; but while it may increase people's feeling of safety, lighting may not have an effect on reducing actual crime rates.

#### Location

Light poles should be coordinated with other streetscape elements, and utility equipment such as pull boxes and underground trenches, both above and below ground, should be coordinated when placing lighting fixtures. Fixtures should not be placed near tree foliage that may block their light; the anticipated height and diameter of the tree canopy should be considered in relation to the height and spacing of lighting fixtures, the need for a certain level of light, and the need for uniformity. The most suitable distance between a tree and a light fixture depends upon the type of tree and on the type of light fixture; if the light from a fixture is blocked because of the existing locations of the fixture and trees, other light fixtures may be added to achieve the required level of illumination [29].

#### Design

The lighting of outdoor spaces should be designed carefully, taking into account placement, intensity, timing, duration, and color [18]; lighting can be provided by bollards, street lights, faced lights, shop windows, and other elements of the cityscape. In lighting, as in signage there is a hierarchical order of priority: at the highest priority level, activity areas and primary walkways should be lit to become the focus of pedestrian activity after dark; at the lowest level of priority one may find, for example, the decision not to light some areas at all because using them at night would be unsafe or inappropriate.

Site illumination enhances the safety of traffic and pedestrians crossing; it is used to provide warnings about hazards, and helps increase security and reduce vandalism. Within the plan of the site, it gives emphasis to focal and meeting points, and building entrances. Accent lighting can highlight fine architecture or areas of unusual significance or beauty [17].

Lighting fixtures can also be used to highlight trees and give accents to shrubbery; they can also be mounted in trees to light pathways below. When deciding on such usages, planning should take account of which trees are deciduous and which trees retain their foliage [38].

Steps or stairway lighting should provide sufficient light for people to see the stairs and differentiate between risers and treads: their visibility depends on the materials used for the steps, as well as the physical form of the stairs; dark materials require a higher level of light, and a change in color between risers and treads will increase visibility [40].

#### Quality and quantity of light

634 Advances in Landscape Architecture

visually impaired [11].

functions to coexist experience for users [38].

intensity, affect the way a street is perceived and used [39].

**3.4. Lighting** 

Location

Design

street names should be placed at a maximum height of 2.50m. Maps and information panels at building entrances, along roads, and on public buildings should be set at a height of 0.9- 1.8m; wall-mounted signs should be installed with the centre line 1.4-1.60m from the finished floor level; and overhanging signs should allow a minimum clearance of 2m. Orientation signs and push buttons in lifts should have a text in Braille or in relief for the

Signals at crossings may be supplemented with audible or tactile messages to facilitate crossing for all users, including the visually impaired; however, audible pedestrian signals

Site lighting design focuses on illuminating the environment to anticipate and respond to the needs of users of the site. The lighting elements involved in a site may have diverse functions such as wayfinding, creating social spaces, interacting with the natural and built environments, and meeting security requirements; the overall design must enable all these

Because of security concerns, there is often a tendency to over-light parks, plazas, streets, and other public spaces; a good design plan should relate lighting to the functions of a particular space in the evening or at night. Site lighting, beyond its practical functions, should be considered in terms of how the types of lights used, their location and their

Aesthetically speaking, site lighting can add colour and vibrance to an area at night; however, its primary purpose is to provide safety and security after dark. Lighting is especially important at building entrances, intersections, stairs, sudden changes in grade, dead ends, and remote walkways. Areas with high crime rates should be well lit to provide some security for those using facilities in the evenings or at night; but while it may increase people's feeling of safety, lighting may not have an effect on reducing actual crime rates.

Light poles should be coordinated with other streetscape elements, and utility equipment such as pull boxes and underground trenches, both above and below ground, should be coordinated when placing lighting fixtures. Fixtures should not be placed near tree foliage that may block their light; the anticipated height and diameter of the tree canopy should be considered in relation to the height and spacing of lighting fixtures, the need for a certain level of light, and the need for uniformity. The most suitable distance between a tree and a light fixture depends upon the type of tree and on the type of light fixture; if the light from a fixture is blocked because of the existing locations of the fixture and trees, other light

The lighting of outdoor spaces should be designed carefully, taking into account placement, intensity, timing, duration, and color [18]; lighting can be provided by bollards, street lights,

fixtures may be added to achieve the required level of illumination [29].

should be used judiciously, because they can create a noise problem [37].

Appropriate light sources should be chosen, and fixtures should be designed to direct light precisely, with shielding used to prevent light trespass and glare. The intensity and color of the light should complement the elements to be illuminated. High-pressure sodium lighting, typically used in city street-light fixtures, casts a yellowish-orange glow that distorts colors, diminishes visual clarity and undermines the quality of the night-time urban environment; it should therefore be avoided. Metal halide lighting, in contrast, produces a soft, white glow that renders color accurately, provides better visual clarity, and requires less wattage for the same level of visibility. The quality of light is also influenced by the relationship between the brightness of a light source and one's distance from it: light becomes more diffuse further away from the source, so to produce the desired quality of light, the light source should be located within the range of heights specified for a given brightness.

#### Height of luminaires

The illumination standard set for pedestrian walkways by the Canadian Standards Association, is 0.4 footcandles, at which level a person's face can be identified from a distance of 12-15 metres [41]. Street and road lights are usually installed on 9-15m high poles, spaced 45-75m apart. Fixed light poles should have durable marking strips in contrasting colors, at least 0.3m long, attached along the centre line at a height of 1.4-1.6m to warn visually impaired pedestrians [32]. Lamps supply an average illumination of one-half a footcandle on local roads and in all parking areas, and one footcandle on major roads and in large parking areas. Pedestrian paths require intensities varying from less than one-half footcandle for walkways to five footcandles for building entrances, steps, and intersections. Mall and walkway light poles are 3-4.5m in height. Although the mounting heights of luminaires have increased in recent decades with lamp technology allowing for higher and brighter road lights, this is not particularly beneficial for pedestrians. If the heights of luminaires are reduced and adjusted to a pedestrian scale, more fixtures will be needed, which means the luminaires and poles and their placement can have a more positive effect on the streetscape [39].

Street Furniture and Amenities: Designing the User-Oriented Urban Landscape 637

Stone, concrete, brick and metals such as copper, bronze, cast iron and steel are suitable materials for fountains [40]. Taps may also be designed with the disabled in mind, at the usual height of 85-95cm. This allows sufficient space for them to be approached by users of wheelchairs, which are usually 85cm in height; the approach should be on a hard surface. The basin should be cantilevered 20-30cm outwards from the wall or support stand, with the drinking spigot or bubbler mounted on the outer edge of the basin. To operate the fountain, a lever-type handle should be located on the side or rim of the basin; foot pedals

As wind rises, fountain height should be reduced by 10 percent for each 5mph of wind speed above 10mph. For critical situations a wind sensor should switch off the fountain [47].

Fountains fall into three categories: rising jets, downward falls, and a combination of the

*Rising jets* are often used in public displays, and because they can rapidly change form, they can be interactive, coordinated with music or easily accessible to people; indeed, the water itself may be the spectacle, if it flows in large quantities or if advanced technologies are used. Rising jets can be seen from a distance, and coordinated lighting can change their

*Downward fall* or "cascade" fountains are found in nature in the form of rivers, streams, waterfalls and rising springs. Throughout history, human beings have contained, diverted, decorated and reduced or enhanced them, and eventually used them as models,

An example of a *combination fountain* is the "splash fountain," in which people cool themselves; even if they were not designed with this in mind, fountains are often used by children for this purpose. Some fountains may be fenced in or built with raised edges to prevent access; others are designed specifically for easy access, and with nonslip surfaces so they can be used safely. In recent years, purpose-designed splash fountains have been created in open spaces in conjunction with public pools, parks, or public playgrounds. These "splash pads" have no standing water, so there is no risk of drowning in them and no

These are vertical barriers and are one of the most unobstrusive ways of preventing access

The use of bollards should be limited to areas where sidewalk structures, furniture, private property and vegetation are being damaged by vehicles trying to park; this is particularly problematic on narrow streets. Aesthetically appealing bollards may be used in locations to

should only be used together with a lever for controlling the flow [46].

appearance into what has been described as "never ending fireworks" [48].

supplemented by artificial pumping systems.

by vehicles enroaching on to pedestrian areas.

Types of fountains

supervision is needed.

**3.6. Bollards** 

Location

two.

#### Lamp Types and Wattages

Lamps are usually incandescent or based on mercury vapor. Fixtures where the light source is below eye level may be used to illuminate landscaping and pedestrian walks; if these are the main light sources, there should also be peripheral lighting to illuminate the immediate surroundings and create a feeling of security for passing pedestrians [42]. Excessively bright lights and frontal floodlighting should be avoided; lower-wattage light sources should be used instead. The lighting of hardscape elements from a distance can negatively affect nighttime vision, and should also be avoided. Up-lighting should only be used where it will not interfere with the pedestrians' vision [15]: when a luminaire's height is lowered, the lamp's brightness must be adjusted so as not to cause excessive glare for pedestrians, but at the same time, the wattage must also be sufficient to adequately illuminate the road [39].

### Reducing light pollution

Light pollution occurs when outdoor lighting is misdirected, misplaced, unshielded, excessive, or unnecessary [18]. Light pollution, or the over-illumination of the night sky by electric lights, can be a significant problem in urban areas; it can negatively impact the normal functioning of humans and many animal species. Light pollution can be decreased if designers minimize light trespass off the site, thus reducing night-time sky glow, increasing night-time visibility, and alleviating the negative effects of light pollution on nocturnal environments. Today newer outdoor lighting products have been designed to minimize light pollution; these types of products, located strategically within the landscape, can provide adequate illumination without emitting excess light [43].

### **3.5. Fountains**

#### Location

In open outdoor spaces, water fountains or drinking fountains provide a focal point. Flowing water has a visual and auditory appeal that creates ambience, and the sound of a water fountain can help screen out traffic sounds in seating areas [44]; drinking fountains should be available for functional reasons as well in regions where there are hot summers [45]. Care should be taken in designing water fountains for high-rise office districts, as the buildings can cause air turbulence that blows around the spray from fountains.

#### Design

Drinking fountains should be designed on a scale appropriate to their setting. These fountains should be accessible to children and people in wheelchairs, as well as standing adults, including those on crutches or using walkers, and the water control should be simple, with little strength required. A well-designed fountain may have a water spigot on the side for filling containers, or washing hands.

Stone, concrete, brick and metals such as copper, bronze, cast iron and steel are suitable materials for fountains [40]. Taps may also be designed with the disabled in mind, at the usual height of 85-95cm. This allows sufficient space for them to be approached by users of wheelchairs, which are usually 85cm in height; the approach should be on a hard surface. The basin should be cantilevered 20-30cm outwards from the wall or support stand, with the drinking spigot or bubbler mounted on the outer edge of the basin. To operate the fountain, a lever-type handle should be located on the side or rim of the basin; foot pedals should only be used together with a lever for controlling the flow [46].

As wind rises, fountain height should be reduced by 10 percent for each 5mph of wind speed above 10mph. For critical situations a wind sensor should switch off the fountain [47].

### Types of fountains

636 Advances in Landscape Architecture

on the streetscape [39].

Lamp Types and Wattages

Reducing light pollution

**3.5. Fountains** 

Location

Design

brighter road lights, this is not particularly beneficial for pedestrians. If the heights of luminaires are reduced and adjusted to a pedestrian scale, more fixtures will be needed, which means the luminaires and poles and their placement can have a more positive effect

Lamps are usually incandescent or based on mercury vapor. Fixtures where the light source is below eye level may be used to illuminate landscaping and pedestrian walks; if these are the main light sources, there should also be peripheral lighting to illuminate the immediate surroundings and create a feeling of security for passing pedestrians [42]. Excessively bright lights and frontal floodlighting should be avoided; lower-wattage light sources should be used instead. The lighting of hardscape elements from a distance can negatively affect nighttime vision, and should also be avoided. Up-lighting should only be used where it will not interfere with the pedestrians' vision [15]: when a luminaire's height is lowered, the lamp's brightness must be adjusted so as not to cause excessive glare for pedestrians, but at the

same time, the wattage must also be sufficient to adequately illuminate the road [39].

provide adequate illumination without emitting excess light [43].

the side for filling containers, or washing hands.

Light pollution occurs when outdoor lighting is misdirected, misplaced, unshielded, excessive, or unnecessary [18]. Light pollution, or the over-illumination of the night sky by electric lights, can be a significant problem in urban areas; it can negatively impact the normal functioning of humans and many animal species. Light pollution can be decreased if designers minimize light trespass off the site, thus reducing night-time sky glow, increasing night-time visibility, and alleviating the negative effects of light pollution on nocturnal environments. Today newer outdoor lighting products have been designed to minimize light pollution; these types of products, located strategically within the landscape, can

In open outdoor spaces, water fountains or drinking fountains provide a focal point. Flowing water has a visual and auditory appeal that creates ambience, and the sound of a water fountain can help screen out traffic sounds in seating areas [44]; drinking fountains should be available for functional reasons as well in regions where there are hot summers [45]. Care should be taken in designing water fountains for high-rise office districts, as the

Drinking fountains should be designed on a scale appropriate to their setting. These fountains should be accessible to children and people in wheelchairs, as well as standing adults, including those on crutches or using walkers, and the water control should be simple, with little strength required. A well-designed fountain may have a water spigot on

buildings can cause air turbulence that blows around the spray from fountains.

Fountains fall into three categories: rising jets, downward falls, and a combination of the two.

*Rising jets* are often used in public displays, and because they can rapidly change form, they can be interactive, coordinated with music or easily accessible to people; indeed, the water itself may be the spectacle, if it flows in large quantities or if advanced technologies are used. Rising jets can be seen from a distance, and coordinated lighting can change their appearance into what has been described as "never ending fireworks" [48].

*Downward fall* or "cascade" fountains are found in nature in the form of rivers, streams, waterfalls and rising springs. Throughout history, human beings have contained, diverted, decorated and reduced or enhanced them, and eventually used them as models, supplemented by artificial pumping systems.

An example of a *combination fountain* is the "splash fountain," in which people cool themselves; even if they were not designed with this in mind, fountains are often used by children for this purpose. Some fountains may be fenced in or built with raised edges to prevent access; others are designed specifically for easy access, and with nonslip surfaces so they can be used safely. In recent years, purpose-designed splash fountains have been created in open spaces in conjunction with public pools, parks, or public playgrounds. These "splash pads" have no standing water, so there is no risk of drowning in them and no supervision is needed.

## **3.6. Bollards**

These are vertical barriers and are one of the most unobstrusive ways of preventing access by vehicles enroaching on to pedestrian areas.

#### Location

The use of bollards should be limited to areas where sidewalk structures, furniture, private property and vegetation are being damaged by vehicles trying to park; this is particularly problematic on narrow streets. Aesthetically appealing bollards may be used in locations to

indicate special spaces like shared public paths or streets limited to pedestrians. Lighted bollards can provide additional illumination for pedestrians in median refuges.

Street Furniture and Amenities: Designing the User-Oriented Urban Landscape 639

*Rising (retractable) bollards* rise up and go back down into the ground again automatically, by means of an electronic, hydraulic or pneumatic mechanism when they are activated by a

*Security bollards* are designed to withstand heavy impacts. They may be fixed or retractable,

*Removable bollards* have a base permanently fixed to the ground, but can be unlocked with a

*Telescopic bollards* collapse concentrically and retract to street level when they are unlocked

*Lay-flat bollards,* also known as "fold-down" or "collapsible" bollards, can be unlocked with

*Bell bollards* are short and bell-shaped; these are used in areas with frequent U-turns or tight turning circles, as the slope of the bell enables the wheel of a vehicle to strike it and roll

*Qwick Kurb* is the brand name of a temporary plastic curb, which is comprised of several

*Planters* can serve as environmentally friendly bollards, physically delimiting streets, widening sidewalks and restricting access for motor vehicles. If they are properly funded, managed and maintained, they can enhance the aesthetics of a public space and facilitate a

*Lighted bollards* provide illumination in the form of area or marker lighting. "Area lighting" illuminates the ground plane around the bollard, while "marker lighting" provides a glow indicating a bollard's location. Marker bollards are solar powered, so they do not need to be connected to the electrical grid. In cases where a light is required at a low height for visibility, a simple path light on a post may be more useful and user-friendly than a strong,

The term "public art" refers to sculptures and other artworks which are situated in public spaces outdoors and are freely and physically accessible by the public. Public art may belong to the community as a whole, but it can also be displayed in private places and serve

Public art complements and enhances the environment and brings public spaces to life; it can range from disparate objects to an entire streetscape [52]. Large-scale works can bring thematic unity to a district or demarcate a gateway to a neighborhood, while works on a human scale can provide points of visual interest for pedestrians passing by. Well-designed

hand-held remote, swipe card, or other remote device.

and are used to prevent terrorist or criminal attacks.

a key and laid flat on the ground when required.

plastic bollards or paddles strung together.

community's acceptance of a new curb or median [50].

a smaller community of interested people [51].

key and lifted out when necessary.

Temporary & Flexible Bollards

with a key.

around it.

lighted bollard [1].

**3.7. Public Art** 

The usual lateral distance of a bollard is about 3m from the center of the street. They should be positioned alongside the the walking path so as not to obstruct pedestrians. Bollards should be installed 45cm from the back edge of the curb [28].

### Design

The design of bollards should be contextualized within a 'family' of streetscape elements [29]. Their size range is usually 10-25cm in diameter, but decorative bollards may be larger and may differ in shape. In general, design details appear on the sides and tops of bollards, which should be articulated for this purpose; bollards should also be painted in colors that enhance other elements of the streetscape (except for gray) and to assist the visually impaired. Signs and directions may be affixed to bollards so additional signposts are unnecessary, and the bollards may be painted with white bands where appropriate [28].

The spacing between bollards is usually about 90cm, wide enough to allow luggage and wheelchairs to pass between them. The spacing should also be varied to follow the rhythm of the other elements that make up the streetscape – i.e. lighting fixtures, landscaping, etc. In some contexts, an area may be defined or an entryway blocked by a series of bollards. Bollard forms vary from the simple and modern to the decorative and traditional, depending on the surroundings. The simplest bollards are wooden or painted steel posts embedded in the ground; in their most practical form they demarcate parking areas, alleyways, or entrances to significant public spaces. More complex, detailed forms and refined materials are used when the intention is to blend in with the local architecture and other elements of the city and inform local identity; such forms comprise part of the public street furniture and amenities. The materials and finishes used for bollards are determined by their relation to other elements in the space under consideration [1].

Bollards comprise a wide variety of fixed or flexible elements that are used to demarcate spaces, prevent the entry of vehicles, or otherwise protect a space; they can be designed to give way to or hold up against any force. They can be removable but locked by means of locking pins or by sheer weight [14]. They should be used sparingly, and their style should be determined by their location. Thus distinctive old bollards should be kept and renovated, and new ones created in the same style, if it is still appropriate, using moulds; plastic bollards should only be used for temporary purposes. The design concept for an area should be re-thought in order to minimize the use of bollards: to reduce the need for them, reinforced slabs or stronger paved areas, as well as the use of other street furniture items or planting trees should be considered.

#### Permanent Bollards

*Fixed bollards* are also known as "static," "architectural" or "permanent" bollards. These are usually concrete, wood or metal, and cannot be moved as they are surface-mounted or embedded in the ground. They should be set 300-450mm in the ground on a concrete or consolidated hardcore base and surrounded by concrete [49].

*Rising (retractable) bollards* rise up and go back down into the ground again automatically, by means of an electronic, hydraulic or pneumatic mechanism when they are activated by a hand-held remote, swipe card, or other remote device.

*Security bollards* are designed to withstand heavy impacts. They may be fixed or retractable, and are used to prevent terrorist or criminal attacks.

*Removable bollards* have a base permanently fixed to the ground, but can be unlocked with a key and lifted out when necessary.

*Telescopic bollards* collapse concentrically and retract to street level when they are unlocked with a key.

*Lay-flat bollards,* also known as "fold-down" or "collapsible" bollards, can be unlocked with a key and laid flat on the ground when required.

*Bell bollards* are short and bell-shaped; these are used in areas with frequent U-turns or tight turning circles, as the slope of the bell enables the wheel of a vehicle to strike it and roll around it.

Temporary & Flexible Bollards

638 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Design

indicate special spaces like shared public paths or streets limited to pedestrians. Lighted

The usual lateral distance of a bollard is about 3m from the center of the street. They should be positioned alongside the the walking path so as not to obstruct pedestrians. Bollards

The design of bollards should be contextualized within a 'family' of streetscape elements [29]. Their size range is usually 10-25cm in diameter, but decorative bollards may be larger and may differ in shape. In general, design details appear on the sides and tops of bollards, which should be articulated for this purpose; bollards should also be painted in colors that enhance other elements of the streetscape (except for gray) and to assist the visually impaired. Signs and directions may be affixed to bollards so additional signposts are unnecessary, and the bollards may be painted with white bands where appropriate [28].

The spacing between bollards is usually about 90cm, wide enough to allow luggage and wheelchairs to pass between them. The spacing should also be varied to follow the rhythm of the other elements that make up the streetscape – i.e. lighting fixtures, landscaping, etc. In some contexts, an area may be defined or an entryway blocked by a series of bollards. Bollard forms vary from the simple and modern to the decorative and traditional, depending on the surroundings. The simplest bollards are wooden or painted steel posts embedded in the ground; in their most practical form they demarcate parking areas, alleyways, or entrances to significant public spaces. More complex, detailed forms and refined materials are used when the intention is to blend in with the local architecture and other elements of the city and inform local identity; such forms comprise part of the public street furniture and amenities. The materials and finishes used for bollards are determined

Bollards comprise a wide variety of fixed or flexible elements that are used to demarcate spaces, prevent the entry of vehicles, or otherwise protect a space; they can be designed to give way to or hold up against any force. They can be removable but locked by means of locking pins or by sheer weight [14]. They should be used sparingly, and their style should be determined by their location. Thus distinctive old bollards should be kept and renovated, and new ones created in the same style, if it is still appropriate, using moulds; plastic bollards should only be used for temporary purposes. The design concept for an area should be re-thought in order to minimize the use of bollards: to reduce the need for them, reinforced slabs or stronger paved areas, as well as the use of other street furniture items or

*Fixed bollards* are also known as "static," "architectural" or "permanent" bollards. These are usually concrete, wood or metal, and cannot be moved as they are surface-mounted or embedded in the ground. They should be set 300-450mm in the ground on a concrete or

by their relation to other elements in the space under consideration [1].

consolidated hardcore base and surrounded by concrete [49].

planting trees should be considered.

Permanent Bollards

bollards can provide additional illumination for pedestrians in median refuges.

should be installed 45cm from the back edge of the curb [28].

*Qwick Kurb* is the brand name of a temporary plastic curb, which is comprised of several plastic bollards or paddles strung together.

*Planters* can serve as environmentally friendly bollards, physically delimiting streets, widening sidewalks and restricting access for motor vehicles. If they are properly funded, managed and maintained, they can enhance the aesthetics of a public space and facilitate a community's acceptance of a new curb or median [50].

*Lighted bollards* provide illumination in the form of area or marker lighting. "Area lighting" illuminates the ground plane around the bollard, while "marker lighting" provides a glow indicating a bollard's location. Marker bollards are solar powered, so they do not need to be connected to the electrical grid. In cases where a light is required at a low height for visibility, a simple path light on a post may be more useful and user-friendly than a strong, lighted bollard [1].

## **3.7. Public Art**

The term "public art" refers to sculptures and other artworks which are situated in public spaces outdoors and are freely and physically accessible by the public. Public art may belong to the community as a whole, but it can also be displayed in private places and serve a smaller community of interested people [51].

Public art complements and enhances the environment and brings public spaces to life; it can range from disparate objects to an entire streetscape [52]. Large-scale works can bring thematic unity to a district or demarcate a gateway to a neighborhood, while works on a human scale can provide points of visual interest for pedestrians passing by. Well-designed

public artworks that recognize the local culture as well as broader influences can define a community, serving as landmarks that uniquely express the spirit of a place or highlight some of its functional aspects, draw people towards it, and so contribute to its growth and dynamism [15]. Public art that fits into its surroundings can thus also create a setting for breaking down barriers, generating diverse forms of social encounters and interactions, and inspiring creative expression [53].

Street Furniture and Amenities: Designing the User-Oriented Urban Landscape 641

popular material for street furniture, but it can be burned, carved and painted; wear due to ultraviolet radiation may be another problem (although some recycled plastic products are marketed as UV-stable), so this material may be more appropriate indoors. Steel is the material most resistant to vandalism, but it is usually the most costly: steel meshes and steel bars cannot be spray-painted, burned or slashed easily, and they also have the advantage of

Street furniture should be available in proportion to the intensity of activity in a particular area, and carefully placed to create unobstructed paths for pedestrians without creating hazards. Furnishings include benches, waste receptacle, signs, lighting, fountain and other elements that make people feel comfortable. These elements should be coordinated and integrated so that they are both attractive and functional. However, beyond comfort, the aim of these furnishings is to provide a place with character and identity, and to encourage people to enjoy outdoor spaces. Street furniture also addresses specific needs, such as seating and shelter when one is waiting for transportation**.** If well planned and designed, it can also enhance the visual aspects, image and identity of a site. The quality, organisation and distribution of street furniture reflects the quality of an urban space and can also set standards and expectations for future development [8], as the aim of these furnishings is to combine and coordinate form, scale, materials and placement to create visual appeal,

Besides its functional aspects, high quality in the designing of street furniture has recently become a focus of attention in urban landscape design, with emphasis placed on the integration of function and aesthetics with new materials and technologies, creative concepts and artistic application in the user-friendly cityscape. Street furniture enables a city to become closer knit as a community, a space where people can gather, share and experience life together. Visually unattractive or poorly planned street furniture defines a city through chaos, a lack of order and harmony, and the absence of community. In recent years, cities have also become very concerned about waste disposal and the stability of the environment, as can be seen in the growing tendency of using recycled street furniture; well designed street furniture enables cities to continually update outdoor spaces sustainably

accessibility and safety through understanding the needs of users [55].

while being environmentally conscious at the same time.

*Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Istanbul Aydn University, Istanbul, Turkey* 

[1] Main Bill, Hannah Gail Greet. Site Furnishings: A Complete Guide to the Planning, Selection and Use of Landscape Furniture and Amenities, John Wiley & Sons; 2010.

good ventilation so they dry rapidly after rain [15].

**5. Conclusion** 

**Author details** 

**6. References** 

Gökçen Firdevs Yücel

p13,14,25,151,152.

#### Location

Public works of art can serve as focal points on streets and in public areas, especially at key points or intersections where there is pedestrian movement or where people tend to gather, and they can give these spaces a unique character; however, they may not be appropriate for high-traffic walking areas such as pedestrian thoroughfares, unless they function as street furniture. In addition, they can create a special sense of place in less frequented locations.

#### Design

Works of public art may be permanent, static or based on objects; they can also be temporary, dynamic, or evanescent; however, they should serve as pedestrian amenities [51], and the aim in the design and planning phases should be to integrate them with other elements of the streetscape such as light poles, benches, trash receptacles and utility boxes. Artworks can be centers of focus in parks or plazas, or visual "surprises" that appears as one follows a pedestrian pathway.

The materials used, whether for a modern or a more traditional sculpture will vary depending on what the sculpture expresses, their appropriateness for its composition, and the cost factors involved. In any case, public artworks should be of a reasonable quality as regards their construction, and particularly their surface finish; they should be structurally sound and designed for minimal maintenance and to resist vandalism [24]. They should also be accessible to the disabled and not hinder pathways; some may need visible warning strips around the base for this purpose.

## **4. Maintenance**

If the types of street furniture and manufacturers involved at a site are consistent, maintaining or replacing worn or damaged furnishings will be less costly [54]; proper installation of items will ensure their durability, and damaged materials should be replaced with more sustainable products wherever possible [43]. The furniture should be easy to repair, and one way to facilitate this is to design it as replaceable modular parts, so that it does remain unusable for long periods pending repairs [16].

Street furniture is often vandalized by burning, slashing, carving, and spray painting, so this should be taken into account in the planning phase; some materials and styles are more resistant to vandalism. The furnishings must be durable and secure, with finishes and coatings that resist stickers, graffiti and bacteria. Thus while wood may be a cheap and aesthetically appealing choice, it is easy to carve, burn, and spray-paint, so it is not particularly resistant to vandalism compared to other alternatives. Recycled plastic is a popular material for street furniture, but it can be burned, carved and painted; wear due to ultraviolet radiation may be another problem (although some recycled plastic products are marketed as UV-stable), so this material may be more appropriate indoors. Steel is the material most resistant to vandalism, but it is usually the most costly: steel meshes and steel bars cannot be spray-painted, burned or slashed easily, and they also have the advantage of good ventilation so they dry rapidly after rain [15].

## **5. Conclusion**

640 Advances in Landscape Architecture

inspiring creative expression [53].

follows a pedestrian pathway.

strips around the base for this purpose.

does remain unusable for long periods pending repairs [16].

**4. Maintenance** 

Location

Design

public artworks that recognize the local culture as well as broader influences can define a community, serving as landmarks that uniquely express the spirit of a place or highlight some of its functional aspects, draw people towards it, and so contribute to its growth and dynamism [15]. Public art that fits into its surroundings can thus also create a setting for breaking down barriers, generating diverse forms of social encounters and interactions, and

Public works of art can serve as focal points on streets and in public areas, especially at key points or intersections where there is pedestrian movement or where people tend to gather, and they can give these spaces a unique character; however, they may not be appropriate for high-traffic walking areas such as pedestrian thoroughfares, unless they function as street furniture. In addition, they can create a special sense of place in less frequented locations.

Works of public art may be permanent, static or based on objects; they can also be temporary, dynamic, or evanescent; however, they should serve as pedestrian amenities [51], and the aim in the design and planning phases should be to integrate them with other elements of the streetscape such as light poles, benches, trash receptacles and utility boxes. Artworks can be centers of focus in parks or plazas, or visual "surprises" that appears as one

The materials used, whether for a modern or a more traditional sculpture will vary depending on what the sculpture expresses, their appropriateness for its composition, and the cost factors involved. In any case, public artworks should be of a reasonable quality as regards their construction, and particularly their surface finish; they should be structurally sound and designed for minimal maintenance and to resist vandalism [24]. They should also be accessible to the disabled and not hinder pathways; some may need visible warning

If the types of street furniture and manufacturers involved at a site are consistent, maintaining or replacing worn or damaged furnishings will be less costly [54]; proper installation of items will ensure their durability, and damaged materials should be replaced with more sustainable products wherever possible [43]. The furniture should be easy to repair, and one way to facilitate this is to design it as replaceable modular parts, so that it

Street furniture is often vandalized by burning, slashing, carving, and spray painting, so this should be taken into account in the planning phase; some materials and styles are more resistant to vandalism. The furnishings must be durable and secure, with finishes and coatings that resist stickers, graffiti and bacteria. Thus while wood may be a cheap and aesthetically appealing choice, it is easy to carve, burn, and spray-paint, so it is not particularly resistant to vandalism compared to other alternatives. Recycled plastic is a Street furniture should be available in proportion to the intensity of activity in a particular area, and carefully placed to create unobstructed paths for pedestrians without creating hazards. Furnishings include benches, waste receptacle, signs, lighting, fountain and other elements that make people feel comfortable. These elements should be coordinated and integrated so that they are both attractive and functional. However, beyond comfort, the aim of these furnishings is to provide a place with character and identity, and to encourage people to enjoy outdoor spaces. Street furniture also addresses specific needs, such as seating and shelter when one is waiting for transportation**.** If well planned and designed, it can also enhance the visual aspects, image and identity of a site. The quality, organisation and distribution of street furniture reflects the quality of an urban space and can also set standards and expectations for future development [8], as the aim of these furnishings is to combine and coordinate form, scale, materials and placement to create visual appeal, accessibility and safety through understanding the needs of users [55].

Besides its functional aspects, high quality in the designing of street furniture has recently become a focus of attention in urban landscape design, with emphasis placed on the integration of function and aesthetics with new materials and technologies, creative concepts and artistic application in the user-friendly cityscape. Street furniture enables a city to become closer knit as a community, a space where people can gather, share and experience life together. Visually unattractive or poorly planned street furniture defines a city through chaos, a lack of order and harmony, and the absence of community. In recent years, cities have also become very concerned about waste disposal and the stability of the environment, as can be seen in the growing tendency of using recycled street furniture; well designed street furniture enables cities to continually update outdoor spaces sustainably while being environmentally conscious at the same time.

## **Author details**

Gökçen Firdevs Yücel *Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Istanbul Aydn University, Istanbul, Turkey* 

## **6. References**

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**Chapter 24** 

© 2013 Salici, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Greenways as** 

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55757

**1. Introduction** 

1995).

et. al., 2007).

Aylin Salici

**a Sustainable Urban Planning Strategy** 

Greenways are linear open spaces such as canals and scenic roads that are set along the riversides, hillsides or valleys, converted to a recreational use along the railways (Little,

As the last scientific sources about greenways in landscape planning are examined (President's Commission on Americans Outdoors, 1987; Little, 1990; Flink and Searns, 1993; Smith and Hellmund, 1993) the definition of "designed and managed space networks that

In 1970s, when the decreasing of urban open spaces became clear throughout the country, the greenways planning activities directed to preserving gained importance. Those greenways which need less open space than conventional parks, make possible various recreational activities and form a system of being associated different open and green spaces are supported by authorities and the institutions directed to protecting environment (Arslan

The most clear statement on this subject came out by President's Commission on Americans Outdoors in 1987. The commission sees the greenways as live networks like a giant circulation system. That provides people with access to open spaces close to where they live, and link together the rural and urban spaces in the American Greenways in the USA. Therefore, the commission suggested to generalize greenways which are a vision for the future as a system. It is possible to see more than 660 greenways examples implemented in

Commission draws a parallel between the evolution model of greenways and motorways or railway system. According to this idea, the motorways and railways which are firstly formed in small parts, later the left parts of them are networked by planners, being

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

the USA whose 80 % of its population live in cities (Bueno et. al., 1995).

are compatible with the concepts of sustainable space use" comes out (Ahern, 1995).

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter


## **Greenways as a Sustainable Urban Planning Strategy**

Aylin Salici

644 Advances in Landscape Architecture

2002. p91.

Jauary 2013).

2007. p257,347.

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Perspectives, Intellect Books; 2008. p147.

Kingston University, London, England; 1997.

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[40] Hopper Leonard J. Landscape Architectural Graphic Standards, John Wiley & Sons;

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[42] Wood H. PaulH. Paul Wood (AuthorSite Design, Kaplan AEC Education; 2004. p108.Cook Thomas W., Vanderzanden Ann Marie. Sustainable Landscape Management, Design, Construction and Maintenance, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 2011.

[44] Marcus Clare Cooper, Francis Carolyn. People Places: Design Guidlines for Urban Open

[45] Marcus Clare Cooper, Sarkissian Wendy. Housing as If People Mattered: Site Design Guidelines for Medium-Density Family Housing, University of California Press; 1992.

[46] Nelischer Maurice. The handbook of Landcsape Architectural Construction, Volume

[48] Hrst Bryan R., Fountains, Master Thesis. The faculty of the school of architecture,

[50] Transportation Alternatives (Organization), Rethinking bollards: how bollards can save lives, prevent injuries and relieve traffic congestion in New York City, New York, NY:

[51] Coutts Glen, Jokela Timo. Art, Community and Environment: Educational

[53] Worth Margareth. Creating significance through public places art an inclusive +interdisciplinary practice, Public Art and Urban Design. Interdisciplinary and Social Perspectives Waterfronts of Art III, web version on the w@terfront nr, 4.

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[55] Gu Ji Yong. Advances in Affective and Pleasurable Design (Advances in Human

[52] Cartiere Cameron, Willis Shelly. The Practice of Public Art, Routledge; 2008. p9.

http://www.ub.edu/escult/epolis/WaterIII.pdf (accessed January 2013). p51.

http://www.pps.org/parks\_plazas\_squares/info/amenities\_bb/streetlights (accessed

Student Edition, John Wiley & Sons; 2011. p358. [39] Project for Public Spaces, Lighting use & design,

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55757

## **1. Introduction**

Greenways are linear open spaces such as canals and scenic roads that are set along the riversides, hillsides or valleys, converted to a recreational use along the railways (Little, 1995).

As the last scientific sources about greenways in landscape planning are examined (President's Commission on Americans Outdoors, 1987; Little, 1990; Flink and Searns, 1993; Smith and Hellmund, 1993) the definition of "designed and managed space networks that are compatible with the concepts of sustainable space use" comes out (Ahern, 1995).

In 1970s, when the decreasing of urban open spaces became clear throughout the country, the greenways planning activities directed to preserving gained importance. Those greenways which need less open space than conventional parks, make possible various recreational activities and form a system of being associated different open and green spaces are supported by authorities and the institutions directed to protecting environment (Arslan et. al., 2007).

The most clear statement on this subject came out by President's Commission on Americans Outdoors in 1987. The commission sees the greenways as live networks like a giant circulation system. That provides people with access to open spaces close to where they live, and link together the rural and urban spaces in the American Greenways in the USA. Therefore, the commission suggested to generalize greenways which are a vision for the future as a system. It is possible to see more than 660 greenways examples implemented in the USA whose 80 % of its population live in cities (Bueno et. al., 1995).

Commission draws a parallel between the evolution model of greenways and motorways or railway system. According to this idea, the motorways and railways which are firstly formed in small parts, later the left parts of them are networked by planners, being

combined in scale of national, state and regional. Similarly, greenways are of various widths and have a network system like main roads and railways junction systems. Just the main difference is the nature has already an existing system infrastructure corridor (Fabos, 1995).

Greenways as a Sustainable Urban Planning Strategy 647

Greenways are a general term of showing linear consistency, linking open and green spaces and providing development into urban texture. There are bicycle passages, wild life routes, improved water sides or a river far from a city or pedestrian axes forested along a bay. Within the urban landscape, greenways brought together two functions. One of them is to form open spaces which are open to public and for recreational uses, and the second one is to ensure to protect and develop natural resources (Vikipedi Özgür Ansiklopedi, 2008).

Greenways are the passages that provide linking the spaces that have the specialty of high natural resource or are of cultural aspects. These greenways are based on both land and

Greenways are the greened passages which follow the ways that are out of use or used by motorless vehicles (http://www.aevv-egwa.org/site/1Template1.asp? DocID=144&v1ID=

Even if their scope is narrow, greenways whose first examples come out in the nineteenth century gave birth as an answer to the needs for the conditions of relevant period, the changing - corrupting process of landscapes in the last century and negative development of cities to the detriment of ecosystems. Changing of conditions, conceptions and tendencies

In the context of urban planning of nineteenth century, the development process of

First generation greenways are defined as "Green Way" and the first example of special and attractive corridors through the city (Searns, 1995). The axes that link in Europe city spaces and their surrounding are planted, boulevards and at the end of the nineteenth century, the parkways commonly used in the USA are the systems of first examples of these corridors

Frederick Law Olmsted developed the idea of parkway system which leads to taking shape of current greenways (Kent and Elliott, 1995). The first parkway model started with the designs of Central Park of New York city by Olmsted and Vaux (http://www.

In later period, Olmsted and Vaux who are affected by the wide boulevards of Paris and Brussels designed "Prospect Park (Macdonald, 2005). One of the important aspects of this park is its characteristic of rural landscape which is fully different from central park and the

water (http://www.chaddsfordpa.net/resources.htm).

lead to change of the concept and scope of greenways.

3. Third Generation Greenways (the period after1985)

1. First Generation Greenways (the period between1700 and 1960) 2. Second Generation Greenways (the period between 1960-1985)

**2.1. First generation greenways the period (between 1700 and 1960)** 

greenways classified into 3 categories. These are:

umass.edu/greenway/Greenways /2GR-def.html).

(Ahern, 2004).

general structure of the city.

&RevID=&namePage=&pageParent).

**2. Developing process of greenways** 

The first serious attempt in Europe is made, in 1997, by establishing European Greenway Association (EGWA). This Association define the greenways as both protecting environmental values and the network of routes that are allocated for only the motorless vehicles (on horseback, bicycling or etc.) in order to increase the health of environmental life, considering integrated management approach (**Fig. 1**) (European Greenways Association, 2004).

**Figure 1.** Salisbury Greenway Bicycle Way/ North Carolina

Greenways are defined differently in both the concept and scope. Since these greenways focus on different aims, their scopes are different (Scudo, 2006). For example, the level of aims of protection, using mainly under protection, protection mainly under using and using (like recreation) affects the forming of greenways.

Two words should be examined to make clear the definition. The full word is "Greenway". "Green" is defined as forests, riversides, natural spaces like wild life, "way" as a route or an axis. Two words together are depicted as greenway or an axis integrated with landscape (Watson et. al., 2003).

Greenways are a general term of showing linear consistency, linking open and green spaces and providing development into urban texture. There are bicycle passages, wild life routes, improved water sides or a river far from a city or pedestrian axes forested along a bay. Within the urban landscape, greenways brought together two functions. One of them is to form open spaces which are open to public and for recreational uses, and the second one is to ensure to protect and develop natural resources (Vikipedi Özgür Ansiklopedi, 2008).

Greenways are the passages that provide linking the spaces that have the specialty of high natural resource or are of cultural aspects. These greenways are based on both land and water (http://www.chaddsfordpa.net/resources.htm).

Greenways are the greened passages which follow the ways that are out of use or used by motorless vehicles (http://www.aevv-egwa.org/site/1Template1.asp? DocID=144&v1ID= &RevID=&namePage=&pageParent).

## **2. Developing process of greenways**

646 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Association, 2004).

**Figure 1.** Salisbury Greenway Bicycle Way/ North Carolina

(like recreation) affects the forming of greenways.

(Watson et. al., 2003).

Greenways are defined differently in both the concept and scope. Since these greenways focus on different aims, their scopes are different (Scudo, 2006). For example, the level of aims of protection, using mainly under protection, protection mainly under using and using

Two words should be examined to make clear the definition. The full word is "Greenway". "Green" is defined as forests, riversides, natural spaces like wild life, "way" as a route or an axis. Two words together are depicted as greenway or an axis integrated with landscape

combined in scale of national, state and regional. Similarly, greenways are of various widths and have a network system like main roads and railways junction systems. Just the main difference is the nature has already an existing system infrastructure corridor (Fabos, 1995). The first serious attempt in Europe is made, in 1997, by establishing European Greenway Association (EGWA). This Association define the greenways as both protecting environmental values and the network of routes that are allocated for only the motorless vehicles (on horseback, bicycling or etc.) in order to increase the health of environmental life, considering integrated management approach (**Fig. 1**) (European Greenways

> Even if their scope is narrow, greenways whose first examples come out in the nineteenth century gave birth as an answer to the needs for the conditions of relevant period, the changing - corrupting process of landscapes in the last century and negative development of cities to the detriment of ecosystems. Changing of conditions, conceptions and tendencies lead to change of the concept and scope of greenways.

> In the context of urban planning of nineteenth century, the development process of greenways classified into 3 categories. These are:


## **2.1. First generation greenways the period (between 1700 and 1960)**

First generation greenways are defined as "Green Way" and the first example of special and attractive corridors through the city (Searns, 1995). The axes that link in Europe city spaces and their surrounding are planted, boulevards and at the end of the nineteenth century, the parkways commonly used in the USA are the systems of first examples of these corridors (Ahern, 2004).

Frederick Law Olmsted developed the idea of parkway system which leads to taking shape of current greenways (Kent and Elliott, 1995). The first parkway model started with the designs of Central Park of New York city by Olmsted and Vaux (http://www. umass.edu/greenway/Greenways /2GR-def.html).

In later period, Olmsted and Vaux who are affected by the wide boulevards of Paris and Brussels designed "Prospect Park (Macdonald, 2005). One of the important aspects of this park is its characteristic of rural landscape which is fully different from central park and the general structure of the city.

At the end of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth century, first real greenways came from the system of the open spaces of the main city. This mostly is the network that is formed due to linking spatially linear spaces belong to public. The system is tied to the current topographical and hydrological models in the landscape. The Boston Park system is the most important one of these systems that Frederick Law Olmsted designed (Zube, 1995).

Greenways as a Sustainable Urban Planning Strategy 649

band limiting the borders of cities and a wide band of 5-mile or more in rural areas (Searns,

In this period, other landscape architects are Henry Wright and Charles Eliot II who work on greenways. A park design which is 40 mile length and is named as "40-mile circle" by Wright and Eliot II is held up by other greenway planners instead of a big park design in Portland, Oregon. Moreover, that Wright include several landscape elements from river greenways to forest spaces in integrated greenway network is supported by ASLA

Another plan in this period is the first open space plan which was designed by Charles Eliot II for Massachusetts state. The comprehensive plan in statewide was named "Bay Circuit Plans". This comprehensive plan which is some 250 km length links several wetlands and

The most important development in this period is the coupling national parks and comprehensive recreational areas and parkways and so there will be continuity between the spaces that are protected and used for recreational aim (http://www.nps. gov/aboutus/history.htm). A highlighter example of this is Blue Ridge Parkway along the

First generation greenways that are parkways included in the open and green space system that links urban and rural spaces are firstly converted into the urban corridors after the

Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, the subjects that support contemporary greenways development process in terms of environmental aspects are divided into two parts. One of them is the increasing of bicycle passages and second is the works of landscape architects in

Because the harms that motorcars coming out from 1900s do increased towards the second half of twentieth century so the demand for bicycle passage and pedestrian pathways that are motorless traffic routes. The implementation of the bicycle passage and pedestrian pathways that are a part of greenways is practiced several times in the USA and Europe. Throughout the period of 1960s-1970s, bicycle passage and pedestrian pathways named as city pathways supported the environmental conscience because they had had the goals of preserving cultural

In this process that environmental conscience was increased, several landscape planning and design works that are linked to greenways would be a basis for the studies and were realized. Phil Lewis determined 220 natural and cultural resources in Wisconsin by "the method of mapping" that he found. Since these resources are especially along the river or drainage spaces, Lewis (1964) named these spaces as "environmental corridors". Lewis's mapping, analyzing and evaluating the resources provided a basis for the suggestion plan of

(American Society of Landscape Architecture) (Fabos, 2004).

Appalachian mountain (Fabos, 2004).

second half of twentieth century.

academic area.

drainage systems and surrounds Boston city (www.umass.edu/greenway).

**2.2. Second generation greenways (the period after 1960-1985)** 

landscapes, controlling the city development and recreation (Little, 1995).

1995).

In 1887, The Boston Park System known as "Emerald Necklace" is the first greenway planned in the USA. Newton mentions this park system as parkway. This system that is 25 km length link the cities of Boston, Brooklyn to Cambridge city in Massachusetts State and Charles river to these spaces (Fabos, 2004). Olmsted also named this system as "strip park" known as parkway before (Little, 1995).

While, today, Boston Park system provide mostly recreation, transportation, water quality, flood control, nice view, wildlife, when it was first planned as a model, it was designed for linking the current conserved areas to the ecological greenways. This first design of Olmsted is adopted by various landscape architects (Ahern, 2004).

Charles Eliot, the pioneers of Landscape Architecture, suggested a comprehensive park system for Boston main city region. This corridor combined 6 wide green spaces connected to each other in the slums of main city into 3 big rivers (www.umass.edu/greenway). The suggestion of Eliot that sees rivers and their sides as the complementary of greenway system is important for the planning of greenways.

In nineteenth century, H.W.S. Cleveland, with Theodore Wirth, beside Eliot in the USA, planned greenways network for Minneapolis main city region. This parkway that provides both transportation and walking, picnic and natural hiking and is of 23-mile length is the parkway of Bronx River (Ryder, 1995).

After Bronx River parkway, parkways started to increase with this new trend and the architect Robert Moses who is affected by this trend implemented several parkways such as Hutcheson River Parkway, Taconic Parkway, Saw Mill River Parkway and Cross County Parkway, in Westchester and Bronx, and Henry Hudson Parkway in Manhattan (Arslan et.al., 2007).

The aim of Moses is to form a recreational network for New York people. Because of the transporting easiness of motorcars, as tendency for recreational spaces is getting increased. Moses especially observed that the spaces in Westchester and New Jersey have limited possibility for weekend activities. For this aim, Moses formed the Brooklyn-Queens greenways that link all the rural region which include east river, agricultural fields, sea sides, ponds, rivers and forest areas (Little, 1995).

As well as parkways concept, the green generation concept within the historic development of the greenway idea has an important place. The idea of parkways of Olmsted and Moses became the source to thought of surrounding and zoning the city, developing in the course of time. The first greenway that is The London Plan of Ebenezer Howard is defined as a band limiting the borders of cities and a wide band of 5-mile or more in rural areas (Searns, 1995).

648 Advances in Landscape Architecture

known as parkway before (Little, 1995).

is important for the planning of greenways.

parkway of Bronx River (Ryder, 1995).

sides, ponds, rivers and forest areas (Little, 1995).

is adopted by various landscape architects (Ahern, 2004).

(Zube, 1995).

et.al., 2007).

At the end of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth century, first real greenways came from the system of the open spaces of the main city. This mostly is the network that is formed due to linking spatially linear spaces belong to public. The system is tied to the current topographical and hydrological models in the landscape. The Boston Park system is the most important one of these systems that Frederick Law Olmsted designed

In 1887, The Boston Park System known as "Emerald Necklace" is the first greenway planned in the USA. Newton mentions this park system as parkway. This system that is 25 km length link the cities of Boston, Brooklyn to Cambridge city in Massachusetts State and Charles river to these spaces (Fabos, 2004). Olmsted also named this system as "strip park"

While, today, Boston Park system provide mostly recreation, transportation, water quality, flood control, nice view, wildlife, when it was first planned as a model, it was designed for linking the current conserved areas to the ecological greenways. This first design of Olmsted

Charles Eliot, the pioneers of Landscape Architecture, suggested a comprehensive park system for Boston main city region. This corridor combined 6 wide green spaces connected to each other in the slums of main city into 3 big rivers (www.umass.edu/greenway). The suggestion of Eliot that sees rivers and their sides as the complementary of greenway system

In nineteenth century, H.W.S. Cleveland, with Theodore Wirth, beside Eliot in the USA, planned greenways network for Minneapolis main city region. This parkway that provides both transportation and walking, picnic and natural hiking and is of 23-mile length is the

After Bronx River parkway, parkways started to increase with this new trend and the architect Robert Moses who is affected by this trend implemented several parkways such as Hutcheson River Parkway, Taconic Parkway, Saw Mill River Parkway and Cross County Parkway, in Westchester and Bronx, and Henry Hudson Parkway in Manhattan (Arslan

The aim of Moses is to form a recreational network for New York people. Because of the transporting easiness of motorcars, as tendency for recreational spaces is getting increased. Moses especially observed that the spaces in Westchester and New Jersey have limited possibility for weekend activities. For this aim, Moses formed the Brooklyn-Queens greenways that link all the rural region which include east river, agricultural fields, sea

As well as parkways concept, the green generation concept within the historic development of the greenway idea has an important place. The idea of parkways of Olmsted and Moses became the source to thought of surrounding and zoning the city, developing in the course of time. The first greenway that is The London Plan of Ebenezer Howard is defined as a In this period, other landscape architects are Henry Wright and Charles Eliot II who work on greenways. A park design which is 40 mile length and is named as "40-mile circle" by Wright and Eliot II is held up by other greenway planners instead of a big park design in Portland, Oregon. Moreover, that Wright include several landscape elements from river greenways to forest spaces in integrated greenway network is supported by ASLA (American Society of Landscape Architecture) (Fabos, 2004).

Another plan in this period is the first open space plan which was designed by Charles Eliot II for Massachusetts state. The comprehensive plan in statewide was named "Bay Circuit Plans". This comprehensive plan which is some 250 km length links several wetlands and drainage systems and surrounds Boston city (www.umass.edu/greenway).

The most important development in this period is the coupling national parks and comprehensive recreational areas and parkways and so there will be continuity between the spaces that are protected and used for recreational aim (http://www.nps. gov/aboutus/history.htm). A highlighter example of this is Blue Ridge Parkway along the Appalachian mountain (Fabos, 2004).

## **2.2. Second generation greenways (the period after 1960-1985)**

First generation greenways that are parkways included in the open and green space system that links urban and rural spaces are firstly converted into the urban corridors after the second half of twentieth century.

Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, the subjects that support contemporary greenways development process in terms of environmental aspects are divided into two parts. One of them is the increasing of bicycle passages and second is the works of landscape architects in academic area.

Because the harms that motorcars coming out from 1900s do increased towards the second half of twentieth century so the demand for bicycle passage and pedestrian pathways that are motorless traffic routes. The implementation of the bicycle passage and pedestrian pathways that are a part of greenways is practiced several times in the USA and Europe. Throughout the period of 1960s-1970s, bicycle passage and pedestrian pathways named as city pathways supported the environmental conscience because they had had the goals of preserving cultural landscapes, controlling the city development and recreation (Little, 1995).

In this process that environmental conscience was increased, several landscape planning and design works that are linked to greenways would be a basis for the studies and were realized. Phil Lewis determined 220 natural and cultural resources in Wisconsin by "the method of mapping" that he found. Since these resources are especially along the river or drainage spaces, Lewis (1964) named these spaces as "environmental corridors". Lewis's mapping, analyzing and evaluating the resources provided a basis for the suggestion plan of "Wisconsin Heritage Pathway". "The term of environmental corridor" that was created by Lewis to protect river corridors or the spaces environmentally sensitive is used in first greenway/green space system planning in statewide. In this planning process, to protect the spaces that are environmentally sensitive, and river corridors are targeted (Fabos, 2004).

Greenways as a Sustainable Urban Planning Strategy 651

water resources such as, flood beds, river corridors and wetlands. The aim of creating these

*Recreational greenways*: They are the spaces that have characteristics of routes and pathways of various type and go along a very long line (Little, 1995). Beside the natural corridors, canals and railway routes can be examples of that kind of spaces. These ways are formed along the routes and pathways passing through recreational spaces generally linked water and landscape resources which are of high visual value (Fabos, 1995). The recreational focuses in these pathways not only can be both urban and rural but local, regional, national

greenways is to protect resources, ameliorate and manage (Ahern, 1995).

**Figure 2.** Scioto River Greenway

and international (**Fig. 3**).

**Figure 3.** Willamette River Greenway, Oregon

The end of 1960s is the beginning for the term of "Greenway". In this period, William H. Whyte used the term of "Greenway" for the first time in his book entitled" "The Last Landscape" that he wrote to get rid of motorcar (Bueno et. al., 1995). The first implemented greenway project of Whyte is "Platte River Greenway" in Denver in the mid of 1970s. This corridor, 10 mile length, comprises parks, spaces having natural characteristics, canals and harbour region. There is also a stroll and bicycle route, 2.5 m width (Searns, 1995).

## **2.3. Third generation greenways (the period after 1985)**

These greenways targeted to satisfy aesthetical and recreational needs for city dwellers with the beatified axes and corridors in addition to motorless vehicles routes. Thus, both negative effects of urbanization are reduced and alternative corridors that supply influential visual forms and greens for screening the fumes and noises of motorcars are created. This situation contributes to the spiritual healing of urban people (Searns, 1995).

This generation corridors have more comprehensive duties apart from all these characteristics of them. Third generation greenways, beyond meet people need, take on a lot of goals such as preserving habitat, reducing flood harms, increasing water quality, protecting historical sites, education, which are integrated with space and resource management concepts (Mugavin, 2004).

## **3. Greenways types**

Greenways that are a part of a wide network to protect the elements which shows physical continuity in landscape are formed around railways, canals, roads that are along the hillsides and valleys, watersides and rivers.

Main concept is to keep the corridor "green" with the natural vegetation and to connect the interesting points along the river and similar systems to a "way" or line. Greenways are formed directly and indirectly for people benefits and uses. For example, a greenway can provide recreational walks, observing wild life, recognition and evaluation of the environment, river fishing and riverside protecting (Glossary of Bicycle Terms, 2008).

Greenways are divided into 6 groups according to the projections of scientists and planners who work for different goals;

Urban riverside greenways: they are the greenways that are formed by riversides in urban areas. Sometimes, the destroyed riversides which are affected by urban activities can be ameliorated by redevelopment programs. These spaces are thought as a part of greenways (Little, 1995). Beside this definition, not only riversides but the other sources that are linked to water are included greenways (**Fig. 2**). As a result, the greenways are formed along the water resources such as, flood beds, river corridors and wetlands. The aim of creating these greenways is to protect resources, ameliorate and manage (Ahern, 1995).

**Figure 2.** Scioto River Greenway

650 Advances in Landscape Architecture

"Wisconsin Heritage Pathway". "The term of environmental corridor" that was created by Lewis to protect river corridors or the spaces environmentally sensitive is used in first greenway/green space system planning in statewide. In this planning process, to protect the spaces that are environmentally sensitive, and river corridors are targeted (Fabos, 2004).

The end of 1960s is the beginning for the term of "Greenway". In this period, William H. Whyte used the term of "Greenway" for the first time in his book entitled" "The Last Landscape" that he wrote to get rid of motorcar (Bueno et. al., 1995). The first implemented greenway project of Whyte is "Platte River Greenway" in Denver in the mid of 1970s. This corridor, 10 mile length, comprises parks, spaces having natural characteristics, canals and

These greenways targeted to satisfy aesthetical and recreational needs for city dwellers with the beatified axes and corridors in addition to motorless vehicles routes. Thus, both negative effects of urbanization are reduced and alternative corridors that supply influential visual forms and greens for screening the fumes and noises of motorcars are created. This situation

This generation corridors have more comprehensive duties apart from all these characteristics of them. Third generation greenways, beyond meet people need, take on a lot of goals such as preserving habitat, reducing flood harms, increasing water quality, protecting historical sites, education, which are integrated with space and resource

Greenways that are a part of a wide network to protect the elements which shows physical continuity in landscape are formed around railways, canals, roads that are along the

Main concept is to keep the corridor "green" with the natural vegetation and to connect the interesting points along the river and similar systems to a "way" or line. Greenways are formed directly and indirectly for people benefits and uses. For example, a greenway can provide recreational walks, observing wild life, recognition and evaluation of the

Greenways are divided into 6 groups according to the projections of scientists and planners

Urban riverside greenways: they are the greenways that are formed by riversides in urban areas. Sometimes, the destroyed riversides which are affected by urban activities can be ameliorated by redevelopment programs. These spaces are thought as a part of greenways (Little, 1995). Beside this definition, not only riversides but the other sources that are linked to water are included greenways (**Fig. 2**). As a result, the greenways are formed along the

environment, river fishing and riverside protecting (Glossary of Bicycle Terms, 2008).

harbour region. There is also a stroll and bicycle route, 2.5 m width (Searns, 1995).

**2.3. Third generation greenways (the period after 1985)** 

contributes to the spiritual healing of urban people (Searns, 1995).

management concepts (Mugavin, 2004).

hillsides and valleys, watersides and rivers.

**3. Greenways types** 

who work for different goals;

*Recreational greenways*: They are the spaces that have characteristics of routes and pathways of various type and go along a very long line (Little, 1995). Beside the natural corridors, canals and railway routes can be examples of that kind of spaces. These ways are formed along the routes and pathways passing through recreational spaces generally linked water and landscape resources which are of high visual value (Fabos, 1995). The recreational focuses in these pathways not only can be both urban and rural but local, regional, national and international (**Fig. 3**).

**Figure 3.** Willamette River Greenway, Oregon

*Natural corridors that are of Ecological importance:* they are the corridors which are formed by the spaces generally along the rivers, and sometimes valley sides (Little, 1995). These kind of spaces make possible protecting wild life, migrating of species, sustaining biological diversity and natural hiking (Fabos, 1995). Ahern (1995), define ecological corridors as "ones that are linked to biodiversity" (**Fig. 4**).

Greenways as a Sustainable Urban Planning Strategy 653

*The greenways that aim controlling of urban development:* these greenways are formed to

*Comprehensive greenways systems and networks*: they are formed by linking different kinds of

Greenways have a lot of functions such as protecting water sources, reducing pollution, increasing river side habitat and biodiversity, reducing flood harms, providing recreational opportunity, supplying environmental education, alleviating noise, enhancing microclimatical effects of both cooling and decreasing pollution and reducing riverside erosion

It is possible to divide the functions of greenways into two groups as rural and urban. Within the developing urban landscape, greenways have to functions: one of them is to create open spaces for people's easy reach (public access) and recreational uses and second to provide protecting and developing natural resources which are still present nowadays. In this context, the greenways that tie in with many various linear open spaces in cities and so provide developing into the textures of cities can be a bicycle passage wildlife routes, urban riverside corridor etc. These urban corridors take on some various duties such as answering to the increasing of people interest for their outside recreation, protecting the areas of habitat and wildlife, balancing between the air pollution and excessive heat changes and

One of the key functions of greenways is a special way that integrates the uses suitable for

Greenways provide many benefits that increase quality of public life with using spaces for multiple goals. The recreational, ecological, environmental, cultural, aesthetical, educational

The ecological characteristics of greenways make possible sustain the life of plants and

Several scientists believe that disintegrating of habitat is the most threatening factor to biologic diversity among the factors such as global warming, extracting metals, grazing, urban development. Disintegrating stems from the changes that human beings make. The structures like roads, canals or the activities such as agricultural development and deforesting prevent the species from their free movement. Ecologists advocate that beside the reducing obstacles, landscape greenways should be created to solve the problems. These linear connections combined habitat parts to make link species, populations and ecological

and economical benefits are obtained from developing and protecting greenways.

animals, and cause bio-diversity to increase and be protected (Ndubisi et.al., 1995).

separate urban and rural areas and control enlargement (Ahern, 1995).

open areas to greenways in urban and regional scale (Little, 1995).

**4. The functions and benefits of greenways** 

controlling urban development (Watson et. al., 2003).

**4.1. Environmental benefits** 

processes (Bueno et. al., 1995).

each other and separates the unsuitable ones from each other.

(Bischoff, 1995).

*Greenways that have visual and historical value:* they are the greenways that are attract tourists, provide benefits of economical, educational and visual and supply permanent-seasonal accommodation (Fabos, 1995). They generally are the routes along the road or motorways and the routes rarely along watersides. These routes make possible seeing by getting out of vehicles and pedestrian activities in specific points (Little, 1995). Another important characteristic of these greenways is that they link cultural and historic resources (Ahern, 1995).

**Figure 4.** Oconee River Greenway, Athens, Georgia.

*The greenways that aim controlling of urban development:* these greenways are formed to separate urban and rural areas and control enlargement (Ahern, 1995).

*Comprehensive greenways systems and networks*: they are formed by linking different kinds of open areas to greenways in urban and regional scale (Little, 1995).

## **4. The functions and benefits of greenways**

652 Advances in Landscape Architecture

that are linked to biodiversity" (**Fig. 4**).

**Figure 4.** Oconee River Greenway, Athens, Georgia.

*Natural corridors that are of Ecological importance:* they are the corridors which are formed by the spaces generally along the rivers, and sometimes valley sides (Little, 1995). These kind of spaces make possible protecting wild life, migrating of species, sustaining biological diversity and natural hiking (Fabos, 1995). Ahern (1995), define ecological corridors as "ones

*Greenways that have visual and historical value:* they are the greenways that are attract tourists, provide benefits of economical, educational and visual and supply permanent-seasonal accommodation (Fabos, 1995). They generally are the routes along the road or motorways and the routes rarely along watersides. These routes make possible seeing by getting out of vehicles and pedestrian activities in specific points (Little, 1995). Another important characteristic of

these greenways is that they link cultural and historic resources (Ahern, 1995).

Greenways have a lot of functions such as protecting water sources, reducing pollution, increasing river side habitat and biodiversity, reducing flood harms, providing recreational opportunity, supplying environmental education, alleviating noise, enhancing microclimatical effects of both cooling and decreasing pollution and reducing riverside erosion (Bischoff, 1995).

It is possible to divide the functions of greenways into two groups as rural and urban. Within the developing urban landscape, greenways have to functions: one of them is to create open spaces for people's easy reach (public access) and recreational uses and second to provide protecting and developing natural resources which are still present nowadays. In this context, the greenways that tie in with many various linear open spaces in cities and so provide developing into the textures of cities can be a bicycle passage wildlife routes, urban riverside corridor etc. These urban corridors take on some various duties such as answering to the increasing of people interest for their outside recreation, protecting the areas of habitat and wildlife, balancing between the air pollution and excessive heat changes and controlling urban development (Watson et. al., 2003).

One of the key functions of greenways is a special way that integrates the uses suitable for each other and separates the unsuitable ones from each other.

Greenways provide many benefits that increase quality of public life with using spaces for multiple goals. The recreational, ecological, environmental, cultural, aesthetical, educational and economical benefits are obtained from developing and protecting greenways.

## **4.1. Environmental benefits**

The ecological characteristics of greenways make possible sustain the life of plants and animals, and cause bio-diversity to increase and be protected (Ndubisi et.al., 1995).

Several scientists believe that disintegrating of habitat is the most threatening factor to biologic diversity among the factors such as global warming, extracting metals, grazing, urban development. Disintegrating stems from the changes that human beings make. The structures like roads, canals or the activities such as agricultural development and deforesting prevent the species from their free movement. Ecologists advocate that beside the reducing obstacles, landscape greenways should be created to solve the problems. These linear connections combined habitat parts to make link species, populations and ecological processes (Bueno et. al., 1995).

Greenways take on important duties that are of urban ecological systems. They are important to protect present natural areas hence urban ecological system for future urban development

Greenways as a Sustainable Urban Planning Strategy 655

prepared for both recreational diversity, user satisfaction and using potential, and providing

The life quality of communities is increasing due to the natural, visual value and similar characteristics of greenways. According to the research of Lee (1999), several greenways in Oakland, Chicago affect local people because of their visual characteristics. Neighboring and friendship relations of the people who use greenway is increased and so greenways became

Five key words show the basic characteristics of corridors in the scope of "relating to planned, designed and ecological, cultural, aesthetical and sustainable space use concepts, and space networks which are managed for multipurpose, comprising linear elements" of

1. The areal shape of greenways is first **linear**. This characteristic of corridors provide the recreative activities like bicycle use and it provides ecological contribution by transporting material, species and nutrients in terms of wild life and cause landscape planning to have supremacy and opportunities. This characteristic is the point that the

2. The greenways that are an integrated system try to make association based on linking advantages beyond the spatial scales. **Link** is another key that defines greenways,

3. **The structure of multiple functions** of greenways is required to be provided functional and spatial coherence of certain uses. Because of this characteristic, especially determining process of aims is important for planning of greenways. Determining and realizing targets can be hard for greenways that carry ecological, cultural, social and aesthetical aims. For example, because both aims contradict with each other and spatial and functional differences are required for a greenway protect both recreation and wild life, one of the special management or uses should be eliminated for their togetherness. The decisions that are the aims of greenways should reflect the social and cultural

4. Greenway policy take on a complementary duty between nature protecting and economical development, beside linking to **sustainable development** concept. These greenways are an effort not only protecting nature but also balancing between resource

5. Greenways supply different **spatial policies** based on the advantage of integrated linear systems. These greenways also can be thought as complementary for comprehensive

contacting the different levels of scales and wholeness of bigger landscape.

focusing points in which various activities are made (Shafer et. al., 2000).

greenways differ from other landscape planning concepts.

values and suggestions as well as environmental protection.

landscape and physical planning (Viles and Rosier, 2001).

use that make possible other landscape uses of people and protecting.

city sustainability (Aydemir, 2004).

**5. Criteria that determine greenways** 

greenways (Frischenbruder and Pellegrino, 2006).

According to this definition:

**4.6. Social benefits** 

## **4.2. Educational benefits**

Greenways create practical opportunities for training users about natural landscape and cultural/historic areas, and create awareness (http://www.stlucieco.gov/greenways/ greenways.why.htm).

Greenways are like an open air class. They especially provide information about the importance of the natural environment with the children schooled (Searns, 1995).

## **4.3. Economical benefits**

The economical benefits of greenways are the increasing land prices, growing tourism and increasing business and trade opportunities (Bueno et. al., 1995).

Greenways have positive effects on values of lands that are in neighboring areas. The outside recreational demands of people and increasing social interaction such as biking, walking, fishing or sightseeing cause the value of lands near to these greenways to increase (Rutgers Department of Landscape Architecture and Morris Land Conservancy, 2002).

Greenways create opportunities for economical growth, providing bicycle renting along the axis, new business areas and establishments such as shops, restaurants and health clubs.

#### **4.4. Aesthetics benefits**

Aesthetical quality and public perception can be increased by greenways. Greenways seems to be such a mechanism that provides a means of preserving open space while at the same time creating a "green infrastructure" to link people and places (Fabos, 1995). These greenways also create opportunities for planners and designers to form new norms in urban planning and design.

## **4.5. Recreational benefits**

The greenways that are designed for recreational goals include organized sport areas, bicycle passages, walking routes, hacking courts and group activities.

These greenways as alternative transportation corridors link origins and destinations for people to go they want along the landscapes that provide sightseeing with pedestrians and cyclists (Conine et. al., 2004).

Greenways, beside developing opportunities based on natural resources in linear ways along the rural and urban landscapes, reach a dynamic recreational use, coupling the free areas that have recreational potential in urban areas on to each other. Hence a setting is prepared for both recreational diversity, user satisfaction and using potential, and providing city sustainability (Aydemir, 2004).

## **4.6. Social benefits**

654 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**4.2. Educational benefits** 

**4.3. Economical benefits** 

**4.4. Aesthetics benefits** 

planning and design.

**4.5. Recreational benefits** 

cyclists (Conine et. al., 2004).

greenways.why.htm).

development

Greenways take on important duties that are of urban ecological systems. They are important to protect present natural areas hence urban ecological system for future urban

Greenways create practical opportunities for training users about natural landscape and cultural/historic areas, and create awareness (http://www.stlucieco.gov/greenways/

Greenways are like an open air class. They especially provide information about the

The economical benefits of greenways are the increasing land prices, growing tourism and

Greenways have positive effects on values of lands that are in neighboring areas. The outside recreational demands of people and increasing social interaction such as biking, walking, fishing or sightseeing cause the value of lands near to these greenways to increase (Rutgers Department of Landscape Architecture and Morris Land Conservancy, 2002).

Greenways create opportunities for economical growth, providing bicycle renting along the axis, new business areas and establishments such as shops, restaurants and health clubs.

Aesthetical quality and public perception can be increased by greenways. Greenways seems to be such a mechanism that provides a means of preserving open space while at the same time creating a "green infrastructure" to link people and places (Fabos, 1995). These greenways also create opportunities for planners and designers to form new norms in urban

The greenways that are designed for recreational goals include organized sport areas,

These greenways as alternative transportation corridors link origins and destinations for people to go they want along the landscapes that provide sightseeing with pedestrians and

Greenways, beside developing opportunities based on natural resources in linear ways along the rural and urban landscapes, reach a dynamic recreational use, coupling the free areas that have recreational potential in urban areas on to each other. Hence a setting is

bicycle passages, walking routes, hacking courts and group activities.

importance of the natural environment with the children schooled (Searns, 1995).

increasing business and trade opportunities (Bueno et. al., 1995).

The life quality of communities is increasing due to the natural, visual value and similar characteristics of greenways. According to the research of Lee (1999), several greenways in Oakland, Chicago affect local people because of their visual characteristics. Neighboring and friendship relations of the people who use greenway is increased and so greenways became focusing points in which various activities are made (Shafer et. al., 2000).

## **5. Criteria that determine greenways**

Five key words show the basic characteristics of corridors in the scope of "relating to planned, designed and ecological, cultural, aesthetical and sustainable space use concepts, and space networks which are managed for multipurpose, comprising linear elements" of greenways (Frischenbruder and Pellegrino, 2006).

According to this definition:


## **6. Greenway planning**

Although the actuality of greenway concept is getting increased more and more, there are some uncertainties about how these greenways are planned. Some of the greenways are planned because they have potential for their roles in biological diversity and controlling and directing the city development, and the others because they have recreational benefits. Determining the aim is especially important for planning and designing of greenways.

Greenways as a Sustainable Urban Planning Strategy 657

natural resources, historical spaces and to create recreational spaces along the Lambro river in north of Milan by this greenway. This corridor, including the dwellings that are along the river, is a basic element formed for the motorless vehicles that couple a lot of sources in the

space on to the city (Toccolini et.al., 2006).

**Figure 5.** The Capital Area Greenway, Raleigh, North Carolina (Little 1995).

Fish Creek river corridor which passes through Calgary city is evaluated in the scope of greenway application in 1966 and so, in 1972, it is sequestrated by local authorities to protect these greenways and to provide possibility of recreational use of them. Calgary urban greenway is approximately of 1200 hectares with a part within the urban area of Bow River with Fish Creek River Valley. Moreover, the total length of greenway is 13 km and its wide 0.8 km. Greenway forest spaces comprise pastures, river and river flood and historical spaces. Therefore, ecological characteristics are primarily taken into account in forming the corridor. Certain development centers are chosen and connections are provided between these centers in plan. Some connections are designed as bicycle and walking way. Fish Creek protect urban greenway, natural and cultural landscape values and is one of the

**7.3. Calgary, Fish Creek Greenway, Canada** 

One of the aims of greenway planning is environmental protecting. The greenways along the river or creek sides have effective duties such as reducing the pollution stemmed from urban and agricultural irrigation, preventing soil erosion and protecting water quality (Arendt, 2004).

Planning process targets at establishing a continuous network system that support basic ecological functions, protect important natural and cultural resources and keeping sustainability of landscape. In this respect, greenway planning head for an integrated landscape planning that try to create linear networks in a sustainable frame work (Sijmons, 1990; Kerkstra and Vrijlandt, 1990; Van Buuren, 1991; Ahern, 1995).

Greenway planning began at local scale and go on at regional scale to create greenway systems (Conine et. al., 2004). Planning process take into account the networks that are taken place in a wider landscape wholeness, and linear areas. Planning also includes an approach that provides a lot of benefits because it pays attention to areal and spatial association. In this context, greenway planning process try to provide sustainable landscapes against disintegrating, space decreasing, urban development and uncontrollable change of area use (Ahern, 1995).

## **7. Implementation examples of greenways**

## **7.1. The Capital Area Greenway, Raleigh, North Carolina**

The Capital Area Greenway, the first comprehensive local greenway system, is not an implementation plan that is prepared by a professional planning team or specialists. This implementation is developed as a graduate project of a student in North Carolina University. The aim of the project is to protect the natural structure of Raleigh settlement. This student suggested a greenway network through all the districts of the city instead of forming only a riverside park in his project. Today, the plan implemented protects ecosystems like wetland, suggesting recreation opportunities such as race track, bicycle passage. The Capital Area greenway is a model to 35 local scale greenways in North Carolina (**Fig. 5**) (Little, 1995).

## **7.2. Lambro River Valley Greenway, Italy**

Lambro river and its environment are locally chosen as an exemplary space in order to form a greenway planning approach in regional scale, in Italy. It is targeted to protect the present natural resources, historical spaces and to create recreational spaces along the Lambro river in north of Milan by this greenway. This corridor, including the dwellings that are along the river, is a basic element formed for the motorless vehicles that couple a lot of sources in the space on to the city (Toccolini et.al., 2006).

**Figure 5.** The Capital Area Greenway, Raleigh, North Carolina (Little 1995).

## **7.3. Calgary, Fish Creek Greenway, Canada**

656 Advances in Landscape Architecture

(Arendt, 2004).

(Ahern, 1995).

Carolina (**Fig. 5**) (Little, 1995).

**7.2. Lambro River Valley Greenway, Italy** 

**6. Greenway planning** 

Although the actuality of greenway concept is getting increased more and more, there are some uncertainties about how these greenways are planned. Some of the greenways are planned because they have potential for their roles in biological diversity and controlling and directing the city development, and the others because they have recreational benefits. Determining the aim is especially important for planning and designing of greenways.

One of the aims of greenway planning is environmental protecting. The greenways along the river or creek sides have effective duties such as reducing the pollution stemmed from urban and agricultural irrigation, preventing soil erosion and protecting water quality

Planning process targets at establishing a continuous network system that support basic ecological functions, protect important natural and cultural resources and keeping sustainability of landscape. In this respect, greenway planning head for an integrated landscape planning that try to create linear networks in a sustainable frame work (Sijmons,

Greenway planning began at local scale and go on at regional scale to create greenway systems (Conine et. al., 2004). Planning process take into account the networks that are taken place in a wider landscape wholeness, and linear areas. Planning also includes an approach that provides a lot of benefits because it pays attention to areal and spatial association. In this context, greenway planning process try to provide sustainable landscapes against disintegrating, space decreasing, urban development and uncontrollable change of area use

The Capital Area Greenway, the first comprehensive local greenway system, is not an implementation plan that is prepared by a professional planning team or specialists. This implementation is developed as a graduate project of a student in North Carolina University. The aim of the project is to protect the natural structure of Raleigh settlement. This student suggested a greenway network through all the districts of the city instead of forming only a riverside park in his project. Today, the plan implemented protects ecosystems like wetland, suggesting recreation opportunities such as race track, bicycle passage. The Capital Area greenway is a model to 35 local scale greenways in North

Lambro river and its environment are locally chosen as an exemplary space in order to form a greenway planning approach in regional scale, in Italy. It is targeted to protect the present

1990; Kerkstra and Vrijlandt, 1990; Van Buuren, 1991; Ahern, 1995).

**7. Implementation examples of greenways** 

**7.1. The Capital Area Greenway, Raleigh, North Carolina** 

Fish Creek river corridor which passes through Calgary city is evaluated in the scope of greenway application in 1966 and so, in 1972, it is sequestrated by local authorities to protect these greenways and to provide possibility of recreational use of them. Calgary urban greenway is approximately of 1200 hectares with a part within the urban area of Bow River with Fish Creek River Valley. Moreover, the total length of greenway is 13 km and its wide 0.8 km. Greenway forest spaces comprise pastures, river and river flood and historical spaces. Therefore, ecological characteristics are primarily taken into account in forming the corridor. Certain development centers are chosen and connections are provided between these centers in plan. Some connections are designed as bicycle and walking way. Fish Creek protect urban greenway, natural and cultural landscape values and is one of the successful implementations of greenway that meet public recreational needs (Taylor et. al., 1995).

Greenways as a Sustainable Urban Planning Strategy 659

*Mustafa Kemal University, Architecture Faculty, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

Ahern, J., 1995. Greenways as a Planning Strategy. Landscape and Urban Planning.

Ahern, J., 2004. Greenways in the USA: Theory, Trends and Prospects (Jongman, R. and G., Pungetti). Ecological Networks and Greenways, Concept, Design, Implementation,

Arendt, R., 2004. Linked Landscapes Creating Greenway Corridors Through Conservation Subdivision Design Strategies in the Northeastern and Central United States. Landscape

Arslan M., E. Barş, E. Erdoğan, Z. Dilaver, 2007. Yeşil Yol Planlamas: Ankara Örneği. Ankara Üniversitesi Bilimsel Araştrma Projesi Kesin Raporu, ISBN:978-975-01213-0-2

Aydemir, S.E., 2004. Kentsel Donatlar-Açk Alanlar ve Rekreasyon Kentsel Yeşil Alanlar. Kentsel Alanlarn Planlanmas ve Tasarm. Akademi Kitapevi, Trabzon, 285-337 s.

Bischoff, A., 1995. Greenways as Vehicles For Expression. Landscape and Urban Planning.

Bueno, J. A., V. A. Tsihrintzis and L. Alvarez, 1995. South Florida Greenways: A Conceptual Framework For The Ecological Reconnectivity of The Region. Landscape and Urban

Conine, A., W-N. Xiang, J. Young and D. Whitley, 2004. Planning for Multi-Purpose Greenways in Concord, North Carolina. Landscape and Urban Planning. Volume: 68,

European Greenways Association, 2004. The European Greenways Good Practice Guide,

Fabos, G.J., 1995. Introduction and Overview: The Greenway Movement, Uses And Potentials of Greenways. Landscape and Urban Planning. Volume: 33, 1-13 p. Fabos, G.J., 2004. Greenway Planning in the United States: Its Origins and Recent Case

Frischenbruder M.T.M. and P, Pellegrino, 2006. Using Greenways to Reclaim Nature in

http://www.aevvegwa.org/site/1Template1.asp?DocID=144&v1ID=&RevID=&namePage=&p

Bruxelles. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki /European\_Greenways\_Association.

Brazilian Cities. Landscape and Urban Planning. Volume: 76, 67-78 p.

http://adirondackresearch.com/projects/ bicycle/hglossary.html.

Studies. Landscape and Urban Planning 68, 321-342 p.

Cambridge University Press, 34-55 p. ISBN 0521827760.

**Author details** 

**8. References** 

Volume:33, 131-155 p.

ISBN: 975-95396-7-5.

Volume: 33, 317-325 p.

Glossary of Bicycle Terms, 2008.

http://www.chaddsfordpa.net/resources.htm. http://www.nps.gov/aboutus/history.htm

271-287 p.

ageParent.

Planning. Volume: 33, 247-266 p.

and Urban Planning 68, 241-269 p.

Proje Numaras: 2000-07-11 032, 139 s.

Aylin Salici

## **7.4. New England Vision Plan**

In this plan, to form an integrated network of greenways that combine the greenway networks of 6 states, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Vermont in New England region, ABD is targeted. The basic of the aim is to make sustain natural landscapes which have mountains, hills and rivers from North to South between states. When the plan that its implementation has not yet finished is completed, a greenway connections that are 57.000 km length between the wild life, recreational, historic and cultural areas mostly along river zones are provided (Fabos, 2004).

## **7.5. The Brooklyn - Queens Greenway, Coney Island**

The aim of Brooklyn–Queens greenway planning is that ecological, cultural, recreational sources can be easily reachable and make possible various uses of it for city people (**Fig. 6**). Especially, wide open spaces are present for those who prefer a lot of soccer and baseball, tennis courts that are more than 100, uses that make possible various water activities along the greenway that have much rich potential in terms of recreational uses, two golf areas, two ice skate courts, funfair and passive recreations (Little, 1995).

**Figure 6.** The Brooklyn - Queens Greenway

## **Author details**

Aylin Salici

658 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**7.4. New England Vision Plan** 

1995).

successful implementations of greenway that meet public recreational needs (Taylor et. al.,

In this plan, to form an integrated network of greenways that combine the greenway networks of 6 states, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Vermont in New England region, ABD is targeted. The basic of the aim is to make sustain natural landscapes which have mountains, hills and rivers from North to South between states. When the plan that its implementation has not yet finished is completed, a greenway connections that are 57.000 km length between the wild life, recreational, historic

The aim of Brooklyn–Queens greenway planning is that ecological, cultural, recreational sources can be easily reachable and make possible various uses of it for city people (**Fig. 6**). Especially, wide open spaces are present for those who prefer a lot of soccer and baseball, tennis courts that are more than 100, uses that make possible various water activities along the greenway that have much rich potential in terms of recreational uses, two golf areas, two

and cultural areas mostly along river zones are provided (Fabos, 2004).

**7.5. The Brooklyn - Queens Greenway, Coney Island** 

ice skate courts, funfair and passive recreations (Little, 1995).

**Figure 6.** The Brooklyn - Queens Greenway

*Mustafa Kemal University, Architecture Faculty, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

## **8. References**


http://adirondackresearch.com/projects/ bicycle/hglossary.html.


http://www.nps.gov/aboutus/history.htm

http://www.stlucieco.gov/greenways/greenways\_why.htm

http://www.umass.edu/greenway

http://www.umass.edu/greenway/Greenways/2GR-def.html

Kent, R.L. and C.L. Elliott, 1995. Scenic Routes Linking and Protecting Natural and Cultural Landscape Features: A Greenway Skeleton. Landscape and Urban Planning, Volume 33, Issues 1-3, 341-355 p.

**Section 4** 

**Landscape Ecology** 


http://www.yorku.ca/carmelca/6101E/readings/Rutgers-HighLakesGreenway.pdf.


http://tr.wikipedia.org /wiki/Ye%C5%9Fil\_yollar.


**Section 4** 

**Landscape Ecology** 

660 Advances in Landscape Architecture

http://www.umass.edu/greenway

Issues 1-3, 341-355 p.

p. ISBN: 0-8018-5140-8.

177 p.

Boonton, NJ., 60 p.

4, 98-111 p.

http://www.stlucieco.gov/greenways/greenways\_why.htm

http://www.umass.edu/greenway/Greenways/2GR-def.html

Planning, Volume 68, Issues 2-3, 223-240 p.

Landscape and Urban Planning 76, 112-133 p.

Landscape and Urban Planning 33, 65-80 p.

Vikipedia Özgür Ansiklopedi, 2008. Yeşil Yol.

http://tr.wikipedia.org /wiki/Ye%C5%9Fil\_yollar.

Urban Design, McGraw-Hill, 5.5-1 p. ISBN: 0-07-068507-X.

Planning, Volume 33, Issues 1-3, October 1995, 17-25 p.

Kent, R.L. and C.L. Elliott, 1995. Scenic Routes Linking and Protecting Natural and Cultural Landscape Features: A Greenway Skeleton. Landscape and Urban Planning, Volume 33,

Little, C.E., 1995. Greenways for America. The Johns Hopkins University Press, London, 237

Macdonald, E., 2005. Suburban Vision to Urban Reality: The Evolution of Olmsted and Vaux's Brooklyn Parkway Neighborhoods. Journal of Planning History 4:495, 295-321 p. Mugavin, D., 2004. Adelaide's Greenway: River Torrens Linear Park. Landscape and Urban

Ndubisi, F., T. Demeo and N.D. Ditto, 1995. Environmentally Sensitive Areas: A Template For Developing Greenway Corridors. Landscape and Urban Planning. Volume: 33, 159-

Rutgers Department of Landscape Architecture and Morris Land Conservancy, 2002. High Lakes Greenway: Linking Communities with Nature. Morris Land Conservancy,

http://www.yorku.ca/carmelca/6101E/readings/Rutgers-HighLakesGreenway.pdf. Ryder, B.A., 1995. Greenway Planning and Growth Management: Partners in Conservation?.

Scudo, K., 2006. The Greenway of Pavia: Innovations in Italian Landscape Planning.

Searns, R.M., 1995. The Evolution of Greenways as an Adaptive Urban Landscape Form.

Shafer, C.S., B.K. Lee, S. Turner, 2000. A Tale of Three Greenway Trails: User Perceptions

Taylor, J., C. Paine and J. Fitzgibbon, 1995. From Greenbelt to Greenways: Four Canadian

Toccolini, A., Fumagalli, N. and Senes, G., 2006. Greenway Planning in Italy: The Lambro River Valley Greenways System. Landscape and Urban Planning, Volume 76, Issues 1-

Viles R.L. and D.J. Rosier, 2001. How to Use in the Creation of Greenways: Case Studies in Three New Zealand Landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning. Volume: 55, 15-27 p. Watson, D., A. Plattus, R., Shipley, 2003. Greenways. Greenways Time-Saver Standards for

Zube, E.H., 1995. Greenways and The US National Park System. Landscape and Urban

Related to Quality of Life. Landscape and Urban Planning 49, 163-178 p.

Case Studies. Landscape and Urban Planning. Volume: 33, 47-64 p.

Landscape and Urban Planning, Vol: 33, Issues 1-3, 417-432 p.

**Chapter 25** 

© 2013 Gökyer, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Understanding Landscape Structure Using** 

Landscapes are dynamic systems. Human affects them continuously. Depending on intensive human effects, pressure was increased on landscapes. Consequently, landscapes

There are negative effects of pressures on landscape and species living in the area. The negative effects are especially vulnerable more intense to the human effected landscapes. In these landscapes, fragmentation increased. Habitats have been damaged. Depending on

Landscape ecology investigates landscape structure and changes in the landscape. Change expresses any modification occurring in the landscape over time. Landscape structure

Landscape metrics are important tools which are used to understand landscape structure and landscape changes. To use metrics, numeric data is obtained related to landscape structure. Numeric data is produced from satellite images and air photos. Also, landscape metrics are used as compatible with geographical information systems. Landscape metrics

In this study it was aimed to understand the landscape metrics. To do this, Landscape ecology and its characteristics (structure, function and change) must be emphasized. So, firstly these topics explained. After landscape metrics explained and a case study done on

Landscape Ecology is a science branch in Ecology which uses the numbers. Researchers intensively investigate on landscape structure and landscape change in this science.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

these effects material flow and transactions of the species are limited.

evaluates land mosaic as measure, number, size and shape.

allow doing objective reviews on landscape structure.

**Landscape Metrics** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Ercan Gökyer

**1. Introduction** 

were altered over time.

landscape metrics.

**2. Landscape ecology** 

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55758

## **Understanding Landscape Structure Using Landscape Metrics**

Ercan Gökyer

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55758

## **1. Introduction**

Landscapes are dynamic systems. Human affects them continuously. Depending on intensive human effects, pressure was increased on landscapes. Consequently, landscapes were altered over time.

There are negative effects of pressures on landscape and species living in the area. The negative effects are especially vulnerable more intense to the human effected landscapes. In these landscapes, fragmentation increased. Habitats have been damaged. Depending on these effects material flow and transactions of the species are limited.

Landscape ecology investigates landscape structure and changes in the landscape. Change expresses any modification occurring in the landscape over time. Landscape structure evaluates land mosaic as measure, number, size and shape.

Landscape metrics are important tools which are used to understand landscape structure and landscape changes. To use metrics, numeric data is obtained related to landscape structure. Numeric data is produced from satellite images and air photos. Also, landscape metrics are used as compatible with geographical information systems. Landscape metrics allow doing objective reviews on landscape structure.

In this study it was aimed to understand the landscape metrics. To do this, Landscape ecology and its characteristics (structure, function and change) must be emphasized. So, firstly these topics explained. After landscape metrics explained and a case study done on landscape metrics.

## **2. Landscape ecology**

Landscape Ecology is a science branch in Ecology which uses the numbers. Researchers intensively investigate on landscape structure and landscape change in this science.

Landscape is the most important research material. What is the "Landscape"? Researchers made a lot of definition on landscape.

Understanding Landscape Structure Using Landscape Metrics 665

Landscape ecology recognizes that ecological units (systems) are arrayed in space in response to gradients of topography, temperature, moisture, and soils. Additional pattern is imposed by disturbances, biotic interactions, and human use of the land. Spatial arrangement, in turn, influences many ecological processes, such as the movement patterns of organisms, the spread of disturbances, and the movement of matter or energy. Landscape ecology, focusing on spatial pattern and the ecological responses to this pattern, leads to a new set of principles, distinct from the principles that govern ecosystem and population

Technological developments have also contributed to the emergence of landscape ecology. These developments include rapid advances in desktop computing power, availability of remotely sensed data such as satellite images, and development of powerful computer software packages called geographic information systems (GIS) for storing, manipulating, and displaying spatial data. New research techniques are required in landscape ecology because of the focus on spatial pattern and Dynamics and on large areas that simply cannot be thoroughly sampled or easily manipulated. For example, laboratory and plot experiments are appropriate at fine scales, but broad-scale experiments are logistically difficult, and replication is often impossible. Landscape ecologists have needed to incorporate new sources of data into their studies and creatively study natural experiments. The availability of remote imagery has made it possible to study spatial pattern over large areas and its change through time, opening new horizons for landscape analysis (Turner *et* 

Landscape ecology focuses on three characteristics of the landscape (Forman and Godron

Structure: The spatial relationships among the distinctive ecosystems or elements.

Change: The alteration in the structure and function of the ecological mosaic over time.

Connectivity and fragmentation are known with understanding landscape structure.

Assessing landscape function and landscape change, landscape structure must be known.

Landscape structure expresses the spatial pattern of landscape elements and the connections between the different ecosystems or landscape elements. Landscape structure assesses relationship between ecosystems as measure, number, size and shape (Forman and Godron

Landscape structure has two qualities. These are composition and configuration (Farina

*Landscape composition:* Attribute of composition is not spatial, and can't be measured. It defines the quality of the landscape patches, scattered in landscape. The composition is not a

Function: The interactions among the spatial features.

**3. Landscape structure** 

1986; Gergel and Turner 2002).

dynamics at finer scales (Turner *et al.* 2001).

*al.* 2001).

1986).

2000).

Landscape was defined firstly by Alexander Von Humbdolt as "all of the characteristics of a land" (Farina 2000). Landscape as a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems that is repeated in similar from throughout (Forman and Godron 1986). Farina (2000) defines landscape as "heterogeneous land area, consisting of interaction sets between ecosystems". Landscape was defined in European Landscape Convention as "means an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors" (http://conventions.coe.int).

Landscape became an integrative concept in many disciplines (Antrop 2005). All of Landscape definitions have in common expressions. These are (Antrop 2005):


Landscape ecology is a young but well-recognized ecological discipline dealing with the spatial distribution of organisms, patterns and processes (Farina 2010). Landscape ecology is a science branch of ecology to make contributions related to complexity studies (physical, biological, and ecological) of ecology. Landscape ecology uses numbers related to complexity studies. Also, it uses remote sensing, geographical information systems and geostatistical tools. These tools have been developed for landscape ecology studies (Farina 2000).

As simplest expression, landscape ecology investigates internal dynamics and interaction of landscapes. Landscape ecology focuses on spatial relationship of landscape elements and ecosystems, functional and structural features of the land mosaic and change that is emerged over time (Dramstad *et al.* 1995).

Landscape ecology has been emerged since 1980 that is useful and important for land-use planners and landscape architects. By this time, the concept of landscape ecology is seen in other disciplines. After 1980, important study areas of landscape ecology was started to be publish (Dramstad *et al.* 1995). The last decade has seen a growth in the number of studies and variety of topics that fall under the broad banner of landscape ecology (Farina 2010).

Landscape ecology investigates (emphasizes) the interaction between spatial pattern and ecological process, that is, the causes and consequences of spatial heterogeneity across a range of scales (Turner *et al.* 2001). The discipline of Landscape Ecology is rapidly emerging as a motive force, both in the domain of theoretical ecology, and in applied fields (Sanderson and Harris 2000).

Landscape ecology recognizes that ecological units (systems) are arrayed in space in response to gradients of topography, temperature, moisture, and soils. Additional pattern is imposed by disturbances, biotic interactions, and human use of the land. Spatial arrangement, in turn, influences many ecological processes, such as the movement patterns of organisms, the spread of disturbances, and the movement of matter or energy. Landscape ecology, focusing on spatial pattern and the ecological responses to this pattern, leads to a new set of principles, distinct from the principles that govern ecosystem and population dynamics at finer scales (Turner *et al.* 2001).

Technological developments have also contributed to the emergence of landscape ecology. These developments include rapid advances in desktop computing power, availability of remotely sensed data such as satellite images, and development of powerful computer software packages called geographic information systems (GIS) for storing, manipulating, and displaying spatial data. New research techniques are required in landscape ecology because of the focus on spatial pattern and Dynamics and on large areas that simply cannot be thoroughly sampled or easily manipulated. For example, laboratory and plot experiments are appropriate at fine scales, but broad-scale experiments are logistically difficult, and replication is often impossible. Landscape ecologists have needed to incorporate new sources of data into their studies and creatively study natural experiments. The availability of remote imagery has made it possible to study spatial pattern over large areas and its change through time, opening new horizons for landscape analysis (Turner *et al.* 2001).

Landscape ecology focuses on three characteristics of the landscape (Forman and Godron 1986).

Structure: The spatial relationships among the distinctive ecosystems or elements.

Function: The interactions among the spatial features.

Change: The alteration in the structure and function of the ecological mosaic over time.

## **3. Landscape structure**

664 Advances in Landscape Architecture

properties,

2000).

and Harris 2000).


structured in some way,

emerged over time (Dramstad *et al.* 1995).

made a lot of definition on landscape.

Landscape is the most important research material. What is the "Landscape"? Researchers

Landscape was defined firstly by Alexander Von Humbdolt as "all of the characteristics of a land" (Farina 2000). Landscape as a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems that is repeated in similar from throughout (Forman and Godron 1986). Farina (2000) defines landscape as "heterogeneous land area, consisting of interaction sets between ecosystems". Landscape was defined in European Landscape Convention as "means an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and

Landscape became an integrative concept in many disciplines (Antrop 2005). All of



Landscape ecology is a young but well-recognized ecological discipline dealing with the spatial distribution of organisms, patterns and processes (Farina 2010). Landscape ecology is a science branch of ecology to make contributions related to complexity studies (physical, biological, and ecological) of ecology. Landscape ecology uses numbers related to complexity studies. Also, it uses remote sensing, geographical information systems and geostatistical tools. These tools have been developed for landscape ecology studies (Farina

As simplest expression, landscape ecology investigates internal dynamics and interaction of landscapes. Landscape ecology focuses on spatial relationship of landscape elements and ecosystems, functional and structural features of the land mosaic and change that is

Landscape ecology has been emerged since 1980 that is useful and important for land-use planners and landscape architects. By this time, the concept of landscape ecology is seen in other disciplines. After 1980, important study areas of landscape ecology was started to be publish (Dramstad *et al.* 1995). The last decade has seen a growth in the number of studies and variety of topics that fall under the broad banner of landscape ecology (Farina 2010).

Landscape ecology investigates (emphasizes) the interaction between spatial pattern and ecological process, that is, the causes and consequences of spatial heterogeneity across a range of scales (Turner *et al.* 2001). The discipline of Landscape Ecology is rapidly emerging as a motive force, both in the domain of theoretical ecology, and in applied fields (Sanderson


interaction of natural and/or human factors" (http://conventions.coe.int).


Landscape definitions have in common expressions. These are (Antrop 2005):

Assessing landscape function and landscape change, landscape structure must be known. Connectivity and fragmentation are known with understanding landscape structure.

Landscape structure expresses the spatial pattern of landscape elements and the connections between the different ecosystems or landscape elements. Landscape structure assesses relationship between ecosystems as measure, number, size and shape (Forman and Godron 1986; Gergel and Turner 2002).

Landscape structure has two qualities. These are composition and configuration (Farina 2000).

*Landscape composition:* Attribute of composition is not spatial, and can't be measured. It defines the quality of the landscape patches, scattered in landscape. The composition is not a precise identification of the mosaic structure of the landscape. But, It is a good indicator for living environment suitability of some species (appropriate patch type for species) (Farina 2000).

Understanding Landscape Structure Using Landscape Metrics 667

effects. All these functions involve flows of animals and plants; the last two functions also

Corridors serve as conduits and as filters for much of the movement of animals, plants, materials, and water across the landscape. Network and matrix characteristics affect transactions in contrasting ways, depending on whether the objects cross corridors or use corridors as conduits. Landscape functioning integrates flows both between adjacent

Strip corridors have an interior environment and interior species. Stream corridors are most effective in controlling water and mineral nutrient flows from upland to stream when they cover both flood plain and banks, when they are wide enough above a bank to enhance the movement of upland interior species along the corridor. Networks contain alternative pathways for species movement, have differing types of intersections, enclose landscape elements, and exhibit varying mesh sizes (Forman and Godron 1986). Hedgerows are constructed to protect areas from animals. Animals damage crop in a cropland. Hedgerows

Various birds and mammals appear to move effectively along hedgerows. In winter (rainy season) stream flow was lower in the hedgerow landscape than in the open landscape. In the hedgerow landscape stream flow is less variable through the year (Forman and Godron 1986). Networks are composed of corridors and notes, and trunk lines handle high-volume flows. A network is done for the movement of people it is important for other ecological features in landscape planning and management. Movement through a matrix depends on its

In the landscape flows dependent on the orientation of the structure (Forman and Godron 1986). Connectivity is very important for landscape function. Sometimes landscapes have

Habitat fragmentation severely threatens biodiversity and ecosystem functioning wherever humans dominated landscape. Land use planners play a significant role in determining whether and how landscapes and ecosystems are fragmented or maintain natural

The landscapes of today have been shaped by powerful. Ever-present forces are seen in space and time by anthropogenic activities (Sanderson and Harris, 2000). Landscapes are not static. Landscapes are impressed by Climate changes, land-use changes and human activities. It can be changed mosaic structure, shape and size of patches in a landscape. All

A change can be defined as any modification occurring in a system state (from individual to biosphere) produced by a broad variety of abiotic and/or biotic factors that introduce or

these changes could be seen different spatial sizes and frequencies (Farina 2000).

subtract energy and information to the system (Farina 2010).

connectivity. Species move along a connected matrix (Forman and Godron 1986).

include flows of energy and mineral nutrients (Forman and Godron 1986).

ecosystems and across a landscape (Forman and Godron 1986).

network effects wind and water stream.

fragmented structure.

connectivity (ELI 2003).

**5. Landscape change** 

*Landscape configuration:* Configuration refers to the spatial characteristics. It refers to spatial characteristics same as the spatial distribution of land cover (Farina 2000).

Landscape ecologists use four basic terms to define spatial structure (FISGRW 1998)

*Patch:* A nonlinear area (polygon) which is less abundant. It is different from the matrix.

*Corridor:* A special type of patch which links other patches in the matrix. Typically, a corridor is linear or elongated in shape, such as a stream corridor.

*Matrix:* the land cover that is dominant and interconnected over the majority of the land surface. Often the matrix is forest or agriculture, but theoretically it can be any land cover type.

*Mosaic:* a collection of patches, none of which are dominant enough to be interconnected throughout the landscape.

**Figure 1.** Basic terms to define landscape ecology (FISGRW 1998)

## **4. Landscape function**

Landscape function involves flows of animals, plants, energy, mineral nutrients and interactions among these elements. The primary structural characteristics for landscape function are corridors, hedgerows, matrix and networks (Forman and Godron 1986).

Corridors have four important functions. These are; a habitat for certain type of species, movement area for species, a barrier or filter area, a source of environmental and biotic effects. All these functions involve flows of animals and plants; the last two functions also include flows of energy and mineral nutrients (Forman and Godron 1986).

Corridors serve as conduits and as filters for much of the movement of animals, plants, materials, and water across the landscape. Network and matrix characteristics affect transactions in contrasting ways, depending on whether the objects cross corridors or use corridors as conduits. Landscape functioning integrates flows both between adjacent ecosystems and across a landscape (Forman and Godron 1986).

Strip corridors have an interior environment and interior species. Stream corridors are most effective in controlling water and mineral nutrient flows from upland to stream when they cover both flood plain and banks, when they are wide enough above a bank to enhance the movement of upland interior species along the corridor. Networks contain alternative pathways for species movement, have differing types of intersections, enclose landscape elements, and exhibit varying mesh sizes (Forman and Godron 1986). Hedgerows are constructed to protect areas from animals. Animals damage crop in a cropland. Hedgerows network effects wind and water stream.

Various birds and mammals appear to move effectively along hedgerows. In winter (rainy season) stream flow was lower in the hedgerow landscape than in the open landscape. In the hedgerow landscape stream flow is less variable through the year (Forman and Godron 1986).

Networks are composed of corridors and notes, and trunk lines handle high-volume flows. A network is done for the movement of people it is important for other ecological features in landscape planning and management. Movement through a matrix depends on its connectivity. Species move along a connected matrix (Forman and Godron 1986).

In the landscape flows dependent on the orientation of the structure (Forman and Godron 1986). Connectivity is very important for landscape function. Sometimes landscapes have fragmented structure.

Habitat fragmentation severely threatens biodiversity and ecosystem functioning wherever humans dominated landscape. Land use planners play a significant role in determining whether and how landscapes and ecosystems are fragmented or maintain natural connectivity (ELI 2003).

## **5. Landscape change**

666 Advances in Landscape Architecture

throughout the landscape.

**4. Landscape function** 

2000).

type.

precise identification of the mosaic structure of the landscape. But, It is a good indicator for living environment suitability of some species (appropriate patch type for species) (Farina

*Landscape configuration:* Configuration refers to the spatial characteristics. It refers to spatial

characteristics same as the spatial distribution of land cover (Farina 2000).

corridor is linear or elongated in shape, such as a stream corridor.

**Figure 1.** Basic terms to define landscape ecology (FISGRW 1998)

Landscape ecologists use four basic terms to define spatial structure (FISGRW 1998)

*Patch:* A nonlinear area (polygon) which is less abundant. It is different from the matrix.

*Corridor:* A special type of patch which links other patches in the matrix. Typically, a

*Matrix:* the land cover that is dominant and interconnected over the majority of the land surface. Often the matrix is forest or agriculture, but theoretically it can be any land cover

*Mosaic:* a collection of patches, none of which are dominant enough to be interconnected

Landscape function involves flows of animals, plants, energy, mineral nutrients and interactions among these elements. The primary structural characteristics for landscape

Corridors have four important functions. These are; a habitat for certain type of species, movement area for species, a barrier or filter area, a source of environmental and biotic

function are corridors, hedgerows, matrix and networks (Forman and Godron 1986).

The landscapes of today have been shaped by powerful. Ever-present forces are seen in space and time by anthropogenic activities (Sanderson and Harris, 2000). Landscapes are not static. Landscapes are impressed by Climate changes, land-use changes and human activities. It can be changed mosaic structure, shape and size of patches in a landscape. All these changes could be seen different spatial sizes and frequencies (Farina 2000).

A change can be defined as any modification occurring in a system state (from individual to biosphere) produced by a broad variety of abiotic and/or biotic factors that introduce or subtract energy and information to the system (Farina 2010).

Changes can be considered modifications in the availability of an expected resource or pattern and the temporary or permanent impossibility for species, populations, communities, ecosystems, and land mosaics to incorporate the new conditions (Farina 2010).

Understanding Landscape Structure Using Landscape Metrics 669

Natural forces: Avalanche, landslide, flood,

quickly start to change this field (Antrop 2005).

(Farina 2000; Letiao and Ahern 2002; Wu 2004).


function and landscape change.

Calculation of the landscape structure (Jaeger 2000):

planning activities on ecological systems.


(Antrop 2005).

Ahern 2002).

Miller *et al.* 2005).

**6. Landscape metrics** 

Cultural forces: Accessibility, human intervention, fire.

Accessibility is most important within the forces. Whenever people arrived in a field, they

The nature of change also demands new thinking. Actual changes are so complex and fast it becomes hard to keep track of them. Comprehensive and integrated methods for fast inventorying and monitoring and assessment at a landscape scale are urgently needed

Landscape metric tools were used in landscape ecology as supporting Landscape planning and landscape management decisions. Landscape metrics were used to measure the landscape structure and the complexity of this structure. The complexity of the structure of landscape structure, landscape metrics used for measuring and Mosaic structure and related information can be obtained. Thus, the characteristics of the landscape easily perceived


Landscape metrics help to calculation composition and configuration, which have two characteristics of landscape structure. We learn knowledge on ecological processes, to use

To perceive of Landscape composition and configuration with landscape metrics, different approaches are available. To perceive composition, metrics are used to with regard to the importance of each patch type. It was determined characteristics such as rate, richness (patch richness), regularity, dominance and diversity (patch number) with metrics related composition. It was defined physical distribution of patches in mosaic structure with landscape configuration. Metrics are size and shape, neighborhood (the distance to the nearest neighborhood) and distribution related configuration, (Farina 2000; Letiao and

Landscape metrics help us to understand changes in landscape from different perspectives (Visual, ecological, cultural). Landscape metrics have been provided contributions to the Landscape ecology studies. These contributions are listed below (Letiao and Ahern 2002;

 It is understood relationship between landscape structure and landscape function with Landscape metrics. Otherwise, using landscape metrics, It is estimated the effects of

calculations related to composition and configuration (Mc Garical *et al.* 2002).

To assess the current conditions of the landscape, historical process must be known. Depending on the natural and cultural influences the changes are seen over time in the landscape structure. In this case, landscape structure and relationship between ecosystems are changed. As a result of change studies, functions and conditions in the mosaic of different sized and shaped patches can be revealed (Wu and Hobbs 2000).

Changes can be integrated with the abiotic-biotic processes, and basic components of each ecosystem. Health of the system can be revealed to analyze rate, frequency, and intensity of change. Change may be occurred at different levels. Small scale systems have a higher change level from large-scale systems. It is more useful to assessment of the change at large scales (Farina 2000).

There are two main factors of landscape change. These are natural processes and human activities (especially nowadays). Both natural conditions and human needs are changed over time. Complex changes can be emerged in the landscape structure related to natural conditions and human needs (Antrop 1998; Farina 2000).

Defining change depends upon the temporal resolution of consecutive observations and data sets. Also, these differences must be observable or measurable in magnitude and this depends on the degree of detail and accuracy of the data used. Frequent and multiple observations enhance the knowledge of the dynamics of landscape processes, but became only available with the technology of remote sensing and the setting up of monitoring programs (Antrop 2005).

Landscape change can be revealed to analyze of aerial photography, land maps and satellite images through different techniques. There are some challenges related to landscape change studies. Data for previous years are different type and quality. It is difficult to get qualified data (Farina 2000).

Landscapes change 'naturally' as they are the expression of the interaction between the natural environment and man's activities. Both the natural conditions and the human needs change in time and are controlled by different but interactive factors (Antrop 1998).

Change can be expressed to made comparison of at least two different time statuses. Landscapes are mixture of the different qualifications in consists of peculiar dynamics. Depending on these dynamics, change can be emerged in different speed and scale (Antrop 1998).

Five main compelling powers are effective in the landscape change. These are listed below (Farina 2000; Bürgi *et al.* 2004; Antrop 2005):


Accessibility is most important within the forces. Whenever people arrived in a field, they quickly start to change this field (Antrop 2005).

The nature of change also demands new thinking. Actual changes are so complex and fast it becomes hard to keep track of them. Comprehensive and integrated methods for fast inventorying and monitoring and assessment at a landscape scale are urgently needed (Antrop 2005).

## **6. Landscape metrics**

668 Advances in Landscape Architecture

scales (Farina 2000).

programs (Antrop 2005).

(Farina 2000; Bürgi *et al.* 2004; Antrop 2005):

Political forces: Incorrect applications.

data (Farina 2000).

1998).

Changes can be considered modifications in the availability of an expected resource or pattern and the temporary or permanent impossibility for species, populations, communities, ecosystems, and land mosaics to incorporate the new conditions (Farina 2010). To assess the current conditions of the landscape, historical process must be known. Depending on the natural and cultural influences the changes are seen over time in the landscape structure. In this case, landscape structure and relationship between ecosystems are changed. As a result of change studies, functions and conditions in the mosaic of

Changes can be integrated with the abiotic-biotic processes, and basic components of each ecosystem. Health of the system can be revealed to analyze rate, frequency, and intensity of change. Change may be occurred at different levels. Small scale systems have a higher change level from large-scale systems. It is more useful to assessment of the change at large

There are two main factors of landscape change. These are natural processes and human activities (especially nowadays). Both natural conditions and human needs are changed over time. Complex changes can be emerged in the landscape structure related to natural

Defining change depends upon the temporal resolution of consecutive observations and data sets. Also, these differences must be observable or measurable in magnitude and this depends on the degree of detail and accuracy of the data used. Frequent and multiple observations enhance the knowledge of the dynamics of landscape processes, but became only available with the technology of remote sensing and the setting up of monitoring

Landscape change can be revealed to analyze of aerial photography, land maps and satellite images through different techniques. There are some challenges related to landscape change studies. Data for previous years are different type and quality. It is difficult to get qualified

Landscapes change 'naturally' as they are the expression of the interaction between the natural environment and man's activities. Both the natural conditions and the human needs

Change can be expressed to made comparison of at least two different time statuses. Landscapes are mixture of the different qualifications in consists of peculiar dynamics. Depending on these dynamics, change can be emerged in different speed and scale (Antrop

Five main compelling powers are effective in the landscape change. These are listed below

change in time and are controlled by different but interactive factors (Antrop 1998).

Socio-economic forces: Urbanization, industry, industrial activities.

Technological forces: Car roads, infrastructure facilities

different sized and shaped patches can be revealed (Wu and Hobbs 2000).

conditions and human needs (Antrop 1998; Farina 2000).

Landscape metric tools were used in landscape ecology as supporting Landscape planning and landscape management decisions. Landscape metrics were used to measure the landscape structure and the complexity of this structure. The complexity of the structure of landscape structure, landscape metrics used for measuring and Mosaic structure and related information can be obtained. Thus, the characteristics of the landscape easily perceived (Farina 2000; Letiao and Ahern 2002; Wu 2004).

Calculation of the landscape structure (Jaeger 2000):


Landscape metrics help to calculation composition and configuration, which have two characteristics of landscape structure. We learn knowledge on ecological processes, to use calculations related to composition and configuration (Mc Garical *et al.* 2002).

To perceive of Landscape composition and configuration with landscape metrics, different approaches are available. To perceive composition, metrics are used to with regard to the importance of each patch type. It was determined characteristics such as rate, richness (patch richness), regularity, dominance and diversity (patch number) with metrics related composition. It was defined physical distribution of patches in mosaic structure with landscape configuration. Metrics are size and shape, neighborhood (the distance to the nearest neighborhood) and distribution related configuration, (Farina 2000; Letiao and Ahern 2002).

Landscape metrics help us to understand changes in landscape from different perspectives (Visual, ecological, cultural). Landscape metrics have been provided contributions to the Landscape ecology studies. These contributions are listed below (Letiao and Ahern 2002; Miller *et al.* 2005).

 It is understood relationship between landscape structure and landscape function with Landscape metrics. Otherwise, using landscape metrics, It is estimated the effects of planning activities on ecological systems.


Landscape metrics are used in conjunction with geographic information systems (GIS). GIS has made a major contribution to the study of the landscape metrics (Johnston 1998). GIS and related technologies are used for a long time in studies related to the ecology. It offers a lot of possibilities to the users. To use landscape metrics and digital data adapted with GIS have been made contributes to the landscape planning studies (Karadeniz and Gökyer 2005). To quantify the Landscape metrics, computer programs have been developed same as Fragstats (Mc Garical and Marks 1994; Mc Garical *et al.* 2002), and Patch Analyst (Elkie *et al.* 1999).

Determination of landscape structure, Quantifying changes in this structure and determination of the structure of the landscape, with regard to the evaluation of these enhanced measures (Landscaping measures). These metrics are listed below (Elkie *et al.* 1999; Mc Garical and Marks 1994; Mc Garical *et al.* 2002):


Patch level Class level Landscape level

Understanding Landscape Structure Using Landscape Metrics 671

Landscape metrics could be calculated to three categories (Figure 2) (Mc Garical *et al.* 2002;

In this study, Case study area is Bartn province in North part of Turkey (Figure 3). Central

1. Patch level: To calculation ever patch type in a mosaic. 2. Class level: To calculation ever patch type class. 3. Landscape level: All of the mosaic is calculated.

part of the Bartn was selected to analyze (Figure 4).

Farina 2000):

**7. Case study** 

**Figure 3.** Bartn province in Turkey

**Figure 4.** Case study area in Bartn province

**Figure 2.** Calculation levels of landscape metrics (Farina 2000).

Landscape metrics could be calculated to three categories (Figure 2) (Mc Garical *et al.* 2002; Farina 2000):


## **7. Case study**

670 Advances in Landscape Architecture

landscape over time.

Area/Density/Edge metrics

Isolation/Proximity metrics

 Shape metrics Core area metrics

 Diversity metrics Evenness metrics Connectivitiy metrics Dominance metrics

1999).

 Quantifying of structural characteristics is necessary for sustainable planning. In this way, ecological processes are understood, various modeling studies are done and

At the same time, landscape metrics are made, to determine the changes in the

Landscape metrics are used in conjunction with geographic information systems (GIS). GIS has made a major contribution to the study of the landscape metrics (Johnston 1998). GIS and related technologies are used for a long time in studies related to the ecology. It offers a lot of possibilities to the users. To use landscape metrics and digital data adapted with GIS have been made contributes to the landscape planning studies (Karadeniz and Gökyer 2005). To quantify the Landscape metrics, computer programs have been developed same as Fragstats (Mc Garical and Marks 1994; Mc Garical *et al.* 2002), and Patch Analyst (Elkie *et al.*

Determination of landscape structure, Quantifying changes in this structure and determination of the structure of the landscape, with regard to the evaluation of these enhanced measures (Landscaping measures). These metrics are listed below (Elkie *et al.*

Patch level Class level Landscape level

contributions are made to the monitoring studies in the area.

1999; Mc Garical and Marks 1994; Mc Garical *et al.* 2002):

**Figure 2.** Calculation levels of landscape metrics (Farina 2000).

In this study, Case study area is Bartn province in North part of Turkey (Figure 3). Central part of the Bartn was selected to analyze (Figure 4).

**Figure 3.** Bartn province in Turkey

**Figure 4.** Case study area in Bartn province

In this study, Land cover maps were developed using Landsat satellite images obtained in 2000 (Landsat 7 ETM) and 2010 (Landsat 5 TM). Images were formed by supervised classification method using ERDAS IMAGINE 8.4. Five land cover types are identified and used in this study. Classified maps were analyzed with neighborhood functions (3x3 moving window). Land cover types are forest, agriculture, residential, water (river), sand (sandy areas). Classified maps (landcover maps) can be seen in figure 5-6.

Understanding Landscape Structure Using Landscape Metrics 673

Producers Accuracy

Producers Accuracy

Users Accuracy

Users Accuracy

In the study, the overall Accuracy and Kappa analysis were used to perform a classification accuracy based on error matrix analysis. For the 2000 dated image, overall classification accuracy was established as 87.12% and Kappa coefficient was computed 0.7524. For the 2010 dated image, overall classification accuracy was established as 90.27% and Kappa coefficient was computed 0.8092. Results of the accuracy analysis can be seen in the table1-2.

Forest 39 43 37 94.87% 86.05% River 2 2 2 100% 100% Sandy Areas 1 1 1 100% 100% Agriculture 81 82 73 90.12% 89.02% Resident 9 4 2 22.22% 50.00%

Numbers Correct

Numbers Correct

Classified Totals

Classified Totals

Forest 47 38 38 80.85 % 100 % River 1 2 1 100 % 50 % Sandy Areas 1 1 1 100 % 100 % Agriculture 62 72 62 100 % 86.11 % Resident 2 1 1 50 % 100 %

Landscape metrics were calculated using the fragstats program (Rempel *et al.* 2012). Results

**Class Level CA (ha) TLA (ha) NUMP MPS (ha) TE(m) MSI SEI SDI**  Resident 1382 - 1180 1.1 440837 1.3 - - Agriculture 32834 - 570 57.6 1779556 1.4 - - Forest 17690 - 1169 15 1368308 1.4 - - Water (River) 550 - 318 1.7 171174 1.3 - - Sandy Areas 244 - 155 1.6 64093 1.2 - - **Landscape Level** 52703 52703 3392 15.5 3823970 1.3 0.8 0.5 CA: Class Area, TLA: Total Landscape Area, NUMP: Patch Number, TE: Total Edge, MPS: Mean Patch Size, MSI:

Class Name Reference

Class Name Reference

can be seen in the table 3-4.

Totals

Overall Accuracy 87.12 %, Overall Kappa Statisics 0.7524

Overall Accuracy 90.27 %, Overall Kappa Statisics 0.8092

**Table 2.** Accuracy analysis results for land cover map (2010)

**Table 1.** Accuracy analysis results for land cover map (2000)

Totals

Total 132 132 115

Total 113 113 102

**CalculationLevel Calculated Parameters**

Mean Shape Index, SEI: Shannon Evenness Index, SDI: Shannon Diversity Index, ha: hectare, m: meter **Table 3.** Calculation results for landscape metrics by the year 2000 land cover map

**Figure 5.** Land cover map for the year of 2000.

**Figure 6.** Land cover map for the year of 2010.

In the study, the overall Accuracy and Kappa analysis were used to perform a classification accuracy based on error matrix analysis. For the 2000 dated image, overall classification accuracy was established as 87.12% and Kappa coefficient was computed 0.7524. For the 2010 dated image, overall classification accuracy was established as 90.27% and Kappa coefficient was computed 0.8092. Results of the accuracy analysis can be seen in the table1-2.


Overall Accuracy 87.12 %, Overall Kappa Statisics 0.7524

672 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 5.** Land cover map for the year of 2000.

**Figure 6.** Land cover map for the year of 2010.

In this study, Land cover maps were developed using Landsat satellite images obtained in 2000 (Landsat 7 ETM) and 2010 (Landsat 5 TM). Images were formed by supervised classification method using ERDAS IMAGINE 8.4. Five land cover types are identified and used in this study. Classified maps were analyzed with neighborhood functions (3x3 moving window). Land cover types are forest, agriculture, residential, water (river), sand

(sandy areas). Classified maps (landcover maps) can be seen in figure 5-6.

**Table 1.** Accuracy analysis results for land cover map (2000)


Overall Accuracy 90.27 %, Overall Kappa Statisics 0.8092

**Table 2.** Accuracy analysis results for land cover map (2010)

Landscape metrics were calculated using the fragstats program (Rempel *et al.* 2012). Results can be seen in the table 3-4.


CA: Class Area, TLA: Total Landscape Area, NUMP: Patch Number, TE: Total Edge, MPS: Mean Patch Size, MSI: Mean Shape Index, SEI: Shannon Evenness Index, SDI: Shannon Diversity Index, ha: hectare, m: meter

**Table 3.** Calculation results for landscape metrics by the year 2000 land cover map


Understanding Landscape Structure Using Landscape Metrics 675

In the study area, increasing to the forest areas are extremely important for wild life. Habitats and transaction fields are increased. Increasing to the fragmentation is negative for

In the study area, Bartn River as corridor is important controlling water and mineral nutrient flows. Area is separated into two parts along the river. Various birds and mammals

Using landscape metrics provide many facilities in landscape ecology studies. We can obtain objective results on landscape structure with the calculation of landscape metrics. Numerical

Landscape structure can be analyzed over time using these results. With calculating landscape metrics, human effects can be detected on landscapes over time. Landscape health

As a result Landscape metrics are important for landscape ecology. Metrics provide numerical data on landscape. Landscape structure and landscape change can be analyzed.

Antrop, M. 1998. Landscape change: plan or chaos. Landscape and Urban Planning, 41, 155-

Antrop, M. 2005. Handling landscape change. "Landscape Change" Conference

Bürgi, M., Anna, M. and Nina, S. 2004. Driving forces of landscape change – current and

Dramstad, E., Olson D.J. and Forman, T.T.R. 1996. Landscape ecology principles in

ELI, 2003. *Conservation Thresholds for Land Use Planners,* Environmental Law Institute,

Elkie, P., Rempel, R., and Carr, A. 1999. Patch analyst user's manual, a tool for quantfyng

landscape structure. Northwest Science and Technology, Ontario, Canada. Farina, A. 2000. Landscape ecology in action. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands Farina, A. 2010. Ecology, Cognition and Landscape, Linking Natural and Social Systems, Springer Science+Business Media B.V., Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New

Information can be obtained about landscape function using metrics.

*Bartn University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

living species in the area. Because their habitats and transaction areas is restricted.

appear to move effectively along the River.

results can be obtained on landscape mosaic.

Proceedings, ECLAS 2005, Ankara, 3-15.

new directions. Landscape Ecology, 19, 857-868.

landscape ecology and land use planning. Island Press, USA.

Washington D.C., ISBN:1-58576-085-7, ELI project code: 003101.

can be determined.

**Author details** 

Ercan Gökyer

**9. References** 

16.

York.

CA: Class Area, TLA: Total Landscape Area, NUMP: Patch Number, TE: Total Edge, MPS: Mean Patch Size, MSI: Mean Shape Index, SEI: Shannon Evenness Index, SDI: Shannon Diversity Index, ha: hectare, m: meter

**Table 4.** Calculation results for landscape metrics by the year 2010 land cover map

*Class Area (CA)*: Changes can be identified over time with CA.

*Number of The Patches (NUMP)*: Patch number can be evaluated over time with NUMP. If NUMP value increases it is understood fragmentation increases in the field. If NUMP value decreases it is understood fragmentation decreases in the field.

*Mean Patch Size (MPS)*: MPS can be used to evaluate fragmentation. If MPS value increases it is understood fragmentation increases in the field. If MPS value decreases it is understood fragmentation decreases in the field.

*Total Edge (TE)*: TE can be used to determine important areas for wild life. Agriculture, forestry and water are seen as important areas for wildlife in the study area. If TE is high valued these areas are suitable for edge species. TE value is used to determine suitable habitats for edge species.

*Shannon Evenness Index (SEI)*: SEI identifies to distribution (regular or irregular) of patches in the area. If SEI value approaches 1 it is understood patches distribution are regular in the field.

*Shannon Diversity Index (SDI)*: SDI refers to diversity of patches in the area. If SDI value is zero it is understood area consist of single patch. Distribution of patches can be identified in each other and field.

## **8. Conclusions**

In the case study area landscape metrics were calculated by the year 2000 land cover and by the year 2010 land cover. In the study area;


In the study area, increasing to the forest areas are extremely important for wild life. Habitats and transaction fields are increased. Increasing to the fragmentation is negative for living species in the area. Because their habitats and transaction areas is restricted.

In the study area, Bartn River as corridor is important controlling water and mineral nutrient flows. Area is separated into two parts along the river. Various birds and mammals appear to move effectively along the River.

Using landscape metrics provide many facilities in landscape ecology studies. We can obtain objective results on landscape structure with the calculation of landscape metrics. Numerical results can be obtained on landscape mosaic.

Landscape structure can be analyzed over time using these results. With calculating landscape metrics, human effects can be detected on landscapes over time. Landscape health can be determined.

As a result Landscape metrics are important for landscape ecology. Metrics provide numerical data on landscape. Landscape structure and landscape change can be analyzed. Information can be obtained about landscape function using metrics.

## **Author details**

674 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Calculation Level Calculated Parameters**

Mean Shape Index, SEI: Shannon Evenness Index, SDI: Shannon Diversity Index, ha: hectare, m: meter **Table 4.** Calculation results for landscape metrics by the year 2010 land cover map

*Class Area (CA)*: Changes can be identified over time with CA.

decreases it is understood fragmentation decreases in the field.

fragmentation decreases in the field.

the year 2010 land cover. In the study area;

Patches distribution is regular in the area.

habitats for edge species.

each other and field.

**8. Conclusions** 

for edge species.

field.

**Class Level CA (ha) TLA (ha) NUMP MPS (ha) TE (m) MSI SEI SDI**  Resident 1034 - 731 1.4 316104 1.3 - - Agriculture 31429 - 666 47 1843999 1.4 - - Forest 19031 - 1240 15 1543806 1.4 - - Water (River) 847 - 722 1.2 299287 1.3 - - Sandy Areas 362 - 279 1.2 109238 1.3 - - **Landscape Level** 52703 52703 3638 14.5 4112437 1.4 0.9 0.5 CA: Class Area, TLA: Total Landscape Area, NUMP: Patch Number, TE: Total Edge, MPS: Mean Patch Size, MSI:

*Number of The Patches (NUMP)*: Patch number can be evaluated over time with NUMP. If NUMP value increases it is understood fragmentation increases in the field. If NUMP value

*Mean Patch Size (MPS)*: MPS can be used to evaluate fragmentation. If MPS value increases it is understood fragmentation increases in the field. If MPS value decreases it is understood

*Total Edge (TE)*: TE can be used to determine important areas for wild life. Agriculture, forestry and water are seen as important areas for wildlife in the study area. If TE is high valued these areas are suitable for edge species. TE value is used to determine suitable

*Shannon Evenness Index (SEI)*: SEI identifies to distribution (regular or irregular) of patches in the area. If SEI value approaches 1 it is understood patches distribution are regular in the

*Shannon Diversity Index (SDI)*: SDI refers to diversity of patches in the area. If SDI value is zero it is understood area consist of single patch. Distribution of patches can be identified in

In the case study area landscape metrics were calculated by the year 2000 land cover and by

 Mean patch size is decreased over time. That describes, fragmentation is increased. Total edge value for forest, agriculture and river is high. So these areas are appropriate

It is seen increase in forest areas and decrease in agricultural areas.

The distribution of the patches does not change over time in the field.

Ercan Gökyer *Bartn University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

## **9. References**


FISGRW, 1998. Stream Corridor Restoration: Principles, Proccesses and Practices by The Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group (15 Federal agencies of the Us gov't) GPO Item No: 0120-A; Su Docs No.A 57.6/2=EN3/PT.653.ISBN-0-934213-59-3.

**Chapter 26** 

© 2013 Cengiz, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The growing population of urban centers necessities the study of interaction between living organisms and urban environment, which is defined as the environment surrounded by man-made structures, such as residential and commercial buildings, paved surfaces etc [1]. Within this scope, urban ecology developed as a branch of ecology in the last few decades. According to United Nations [2], in forty years' time, two-third of the world's population will be living in growing urban centers, thus it is apparent that urban ecology is fairly

As the ecological processes in urban environment are comparable to those outside the urban context, the methods and studies at urban ecology are similar to ecology, in general. Urban ecology dictates that local-scale dynamic interactions between socioeconomic and biophysical forces leading to development of a concept called city. Alberti et al. [3] states that distinctive ecology and ecological forcing functions for urban areas were also shaped by

Inherently, urban ecology is an interdisciplinary field of study. The examination of complex interactions between humans and their surrounding, such as construction, production, housing, transport etc., necessitates the involvement of natural and social sciences as well as humanities and engineering. The direct consequence of this interdisciplinary nature is that urban ecology can be used not only for understanding the urban systems but also for improving the conditions of urban environments. For example, it is required to comprehend how the urban system functions and in which extent it is affected from the global and local processes so that we can analyze how to maintain the water cycle working in a region and which factors, such as the use of landscape, the effect of green spaces, climate conditions, the coexistence of species etc., affect this. Similarly, the study of urban ecology is vital if we would like to understand where and how human activity harms the urban environment or in which way we could improve the living conditions of humans without giving any damage to the urban environment. While traditional lines of urban ecology still have a close

**Urban Ecology** 

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/56314

means of these complex interactions.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Canan Cengiz

**1. Introduction** 

important.


**Chapter 26** 

## **Urban Ecology**

Canan Cengiz

676 Advances in Landscape Architecture

USA.

November 2005.

landscape structure, Version 2.0

Thunder Bay, Ontario.

Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.

Landscape Ecology, 19, 125-138.

program for categorical maps, Version 3.3

Project Reference QLK5-CT-2002-01017, Aberdeen, 2005.

idiosyncratic synthesis. Landscape Ecology, 17, 355-365

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Gergel, E.S. and Turner, G.M. 2002. Learning landscape ecology a practical guide to

Jaeger, J.A. 2000. Landscape division, splitting ndex, and effective mesh size: new measures

Johnston, A.C. 1998. Geographic nformation systems in ecology. Black well Science nc.

Karadeniz, N. ve Gökyer, E. 2005. Quantifyng landscape structure using gs, case study "Gölbaş specially protected area". Proceedings X. European Ecological Congress 08-13

Letiao, B.A. and Ahern, J. 2002. Applying landscape ecological concepts and metrics in

McGarical, K. and Marks, B. 1994. Fragstats spatial pattern analysis program for qantifying

McGarical, K., Cushman, A.S, Neel, C.M. and Ene, E. 2002. Fragstats: Spatial pattern analysis

Miller, D., Morrice, J., Andersson, L., Durozard, E., Fidalgo, B., Fry, B., Gaspar, J., Gibon, A., Hassan, R., Hislop, M., Horne, P., Huet, B., Ladet, S., Lange, E., Leandro, N., Messager, P., Mottet, A., Nijnik, M., Ode, A., Pascoa, F., Pinto, L., Quine, C., Schroth, O., Schwarz, G., Shepherd, N., Tveit, S. M., Vitry, A., Watts, K. and Wissen, U. 2005. Vsulaton tolls for public participation in the management of landscape change. Fnal project report,

Rempel, R.S., D. Kaukinen., and A.P. Carr. 2012. Patch Analyst and Patch Grid. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. Centre for Northern Forest Ecosystem Research,

Sanderson and Harris, 2000. Landscape Ecology A Top-Down Approach, Lews Publishers,

Turner, G. M, Gardner, H. R, O'Neill, V. R, 2001. Landscape Ecology in Theory and Practice,

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by CRC Press LLC, N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.

sustaniable landsape planning. Landscape and Urban Planning, 59, 65-93.

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concepts and techniques. Springer Verlag, New York, USA.

of landscape fragmentation. Landscape Ecology, 15, 115-130.

http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/176.htm

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/56314

## **1. Introduction**

The growing population of urban centers necessities the study of interaction between living organisms and urban environment, which is defined as the environment surrounded by man-made structures, such as residential and commercial buildings, paved surfaces etc [1]. Within this scope, urban ecology developed as a branch of ecology in the last few decades. According to United Nations [2], in forty years' time, two-third of the world's population will be living in growing urban centers, thus it is apparent that urban ecology is fairly important.

As the ecological processes in urban environment are comparable to those outside the urban context, the methods and studies at urban ecology are similar to ecology, in general. Urban ecology dictates that local-scale dynamic interactions between socioeconomic and biophysical forces leading to development of a concept called city. Alberti et al. [3] states that distinctive ecology and ecological forcing functions for urban areas were also shaped by means of these complex interactions.

Inherently, urban ecology is an interdisciplinary field of study. The examination of complex interactions between humans and their surrounding, such as construction, production, housing, transport etc., necessitates the involvement of natural and social sciences as well as humanities and engineering. The direct consequence of this interdisciplinary nature is that urban ecology can be used not only for understanding the urban systems but also for improving the conditions of urban environments. For example, it is required to comprehend how the urban system functions and in which extent it is affected from the global and local processes so that we can analyze how to maintain the water cycle working in a region and which factors, such as the use of landscape, the effect of green spaces, climate conditions, the coexistence of species etc., affect this. Similarly, the study of urban ecology is vital if we would like to understand where and how human activity harms the urban environment or in which way we could improve the living conditions of humans without giving any damage to the urban environment. While traditional lines of urban ecology still have a close

© 2013 Cengiz, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

connection to the scientific and social context of their time as well as to the respective urban structures [4], today's urban ecology differs widely from its beginnings.

Urban Ecology 679

There is a mutual interaction between cities and ecological processes such that both are affecting to each other. This is true not only within the boundaries of the cities but also beyond them. As a result of this strong interaction, it is not possible and even useful to insulate human and natural components of urban ecological studies. Based on the definition of cities, i.e. complex phenomena emerged by human activity, new approaches are

1. The complex structure of the cities, a social and biophysical phenomenon, could be

2. The effects of the cities on the ecological and environmental processes should be well studied. While the tremendous amounts of requirements of the cities, such as energy and food, use the natural resources, the emissions and wastes produced by them are disposed to the country regions. As a result of this strong interaction, it is highly probable that the ecological processes in the Earth are strongly affected by the cities, which has not been studied yet. In fact, there is a possibility to conserve the natural resources and reduce the negative impacts of human activity on the environment with

Marzluff et al. [5] pointed out that urban ecology can be viewed from three points: (1) ecology and evolution of living organisms residing in city boundaries; (2) biological, political, economic, and cultural ecology of humans in urban landscape; (3) cities resultant of the coupled relations of humans and natural processes. According to them, the third view in which human and nature are observed as interacting forces shaping the measurable patterns and processes should be followed by the field. Human factors and naturel systems with biotic and abiotic factors are coupled together since they both drive and are affected by

> **Patterns:** -Land Use Patterns -Transportation -Water/Sewer Insfratructure -Artificial Drainage -Heat Islands

**Processes:** -Runoff -Erosion -Nutrient Cycles -Movement of Organisms - Predation -Legal/Social Institutions

**Effects/Changes:**  -Natural Productivity/Salmon


**Figure 2.** A scheme of urban ecology showing the relationships between humans and natural drivers

which are influenced by the patterns and processes of abiotic and biotic drivers [5].

Runs

necessary to comprehend their properties [5], which can be outlined as:

the help of the concepts emerged by the cities.

the patterns and processes they create, see Fig. 2.

**Drivers:**  -Population -Economic Growth -Land Use Policy -Insfratructure Investmets -Topography -Climate -Human Preference

defined by simpler and definable structures, functions and processes.

This chapter aims to examine the differences between the ecological relationships in urban areas and rural areas. The chapter analyzed landscape degradation and anthropogenic impacts, and city patterns in terms of urban ecosystems; urbanization; the necessity of the ecological areas in urban landscapes; urban climate; urban hydrology; urban soil; urban biodiversity; and, urban wildlife.

## **2. Urban ecology**

Urban ecology studies the relations of mankind with each other and their surroundings including cities and urbanizing landscapes. This recent and interdisciplinary field tries to understand the coexistence of human and ecological processes in urban environment and help humans to build more sustainable living. It is a subfield of ecology and it has strong connections with many disciplines like sociology, geography, urban planning, landscape architecture, engineering, economics, anthropology, climatology and public health. Therefore, urban ecology is used to define the study of humans in urban environment, of nature in cities, and of the relationships between humans and nature [5].

As seen in Fig. 1, urban ecology can be viewed as composing of ecology 'in' cities and ecology 'of' cities to functionalize the interdisciplinary nature of it. [5-7]. The former term deals with the questions asking the effect of urbanization on the ecology of living organisms as well as the differences between the ecological processes in cities and those in other environments. The latter one is associated with the interactions between ecological and social systems in an urban environment. According to Wu [7], in order to investigate the relation between ecology and humans in urban habitats, the terms 'science' (ecology) and 'art' (the humanistic and holistic perspectives) should be taken into consideration for maintaining urban sustainability. Urban ecology basically concerns the relationship between the spatio-temporal patterns of urbanization and ecological processes [8].

**Figure 1.** Charts showing the relationships for the ecology *in* the city (left) and ecology *of* the city (right) [5].

There is a mutual interaction between cities and ecological processes such that both are affecting to each other. This is true not only within the boundaries of the cities but also beyond them. As a result of this strong interaction, it is not possible and even useful to insulate human and natural components of urban ecological studies. Based on the definition of cities, i.e. complex phenomena emerged by human activity, new approaches are necessary to comprehend their properties [5], which can be outlined as:

678 Advances in Landscape Architecture

biodiversity; and, urban wildlife.

**2. Urban ecology** 

(right) [5].

connection to the scientific and social context of their time as well as to the respective urban

This chapter aims to examine the differences between the ecological relationships in urban areas and rural areas. The chapter analyzed landscape degradation and anthropogenic impacts, and city patterns in terms of urban ecosystems; urbanization; the necessity of the ecological areas in urban landscapes; urban climate; urban hydrology; urban soil; urban

Urban ecology studies the relations of mankind with each other and their surroundings including cities and urbanizing landscapes. This recent and interdisciplinary field tries to understand the coexistence of human and ecological processes in urban environment and help humans to build more sustainable living. It is a subfield of ecology and it has strong connections with many disciplines like sociology, geography, urban planning, landscape architecture, engineering, economics, anthropology, climatology and public health. Therefore, urban ecology is used to define the study of humans in urban environment, of

As seen in Fig. 1, urban ecology can be viewed as composing of ecology 'in' cities and ecology 'of' cities to functionalize the interdisciplinary nature of it. [5-7]. The former term deals with the questions asking the effect of urbanization on the ecology of living organisms as well as the differences between the ecological processes in cities and those in other environments. The latter one is associated with the interactions between ecological and social systems in an urban environment. According to Wu [7], in order to investigate the relation between ecology and humans in urban habitats, the terms 'science' (ecology) and 'art' (the humanistic and holistic perspectives) should be taken into consideration for maintaining urban sustainability. Urban ecology basically concerns the relationship between

Sectlement Patterns

Fertilizer Sewage Systems Economy

Nitrogen Policy Options

 Feeders and Human Health Plantings And Wellbeing

Birds

Public Opinion

structures [4], today's urban ecology differs widely from its beginnings.

nature in cities, and of the relationships between humans and nature [5].

the spatio-temporal patterns of urbanization and ecological processes [8].

Climate Fish

Vegetation

Hydrology

Mammaria

Soil

Bird

**Figure 1.** Charts showing the relationships for the ecology *in* the city (left) and ecology *of* the city

State Regulations human

 


Marzluff et al. [5] pointed out that urban ecology can be viewed from three points: (1) ecology and evolution of living organisms residing in city boundaries; (2) biological, political, economic, and cultural ecology of humans in urban landscape; (3) cities resultant of the coupled relations of humans and natural processes. According to them, the third view in which human and nature are observed as interacting forces shaping the measurable patterns and processes should be followed by the field. Human factors and naturel systems with biotic and abiotic factors are coupled together since they both drive and are affected by the patterns and processes they create, see Fig. 2.

**Figure 2.** A scheme of urban ecology showing the relationships between humans and natural drivers which are influenced by the patterns and processes of abiotic and biotic drivers [5].

## **3. Urban ecosystems**

According to Moll and Petit [9], "a set of interacting species and their local environment working cooperatively to stay alive" is called as ecosystem. In urban environments, it could be difficult to distinguish different forms of ecosystems. In fact, one can define the whole city as a single ecosystem, while it is also possible to consider a city is a collection of many individual ecosystems, such as parks, lakes [10], urban forests, cultivated lands, wetlands, sea and streams [10]. Here, the second approach is preferred which covers all natural green and blue areas in the city. Based on this definition, street and ponds should be considered as individual ecosystems, while actually, Bolund and Hunhammar [11] states that they are very small and could only be defined as the elements of a larger ecosystem.

Urban Ecology 681

impacts on biogeochemical cycles as well as climate at the local and global scales. On the other hand, according to urbanites, the drastic changes in local environment also destroyed global environment [16]. Urban ecology concentrates on this diversity, which is characterized by the interaction between organisms and connections to human doings [8].

Ecologists did not study urban areas for the first half of the twentieth century, which is worth noting especially considering the concerns of urbanites regarding the future of urban plants and animals [16]. Sukkop [17] claimed that a systematic approach to urban ecological research started after the World War II. Central Europe and the UK can be considered as the pioneers of the oldest urban ecological research tradition. In Berlin, for example, the topic has long been studied (since 1950s) [8]. Now that, as Alberti [18] mentions, the focus on urban ecology studies has augmented, different arguments on dynamics of urban ecosystems are accrued. It is of vital importance to offer a common action that includes comprehensible definition of ecological conditions inside and outside of cities all around the

Berkes et al. [19] claimed that, in 19th and early 20th century periods environmentalists and ecologists neglected the urban landscape, as a result, the 'wilderness' or 'pristine' has been esteemed very highly over the 'human' environments. This perspective approached people as the problem itself; in this sense, removal of people from naturally resourceful areas was the only solution so as to protect the landscape. As a result, cities became the scape goat; they were reasons to destroy nature. Today, this approach is changing; many people are comfortable with the idea that cultural and biological diversity support resilience and

One should take into account several urban dynamics in order to understand the relationship between urban sites and biodiversity, and develop a concept satisfying their

 Urbanity stands for city's life quality and character; it refers to the particular pattern of functional, structural, socio-economic and cultural interplay in urban sites. Although many enjoy urbanity, still they prefer to live near nature when they need to make a decision. In this sense, urban revitalization is an attempt to combine nature and city,

 Urbanization is a general term for urban population increase, urban densification and/or expansion and fragmentation of urban sites. It usually leads to increase in a city's ecological footprint, and affects biodiversity and environment as a whole. On the other hand, the nature of footprint depends on the shape and structure of

 Urban design is about describing cities' location, physical shape and the construction; therefore, it makes a number of functionalities and life styles possible. In this sense, through a successful urban design additional urban land-take and fragmentation can be reduced. What is more, urban design can provide green areas, and support biodiversity in cities. Additional green areas, recreating brown fields, promoting 'green' roofs and walls, and keeping the density and compactness in urban areas will maximize

world [8].

sustainability [8].

urbanization.

especially in popular public sites.

needs [13]:

According to Marzluff et al. [5], regardless of the approaches mentioned above, the whole ecosystem in a city is called urban ecosystem which includes abiotic spheres (the *atmosphere*, *hydrosphere*, *lithosphere*, and soil or *pedosphere*) and biotic spheres (often viewed as an interacting *biosphere* of urban plants and animals plus the socio-economic world of people, the *anthroposphere.*

## **4. Urbanization**

Big cities, highly dense population and maximum-imperviousness are local- and regionalscale environmental effects of urbanization, which are caused by million-plus, core-oriented, high-rise concentrations [12]. Urban regions are continuing- will most probably continue in future- to be attraction centers for a number of people [8]. Accordingly, in Europe 75 % of the population live in big cities, 80% will be so by the year 2020 [13]. Repercussions of the issue have yet to be grasped within society as a whole. On the other hand, how natural resources are understood, connected and used is profoundly affected by the phenomenon of urbanization. For the great majority of population, various types of urban landscape are 'familiar' environments, and it is expected to be so in future [8]. Landscape is turned into a complex structure by urbanization in terms of forms, materials and activities, which are different characteristics compared to rural landscape [14].

Human populations living in urban areas cause dramatic effects on the Earth, even though those urbanized parts cover small areas on Earth's surface. The most critical point is that urbanization affects global biodiversity and ecosystems, yet this is not understood adequately. Although there is an increasing interest in urban ecological research, and the understanding of biotic effects of urbanization is better grasped, still, the efforts to bring these issues on the agenda of policy, governance, and planning is lacking [8].

At the end of the day, urbanization has numerous effects on environment, but this does not mean that all of them are negative. Urban environment is diversified by human effects in various means; this variety of human impact changes ecosystems through urban ecosystems [15]. As a bottleneck, urban areas make environmental changes multiple level issues. Material repercussions of production and consumption modify the usage of land; and affect biodiversity, and hydro systems both locally and regionally; discharge of urban waste impacts on biogeochemical cycles as well as climate at the local and global scales. On the other hand, according to urbanites, the drastic changes in local environment also destroyed global environment [16]. Urban ecology concentrates on this diversity, which is characterized by the interaction between organisms and connections to human doings [8].

680 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**3. Urban ecosystems** 

the *anthroposphere.*

**4. Urbanization** 

According to Moll and Petit [9], "a set of interacting species and their local environment working cooperatively to stay alive" is called as ecosystem. In urban environments, it could be difficult to distinguish different forms of ecosystems. In fact, one can define the whole city as a single ecosystem, while it is also possible to consider a city is a collection of many individual ecosystems, such as parks, lakes [10], urban forests, cultivated lands, wetlands, sea and streams [10]. Here, the second approach is preferred which covers all natural green and blue areas in the city. Based on this definition, street and ponds should be considered as individual ecosystems, while actually, Bolund and Hunhammar [11] states that they are

According to Marzluff et al. [5], regardless of the approaches mentioned above, the whole ecosystem in a city is called urban ecosystem which includes abiotic spheres (the *atmosphere*, *hydrosphere*, *lithosphere*, and soil or *pedosphere*) and biotic spheres (often viewed as an interacting *biosphere* of urban plants and animals plus the socio-economic world of people,

Big cities, highly dense population and maximum-imperviousness are local- and regionalscale environmental effects of urbanization, which are caused by million-plus, core-oriented, high-rise concentrations [12]. Urban regions are continuing- will most probably continue in future- to be attraction centers for a number of people [8]. Accordingly, in Europe 75 % of the population live in big cities, 80% will be so by the year 2020 [13]. Repercussions of the issue have yet to be grasped within society as a whole. On the other hand, how natural resources are understood, connected and used is profoundly affected by the phenomenon of urbanization. For the great majority of population, various types of urban landscape are 'familiar' environments, and it is expected to be so in future [8]. Landscape is turned into a complex structure by urbanization in terms of forms, materials and activities, which are

Human populations living in urban areas cause dramatic effects on the Earth, even though those urbanized parts cover small areas on Earth's surface. The most critical point is that urbanization affects global biodiversity and ecosystems, yet this is not understood adequately. Although there is an increasing interest in urban ecological research, and the understanding of biotic effects of urbanization is better grasped, still, the efforts to bring

At the end of the day, urbanization has numerous effects on environment, but this does not mean that all of them are negative. Urban environment is diversified by human effects in various means; this variety of human impact changes ecosystems through urban ecosystems [15]. As a bottleneck, urban areas make environmental changes multiple level issues. Material repercussions of production and consumption modify the usage of land; and affect biodiversity, and hydro systems both locally and regionally; discharge of urban waste

these issues on the agenda of policy, governance, and planning is lacking [8].

very small and could only be defined as the elements of a larger ecosystem.

different characteristics compared to rural landscape [14].

Ecologists did not study urban areas for the first half of the twentieth century, which is worth noting especially considering the concerns of urbanites regarding the future of urban plants and animals [16]. Sukkop [17] claimed that a systematic approach to urban ecological research started after the World War II. Central Europe and the UK can be considered as the pioneers of the oldest urban ecological research tradition. In Berlin, for example, the topic has long been studied (since 1950s) [8]. Now that, as Alberti [18] mentions, the focus on urban ecology studies has augmented, different arguments on dynamics of urban ecosystems are accrued. It is of vital importance to offer a common action that includes comprehensible definition of ecological conditions inside and outside of cities all around the world [8].

Berkes et al. [19] claimed that, in 19th and early 20th century periods environmentalists and ecologists neglected the urban landscape, as a result, the 'wilderness' or 'pristine' has been esteemed very highly over the 'human' environments. This perspective approached people as the problem itself; in this sense, removal of people from naturally resourceful areas was the only solution so as to protect the landscape. As a result, cities became the scape goat; they were reasons to destroy nature. Today, this approach is changing; many people are comfortable with the idea that cultural and biological diversity support resilience and sustainability [8].

One should take into account several urban dynamics in order to understand the relationship between urban sites and biodiversity, and develop a concept satisfying their needs [13]:


ecosystem activities and ecological footprint in big cities. In point of fact, by providing convenient pattern and activity plan, urban area can become more environmentally friendly areas; rather than mere threats to biodiversity.

Urban Ecology 683

**Figure 3.** The English Garden in Munich-Germany (Original 2011).

**Figure 4.** View of the English Garden in Munich-Germany (Original 2011).

Ecological studies and designs are significantly important for the sustainability of the mankind and natural environment. The ecological studies carried out for the establishment of the sustainability in the urban areas as well as the for the protection of the resources involve not only the construction-scale efforts performed in the urban areas but also the

It is important to highlight the need for an international frame of thought regarding urbanization, which has recently been experienced as a massive, unplanned course of action in landscape change in the world. Urbanization offers a diversity of altered types of land covers in residential, commercial, and industrial areas; they are generally interconnected by roads and railways, on which special green spaces are allocated. This diversity and similar structures are common all around the world; yet; how they affect biodiversity and ecosystem processes has yet to be determined. What is more, international and comparative research attempts are essential in order to develop the understanding of ecological effects of urbanization [8].

Sustainability of future can be maintained only if an ecosystem oriented approach is adopted in terms of urban planning; this approach should include equitable access to ecosystem services and proper planning [8].

## **5. The necessity of the ecological areas in the urban landscapes**

The biodiversity in the cities are very much influenced by the presence of green spaces, green roofs and walls along with tree-lined streets. In order to maintain the different ecosystem services including wildlife and human populations, existence of landscapes with sufficient size, diversity and distribution is essential. The green infrastructure in the urban landscape consists of recreation parks and gardens, unmanaged natural open spaces, wetlands and rural lands. According to EEA [13], the quality of life for most urban dwellers is closely related to the amount of green areas where they live. Since these areas provide people with opportunities for social relations, recreation and experiencing nature which affect them both emotionally and physically. The structure of green spaces and biodiversity are quite different from each other in rural and urban areas as in Europe. Although different counties have different green zone policies, it is accepted that nature affects humans in a very positive way by reducing blood pressure, improving cognitive abilities and increasing happiness. Meanwhile, green areas and biodiversity are also beneficial in filtering particles, purifying water, reducing noise, and buffering climate extremes like heat waves. This means that the green areas in the cities help to reduce the temperatures which are especially important in adopting the future climate changes for the landscapes which are likely to experience high temperatures and heat waves [13]. The English Garden in Munich, Germany is a good sample for this subject (Fig 3-4).

The presence of natural flora in the cities, the establishment of habitats suitable to the animals adapted to the urban conditions and ecological studies for the protection and development of ecosystems are considered as environmentally ethical studies, as they protect the natural resources. Meanwhile, these areas are places which are increasing the quality of life in the city and allowing the social interaction of the residents [20].

**Figure 3.** The English Garden in Munich-Germany (Original 2011).

urbanization [8].

ecosystem services and proper planning [8].

Germany is a good sample for this subject (Fig 3-4).

ecosystem activities and ecological footprint in big cities. In point of fact, by providing convenient pattern and activity plan, urban area can become more environmentally

It is important to highlight the need for an international frame of thought regarding urbanization, which has recently been experienced as a massive, unplanned course of action in landscape change in the world. Urbanization offers a diversity of altered types of land covers in residential, commercial, and industrial areas; they are generally interconnected by roads and railways, on which special green spaces are allocated. This diversity and similar structures are common all around the world; yet; how they affect biodiversity and ecosystem processes has yet to be determined. What is more, international and comparative research attempts are essential in order to develop the understanding of ecological effects of

Sustainability of future can be maintained only if an ecosystem oriented approach is adopted in terms of urban planning; this approach should include equitable access to

The biodiversity in the cities are very much influenced by the presence of green spaces, green roofs and walls along with tree-lined streets. In order to maintain the different ecosystem services including wildlife and human populations, existence of landscapes with sufficient size, diversity and distribution is essential. The green infrastructure in the urban landscape consists of recreation parks and gardens, unmanaged natural open spaces, wetlands and rural lands. According to EEA [13], the quality of life for most urban dwellers is closely related to the amount of green areas where they live. Since these areas provide people with opportunities for social relations, recreation and experiencing nature which affect them both emotionally and physically. The structure of green spaces and biodiversity are quite different from each other in rural and urban areas as in Europe. Although different counties have different green zone policies, it is accepted that nature affects humans in a very positive way by reducing blood pressure, improving cognitive abilities and increasing happiness. Meanwhile, green areas and biodiversity are also beneficial in filtering particles, purifying water, reducing noise, and buffering climate extremes like heat waves. This means that the green areas in the cities help to reduce the temperatures which are especially important in adopting the future climate changes for the landscapes which are likely to experience high temperatures and heat waves [13]. The English Garden in Munich,

The presence of natural flora in the cities, the establishment of habitats suitable to the animals adapted to the urban conditions and ecological studies for the protection and development of ecosystems are considered as environmentally ethical studies, as they protect the natural resources. Meanwhile, these areas are places which are increasing the

quality of life in the city and allowing the social interaction of the residents [20].

**5. The necessity of the ecological areas in the urban landscapes** 

friendly areas; rather than mere threats to biodiversity.

**Figure 4.** View of the English Garden in Munich-Germany (Original 2011).

Ecological studies and designs are significantly important for the sustainability of the mankind and natural environment. The ecological studies carried out for the establishment of the sustainability in the urban areas as well as the for the protection of the resources involve not only the construction-scale efforts performed in the urban areas but also the works conducted in the rural areas. In the construction-scale, the studies comprise efforts such as taking precautions for the extensive use of solar energy, recycling of the domestic waste etc [20].

Urban Ecology 685

The effects of the elements present in the urban areas on the flow of the energy. As depicted above, a city can be considered as a hot-spot or heat island compared to its surrounding rural landscape, see Table 1 [12]. In fact, the climatic characteristics of a city can be considered for smaller scales, such that the effect of each element in the city, e.g.., streets,

Element Compared to rural environs

Condensation nuclei 10 times more Particulates 50 times more Gaseous admixtures 5-25 times more

Total on horizontal surface 0-20% less Ultraviolet, winter 30% less Ultraviolet, summer 5% less Sunshine duration 5-15% less

Clouds 5-10% more Fog, winter 100% more Fog, summer 30% more

Amounts 5-15% more Days with less than 5 mm 10% more Snowfall, inner city 5-10% less Snowfall, lee of city 10% more Thunderstorms 10-15% more

Annual mean 0.5-3.0° C more Winter minimums (average) 1-2° C more Summer maximums 1-3° C more Heating degree days 10% less

Annual mean 6% less Winter 2% less Summer 8% less

Annual mean 20-30% less Extreme gusts 10-20% less Calm 5-20% more

**Table 1.** The variation of the climatic conditions in the cities [12]

buildings, parks etc., could be evaluated individually.

Contaminants

Radiation

Cloudiness

Precipitation

Temperature

Relative Humidity

Wind Speed

Source: Landsberg [23]

## **6. Urban climate**

The examination of the climatic conditions for lands differ from that of water .The complex combination of the elements of the lands, such as topography, land form, water and plants, strongly influences the climatic conditions related with solar radiation, wind precipitation, temperature and humidity. For example, the movement of air masses are strongly influenced by land forms and their topography, which are basically considered as obstacles (when they are tall) or routers (when they are in the valley-shaped) for air flow. A variety of air flow dynamics, from simple to complex, could be observed in many circumstances. Not only airflow but also humidity, temperature and absorption of solar energy are strongly affected by the properties of landscapes. The windward and leeward sides of hills affect the humidity, while height of the landscapes strongly influences the temperature. Additionally, higher levels of solar energy are absorbed at the south-facing slopes, giving small microvariations in the climate and changing the vegetation patterns [24].

Cities are generally warmer than open lands and forests as walls and roofs of the buildings and asphalt pavements have higher radiation surface than open lands yielding higher amount of solar energy absorbed. Meanwhile, the precipitation falls into the cities flow away to the sewage system through asphalt roads and squares quickly. As a result of this, the solar radiation is more effective on these surfaces than humid ground in the open lands and heat up more yielding higher degree of warming. As the terrestrial radiative heat loss from these city structures is slower, the temperature of the cities is higher. Meanwhile, evaporation of the water in the open lands also results in energy loss. For these reasons, in calm weather and invariable weather conditions, the temperature of a city could be 0.5-1.5 °C higher than that of its surrounding landscape. This difference could reach to 4-5°C in the night period and even up to 10 °C in the first few hours of the winter nights. Additionally the minimum temperature values could be 0.8 – 1.5°C higher than what is observed in the rural landscape. As a result of this a city can be termed as heat island. The number of frost and icy days are lower for cities. The warmer climatic conditions of the cities allow a long vegetation period for vegetables and reduce the freezing damages especially observed in the frozen nights. For this reason, the plants that do not grow normally in the climatic conditions of the open land of that region could grow in the city. The heat production in the cities and being warmer compared to their surroundings produce a low pressure region in the atmosphere. This causes a continuous flow of a wind from rural areas to the urban ones. The amounts of the dust and artificial gases in the atmosphere present on the cities are much higher than those present on the open lands and forests. Thus, these artificial materials hinder the sunshine arriving to the city. It was determined that the polluted air reduces the solar radiation by 15- 20 %. When the plantation is performed in the cities, the level of solar radiation increases as trees filter the polluted air and dust is partially captured by the long trees [22].

The effects of the elements present in the urban areas on the flow of the energy. As depicted above, a city can be considered as a hot-spot or heat island compared to its surrounding rural landscape, see Table 1 [12]. In fact, the climatic characteristics of a city can be considered for smaller scales, such that the effect of each element in the city, e.g.., streets, buildings, parks etc., could be evaluated individually.


Source: Landsberg [23]

684 Advances in Landscape Architecture

waste etc [20].

trees [22].

**6. Urban climate** 

works conducted in the rural areas. In the construction-scale, the studies comprise efforts such as taking precautions for the extensive use of solar energy, recycling of the domestic

The examination of the climatic conditions for lands differ from that of water .The complex combination of the elements of the lands, such as topography, land form, water and plants, strongly influences the climatic conditions related with solar radiation, wind precipitation, temperature and humidity. For example, the movement of air masses are strongly influenced by land forms and their topography, which are basically considered as obstacles (when they are tall) or routers (when they are in the valley-shaped) for air flow. A variety of air flow dynamics, from simple to complex, could be observed in many circumstances. Not only airflow but also humidity, temperature and absorption of solar energy are strongly affected by the properties of landscapes. The windward and leeward sides of hills affect the humidity, while height of the landscapes strongly influences the temperature. Additionally, higher levels of solar energy are absorbed at the south-facing slopes, giving small micro-

Cities are generally warmer than open lands and forests as walls and roofs of the buildings and asphalt pavements have higher radiation surface than open lands yielding higher amount of solar energy absorbed. Meanwhile, the precipitation falls into the cities flow away to the sewage system through asphalt roads and squares quickly. As a result of this, the solar radiation is more effective on these surfaces than humid ground in the open lands and heat up more yielding higher degree of warming. As the terrestrial radiative heat loss from these city structures is slower, the temperature of the cities is higher. Meanwhile, evaporation of the water in the open lands also results in energy loss. For these reasons, in calm weather and invariable weather conditions, the temperature of a city could be 0.5-1.5 °C higher than that of its surrounding landscape. This difference could reach to 4-5°C in the night period and even up to 10 °C in the first few hours of the winter nights. Additionally the minimum temperature values could be 0.8 – 1.5°C higher than what is observed in the rural landscape. As a result of this a city can be termed as heat island. The number of frost and icy days are lower for cities. The warmer climatic conditions of the cities allow a long vegetation period for vegetables and reduce the freezing damages especially observed in the frozen nights. For this reason, the plants that do not grow normally in the climatic conditions of the open land of that region could grow in the city. The heat production in the cities and being warmer compared to their surroundings produce a low pressure region in the atmosphere. This causes a continuous flow of a wind from rural areas to the urban ones. The amounts of the dust and artificial gases in the atmosphere present on the cities are much higher than those present on the open lands and forests. Thus, these artificial materials hinder the sunshine arriving to the city. It was determined that the polluted air reduces the solar radiation by 15- 20 %. When the plantation is performed in the cities, the level of solar radiation increases as trees filter the polluted air and dust is partially captured by the long

variations in the climate and changing the vegetation patterns [24].

**Table 1.** The variation of the climatic conditions in the cities [12]

According to Marsh [14], the following factors affect the temperature of the urban areas:

1. The man-made solid-structures, walls, roofs, roads, paved areas etc., have higher heat conductivities, heat capacities and reflection capabilities than natural soils.

Urban Ecology 687

as A in Fig. 5). Additional to those, speeds decrease and streamlines of wind spread out on the leeward side, with some descending toward the ground [14]. In the second case, two buildings of similar heights are located close to each other. Different from the first case, the streamlines of fast wind do not descend to the ground but they were maintained by the roof of the building. The direct consequence of this event is the formation of small pockets of calm air between buildings and limited intermixing of the air in between the buildings with the atmosphere (labeled B in Fig. 5). The properties of air in such pockets could be different than that of surrounding atmosphere. In the last case, the most complex one, buildings and streets are aligned such that the structure is similar to that of canyon forming channels for airflow when the wind is strong. This formation, apparently, increases the speed of the wind

and yields turbulence along the walls of the canyon (labeled as C in Fig. 5) [14].

**Figure 5.** The flow of air in an urban area. The figure demonstrates the airflow around different structures, such as tall and short buildings, streets and their different combinations. Different cases are given here: (A) The strong flow is deflected down the building, (B) calm zone develops between buildings and (C) combination of large buildings with streets form canyons yield accelerated

Other than windflaws, water also significantly affects the urban climate in a way that solar energy is stored by masses of water. As the temperature of water varies much slowly than that of lands, they adjust the temperature of the lands through breezes. Meanwhile, the evaporation of water consumes energy and reduces the temperature of air, which might be

There are different climatic effects of urbanization: formation of urban heat islands, increasing cloudiness, fog, dust, precipitation and downwind urban heat plume, while decreasing humidity. Apart from these small-scale effects, activities held in the boundaries

airflow [14].

called as a natural-air conditioning [21].

**The Urban Heat Island as a Climatic Effect of Urbanization** 


Urban landscapes change the direction and speed of the winds coming from surrounding. For that reason, differences occur between air flow on the cities and on the forests as well as open fields. The buildings in cites which are much taller than the average height increase the number of the calm days in the city and worsen the ventilation. These tall structures are the sources of the calm air, increased temperature and vapor pressure. In fact, this has a negative effect on the living conditions of the city resident. However, tall building do not always reduce the speed of the winds, on the contrary, it is stated that they may improve the circulation of the wind. For this, the large brows (facades) of the buildings should be perpendicular and their narrow brows should be parallel to the direction of the wind. Meanwhile, the distance between buildings should be long enough so that they do not block the motion of the wind [22].

According to Barner [24], based on the wind profile and wind tunnel experiments, the following characteristics related to wind flow are apparent [22]:


The effect of the buildings on the wind flow could be explained by three different examples, which represent simple and complex situations separately. The first case investigates the airflow towards an individual building. Here, when the airflow reaches to the building, an obstacle on route the airflow, its speed should increase according to the continuity of flow laws. A 2D model could clearly show that the speed of the wind on the different parts of the building is different being the highest on the windward brow of the building and across the roof. Meanwhile, air is also deflected from the brow down the face of the building (labeled as A in Fig. 5). Additional to those, speeds decrease and streamlines of wind spread out on the leeward side, with some descending toward the ground [14]. In the second case, two buildings of similar heights are located close to each other. Different from the first case, the streamlines of fast wind do not descend to the ground but they were maintained by the roof of the building. The direct consequence of this event is the formation of small pockets of calm air between buildings and limited intermixing of the air in between the buildings with the atmosphere (labeled B in Fig. 5). The properties of air in such pockets could be different than that of surrounding atmosphere. In the last case, the most complex one, buildings and streets are aligned such that the structure is similar to that of canyon forming channels for airflow when the wind is strong. This formation, apparently, increases the speed of the wind and yields turbulence along the walls of the canyon (labeled as C in Fig. 5) [14].

686 Advances in Landscape Architecture

and cooling systems.

the motion of the wind [22].

the lower levels.

windward brow of the building.

According to Marsh [14], the following factors affect the temperature of the urban areas:

conductivities, heat capacities and reflection capabilities than natural soils.

effecting the humidity and heat of the urban areas.

following characteristics related to wind flow are apparent [22]:

wind, appears at the 2/3 height of the building.

the atmosphere by human activity.

1. The man-made solid-structures, walls, roofs, roads, paved areas etc., have higher heat

2. The surface area of these structures with vertical faces increases the total surface area of the landscape giving higher degree of energy, mass and momentum conversion. 3. The heat is continuously produced by equipments, such as machinery, vehicles, heating

4. The amount of evaporation and the energy used for that process decreases in the cities

5. Exposure to long-wave radiation varies due to the pollutants and dusts are given off to

Urban landscapes change the direction and speed of the winds coming from surrounding. For that reason, differences occur between air flow on the cities and on the forests as well as open fields. The buildings in cites which are much taller than the average height increase the number of the calm days in the city and worsen the ventilation. These tall structures are the sources of the calm air, increased temperature and vapor pressure. In fact, this has a negative effect on the living conditions of the city resident. However, tall building do not always reduce the speed of the winds, on the contrary, it is stated that they may improve the circulation of the wind. For this, the large brows (facades) of the buildings should be perpendicular and their narrow brows should be parallel to the direction of the wind. Meanwhile, the distance between buildings should be long enough so that they do not block

According to Barner [24], based on the wind profile and wind tunnel experiments, the

1. Depending on the height profile of the building, the speed of the wind increases at the

2. The highest value of the wind pressure, which is directly related to the speed of the

3. However, within the 2/3 height of the windward brow of the building, the speed of the wind was reduced, while the turbulent flow forms due to spinning wind flow. 4. The calm air at the windward side of the building is separated form that at the opposite brow while it flows away from top and bottom parts which forms a strong air flow at

The effect of the buildings on the wind flow could be explained by three different examples, which represent simple and complex situations separately. The first case investigates the airflow towards an individual building. Here, when the airflow reaches to the building, an obstacle on route the airflow, its speed should increase according to the continuity of flow laws. A 2D model could clearly show that the speed of the wind on the different parts of the building is different being the highest on the windward brow of the building and across the roof. Meanwhile, air is also deflected from the brow down the face of the building (labeled

**Figure 5.** The flow of air in an urban area. The figure demonstrates the airflow around different structures, such as tall and short buildings, streets and their different combinations. Different cases are given here: (A) The strong flow is deflected down the building, (B) calm zone develops between buildings and (C) combination of large buildings with streets form canyons yield accelerated airflow [14].

Other than windflaws, water also significantly affects the urban climate in a way that solar energy is stored by masses of water. As the temperature of water varies much slowly than that of lands, they adjust the temperature of the lands through breezes. Meanwhile, the evaporation of water consumes energy and reduces the temperature of air, which might be called as a natural-air conditioning [21].

#### **The Urban Heat Island as a Climatic Effect of Urbanization**

There are different climatic effects of urbanization: formation of urban heat islands, increasing cloudiness, fog, dust, precipitation and downwind urban heat plume, while decreasing humidity. Apart from these small-scale effects, activities held in the boundaries of urban areas are the main sources of greenhouse gases, mainly CO2 and fluorocarbons, which may influence the global climate and sea levels in the following decades [12].

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In fact, a lot of urban planners accept climate as a fundamental factor of urban planning and design; on the other hand, only few of them are able to combine variables like wind, heat, and solar radiation with decision making processes. The level of scientific understanding of microclimate is one of the most significant factors responsible for building the environment [14]. Climate is an important element for pollution control boards and regional transportation policies; whereas, for urban planner, landscape architect, and architect smallscale climatic variations are important. One can refer to the solar radiation around high buildings as an example of variation; other parameters like temperature, wind, fog, and

**Figure 7.** Climatic conditions near the ground in differnt sectors of a city. Conditions vary with surface

In urban design, groundwater relations and surface flow characteristics of water collection basins are of vital importance for the city's water requirement. Water economy affects heat economy as well. In cities, precipitation falling on building roofs and asphalt roads as well as city centers, are all lost because they go to sewer system through surface fall. As a result, inside the cities get dry and warmer very soon. Because precipitation waters are carried outside of the city, the level of humidity in cities is lesser than forest design. However, fog

Within the framework of urban hydrologic processes, trees as well as soils can act as an important role in terms of intercepting and retaining or slowing the flow of precipitation

cover, solar dadiation, airflow, and air pollution, among other things [14]

comes down frequently due to high quantity of solid structures [22].

**7. Urban hydrology** 

pollution can also be seen as other variations in urban landscapes (Fig. 7).

Among different climatic effects of urbanization, formation of heat island is one of the most apparent one. It is known that the temperature of the air in the cities is relatively higher than their surrounding rural areas, defining the urban heat islands [21]. Man-made structures, i.e. buildings, paving, vegetation and other physical elements of the city, form as active thermal elements between the ground and atmosphere. The properties of the elements in the landcovering layer, e.g., height, distribution, determine the thermal behavior of the city and the distribution of the warm air within the urban region.

There are many factors affecting the formation of the thermal heat islands, primarily, radiation and beat flows, urban boundary layer, surface heating and heat loss [14]. A sharp decrease in the temperature profile occurs on the perimeter of the city, defining the boundaries of the urban heat island which is shown in the Fig. 6 by a cliff in the profile. While the temperature may fluctuate in the heat island, which is a factor of the type of the man-made structures, beyond the boundaries of the heat island, rural landscape with much lower temperature values than those observed in the heat island emerges [14]. Such variations in the heat island are clearly shown in the Fig. 6 in a way that cool regions formed by parks and riverside while warmer parts appear as a result of the shopping centers and industrial zones.

According to Leopold [25], the use of the local-land has four distinguishable effects on the hydrology, which are relevant to each other: changes in peak-flow characteristics; changes in total runoff; changes in water quality; and changes in hydrologic amenities. It is known that stream flows, which are rainstorms characterized by heat islands, expands and becomes stronger with the growth of the cities, while stronger winds are necessary to overcome them [12].

**Figure 6.** The schematic representation of the temperature profile of the urban heat island and its variation with the type of the elements in the urban area [14].

In fact, a lot of urban planners accept climate as a fundamental factor of urban planning and design; on the other hand, only few of them are able to combine variables like wind, heat, and solar radiation with decision making processes. The level of scientific understanding of microclimate is one of the most significant factors responsible for building the environment [14]. Climate is an important element for pollution control boards and regional transportation policies; whereas, for urban planner, landscape architect, and architect smallscale climatic variations are important. One can refer to the solar radiation around high buildings as an example of variation; other parameters like temperature, wind, fog, and pollution can also be seen as other variations in urban landscapes (Fig. 7).

**Figure 7.** Climatic conditions near the ground in differnt sectors of a city. Conditions vary with surface cover, solar dadiation, airflow, and air pollution, among other things [14]

## **7. Urban hydrology**

688 Advances in Landscape Architecture

industrial zones.

[12].

of urban areas are the main sources of greenhouse gases, mainly CO2 and fluorocarbons,

Among different climatic effects of urbanization, formation of heat island is one of the most apparent one. It is known that the temperature of the air in the cities is relatively higher than their surrounding rural areas, defining the urban heat islands [21]. Man-made structures, i.e. buildings, paving, vegetation and other physical elements of the city, form as active thermal elements between the ground and atmosphere. The properties of the elements in the landcovering layer, e.g., height, distribution, determine the thermal behavior of the city and the

There are many factors affecting the formation of the thermal heat islands, primarily, radiation and beat flows, urban boundary layer, surface heating and heat loss [14]. A sharp decrease in the temperature profile occurs on the perimeter of the city, defining the boundaries of the urban heat island which is shown in the Fig. 6 by a cliff in the profile. While the temperature may fluctuate in the heat island, which is a factor of the type of the man-made structures, beyond the boundaries of the heat island, rural landscape with much lower temperature values than those observed in the heat island emerges [14]. Such variations in the heat island are clearly shown in the Fig. 6 in a way that cool regions formed by parks and riverside while warmer parts appear as a result of the shopping centers and

According to Leopold [25], the use of the local-land has four distinguishable effects on the hydrology, which are relevant to each other: changes in peak-flow characteristics; changes in total runoff; changes in water quality; and changes in hydrologic amenities. It is known that stream flows, which are rainstorms characterized by heat islands, expands and becomes stronger with the growth of the cities, while stronger winds are necessary to overcome them

**Figure 6.** The schematic representation of the temperature profile of the urban heat island and its

variation with the type of the elements in the urban area [14].

which may influence the global climate and sea levels in the following decades [12].

distribution of the warm air within the urban region.

In urban design, groundwater relations and surface flow characteristics of water collection basins are of vital importance for the city's water requirement. Water economy affects heat economy as well. In cities, precipitation falling on building roofs and asphalt roads as well as city centers, are all lost because they go to sewer system through surface fall. As a result, inside the cities get dry and warmer very soon. Because precipitation waters are carried outside of the city, the level of humidity in cities is lesser than forest design. However, fog comes down frequently due to high quantity of solid structures [22].

Within the framework of urban hydrologic processes, trees as well as soils can act as an important role in terms of intercepting and retaining or slowing the flow of precipitation reaching the ground. It is possible that these can decrease the frequency and volume of storm water runoff, flooding damage, storm water treatment costs, and other problems in terms of water quality. According to the runoff estimates, which were conducted for an intensive storm in Dayton/OH, the tree canopy (22%) decreased runoff by 7%, and a decent increase in canopy (around 29%) can decrease runoff by almost 1*2%* (Sanders [26] from Nowak and Dwyer [27]). In addition, it was revealed that tree cover on pervious surfaces decreased runoff, total of 40 %; its effect on runoff was lesser on impervious surfaces [27].

Urban Ecology 691

These approaches have similar objectives:

**8. Urban soil** 

analyzed [22].

against negative anthropogenic effects [22].

**9. Urban biodiversity** 

1. To manage urban water cycle in a sustainable fashion (by taking into account both

5. To conserve water resources as a resource rather than a nuisance (like, storm water), 6. To enhance urban landscape and amenity by incorporating storm water management

Analyzing and determining the soil features are important in urban design for two reasons. First, it is important in terms of geologic basis for structure projects like edifice, tunnel, subway, etc. Second, it is mandatory to know the soil characteristic in growing plant. Physical features of soil, which can be listed as depth, mechanical structure, general characteristics, level of ground water, and geological basis; are not only important for tunnels and edifices, but also for all urban structures (road system, sewage, cesspool, etc). Soil is the natural environment for plants. Hence, determining soil features is of particular importance for the planned green areas in the city. For this reason, in establishing cities, favorable soils for structures should be found through soil analysis and marked on maps, and the relations between soil characteristic and how to benefit from the soil should be

The soil in the areas that were left to make greenery near the building has lost its genetic characteristic and mixed with construction leftovers, cement, and concrete. Therefore, to those spots, on which green areas will be built, soil from other places are carried on trucks; they do not include concrete, but organic materials; and they are generally spread in a thin layer. For this reason, natural soil features, which are main factors of growing plant in cities, have rarely survived. As for the plants that will be grown in cities, shadows of buildings and windbreak, negative effects of salts sprayed onto the city roads in winter, and flue gas should be prior factors to consider. In this sense, plant species that will be used in urban design should have a broad ecologic tolerance; in other words, they should be durable

Biodiversity provides an ecosystem system, on which the standard of living on European citizens depends, urban setting proves this successfully. Urbanites benefit from recreational, social and inspirational services of the nature, both inside and outside of cities. Yet, ecosystems are also crucial in terms of basic living conditions in cities. Thanks to its positive climatic effects, urban greenery will play an important role in adapting strategies to deal with climate change, which is expected to intensify or alter the specific urban climatic

surface and ground water, flooding and impacts on waterways erosion), 2. To maintain or return the flow regime as much as possible back to its natural level, 3. To protect and restore, if possible, water quality (for both surface and ground water),

4. To protect and restore, if possible, the health of receiving water,

measures, which offer multiple benefits, into the landscape [29].

In Europe, according to the findings obtained from research, low level humidity and more frequent fogs cause torrential rainfall repetition to increase. For this reason, it was determined that the number of days of torrential rainfall in the city is between 13 and 63% more than the open area and forest designs. Therefore, it was revealed that the city's annual rainfall is around 5 – 31% higher than open area and forest designs, depending on the land surface shape, height, climate characteristics, the size of the structures [24]. However, torrential rainfall and impervious surfaces inside the city cause this precipitation water to be lost in a short time; rain water does not contribute to the water economy efficiently [22].

For Bai [28], increased impervious cover is among the most significant modifications affecting streams in urban sites; it transforms hydrology and funnels accumulated pollutants from buildings, roadways, and parking lots into streams. In United States point source pollution was reduced by regulations; yet it is still an important problem in several developing countries [16]. It is crucial to remember that industrial discharges and sewage contaminate both rivers and lakes. In new design cities storm water infrastructure is separate from wastewater discharges; this is not the case in older European and American cities, where two streams are mixed and causing to acute pollution in recipient systems. The storms and low flow-discharge of cities lead to local, even regional pollution downstream, which are particularly caused by pesticides and persistent organic pollutants [16].

Urban hydrology has been altered to develop a way to manage urban runoff against flood, and to protect health and the environment. In recent years there have been important developments regarding the measurement and prediction of urban rainfall by using technologic devices such as radar and microwave networks. The predictability of urban hydrology has been improved also in order to provide models convenient with small temporal and spatial scales typical to urban and pheri urban applications. Urban storm water management has started to take into account the needs of environment and human beings. There is a strict trend towards restoring pre-development flow-regimes and water quality; also, it is believed that restoring more natural water balance would not only be an advantage to environment, but support the livability of the urban landscape. Although it was regarded as a trouble, today storm water is increasingly seen as a resource [29].

Urban runoff management has evolved with the understanding of its environmental impacts. Referred approach developed many terms such as, Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) [30], Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) [31-32] and Low Impact Development (LID) [33].

These approaches have similar objectives:


## **8. Urban soil**

690 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Development (LID) [33].

reaching the ground. It is possible that these can decrease the frequency and volume of storm water runoff, flooding damage, storm water treatment costs, and other problems in terms of water quality. According to the runoff estimates, which were conducted for an intensive storm in Dayton/OH, the tree canopy (22%) decreased runoff by 7%, and a decent increase in canopy (around 29%) can decrease runoff by almost 1*2%* (Sanders [26] from Nowak and Dwyer [27]). In addition, it was revealed that tree cover on pervious surfaces decreased runoff, total of 40 %; its effect on runoff was lesser on impervious surfaces [27].

In Europe, according to the findings obtained from research, low level humidity and more frequent fogs cause torrential rainfall repetition to increase. For this reason, it was determined that the number of days of torrential rainfall in the city is between 13 and 63% more than the open area and forest designs. Therefore, it was revealed that the city's annual rainfall is around 5 – 31% higher than open area and forest designs, depending on the land surface shape, height, climate characteristics, the size of the structures [24]. However, torrential rainfall and impervious surfaces inside the city cause this precipitation water to be lost in a short time; rain water does not contribute to the water economy efficiently [22].

For Bai [28], increased impervious cover is among the most significant modifications affecting streams in urban sites; it transforms hydrology and funnels accumulated pollutants from buildings, roadways, and parking lots into streams. In United States point source pollution was reduced by regulations; yet it is still an important problem in several developing countries [16]. It is crucial to remember that industrial discharges and sewage contaminate both rivers and lakes. In new design cities storm water infrastructure is separate from wastewater discharges; this is not the case in older European and American cities, where two streams are mixed and causing to acute pollution in recipient systems. The storms and low flow-discharge of cities lead to local, even regional pollution downstream,

which are particularly caused by pesticides and persistent organic pollutants [16].

was regarded as a trouble, today storm water is increasingly seen as a resource [29].

Urban runoff management has evolved with the understanding of its environmental impacts. Referred approach developed many terms such as, Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) [30], Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) [31-32] and Low Impact

Urban hydrology has been altered to develop a way to manage urban runoff against flood, and to protect health and the environment. In recent years there have been important developments regarding the measurement and prediction of urban rainfall by using technologic devices such as radar and microwave networks. The predictability of urban hydrology has been improved also in order to provide models convenient with small temporal and spatial scales typical to urban and pheri urban applications. Urban storm water management has started to take into account the needs of environment and human beings. There is a strict trend towards restoring pre-development flow-regimes and water quality; also, it is believed that restoring more natural water balance would not only be an advantage to environment, but support the livability of the urban landscape. Although it Analyzing and determining the soil features are important in urban design for two reasons. First, it is important in terms of geologic basis for structure projects like edifice, tunnel, subway, etc. Second, it is mandatory to know the soil characteristic in growing plant. Physical features of soil, which can be listed as depth, mechanical structure, general characteristics, level of ground water, and geological basis; are not only important for tunnels and edifices, but also for all urban structures (road system, sewage, cesspool, etc). Soil is the natural environment for plants. Hence, determining soil features is of particular importance for the planned green areas in the city. For this reason, in establishing cities, favorable soils for structures should be found through soil analysis and marked on maps, and the relations between soil characteristic and how to benefit from the soil should be analyzed [22].

The soil in the areas that were left to make greenery near the building has lost its genetic characteristic and mixed with construction leftovers, cement, and concrete. Therefore, to those spots, on which green areas will be built, soil from other places are carried on trucks; they do not include concrete, but organic materials; and they are generally spread in a thin layer. For this reason, natural soil features, which are main factors of growing plant in cities, have rarely survived. As for the plants that will be grown in cities, shadows of buildings and windbreak, negative effects of salts sprayed onto the city roads in winter, and flue gas should be prior factors to consider. In this sense, plant species that will be used in urban design should have a broad ecologic tolerance; in other words, they should be durable against negative anthropogenic effects [22].

## **9. Urban biodiversity**

Biodiversity provides an ecosystem system, on which the standard of living on European citizens depends, urban setting proves this successfully. Urbanites benefit from recreational, social and inspirational services of the nature, both inside and outside of cities. Yet, ecosystems are also crucial in terms of basic living conditions in cities. Thanks to its positive climatic effects, urban greenery will play an important role in adapting strategies to deal with climate change, which is expected to intensify or alter the specific urban climatic

conditions. Urban greenery makes cities attraction centers; it prevents urban sprawl and saves space for biodiversity. In addition, as in-city services increase, the city's footprint is decreased; as a result, potential negative effects on biodiversity and environment is destroyed [13].

Urban Ecology 693

Extensive use of native species is essential for the sake of urban biodiversity. By doing so it could be possible to carry out more sccesful landscape projects with minimum maintenance work and cost. Furthermore, a breeding and feeding environment can be created through increasing biodiversity and by using native species. Regarding sustainable cities, floristic

Biotic, physical and social factors along with processes are related to biodiversity in urban ecosystems. On the other hand, ecology itself is insufficient to delineate urban ecosystems. As a result, it is advised to establish an interdicplinary approach, including natural and social sciences, that will discuss ecology-related inputs in terms of urban planning [38].

Wildlife in cities is generally undervalued. In recent years urban wetlands, abandoned industrial sites, roadside verges, vacant lots and derelict lands, ruins, allotment gardens and cemeteries - together with arboreta, residential gardens and villas, botanic gardens and individual balconies have begun to be seen as potential conservation areas for urban biodiversity [21, 39]. Dense population and infrastructure are two factors putting pressure on biodiversity in cities. What is necessary is to establish a balance between the urban green and tailor made green areas. At this point, 'double inner city development' can be used; this means to combine the existing 'made' areas with conservation, supporting the presence, character and availability of green spots and vacant spaces; and, strengthening the green infrastructure like street-trees, green walls and roofs. These will facilitate the way to access

Wild fauna inside the cities can be a positive demonstration of the richness of the 'green'; on

Rich diversities in urban landscapes can come to the fore as original communities. Urban green is an important part of urban landscape, which offers the opportunity to contact with wildlife in addition to environmental and socio-ecological benefits, regarding the quality of human life. Urban green areas are ecologically complex structures; their values can be defined in terms of goods and services within society. What is essential is to pick bioindicators that can be accessed and relied with regards to create a proper/balanced urban ecosystem, through integrating wildlife and biological parameters to human well-being [40].

What is more, it is important to highlight that urban ecosystems do have contributions to the well-being of urban life; however, urbanites depend on global ecosystems to survive. There are some services provided by urban ecosystems in order to improve the quality of life; accordingly, air quality, lower level noise were all provided, these could not be done from distant ecosystems. The causes of these problems have yet to be solved, but their effects

At the end of the day, the hope is that the awareness of ecosystem services will be raised, which will help to maintain a more resource-efficient city structure and design. Only then

the other hand, this can be a challenge in some cases (e.g. foxes or seagulls) [13]

diversity is an important topic [38].

green areas in and out the city [13].

have been reduced. Both should be the main aim [11].

**11. Discussion** 

**10. Urban wildlife** 

In addition to ecologic services, green areas –in which biologic diversity is supported- are also gaining favor in terms of public health, maintaining social cohesion, economic benefit (like the increase in real estate market thanks to the green areas), and low maintenance cost (less irrigation and fertilization by creating ecologically sustainable urban designs) [34].

Local and regional authorities have the legal power to designate conservation areas; to advocate EU's Natura 2000 networks; and, to bring biodiversity concerns urban and spatial planning agendas. Cities share the responsibility to select Natura 2000 sites. The scale of public commitment can be traced in Local Agenda 21 processes, which aim to establish sustainable societies identifying biodiversity as a precondition to build resilient cities. European Union supports advanced commitment and increased awareness by honoring the most sustainable cities, the European Green Capital Award (see the box below), and establishing a legal framework to protect biodiversity through, Natura 2000 network under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives, Air Quality Directives, the Water Framework Directive and the development of a Soil Directive [13].

Cities are crucial in terms of sheltering some rare and endangered species and habitats, which are considered to be important at the European level as well. There are a total of 97 Natura 200 sites are located in 32 major European cities. Of these cities, sixteen are capitals (for example, London, Paris, Prague, Rome and Tallinn). In addition, one or more harbors in more than half of the EU's capitals are Natura 2000 sites. Although Berlin has 15 Natura 2000 sites, most of the others have one or two. A new City Biodiversity Index (CBI) has been developed by favor of Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and contributions of Governments for Sustainability (ICLEI) [13].

In cities, the value of biodiversity is closely related to societies' cultural and social preferences. Biodiversity not only offers quite an amount of ecosystem services to urbanites, it also modifies negative perceptions created by cities [35].

As Walker and Salt [36] put, it is possible to perceive urban diversity within the framework of response diversity, which is the case when species and ecosystems respond differently to external interventions, even though they function collectively. For instance, urban trees intercept large amounts of precipitation, and prevent flooding; therefore, tree diversity contributes to precipitation interception's response diversity function [37]. As a result, strong biodiversity guarantees lower risk for the entire function, despite local extinction. As the cities continue to face the effects of climate change, response diversity will be an important capacity building factor in terms of resistance [37].

From the perspective of urban planning, protection of biodiversity in cities is a high-priority for both stakeholders and decision-makers. Still, when it comes to put the issue at the top priority list during the planning process, it is left behind of anthropocentric objectives such as economic development, transportation, land use and recreation [37].

Extensive use of native species is essential for the sake of urban biodiversity. By doing so it could be possible to carry out more sccesful landscape projects with minimum maintenance work and cost. Furthermore, a breeding and feeding environment can be created through increasing biodiversity and by using native species. Regarding sustainable cities, floristic diversity is an important topic [38].

Biotic, physical and social factors along with processes are related to biodiversity in urban ecosystems. On the other hand, ecology itself is insufficient to delineate urban ecosystems. As a result, it is advised to establish an interdicplinary approach, including natural and social sciences, that will discuss ecology-related inputs in terms of urban planning [38].

## **10. Urban wildlife**

692 Advances in Landscape Architecture

destroyed [13].

conditions. Urban greenery makes cities attraction centers; it prevents urban sprawl and saves space for biodiversity. In addition, as in-city services increase, the city's footprint is decreased; as a result, potential negative effects on biodiversity and environment is

In addition to ecologic services, green areas –in which biologic diversity is supported- are also gaining favor in terms of public health, maintaining social cohesion, economic benefit (like the increase in real estate market thanks to the green areas), and low maintenance cost (less irrigation and fertilization by creating ecologically sustainable urban designs) [34].

Local and regional authorities have the legal power to designate conservation areas; to advocate EU's Natura 2000 networks; and, to bring biodiversity concerns urban and spatial planning agendas. Cities share the responsibility to select Natura 2000 sites. The scale of public commitment can be traced in Local Agenda 21 processes, which aim to establish sustainable societies identifying biodiversity as a precondition to build resilient cities. European Union supports advanced commitment and increased awareness by honoring the most sustainable cities, the European Green Capital Award (see the box below), and establishing a legal framework to protect biodiversity through, Natura 2000 network under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives, Air Quality Directives, the Water Framework

Cities are crucial in terms of sheltering some rare and endangered species and habitats, which are considered to be important at the European level as well. There are a total of 97 Natura 200 sites are located in 32 major European cities. Of these cities, sixteen are capitals (for example, London, Paris, Prague, Rome and Tallinn). In addition, one or more harbors in more than half of the EU's capitals are Natura 2000 sites. Although Berlin has 15 Natura 2000 sites, most of the others have one or two. A new City Biodiversity Index (CBI) has been developed by favor of Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and contributions of

In cities, the value of biodiversity is closely related to societies' cultural and social preferences. Biodiversity not only offers quite an amount of ecosystem services to urbanites,

As Walker and Salt [36] put, it is possible to perceive urban diversity within the framework of response diversity, which is the case when species and ecosystems respond differently to external interventions, even though they function collectively. For instance, urban trees intercept large amounts of precipitation, and prevent flooding; therefore, tree diversity contributes to precipitation interception's response diversity function [37]. As a result, strong biodiversity guarantees lower risk for the entire function, despite local extinction. As the cities continue to face the effects of climate change, response diversity will be an

From the perspective of urban planning, protection of biodiversity in cities is a high-priority for both stakeholders and decision-makers. Still, when it comes to put the issue at the top priority list during the planning process, it is left behind of anthropocentric objectives such

Directive and the development of a Soil Directive [13].

Governments for Sustainability (ICLEI) [13].

it also modifies negative perceptions created by cities [35].

important capacity building factor in terms of resistance [37].

as economic development, transportation, land use and recreation [37].

Wildlife in cities is generally undervalued. In recent years urban wetlands, abandoned industrial sites, roadside verges, vacant lots and derelict lands, ruins, allotment gardens and cemeteries - together with arboreta, residential gardens and villas, botanic gardens and individual balconies have begun to be seen as potential conservation areas for urban biodiversity [21, 39]. Dense population and infrastructure are two factors putting pressure on biodiversity in cities. What is necessary is to establish a balance between the urban green and tailor made green areas. At this point, 'double inner city development' can be used; this means to combine the existing 'made' areas with conservation, supporting the presence, character and availability of green spots and vacant spaces; and, strengthening the green infrastructure like street-trees, green walls and roofs. These will facilitate the way to access green areas in and out the city [13].

Wild fauna inside the cities can be a positive demonstration of the richness of the 'green'; on the other hand, this can be a challenge in some cases (e.g. foxes or seagulls) [13]

Rich diversities in urban landscapes can come to the fore as original communities. Urban green is an important part of urban landscape, which offers the opportunity to contact with wildlife in addition to environmental and socio-ecological benefits, regarding the quality of human life. Urban green areas are ecologically complex structures; their values can be defined in terms of goods and services within society. What is essential is to pick bioindicators that can be accessed and relied with regards to create a proper/balanced urban ecosystem, through integrating wildlife and biological parameters to human well-being [40].

## **11. Discussion**

What is more, it is important to highlight that urban ecosystems do have contributions to the well-being of urban life; however, urbanites depend on global ecosystems to survive. There are some services provided by urban ecosystems in order to improve the quality of life; accordingly, air quality, lower level noise were all provided, these could not be done from distant ecosystems. The causes of these problems have yet to be solved, but their effects have been reduced. Both should be the main aim [11].

At the end of the day, the hope is that the awareness of ecosystem services will be raised, which will help to maintain a more resource-efficient city structure and design. Only then urban ecosystems will be respected for their contributions to life in urban areas, and gained priority when the area faces exploitation. In addition, the idea of significance of ecosystem services could result in protection of unexploited urban areas, even expanding them. One of the most important key objectives is that ecosystem services in urban areas and ecosystems are appreciated by political authorities and city planners as the cities grow in future [11].

Urban Ecology 695

[5] Marzluff JM., Shulenberger E., Endlicher W., Alberti M., Bradley G., Ryan C., Simon U., ZumBrunnen C. Urban Ecology. An International Perspective on the Interaction Between Human and Nature. Springer Science and Business Media, New York; 2008. [6] Grimm NB., Grove JM., Pickett STA., Redman CL. Integrated Approaches To Long-

[7] Wu J. Making The Case For Landscape Ecology- An Effective Approach To Urban

[8] Niemelä J., Breuste JH., Guntenspergen G., McIntyre NE., Elmqvist T., James P. Urban

[9] Moll G., Petit J. The Urban Ecosystem: Putting Nature Back in The Picture. Urban

[10] Rebele F. Urban Ecology and Special Features of Urban Ecosystems. Global Ecol.

[11] Bolund P., Hunhammar S. Analysis Ecosystem Services in Urban Areas. Ecological

[12] Berry BJL. Urbanization. Urban Ecology. An International Perspective on the Interaction

[13] EEA 2010. European Enviroment Agency. 10 Messages for 2010 Urban Ecosystems.

[14] Marsh WM. 2010. Landscape Planning Environmental Applications.John Wiley & Sons,

[15] Gilbert OL. 1989. Characteristics of the Urban Flora and Fauna. Urban Ecology Reader. Instructor: Myrna Hall. Faculty of Environmental Studies, SUNY College of

[16] Grimm NB., Faeth SH., Golubiewski NE., Redman CL., Wu JG., Bai XM., Briggs JM.

[17] Sukopp H. On the early history of urban ecology in Europe. In Marzluff, J. M., Shulenberger, E., Endlicher, W., Alberti, M., Bradley, G., Ryan, C., Simon U. and ZumBrunnen, C. 2008. Urban Ecology. An International Perspective on the Interaction

[18] Alberti M. Advances in Urban Ecology: Integrating Humans and Ecological Processes

[19] Berkes F., Colding, J., Folke, C. (eds) 2003. Navigating Social-Ecological Systems. Building Resilience for complexity and Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. [20] Uslu A. Kent Ekolojisi. Genel Ekoloji. Editör: Sabri Gökmen. Nobel Yayn Dağtm. Nobel Yayn No: 1160. Nobel Yayn Ve Araştrma Merkezi Yayn No: 1. Fen Ve Biyoloji

[21] Hough M. Cities and Natural Process A Basis For Sustainability. Routledge Taylor &

[24] Barner J. Experimentelle Landschaftsökologic. Ferdinat Enke Verlag, Stutgart; 1983. [25] Leopold LB., Hydrology for urban land planning. Washington, D.C. :U.S. Goverment

between Humans and Nature. Springer, New York. p25-48; 2008.

Global Change and the Ecology of Cities. Science 2008;319 756-760.

[22] Çepel N. Peyzaj Ekolojisi. İÜ Orman Fakültesi Yaynlar, İstanbul; 1994. [23] Landsberg Hei. The Urban Climate New York: Academic Press; 1981.

Printing Office, G.P.O. Geological Survey Circular 554; 1968

Term Studies of Urban Ecological Systems. BioScience 2000;50 571-584.

Sustainability. Landscape Journal 2008;27 41-50.

Ecology; 2011.

Inc.

Forests 1994;Oct-Nov 8–15.

Economics 1999;29 293–301.

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ISBN 978-92-9213-148-7 EEA, Copenhagen.

Environmental Science and Forestry. Syracuse, NY.

Between Human and Nature. pp 79-87; 2008.

in Urban Ecosystems. Springer-verlag, New York; 2008.

Yaynlar Dizisi 37. ISBN 978-9944-77-170-2; 2007.

Francis Group; 2004.

In urban ecology studies, natural and social sciences were intermingled; the aim is to research these radically altered local environments in terms of their regional and global effects. In this rapidly urbanized world cities are the center of problems as well as solutions regarding sustainability challenges [16].

Ecologists can approach to cities as real-world laboratories; therefore, they can better understand the basic patterns and processes; and, work in collaboration with city planners, engineers, and architects in order to actualize urban policies that enhance and protect biodiversity and ecosystem function [16].

The main characteristics of cities –dense population, center of production and consumption, and waste disposal- cause the land to change and bring a number of environmental problems. These problems can be seen as sample microcosms of global environmental change addressing to the chance to develop ecology as well as global-change science. As known, human-induced activities take place on Earth, a biophysically constrained planet, and it is strongly believed that urban ecology can clarify the connection between urbanites and the biogeophysical environment they live. Ecological footprints are expanding; in this sense, the perception of issues with greater extent beyond human understanding should expand along with the broader effect of individual and collective life forms, preferences, and acts. As a consequence, it is hoped that industry and creativity, which have been located in urban centers throughout the history of man, would also be discussed as remedy, rather than problem. Last but not least, as a priority area, urban ecology has a significant mission to find solutions and develop the future of urban in a sustainable way [16].

## **Author details**

Canan Cengiz *Bartn University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

## **12. References**


[5] Marzluff JM., Shulenberger E., Endlicher W., Alberti M., Bradley G., Ryan C., Simon U., ZumBrunnen C. Urban Ecology. An International Perspective on the Interaction Between Human and Nature. Springer Science and Business Media, New York; 2008.

694 Advances in Landscape Architecture

regarding sustainability challenges [16].

biodiversity and ecosystem function [16].

**Author details** 

**12. References** 

Canan Cengiz

urban ecosystems will be respected for their contributions to life in urban areas, and gained priority when the area faces exploitation. In addition, the idea of significance of ecosystem services could result in protection of unexploited urban areas, even expanding them. One of the most important key objectives is that ecosystem services in urban areas and ecosystems are appreciated by political authorities and city planners as the cities grow in future [11].

In urban ecology studies, natural and social sciences were intermingled; the aim is to research these radically altered local environments in terms of their regional and global effects. In this rapidly urbanized world cities are the center of problems as well as solutions

Ecologists can approach to cities as real-world laboratories; therefore, they can better understand the basic patterns and processes; and, work in collaboration with city planners, engineers, and architects in order to actualize urban policies that enhance and protect

The main characteristics of cities –dense population, center of production and consumption, and waste disposal- cause the land to change and bring a number of environmental problems. These problems can be seen as sample microcosms of global environmental change addressing to the chance to develop ecology as well as global-change science. As known, human-induced activities take place on Earth, a biophysically constrained planet, and it is strongly believed that urban ecology can clarify the connection between urbanites and the biogeophysical environment they live. Ecological footprints are expanding; in this sense, the perception of issues with greater extent beyond human understanding should expand along with the broader effect of individual and collective life forms, preferences, and acts. As a consequence, it is hoped that industry and creativity, which have been located in urban centers throughout the history of man, would also be discussed as remedy, rather than problem. Last but not least, as a priority area, urban ecology has a significant mission

to find solutions and develop the future of urban in a sustainable way [16].

*Bartn University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

[2] United Nations 2007. World urbanization prospects: the 2007 revision. UN.

Ulrike Weiland. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.; 2012.

[1] Niemela J. Ecology and Urban Planning. Biodiversity and Conservation 1999;8 119-131.

[3] Alberti M., Marzluff J. M., Shulenberger E., Bradley G., Ryan C., Zumbrunnen C. Integrating Humans into Ecology: Opportunities and Challenges for Studying Urban Ecosystems. American Institute of Biological Sciences. BioScience 2003; 53(12) 1169-1179. [4] Weiland U., Richter M. Urban Ecology-brief History and Present Challenges. Applied Urban Ecology: A Global Framework. First Edition. Edited by Matthias Richter and


[26] Sanders, R. A.. Urban vegetation impacts on the urban hydrology of Dayton Ohaio. Urban Ecology. 1986;9 361-376.

**Chapter 27** 

© 2013 Cetin, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Landscape Engineering, Protecting Soil,** 

Landscape engineering thinks about the application of mathematics and science to the creation of convenient outdoor living areas. These outdoor living areas are a consequence of the design and the construction process made feasible by landscape architects through landscape contractors. Beside landscape engineer's interested in containing site grading and

Landscape engineers employ engineering knowledge when designing and building spaces. They demand to know how to interpret contour maps which shows elevations and surface configuration by means of contour line sand and also consider how to interpret 2-D images, compute angles and grading requirements for pavements, parking lots, bridges, roads and other structures. Beside they understand the amount of fill needed for specific areas and

1. Stormwater management: building up bioswales, landscape materials used to gather

2. Mitigation of the urban heat island effect: diminishing the quantity of paved surfaces, building up green roofs and green walls, and using building materials with low

5. Transportation: growth expanding pedestrian accessibility, limiting vehicle speeds and

All above are using for the mixing plastic with asphalt on the pavement for the above reasons. One of them we are using porous plastic asphalt on the pavement for diminishing

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

3. Wildlife habitat: protecting habitat and building up green roofs and rain gardens.

the sounds of road, and protecting the soil, and making runoff out the structure.

**and Runoff Storm Water** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

drainage, earthwork calculations, and watersheds [1,12,13].

figure out how water runoff and flow should affect their designs. Developing and improving for landscape engineering [1,3,13,14]

and install runoff, rain gardens and porous asphalt.

4. Social spaces: areas for walking, biking, gathering and eating.

encouraging the use of public transportation.

Mehmet Cetin

**1. Introduction** 

reflectivity.

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55812


## **Landscape Engineering, Protecting Soil, and Runoff Storm Water**

Mehmet Cetin

696 Advances in Landscape Architecture

2007; 110:213-22.

Engineers;2002. p. 16.

10.1007/s10980-012-9799-z

Bulletin 2012;1(6b): 1626-1634.

Urban Ecology. 1986;9 361-376.

Sustainability? Environment 2006;48(7) 22-38.

Ireland. CIRIA report no. C521. Dundee, Scotland;2000

0040, E-ISSN: 2146-0132, www.nobel.gen.tr; 2013.

world. Island Press, Washington, DC. (2006)

Planning and Urban Development of Western Australia;1994.

New York; 2000 pp 11–25.

[26] Sanders, R. A.. Urban vegetation impacts on the urban hydrology of Dayton Ohaio.

[27] Nowak DJ, Dwyer JF Understanding the benefits and costs of urban forest ecosystems. In: Kuser JE (ed) Handbook of urban and community forestry in the Northeast. Kluwer,

[28] Bai, X. and P. Shi, Pollution Control in China's Huai Basin: What Lessons for

[29] Fletcher TD., Andrieu H., Hamel P. Understanding, management and modelling of urban hydrology and its consequences for receiving waters: A state of the art. 2013;51 261-279. [30] CIRIA. Sustainable urban drainage systems-design manual for Scotland and Northern

[31] Whelans C, Maunsell HG, Thompson P. Planning and management guidelines for water sensitive urban (residential) design. Perth, Western Australia: Department of

[32] Wong THF. Water sensitive urban design;the journey thus far. Aust J Water Resour

[33] Coffman LS. Low impact development: Smart technology for clear water-definitions, issues, roadblocks and next steps. In: Strecker EW, Huber WC, editors. 9th International conference on urban drainage. Portland, Oregon, USA: American Society of Civil

[34] Uslu, A ve Shakouri, N. Kentsel Peyzajda Yeşil Altyap ve Biyolojik Çeşitliliği Destekleyecek Olanaklar. Türk Bilimsel Derlemeler Dergisi 6 (1): 46-50, 2013 ISSN: 1308-

[35] Celecia, J., UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme and Urban Ecosystem Research: A Brief Overview of the Evolution and Challenges of a Three-decade International Experience. Paper prepared for the MAB Urban Group for presentation at the ad hoc Working Group to Explore Applications of the Biosphere Reserve Concept to

[36] Walker B, Salt D Resilience thinking: sustaining ecosystems and people in a changing

[37] Ahern J 2012. Urban landscape sustainability and resilience: the promise and challenges of integrating ecology with urban planning and design. Landscape Ecology.

[38] Bekci B., Cengiz C. Cengiz, B. Evaluating Urban Biodiversity in terms of User Preferences: Urban Residential Landscapes in Bartn (Turkey). Fresenius Environmental

[39] Heywood V., 'The Importance of Urban Environments in Maintaining Biodiversity'. In:, di Castri, F. and Younès, T., (eds.), Biodiversity, Science and Development: Towards a New Partnership. CAB International, Wallingford, Oxon, in association with the

[40] Barrico L., Azul A M, Morais MC, Coutinho AP, Freitas H, Castro P.. Biodiversity in urban ecosystems: Plants and macromycetes as indicators for conservation planning in the city of Coimbra (Portugal). Landscape and Urban Planning 2012; 106(1) 88-102.

Urban Areas and their Hinterlands, UNESCO, Paris, November, 2000.

International Union of Biological Sciences; 1996, pp. 543–550.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55812

## **1. Introduction**

Landscape engineering thinks about the application of mathematics and science to the creation of convenient outdoor living areas. These outdoor living areas are a consequence of the design and the construction process made feasible by landscape architects through landscape contractors. Beside landscape engineer's interested in containing site grading and drainage, earthwork calculations, and watersheds [1,12,13].

Landscape engineers employ engineering knowledge when designing and building spaces. They demand to know how to interpret contour maps which shows elevations and surface configuration by means of contour line sand and also consider how to interpret 2-D images, compute angles and grading requirements for pavements, parking lots, bridges, roads and other structures. Beside they understand the amount of fill needed for specific areas and figure out how water runoff and flow should affect their designs.

Developing and improving for landscape engineering [1,3,13,14]


All above are using for the mixing plastic with asphalt on the pavement for the above reasons. One of them we are using porous plastic asphalt on the pavement for diminishing the sounds of road, and protecting the soil, and making runoff out the structure.

Porous plastic pavement which is a permeable pavement surface permits the action of storm water in order to infiltrate directly into the soil. It usually constructs with an underlying stone supply that temporarily stocks surface runoff before infiltrating into the subsoil. It takes the place of traditional pavement. There are various types of porous surfaces, including porous asphalt, permeable concrete and even grass or permeable pavers.

Landscape Engineering, Protecting Soil, and Runoff Storm Water 699

driveways, sidewalks, parking lots, and slope protection for the past 30 years in many countries, including the United States [17]. None of any researchers, to the authors' knowledge, have inquired for mixing permeable plastic asphalt so far that implement plastic waste as a binder bonder for permeable pavements. This study presents an alternative sustainable technology, familiar as permeable plastic asphalt, which should be implemented for permeable pavements. Permeable plastic asphalt material is produced from plastic waste, porous aggregates, and asphalt. The research evaluated the mechanical and hydraulic

An asphaltic paving material involves 4%, 5% and 6% percent, of granular recycled plastic (LDPE with 1%, 3%, and 6%), which supplements the porous aggregate component (aggregate size of 3/8, 4, 8, 16) of the mixture. The material produces a structurally superior paving material and longer lived roadbed. The plastic can contain any and all residual classes of recyclable plastic. The material produces roadbeds of higher strength with less total asphalt thickness and having greater water permeability, and is most useful for all layers below the surface layer. A process of shredding or mechanically granulating

A porous plastic asphalt pavement has benefit for using road users and road side environments such as decreasing road noise, developing drainage function, and driving security situation. Furthermore, the worth of porous asphalt is to support skid resistance, particularly in the wet weather, that is distinctly better than that of dense traditional asphalt

Conventional asphalt was not usually acceptable in the high temperature, humid, and traffic. As a result that some of issues were occurred like the pores were clogged, strength of drainage, rutting and scattering came off by traffic loading [20]. Large percentage of air voids of the mixture is adopted in order to maintain the drainage function. Nevertheless, in the way that the proportions of air void grow, strength feature of the mixture diminish. This is the main theorem of asphalt mixture. For solving this, landscape engineers think about

The aim of this research is to assess strength, which means the performances of porous asphalt mixtures, for testing Resilient Modulus to find Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS). Furthermore, it measures the durability of porous asphalt mixture using Marshall

It is the aim of this chapter (book) to outline the elementary essential parts fundamentals associate with the design, plan, and construct of pavements and to mix with plastic techniques that will allow a Landscape Engineer to plan and design a pavement to suit a variety of situations. After experiments next books chapters will be considered to help environment and nature same as protect soil and recycling. Next study will keep going to research the better experiments about permeable surfaces for using different plastic materials. As a result it gains economic, environmental, and practical design and plan for

characteristics of permeable plastic asphalt.

preferably forms the paving product.

the plastic for design and planning as binder.

[19].

Immersion test.

Landscape Engineering.

Porous plastic asphalt pavements suggest an alternative technology for stormwater management. It is varied from classical asphalt pavement designs so that the structure enables fluids to come frankly through it, decreasing or monitoring the amount of run-off from the surrounding area. By permitting precipitation and run-off to running out the structure, this pavement kind functions as an additional stormwater management technique. The mainly benefits of porous plastic asphalt pavements should contain both environmental and safety benefits including improved stormwater management, improved skid resistance, decreasing of spray to drivers and pedestrians, as well as a potential for noise decreasing. Porous plastic asphalt is applicable to many uses, including parking lots, driveways, sidewalks, bike paths, playgrounds and recreational courts. In addition, with proper maintenance, including regular vacuuming or pressure washing of the pavement surface to prevent clogging by sediments, porous asphalt can have a minimum service life of twenty years [15,16,17,18].

Bitumen is a valuable binder for road construction. Different grades of bitumen which is 30/40, 60/70 and 80/100 are available on the basis of their penetration values. The steady growth in high traffic intensity in terms of commercial vehicles, and the important variation in daily and weather temperature demand developed road characteristics.

Nowadays the waste plastics are to exist tremendous, as the plastic elements have been piece of daily life for using. They either blended with Municipal Solid Waste and/or dispose of landfill. If not recycled, their present disposal is either by land filling that the method has certain impact on the environment. Because of that an alternate use for the waste plastics is also the needed.

Thinner polythene carry bags are most adequately disposed of wastes, which do not draw attention the attending rag pickers to accumulate for forward recycling, for lesser value. These polythene bags are simply suitable with bitumen at specified conditions. The waste polymer bitumen mix may be prepared and a study of the properties can throw more light on their use for road laying.

Permeable pavements have been sufficient in behalf of environmental problems and corroborating sustainable green construction procedures. They are planned to support surfaces for parking lots and pedestrian roads that will permit some of the precipitation to filter into the ground, decreasing the bulk of stormwater runoff and revitalizing groundwater [15,16,17]. Permeable porous asphalt and concrete are the most ordinarily used elements in permeable pavements. Permeable asphalt uses practically the similar elements as conventional asphalt, order than the percent range of plastic added, and the size of the aggregate is used to stay thin, permitting for minimum particle packing [16,17]. Permeable asphalt and concrete has been successfully implemented for road, retaining walls, streets, driveways, sidewalks, parking lots, and slope protection for the past 30 years in many countries, including the United States [17]. None of any researchers, to the authors' knowledge, have inquired for mixing permeable plastic asphalt so far that implement plastic waste as a binder bonder for permeable pavements. This study presents an alternative sustainable technology, familiar as permeable plastic asphalt, which should be implemented for permeable pavements. Permeable plastic asphalt material is produced from plastic waste, porous aggregates, and asphalt. The research evaluated the mechanical and hydraulic characteristics of permeable plastic asphalt.

698 Advances in Landscape Architecture

twenty years [15,16,17,18].

also the needed.

on their use for road laying.

Porous plastic pavement which is a permeable pavement surface permits the action of storm water in order to infiltrate directly into the soil. It usually constructs with an underlying stone supply that temporarily stocks surface runoff before infiltrating into the subsoil. It takes the place of traditional pavement. There are various types of porous surfaces,

Porous plastic asphalt pavements suggest an alternative technology for stormwater management. It is varied from classical asphalt pavement designs so that the structure enables fluids to come frankly through it, decreasing or monitoring the amount of run-off from the surrounding area. By permitting precipitation and run-off to running out the structure, this pavement kind functions as an additional stormwater management technique. The mainly benefits of porous plastic asphalt pavements should contain both environmental and safety benefits including improved stormwater management, improved skid resistance, decreasing of spray to drivers and pedestrians, as well as a potential for noise decreasing. Porous plastic asphalt is applicable to many uses, including parking lots, driveways, sidewalks, bike paths, playgrounds and recreational courts. In addition, with proper maintenance, including regular vacuuming or pressure washing of the pavement surface to prevent clogging by sediments, porous asphalt can have a minimum service life of

Bitumen is a valuable binder for road construction. Different grades of bitumen which is 30/40, 60/70 and 80/100 are available on the basis of their penetration values. The steady growth in high traffic intensity in terms of commercial vehicles, and the important variation

Nowadays the waste plastics are to exist tremendous, as the plastic elements have been piece of daily life for using. They either blended with Municipal Solid Waste and/or dispose of landfill. If not recycled, their present disposal is either by land filling that the method has certain impact on the environment. Because of that an alternate use for the waste plastics is

Thinner polythene carry bags are most adequately disposed of wastes, which do not draw attention the attending rag pickers to accumulate for forward recycling, for lesser value. These polythene bags are simply suitable with bitumen at specified conditions. The waste polymer bitumen mix may be prepared and a study of the properties can throw more light

Permeable pavements have been sufficient in behalf of environmental problems and corroborating sustainable green construction procedures. They are planned to support surfaces for parking lots and pedestrian roads that will permit some of the precipitation to filter into the ground, decreasing the bulk of stormwater runoff and revitalizing groundwater [15,16,17]. Permeable porous asphalt and concrete are the most ordinarily used elements in permeable pavements. Permeable asphalt uses practically the similar elements as conventional asphalt, order than the percent range of plastic added, and the size of the aggregate is used to stay thin, permitting for minimum particle packing [16,17]. Permeable asphalt and concrete has been successfully implemented for road, retaining walls, streets,

in daily and weather temperature demand developed road characteristics.

including porous asphalt, permeable concrete and even grass or permeable pavers.

An asphaltic paving material involves 4%, 5% and 6% percent, of granular recycled plastic (LDPE with 1%, 3%, and 6%), which supplements the porous aggregate component (aggregate size of 3/8, 4, 8, 16) of the mixture. The material produces a structurally superior paving material and longer lived roadbed. The plastic can contain any and all residual classes of recyclable plastic. The material produces roadbeds of higher strength with less total asphalt thickness and having greater water permeability, and is most useful for all layers below the surface layer. A process of shredding or mechanically granulating preferably forms the paving product.

A porous plastic asphalt pavement has benefit for using road users and road side environments such as decreasing road noise, developing drainage function, and driving security situation. Furthermore, the worth of porous asphalt is to support skid resistance, particularly in the wet weather, that is distinctly better than that of dense traditional asphalt [19].

Conventional asphalt was not usually acceptable in the high temperature, humid, and traffic. As a result that some of issues were occurred like the pores were clogged, strength of drainage, rutting and scattering came off by traffic loading [20]. Large percentage of air voids of the mixture is adopted in order to maintain the drainage function. Nevertheless, in the way that the proportions of air void grow, strength feature of the mixture diminish. This is the main theorem of asphalt mixture. For solving this, landscape engineers think about the plastic for design and planning as binder.

The aim of this research is to assess strength, which means the performances of porous asphalt mixtures, for testing Resilient Modulus to find Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS). Furthermore, it measures the durability of porous asphalt mixture using Marshall Immersion test.

It is the aim of this chapter (book) to outline the elementary essential parts fundamentals associate with the design, plan, and construct of pavements and to mix with plastic techniques that will allow a Landscape Engineer to plan and design a pavement to suit a variety of situations. After experiments next books chapters will be considered to help environment and nature same as protect soil and recycling. Next study will keep going to research the better experiments about permeable surfaces for using different plastic materials. As a result it gains economic, environmental, and practical design and plan for Landscape Engineering.

## **1.1. Landscape engineering**

Landscape Engineering defined that is the art of developing land for people use and entertainment in such a manner as to obtain the utmost utility including with the utmost of beauty. It is a mistake to take into consideration the subject as implicated mainly with planting trees or to visualize its main function to be the supply of some decorative camouflage for some unsightly utility. Conversely, it has to be comprehended as a most important fundamental to life, and all art, which no utility would be necessary camouflage, and that every kind of artistic proceedings, instead of being without deep, has to be natural structural. Landscape engineering verifies the fundamental utilities, not as a necessary bad, but as necessarily well. In lieu of these utilities existing in the way of the objects, which the landscape engineer is succeed in doing, they turn out a most sufficient part of her/his own initiative. Apparently, once this point of view is admitted the Landscape Engineer and the others are definitely suiting for the same thing. Landscape Engineering impresses the main ideas, concepts, and techniques that cope with the functional, visual, and ecological perspectives of grading and landform cultivation. Landscape Engineering points out introduction to the processes, principles, and techniques of site engineering [1,3,13,21,22,23].

Landscape Engineering, Protecting Soil, and Runoff Storm Water 701

weight of construction, operation and maintenance must be found and recognized at the

A Landscape Engineer conducts and takes advantage of the strengths of nature for the benefit and satisfaction of man. For instance, if you were designing and planning a new landscape for your property and wanted to direct the winds to preserve your amusing areas, a Landscape Engineer would help you make a determination which trees to get and where to plant them; thus, the wind could avoid your patio or courtyard. Landscape engineering involves with the application of mathematics and science to the constitution of practical outdoor living areas. These areas are a conclusion of the design and the construction process made possible by landscape architects, along with landscape contractors. Other main contemplates of landscape engineer's include drainage and site grading, watersheds and earthwork calculations. It is the Landscape engineer's act to vigorously interest in the design of the landscape, hence, to significantly supervise the creation of the landscape design. Landscape engineering exemplifies the traditional engineering elements of planning, operation, management, design and construction, and assessment. Before planning and designing, Landscape engineer should consider three main

1. Landscape plan and design that Landscape Engineers interest planning the individual landforms so that they go along with the objectives arrange in the termination design phase. It is necessity that the Landscape engineer confers with the rest of the architectural team for carrying out a sufficient visual result once the construction

2. Termination design and plan that it implies setting targets as well as supporting the Landscape design of the project at hand. Landscape engineers who works very closely with the contractors and sub-contractors does for working with Landscape designers as well as the owner of a home or property for deciding what the desired look is

3. Functioning assessment that the reason of performance evolution of the Landscape engineer results in estimating liability and financial assurance of the landscape design and plan project. Thus, performance evaluation is vital to both the closure planning

As we preserve air and water, which we use for breathing and drink, the soil is very important as well. The quality of soil takes care of ecosystems. Soil quality, which would be linked to water quality, is a measure of soil productivity. As a determination soil quality which particularly, the bulk of soil to operate within ecosystem borders to endure keep up environmental quality, biological productivity, and support plant and animal health

Soil structure and water infiltration is very important for soil quality as well as aim attention at characteristics like organic matter content overall soil biological activity, nutrient

considered together and the essential steps to be taken in order to success it.

time of beginning [3,22].

areas that focus on [4,5,24]:

process is finished.

**1.2. Soil protection** 

[25,26,27].

progress and performance evaluation.

Students who pursue to study their career in Landscape Engineering programs learn about Landscape Design and Planning, Transportation Plan, Structural Landscape Design, Urban Planning, Site Planning, Ecological Design, Environmental Design, and Horticulture. Essential aims of all of subjects in Landscape Engineering pay attention to cover sustainability, and eco-friendly landscaping processes. They usually not only study with their specific area of studies like sustainable urbanism, environmental hazard management, historic preservation, ecological design but also focus in land development along with construction management, or a compound of land development and architecture [2,14].

Landscape engineer is that construction is the first step after designing and planning. Landscape engineer have to be continually consider to reach suitable adjustments between the operating cost, the construction cost, and the maintenance cost. For only during the construction period can the required savings be influenced at a minimum of expense. Landscape engineer think about completed without mention of subgrade conditions or specifications on material and method of placing while designing and planning pavement, parking lot, etc. Drains are often paid attention as releases for storm water during the catch basins although the drain is laid to accumulate the soil. With new experiment in planning is the topographical survey, usually worked out with care and precision during considers drain and protects soil.

Landscape engineer has to keep in mind when planning the pavement that it is a business proposition as well as a picture designing and planning. That the Landscape planned with an eye to operation and maintenance cost must in time, have the better financial situation to protect appearance. Meanwhile design and plans are begun; we have to never forget that budget is a factor in maintenance, whether the project is considered on the constant care principle. The complete design of the pavement is that while every element of pavement construction must be considered from the point of view of beauty and aesthetic value, the weight of construction, operation and maintenance must be found and recognized at the time of beginning [3,22].

A Landscape Engineer conducts and takes advantage of the strengths of nature for the benefit and satisfaction of man. For instance, if you were designing and planning a new landscape for your property and wanted to direct the winds to preserve your amusing areas, a Landscape Engineer would help you make a determination which trees to get and where to plant them; thus, the wind could avoid your patio or courtyard. Landscape engineering involves with the application of mathematics and science to the constitution of practical outdoor living areas. These areas are a conclusion of the design and the construction process made possible by landscape architects, along with landscape contractors. Other main contemplates of landscape engineer's include drainage and site grading, watersheds and earthwork calculations. It is the Landscape engineer's act to vigorously interest in the design of the landscape, hence, to significantly supervise the creation of the landscape design. Landscape engineering exemplifies the traditional engineering elements of planning, operation, management, design and construction, and assessment. Before planning and designing, Landscape engineer should consider three main areas that focus on [4,5,24]:


## **1.2. Soil protection**

700 Advances in Landscape Architecture

drain and protects soil.

**1.1. Landscape engineering** 

Landscape Engineering defined that is the art of developing land for people use and entertainment in such a manner as to obtain the utmost utility including with the utmost of beauty. It is a mistake to take into consideration the subject as implicated mainly with planting trees or to visualize its main function to be the supply of some decorative camouflage for some unsightly utility. Conversely, it has to be comprehended as a most important fundamental to life, and all art, which no utility would be necessary camouflage, and that every kind of artistic proceedings, instead of being without deep, has to be natural structural. Landscape engineering verifies the fundamental utilities, not as a necessary bad, but as necessarily well. In lieu of these utilities existing in the way of the objects, which the landscape engineer is succeed in doing, they turn out a most sufficient part of her/his own initiative. Apparently, once this point of view is admitted the Landscape Engineer and the others are definitely suiting for the same thing. Landscape Engineering impresses the main ideas, concepts, and techniques that cope with the functional, visual, and ecological perspectives of grading and landform cultivation. Landscape Engineering points out introduction to the processes, principles, and techniques of site engineering [1,3,13,21,22,23]. Students who pursue to study their career in Landscape Engineering programs learn about Landscape Design and Planning, Transportation Plan, Structural Landscape Design, Urban Planning, Site Planning, Ecological Design, Environmental Design, and Horticulture. Essential aims of all of subjects in Landscape Engineering pay attention to cover sustainability, and eco-friendly landscaping processes. They usually not only study with their specific area of studies like sustainable urbanism, environmental hazard management, historic preservation, ecological design but also focus in land development along with construction management, or a compound of land development and architecture [2,14].

Landscape engineer is that construction is the first step after designing and planning. Landscape engineer have to be continually consider to reach suitable adjustments between the operating cost, the construction cost, and the maintenance cost. For only during the construction period can the required savings be influenced at a minimum of expense. Landscape engineer think about completed without mention of subgrade conditions or specifications on material and method of placing while designing and planning pavement, parking lot, etc. Drains are often paid attention as releases for storm water during the catch basins although the drain is laid to accumulate the soil. With new experiment in planning is the topographical survey, usually worked out with care and precision during considers

Landscape engineer has to keep in mind when planning the pavement that it is a business proposition as well as a picture designing and planning. That the Landscape planned with an eye to operation and maintenance cost must in time, have the better financial situation to protect appearance. Meanwhile design and plans are begun; we have to never forget that budget is a factor in maintenance, whether the project is considered on the constant care principle. The complete design of the pavement is that while every element of pavement construction must be considered from the point of view of beauty and aesthetic value, the As we preserve air and water, which we use for breathing and drink, the soil is very important as well. The quality of soil takes care of ecosystems. Soil quality, which would be linked to water quality, is a measure of soil productivity. As a determination soil quality which particularly, the bulk of soil to operate within ecosystem borders to endure keep up environmental quality, biological productivity, and support plant and animal health [25,26,27].

Soil structure and water infiltration is very important for soil quality as well as aim attention at characteristics like organic matter content overall soil biological activity, nutrient

availability, and total organic matter levels [25,27]. Soil can be protected from erosion, landslide, and compaction by mixing plastic materials. Soil conveys very easy underground by water. Soil, which is ancient, rock broken into sand, silt and clay is the recycled and continuously transforming.

Landscape Engineering, Protecting Soil, and Runoff Storm Water 703

flooding after stormwater collection system is overwhelmed by the additional flow. So the

Stormwater is a problem so that it could collect chemicals waste, mud, dirt, and other pollutants and infiltrate in the storm sewer system or directly to a river, lake, coastal water, stream, or wetland. Anything, which inserts a storm sewer system, is released untilled into

The results of pollution of stormwater runoff could have many unfavorable effects on animals, plants, people, and fish. Sediment that could blur the water and make it complicated or unimaginable for aquatic plants to grown could demolish aquatic habitats. The pollution of stormwater usually influences drinking water sources, which could

The solution of pollution of stormwater that is permeable pavement consists of mixing plastic. Traditional concrete and asphalt don't tolerate water to infiltrate into the ground. Rather than these surfaces depend on storm drains to switch unwanted water, Permeable pavement systems permit rain and snowmelt to saturate with, diminishing stormwater runoff [28,32]. Stormwater runoff is without filtered water that arrives at oceans, streams, and lakes by means of streaming on impermeable surfaces that contain driveways, parking

Impermeable pavement in a watershed occurs in growth permeable runoff. The barely 10

Stormwater is pollution so that impermeable surfaces like parking lots, compacted soil, roads, buildings, do not permit rain to flows off from the land in the streams, further runoff

This further runoff would spoil streams and rivers as well as bring about flooding after the stormwater system is overflow by the extra flow so that the water is reveled out of the watershed through the storm event, barely drains the soil, fills groundwater, or stocks stream baseflow in dry weather. Contaminant inserting surface waters during rain that is lead to contaminate runoff. Daily people activities appear in sediment of pollutants on parking lots, farm fields, driveways, roads, lawns, roofs. As soon as precipitation begins,

A traditional city block creates more than five times more runoff than the forest because of impermeable pavement. The waste of penetration from city may come out with depth

The present drainage systems, which accumulate runoff from impermeable surfaces like roads, parking lots, roofs insure that water is effectively transported to ways of water during pipes. As a matter affects little storms water occur in growth ways of water flows.

water is out of watershed way through little drainage the soil, the storm event [31,32].

the waterbodies we run for fishing, swimming, and supplying drinking water.

transform to imitate human health and grow drinking water treatment costs.

**1.4. Correlation between impermeable pavement and permeable runoff** 

percent impermeable pavement in a watershed would occur in stream decline.

water flow off and eventually makes its way to a lake, ocean, and river.

is caused to be than in the immature condition [28,31].

Stomwater lead to some of issue that shows below.

lots, roads, and roofs.

groundwater changes [28,31,32].

The one of ways for protect and sustainably improve of soils is mixed cover pavement with plastic materials for prevent erosions of soil. Soil tests should be recommended for mixing with compaction plastic. It is evaluated compliance with hydrologic characteristics like drainage from plastic compaction.

## **1.3. Stormwater runoff**

Stormwater runoff comes off while precipitations from rain or snowmelt infiltrate the ground. Impermeable surfaces like pavement, driveways, parking lots, sidewalks, and streets restrain stormwater runoff from naturally permeate into the ground.

For understanding the impact of stormwater runoff firstly need to consider how important water cycles through the urban environment. The bulks of precipitation infiltrate forests flows slowly underground, are infiltrated in by natural progress, and eventually arrive at lakes, streams while is being its natural. When we design and plan to compress the land with roads, parking lots, and buildings, the natural progress of water infiltrate in the earth is diminished. The existing grasslands and forests are put in place of concrete, roofs, and asphalt that do not permit rain to infiltrate the earth. Rather than, the precipitations soak through as faster as directly into streams, storm drains, and all without the profit of filtration. Designing, planning and constructing with mixing plastic material help to infiltrate water on the driveway, parking lots, pavement in place of concrete or asphalt. Thus, they permit stormwater to quickly drain into the ground [28,29,30].

Stormwater is water that directly results from a rainfall event is not absorbed into soil and rapidly flows downstream, increasing the level of waterways. The flow of water results from precipitation and that occurs immediately following rainfall or as a result of snowmelt. Stormwater is the portion of rainfall that does not infiltrate into the soil. Rainwater and snowmelt that runs off impermeable surfaces rather than infiltrate into the soil through a drainage system of underground pipes, stormwater carries nutrients, fine soils, plant debris, drippings from vehicles, and other substances from the drainage basin most of lakes, ponds, and wetlands are connected to the stormwater system. Water collected in a system of pipes which drain roads and industrial or trade premises Stormwater may contain contaminants present on drained surfaces.

Stormwater is concerning about two issues that are the volume and timing of runoff water and prospective polluting. Stormwater is needed to flood control and water supplies. Also stormwater lead to be water pollution for conveying the water. As a stromwater, watermanagement on the pavements should probably do urban environments self-sustaining in terms of water. Stormwater is pollution because impermeable surfaces like parking lots, roads, buildings, compacted soil do not enable rain to drain into the ground. More runoff is constituted than in the unprogressive condition. Thus, it should consume waterways like flooding after stormwater collection system is overwhelmed by the additional flow. So the water is out of watershed way through little drainage the soil, the storm event [31,32].

702 Advances in Landscape Architecture

continuously transforming.

**1.3. Stormwater runoff** 

present on drained surfaces.

drainage from plastic compaction.

availability, and total organic matter levels [25,27]. Soil can be protected from erosion, landslide, and compaction by mixing plastic materials. Soil conveys very easy underground by water. Soil, which is ancient, rock broken into sand, silt and clay is the recycled and

The one of ways for protect and sustainably improve of soils is mixed cover pavement with plastic materials for prevent erosions of soil. Soil tests should be recommended for mixing with compaction plastic. It is evaluated compliance with hydrologic characteristics like

Stormwater runoff comes off while precipitations from rain or snowmelt infiltrate the ground. Impermeable surfaces like pavement, driveways, parking lots, sidewalks, and

For understanding the impact of stormwater runoff firstly need to consider how important water cycles through the urban environment. The bulks of precipitation infiltrate forests flows slowly underground, are infiltrated in by natural progress, and eventually arrive at lakes, streams while is being its natural. When we design and plan to compress the land with roads, parking lots, and buildings, the natural progress of water infiltrate in the earth is diminished. The existing grasslands and forests are put in place of concrete, roofs, and asphalt that do not permit rain to infiltrate the earth. Rather than, the precipitations soak through as faster as directly into streams, storm drains, and all without the profit of filtration. Designing, planning and constructing with mixing plastic material help to infiltrate water on the driveway, parking lots, pavement in place of concrete or asphalt.

Stormwater is water that directly results from a rainfall event is not absorbed into soil and rapidly flows downstream, increasing the level of waterways. The flow of water results from precipitation and that occurs immediately following rainfall or as a result of snowmelt. Stormwater is the portion of rainfall that does not infiltrate into the soil. Rainwater and snowmelt that runs off impermeable surfaces rather than infiltrate into the soil through a drainage system of underground pipes, stormwater carries nutrients, fine soils, plant debris, drippings from vehicles, and other substances from the drainage basin most of lakes, ponds, and wetlands are connected to the stormwater system. Water collected in a system of pipes which drain roads and industrial or trade premises Stormwater may contain contaminants

Stormwater is concerning about two issues that are the volume and timing of runoff water and prospective polluting. Stormwater is needed to flood control and water supplies. Also stormwater lead to be water pollution for conveying the water. As a stromwater, watermanagement on the pavements should probably do urban environments self-sustaining in terms of water. Stormwater is pollution because impermeable surfaces like parking lots, roads, buildings, compacted soil do not enable rain to drain into the ground. More runoff is constituted than in the unprogressive condition. Thus, it should consume waterways like

streets restrain stormwater runoff from naturally permeate into the ground.

Thus, they permit stormwater to quickly drain into the ground [28,29,30].

Stormwater is a problem so that it could collect chemicals waste, mud, dirt, and other pollutants and infiltrate in the storm sewer system or directly to a river, lake, coastal water, stream, or wetland. Anything, which inserts a storm sewer system, is released untilled into the waterbodies we run for fishing, swimming, and supplying drinking water.

The results of pollution of stormwater runoff could have many unfavorable effects on animals, plants, people, and fish. Sediment that could blur the water and make it complicated or unimaginable for aquatic plants to grown could demolish aquatic habitats. The pollution of stormwater usually influences drinking water sources, which could transform to imitate human health and grow drinking water treatment costs.

The solution of pollution of stormwater that is permeable pavement consists of mixing plastic. Traditional concrete and asphalt don't tolerate water to infiltrate into the ground. Rather than these surfaces depend on storm drains to switch unwanted water, Permeable pavement systems permit rain and snowmelt to saturate with, diminishing stormwater runoff [28,32]. Stormwater runoff is without filtered water that arrives at oceans, streams, and lakes by means of streaming on impermeable surfaces that contain driveways, parking lots, roads, and roofs.

## **1.4. Correlation between impermeable pavement and permeable runoff**

Impermeable pavement in a watershed occurs in growth permeable runoff. The barely 10 percent impermeable pavement in a watershed would occur in stream decline.

Stormwater is pollution so that impermeable surfaces like parking lots, compacted soil, roads, buildings, do not permit rain to flows off from the land in the streams, further runoff is caused to be than in the immature condition [28,31].

This further runoff would spoil streams and rivers as well as bring about flooding after the stormwater system is overflow by the extra flow so that the water is reveled out of the watershed through the storm event, barely drains the soil, fills groundwater, or stocks stream baseflow in dry weather. Contaminant inserting surface waters during rain that is lead to contaminate runoff. Daily people activities appear in sediment of pollutants on parking lots, farm fields, driveways, roads, lawns, roofs. As soon as precipitation begins, water flow off and eventually makes its way to a lake, ocean, and river.

A traditional city block creates more than five times more runoff than the forest because of impermeable pavement. The waste of penetration from city may come out with depth groundwater changes [28,31,32].

The present drainage systems, which accumulate runoff from impermeable surfaces like roads, parking lots, roofs insure that water is effectively transported to ways of water during pipes. As a matter affects little storms water occur in growth ways of water flows. Stomwater lead to some of issue that shows below.


## **1.5. Class of plastic for using contemporarily**

The simplest way for a user to label the class of plastic used in a product is to recognize the resin identification code, which is familiar with the material container code as well, is generally plotted, shaped or symbolized in or close to the middle of the bottom of the product. In accordance with the society of the plastics industry (SPI) resin identification code (or material code) is to systematize mutual plastic resins and their characteristics.

Landscape Engineering, Protecting Soil, and Runoff Storm Water 705

**Figure 1.** Samples of identification on the bottom of plastic water bottles

yogurt and margarine tubs, cereal box liners.

lids, toys, dry cleaning, bread, and frozen food bags.

carpet backing, window frames.

2. HDPE (High Density Polyethylene) is stiffness, strength or toughness, resistance to chemicals and moisture, permeability to gas, ease of processing, and ease of forming. It uses to make plenty classes of bottles. The bottles are clear, have good limit qualities and stiffness, and are quite appropriated to packaging products with a short shelf life like milk so that HDPE has good chemical resistance; it is used for packaging many household and industrial chemicals such as detergents and bleach. It uses milk, water, juice, cosmetic, shampoo, dish and laundry detergent bottles; trash and retail bags,

3. V, PVC (Vinyl, Polyvinyl Chloride) is versatility, ease of blending, strength or toughness, resistance to grease or oil, resistance to chemicals, clarity. It has well chemical resistance, weather ability, flow typical features and constant electrical qualities. Products made from Vinyl can be both flexible and rigid. It uses toys, clear food and non-food packaging, shampoo bottles, medical tubing, wire and cable insulation, film and sheet; construction products such as pipes, fittings, siding, flooring,

4. LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene) is ease of processing, barrier to moisture, strength or toughness, flexibility, ease of sealing. It is used efficaciously in film uses because of its flexibility toughness, and approximate transparency, making it familiar for use in uses that heat sealing is essential. Furthermore, LDPE uses to procedure some flexible lids and bottles as well as in wire and cable uses. It uses squeezable bottles (honey, mustard), coatings for paper milk cartons and hot and cold beverage cups, container

5. PP (Polypropylene) is strength or toughness, resistance to chemicals, resistance to heat, barrier to moisture, versatility, and resistance to grease or oil. It has good chemical resistance, is strong, and has a high melting point making it well for hot-fill liquids. This resin is brought to light in rigid and flexible packaging, fibers, and large pattern parts for automotive and consumer products. It uses containers for yogurt, margarine, takeout meals and deli foods, medicine bottles, bottle caps and bottles for ketchup. Furthermore, for packaging, its plenty of uses are in fibers, appliances and consumer

products, containing strong applications like automotive and carpeting.

The identification of plastics made known in 1988 by The Society of the Plastics Industry Trade Association (SPI) that provides to build the companies for easy recycles make collect the consumer plastics during the common pathways for coming together recyclable stuffs from household waste. It is based on willing for plastic manufacturers, however, it has evolved into comparatively standard on plastic products sold in the U.S. and internationally. For example, the identification of plastics is in service and is affirmed by the Canadian Plastics Industry Association (CPIA) in Canada. It supports specifics on the identification by mean of its Environment, health and safety strategic unit and its Environment and Plastics Industry Council (EPIC) [7,33,34].

The aim of the identification provides to make it simpler for recycling to plastics. Furthermore, it determines consumers with an easy, handy method for identifying the class of plastic resin used to create a specific product. In conformity with SPI identifications, the number is intentionally located in an unnoticeable place on the product so that the company purpose is not to affect the consumer's buying determination, barely to assist the progress of recycling of the product.

According to SPI, there are seven different classes of plastics. Showing Figure 1, the identification numbers imprint on the bottom of plastic products that is a number inside of triangle represents to mean their identifications for recycling. Have you ever been curious about what the numbers inside the little recycling symbol mean on all of the plastic packaging and plastic products which we consume for using?

According to SPI the identification in 1988 reciprocates to the consider revising of the plenty recyclers side to side the countries. Here each class of plastics number and definition [7].

1. PETE, PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate) is clarity, strength or toughness, barrier to gas and moisture, resistance to heat. It uses for consuming plastic soft drink and water bottles, beer bottles, mouthwash bottles, peanut butter and salad dressing containers, oven able film, oven able pre-prepared food trays.

**Figure 1.** Samples of identification on the bottom of plastic water bottles

recycling of the product.

1. Impermeable Pavement

2. Roads, sidewalks, rooftops, overly compacted soils 3. Do not allow for natural infiltration of stormwater

5. Degradation of water quality and natural habitats 6. Flooding, erosion and may reduce groundwater levels

**1.5. Class of plastic for using contemporarily** 

Environment and Plastics Industry Council (EPIC) [7,33,34].

packaging and plastic products which we consume for using?

oven able film, oven able pre-prepared food trays.

The simplest way for a user to label the class of plastic used in a product is to recognize the resin identification code, which is familiar with the material container code as well, is generally plotted, shaped or symbolized in or close to the middle of the bottom of the product. In accordance with the society of the plastics industry (SPI) resin identification code (or material code) is to systematize mutual plastic resins and their characteristics.

The identification of plastics made known in 1988 by The Society of the Plastics Industry Trade Association (SPI) that provides to build the companies for easy recycles make collect the consumer plastics during the common pathways for coming together recyclable stuffs from household waste. It is based on willing for plastic manufacturers, however, it has evolved into comparatively standard on plastic products sold in the U.S. and internationally. For example, the identification of plastics is in service and is affirmed by the Canadian Plastics Industry Association (CPIA) in Canada. It supports specifics on the identification by mean of its Environment, health and safety strategic unit and its

The aim of the identification provides to make it simpler for recycling to plastics. Furthermore, it determines consumers with an easy, handy method for identifying the class of plastic resin used to create a specific product. In conformity with SPI identifications, the number is intentionally located in an unnoticeable place on the product so that the company purpose is not to affect the consumer's buying determination, barely to assist the progress of

According to SPI, there are seven different classes of plastics. Showing Figure 1, the identification numbers imprint on the bottom of plastic products that is a number inside of triangle represents to mean their identifications for recycling. Have you ever been curious about what the numbers inside the little recycling symbol mean on all of the plastic

According to SPI the identification in 1988 reciprocates to the consider revising of the plenty recyclers side to side the countries. Here each class of plastics number and definition [7].

1. PETE, PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate) is clarity, strength or toughness, barrier to gas and moisture, resistance to heat. It uses for consuming plastic soft drink and water bottles, beer bottles, mouthwash bottles, peanut butter and salad dressing containers,

4. Increase temperatures (Heat Island Effect)


6. PS (Polystyrene) is versatility, insulation, and clarity, easily foamed as known "styrofoam". It is clear, hard and brittle. Also, it has an approximately low melting point. General uses contain protective packaging, food packaging, bottles, and food containers. It is usually connected with rubber to make high impact polystyrene (HIPS) that is used for packaging and constant uses necessity stiffness. It uses compact disc cases, food- service applications, grocery store meat trays, egg cartons, aspirin bottles, cups, plates, and cutlery.

Landscape Engineering, Protecting Soil, and Runoff Storm Water 707

traditional pavement affects the environment and nature. All of thriving technological elements such as cars, bike for becoming a simple life causes to influence the pavements

AASHTO have been in charge for various tests, which roads designed and implemented in United States as well as some of state highway departments have implemented test pavements for the aim of assessment the influence of load and elements on pavement

There is a small suspicion that the outcomes of test results have had extreme effect on current design ideas. Furthermore, efficiency of example pavements in service has had important effect on design. This is not shocking, if one thinks that it is hard to do if not unreasonable to judge entirely design ideas in the laboratory. In addition, it has been familiar with for quite a while that reader belief in the final analysis imposes the

Basically, with regard to history of pavements have been classified two main types which are flexible and rigid. Flexible pavements comprise asphalt. Nowadays flexible pavement is

Plan, design, and construction of permeable pavements have altered rather importantly in the last decades. On account of the current traditional plan, design, and construction pavements come up severe higher traffic levels, wheel loads, pavement lapse. A growth use of balanced is base and subbase. Balancers such as asphalt, plastic are repeatedly used to grow the structural strength of the pavement by growth rigorously. Because of the reason an extremely concentrated effort was made in the last several years to develop a more

Some of researchers assessed the impact of moisture susceptibility on porous asphalt samples [44]. Samples were based on wet and dry conditions and then tested for indirect tensile strength test (ITS). Results showed that ITS decreased noticeably when the sample

The aims of the study are need to do those. First of all; Disposal of waste plastic is a major problem, non-biodegradable, burning of these waste plastic bags causes environmental pollution. Secondly need is it mainly consists of low-density polyethylene, and to find its

very important with mixing plastic so that makes permeable areas.

fundamentally based design analysis for asphalt.

**2.4. Permeable plastic asphalt** 

**2.5. Purpose of plastic asphalt** 

was immersed in water.

lapse [40,41,42,43].

design.

**2.2. Conventional pavements** 

competency in some of the design.

**2.3. Definition pavement types** 

7. Other is dependent on resin or combination of resins. Use of this number represents which a package is made with a plastic other than the six listed above, or is made of more than one plastic and used in a multi-layer combination. It uses usually shows the exits of polycarbonate which a hard, clear plastic used to make baby bottles, water pitchers, nalgene brand water bottles, three and five-gallon reusable water bottles, food containers, some citrus juice and ketchup bottles, compact discs, cell phones, automobile parts, computers, three and five-gallon reusable water bottles, some citrus juice and catsup bottles, oven-baking bags, barrier layers and custom packaging.

## **2. Development of design**

## **2.1. Design factors**

The area of pavement design is vigorous in which ideas are steadily changing as new data evolve into achievable. For mixing plastic pavement that are many majority of design and plan applicable, since alternatives relating to sustainability, suitability of designs and plans alter from area to area. Especially, supplies that are applicable for construction and foundation of pavements have a higher impress on design and plan. There are, nevertheless, fundamentals of design that are mutual to all problems irrespective of other uncontrollable situation [35,36,37,38,39].

The plan and design of pavement embrace with a work of soils and paving materials, their action under load, and the plan and design of pavement to convey which load under all hydraulic and weather situations. All pavements obtain their eventual support from the underlying subgrade. As a result, a comprehension of elementary plastic materials, pavement design and soil mechanics is necessary. Landscape Engineers are familiar that efficiency of pavement that are connected to a large volume upon the types of plastic, soils over that the pavement is designed and constructed, therefore, in relationships pavement efficiency between subgrade types are built. On the whole, the experiments of mixing plastic pavement demonstrated that pavement designed and constructed over plastic displayed higher degrees of distress than those designed and implemented over traditional pavement. Frost process and unfavorable drainage situations were observed early as two of the primary reasons of pavement lapse.

However, many landscape engineers are made use of standard cross components for most pavements. It means that a road, even though it crossed several mixing plastic and soil types, was designed and implemented using a constant thickness. The foreseeing was usually confirmed on the rest of economics. Beginning of 1980s, people recognized that the traditional pavement affects the environment and nature. All of thriving technological elements such as cars, bike for becoming a simple life causes to influence the pavements lapse [40,41,42,43].

## **2.2. Conventional pavements**

706 Advances in Landscape Architecture

cups, plates, and cutlery.

**2. Development of design** 

**2.1. Design factors** 

situation [35,36,37,38,39].

primary reasons of pavement lapse.

6. PS (Polystyrene) is versatility, insulation, and clarity, easily foamed as known "styrofoam". It is clear, hard and brittle. Also, it has an approximately low melting point. General uses contain protective packaging, food packaging, bottles, and food containers. It is usually connected with rubber to make high impact polystyrene (HIPS) that is used for packaging and constant uses necessity stiffness. It uses compact disc cases, food- service applications, grocery store meat trays, egg cartons, aspirin bottles,

7. Other is dependent on resin or combination of resins. Use of this number represents which a package is made with a plastic other than the six listed above, or is made of more than one plastic and used in a multi-layer combination. It uses usually shows the exits of polycarbonate which a hard, clear plastic used to make baby bottles, water pitchers, nalgene brand water bottles, three and five-gallon reusable water bottles, food containers, some citrus juice and ketchup bottles, compact discs, cell phones, automobile parts, computers, three and five-gallon reusable water bottles, some citrus

juice and catsup bottles, oven-baking bags, barrier layers and custom packaging.

The area of pavement design is vigorous in which ideas are steadily changing as new data evolve into achievable. For mixing plastic pavement that are many majority of design and plan applicable, since alternatives relating to sustainability, suitability of designs and plans alter from area to area. Especially, supplies that are applicable for construction and foundation of pavements have a higher impress on design and plan. There are, nevertheless, fundamentals of design that are mutual to all problems irrespective of other uncontrollable

The plan and design of pavement embrace with a work of soils and paving materials, their action under load, and the plan and design of pavement to convey which load under all hydraulic and weather situations. All pavements obtain their eventual support from the underlying subgrade. As a result, a comprehension of elementary plastic materials, pavement design and soil mechanics is necessary. Landscape Engineers are familiar that efficiency of pavement that are connected to a large volume upon the types of plastic, soils over that the pavement is designed and constructed, therefore, in relationships pavement efficiency between subgrade types are built. On the whole, the experiments of mixing plastic pavement demonstrated that pavement designed and constructed over plastic displayed higher degrees of distress than those designed and implemented over traditional pavement. Frost process and unfavorable drainage situations were observed early as two of the

However, many landscape engineers are made use of standard cross components for most pavements. It means that a road, even though it crossed several mixing plastic and soil types, was designed and implemented using a constant thickness. The foreseeing was usually confirmed on the rest of economics. Beginning of 1980s, people recognized that the AASHTO have been in charge for various tests, which roads designed and implemented in United States as well as some of state highway departments have implemented test pavements for the aim of assessment the influence of load and elements on pavement design.

There is a small suspicion that the outcomes of test results have had extreme effect on current design ideas. Furthermore, efficiency of example pavements in service has had important effect on design. This is not shocking, if one thinks that it is hard to do if not unreasonable to judge entirely design ideas in the laboratory. In addition, it has been familiar with for quite a while that reader belief in the final analysis imposes the competency in some of the design.

## **2.3. Definition pavement types**

Basically, with regard to history of pavements have been classified two main types which are flexible and rigid. Flexible pavements comprise asphalt. Nowadays flexible pavement is very important with mixing plastic so that makes permeable areas.

Plan, design, and construction of permeable pavements have altered rather importantly in the last decades. On account of the current traditional plan, design, and construction pavements come up severe higher traffic levels, wheel loads, pavement lapse. A growth use of balanced is base and subbase. Balancers such as asphalt, plastic are repeatedly used to grow the structural strength of the pavement by growth rigorously. Because of the reason an extremely concentrated effort was made in the last several years to develop a more fundamentally based design analysis for asphalt.

## **2.4. Permeable plastic asphalt**

Some of researchers assessed the impact of moisture susceptibility on porous asphalt samples [44]. Samples were based on wet and dry conditions and then tested for indirect tensile strength test (ITS). Results showed that ITS decreased noticeably when the sample was immersed in water.

## **2.5. Purpose of plastic asphalt**

The aims of the study are need to do those. First of all; Disposal of waste plastic is a major problem, non-biodegradable, burning of these waste plastic bags causes environmental pollution. Secondly need is it mainly consists of low-density polyethylene, and to find its utility in bituminous mixes for road construction. Thirdly, Laboratory performance studies were conducted on bituminous mixes. Laboratory studies proved that waste plastic enhances the property of the mix, and improvement in properties of bituminous mix provides the solution for disposal in a useful way.

Landscape Engineering, Protecting Soil, and Runoff Storm Water 709

Recycled Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) material is used extensively to produce tote bags for domestic goods. These bags become solid waste after their use for short periods and cause serious waste disposal problems. To solve this environmental problem, and at the same time to improve the drain down and other related engineering properties of the porous asphalt mixture, reclaimed from LDPE bags was used in this investigation as additive in porous asphalt mixtures. LDPE material in shredded of used is as added

> **Recycled Low Density Polyethylene Features (LDPE) Mechanical Properties** Yield Strength 15-20 MPa Elongation @ break 600-650 % Bending Strength 10-40 MPa Young's modulus (E) 200-400 MPa Shear modulus 100-350 MPa Tensile Strength (σt) 8-12 MPa **Physical Properties** Density 910-928 kg/m3 Thermal expansion 150-200 e-6/K Water absorption 0.005-0.015 % Melting Point 248 oF 120 oC Thermal conductivity 0.3-0.335 W/m.K Melting temperature 125-136 oC Maximum Temperature 176 oF 80 oC Minimum Temperature 58 oF 50 oC

Specific heat (c) 1800-3400 J/kg.K

**Table 1.** Recycled Low Density Polyethylene Features (LDPE)

**Figure 2.** Shredded for recycled Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)

ingredient.

Waste plastics like polythene carry bags, etc. on heating usually at approximately 160°C. According to thermo gravimetric results has demonstrated that gas evolution isn't found during the temperature rank of 130 to 180°C. Furthermore the mellowed plastics have a binding feature. Therefore, the melted plastics can be implemented as a binder that they should be blended with binder like bitumen to improve their binding feature. As a result it should be a good modifier for the bitumen, implemented for road construction.

## **2.6. Function of the mix plastic asphalt**

The growth of plastic city wastes has affected to wide and creative technologies that incorporate recycled plastics in miscellaneous uses. Scientists and Departments of Transportation have been interested in different researches regarding to the feasibility, economic and ecological impact and the complete efficiency of recycled plastic in connected landscape engineering projects. For instance, recycled thermoplastics like PET, HDPE, and LDPE, have been implemented in porous asphalt mixtures to put in place of aggregates with specified diameters [45,46,47,48,49,50]. Conclusion from these researches demonstrated improvement in strength, durability, and fatigue life. Nevertheless, the scale of improvement is a capacity of the plastic types and amount. The rest of researchers implemented recycled plastic strips to mechanically stabilize and aggregates by mixing plastic shreds with aggregates to compaction to defeat inadequacies in grading and diminishing the plasticity index [51,52,53]. The scale of enhancement was affected by many factors like the class and volume of shreds, and aggregate classes. Furthermore, creative and innovative study has cause to the development of new mixed elements using recycled plastic waste for miscellaneous uses. The mixed is produced by heating and blending the absorption elements, recycled plastic, which flakes, shared, or unprocessed, granulates and by products to a highlighted temperature. The heated combination is then compacted into a particular mold to found a final product. The features of the mixed rely on the pressure, class of recycled plastic and granulates [54,55,56].

## **3. Material properties**

## **3.1. Recycled Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)**

The supplier for Recycled Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) provided the test properties of the material with respect to density, tensile strength at break, elongation at break, impact strength, and melting point of the material as shown below Table 1 [8,10]. Recycled low-density polyethylene (LDPE), which is identification number four, was gathered together and implemented in this research. The cleaned LDPE has shredded as shown below Figure 2.

Recycled Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) material is used extensively to produce tote bags for domestic goods. These bags become solid waste after their use for short periods and cause serious waste disposal problems. To solve this environmental problem, and at the same time to improve the drain down and other related engineering properties of the porous asphalt mixture, reclaimed from LDPE bags was used in this investigation as additive in porous asphalt mixtures. LDPE material in shredded of used is as added ingredient.


**Table 1.** Recycled Low Density Polyethylene Features (LDPE)

708 Advances in Landscape Architecture

provides the solution for disposal in a useful way.

**2.6. Function of the mix plastic asphalt** 

class of recycled plastic and granulates [54,55,56].

**3.1. Recycled Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)** 

**3. Material properties** 

Figure 2.

utility in bituminous mixes for road construction. Thirdly, Laboratory performance studies were conducted on bituminous mixes. Laboratory studies proved that waste plastic enhances the property of the mix, and improvement in properties of bituminous mix

Waste plastics like polythene carry bags, etc. on heating usually at approximately 160°C. According to thermo gravimetric results has demonstrated that gas evolution isn't found during the temperature rank of 130 to 180°C. Furthermore the mellowed plastics have a binding feature. Therefore, the melted plastics can be implemented as a binder that they should be blended with binder like bitumen to improve their binding feature. As a result it

The growth of plastic city wastes has affected to wide and creative technologies that incorporate recycled plastics in miscellaneous uses. Scientists and Departments of Transportation have been interested in different researches regarding to the feasibility, economic and ecological impact and the complete efficiency of recycled plastic in connected landscape engineering projects. For instance, recycled thermoplastics like PET, HDPE, and LDPE, have been implemented in porous asphalt mixtures to put in place of aggregates with specified diameters [45,46,47,48,49,50]. Conclusion from these researches demonstrated improvement in strength, durability, and fatigue life. Nevertheless, the scale of improvement is a capacity of the plastic types and amount. The rest of researchers implemented recycled plastic strips to mechanically stabilize and aggregates by mixing plastic shreds with aggregates to compaction to defeat inadequacies in grading and diminishing the plasticity index [51,52,53]. The scale of enhancement was affected by many factors like the class and volume of shreds, and aggregate classes. Furthermore, creative and innovative study has cause to the development of new mixed elements using recycled plastic waste for miscellaneous uses. The mixed is produced by heating and blending the absorption elements, recycled plastic, which flakes, shared, or unprocessed, granulates and by products to a highlighted temperature. The heated combination is then compacted into a particular mold to found a final product. The features of the mixed rely on the pressure,

The supplier for Recycled Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) provided the test properties of the material with respect to density, tensile strength at break, elongation at break, impact strength, and melting point of the material as shown below Table 1 [8,10]. Recycled low-density polyethylene (LDPE), which is identification number four, was gathered together and implemented in this research. The cleaned LDPE has shredded as shown below

should be a good modifier for the bitumen, implemented for road construction.

**Figure 2.** Shredded for recycled Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)

## **3.2. Porous aggregate**

Crushed limestone was chosen as the course aggregate for mixing LDPE. Bulk samples were sieved in conformity with the sieve sizes for AASHTO No. 8. According to Figure 3 demonstrates the gradation for aggregates that Porous aggregates confirming to the sizes 3/8 in., Nos. 4, 8, 16 (AASHTO No 8) were used for mixing with permeable plastic asphalt. Aggregates maintained on each sieve were washed, dried for 24 hours in 110oC in the oven and then located into their respective batches by sieve maintained. This procedure provided regenerate samples to meet AASHTO No. 8. Furthermore, it made to be better control over the gradation of each sample, so that gradation has important impact on the engineering and physical features of an aggregate mixed.

Landscape Engineering, Protecting Soil, and Runoff Storm Water 711

the plastics effectively. After that, put them in oven 1600C in order to mix and compact simultaneously. For protecting the moisture the spacemen, it compacted immediately after

Use of the processed plastic bags is as an additive in bituminous concrete mixes. The processed plastic was used as an additive with heated bitumen in different proportions (ranging from 4 to 6 % by weight of bitumen) and mixed well by hand, to obtain the modified bitumen. The properties of the modified bitumen were compared with ordinary

Varying percentages of waste plastic by weight of bitumen was added into the heated aggregates. Marshall sample with varying waste plastic content was tested for stability. Maximum value of stability was considered as criteria for optimum waste plastic content. The optimum modified binder content fulfilling the Marshall Mix design criteria was found to be 4, 5, and 6 % by weight of the mix, consisting of 1,3, and 6 % by weight of processed plastic added to the bitumen. In order to evaluate the ability of the mix prepared with the bitumen to withstand adverse soaking condition under water, Marshall Stability tests were

Shedder LDPE was simultaneously composed with binder and aggregates for heating and mixing approximately 160oC for two hours so that a uniform was achieved. Mixed plastic porous asphalt was poured and compacted into a mold, which is 4 inches diameter and 2.5 inches height, using a steel shovel. The Marshall test procedure was used for designing porous mix by compacting the sample with 50 blows on one face by Marshall hammer, at varying binder contents. The mixture design trials used asphalt content in the range of 4 – 6 %, by total weight of the mixture, excluding the weight of the fibers, with 1% increments. The LDPE fibers were added to the porous mixtures at a dosage rate of 1,3, and 6 % based on total mixture weight. The compacted samples were extracted from the mold when they had sufficiently cooled. After compaction, samples were be kept in the hot (conditioned) and cold (unconditioned) waters. Resilient Modulus and permameter test conducted. Samples were tested for hydraulic conductivity and indirect tensile strength. Figure 4

Porous plastic asphalt samples were tested for hydraulic conductivity and indirect tensile strength. Hydraulic conductivity tests were operated using a falling head approach in conformity with a proceeding particularized in the researchers [57,58]. The indirect tensile

took out oven with approximately 1600C.

bitumen.

**4.2. Mix Design by Marshall method Marshall test** 

conducted after soaking in water at 60oC for 24 hours.

**4.3. Porous plastic asphalt for preparation and compaction** 

demonstrates the preparation of the Porous plastic asphalt samples.

tests were conducted in accordance with the ASTM C 6931-07 test methods.

**4.4. Laboratory tests** 

**Figure 3.** Grain size distribution of AASHTO No. 8

## **3.3. Bitumen**

"PG 68-22" was used in the porous asphalt mixture [9]. Bitumen was mixed with Lowdensity polyethylene (LDPE) and porous aggregates. Mixes were prepared for three (4%, 5%, and 6% bitumen) percentages of bitumen. Each % of bitumen has 1% , 3%, and 6% LDPE. Obviously, four types of mixtures with three different percent of bitumen of 4%, 5% and 6% were used at a mixing and compacting temperature of 160oC. These are: Without LDPE, 1% LDPE, with 3% LDPE, and with 6% LDPE.

## **4. Samples preparation, compaction, and tests**

## **4.1. Mixing of shredded waste plastic (LDPE), aggregate and bitumen**

The aggregate mix is heated to 1600C in oven, and similarly the bitumen is to be heated up to a maximum of 1600C. Plastic waste is shredding for mixing bitumen and aggregate to coat the plastics effectively. After that, put them in oven 1600C in order to mix and compact simultaneously. For protecting the moisture the spacemen, it compacted immediately after took out oven with approximately 1600C.

### **4.2. Mix Design by Marshall method Marshall test**

710 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**3.2. Porous aggregate** 

and physical features of an aggregate mixed.

**Figure 3.** Grain size distribution of AASHTO No. 8

0

20

40

60

**% Passing**

80

100

LDPE, 1% LDPE, with 3% LDPE, and with 6% LDPE.

**4. Samples preparation, compaction, and tests** 

**4.1. Mixing of shredded waste plastic (LDPE), aggregate and bitumen** 

0.01 0.1 1

**3.3. Bitumen** 

Crushed limestone was chosen as the course aggregate for mixing LDPE. Bulk samples were sieved in conformity with the sieve sizes for AASHTO No. 8. According to Figure 3 demonstrates the gradation for aggregates that Porous aggregates confirming to the sizes 3/8 in., Nos. 4, 8, 16 (AASHTO No 8) were used for mixing with permeable plastic asphalt. Aggregates maintained on each sieve were washed, dried for 24 hours in 110oC in the oven and then located into their respective batches by sieve maintained. This procedure provided regenerate samples to meet AASHTO No. 8. Furthermore, it made to be better control over the gradation of each sample, so that gradation has important impact on the engineering

**AASHTO #8**

"PG 68-22" was used in the porous asphalt mixture [9]. Bitumen was mixed with Lowdensity polyethylene (LDPE) and porous aggregates. Mixes were prepared for three (4%, 5%, and 6% bitumen) percentages of bitumen. Each % of bitumen has 1% , 3%, and 6% LDPE. Obviously, four types of mixtures with three different percent of bitumen of 4%, 5% and 6% were used at a mixing and compacting temperature of 160oC. These are: Without

**Grain Size (mm)**

The aggregate mix is heated to 1600C in oven, and similarly the bitumen is to be heated up to a maximum of 1600C. Plastic waste is shredding for mixing bitumen and aggregate to coat Use of the processed plastic bags is as an additive in bituminous concrete mixes. The processed plastic was used as an additive with heated bitumen in different proportions (ranging from 4 to 6 % by weight of bitumen) and mixed well by hand, to obtain the modified bitumen. The properties of the modified bitumen were compared with ordinary bitumen.

Varying percentages of waste plastic by weight of bitumen was added into the heated aggregates. Marshall sample with varying waste plastic content was tested for stability. Maximum value of stability was considered as criteria for optimum waste plastic content. The optimum modified binder content fulfilling the Marshall Mix design criteria was found to be 4, 5, and 6 % by weight of the mix, consisting of 1,3, and 6 % by weight of processed plastic added to the bitumen. In order to evaluate the ability of the mix prepared with the bitumen to withstand adverse soaking condition under water, Marshall Stability tests were conducted after soaking in water at 60oC for 24 hours.

### **4.3. Porous plastic asphalt for preparation and compaction**

Shedder LDPE was simultaneously composed with binder and aggregates for heating and mixing approximately 160oC for two hours so that a uniform was achieved. Mixed plastic porous asphalt was poured and compacted into a mold, which is 4 inches diameter and 2.5 inches height, using a steel shovel. The Marshall test procedure was used for designing porous mix by compacting the sample with 50 blows on one face by Marshall hammer, at varying binder contents. The mixture design trials used asphalt content in the range of 4 – 6 %, by total weight of the mixture, excluding the weight of the fibers, with 1% increments. The LDPE fibers were added to the porous mixtures at a dosage rate of 1,3, and 6 % based on total mixture weight. The compacted samples were extracted from the mold when they had sufficiently cooled. After compaction, samples were be kept in the hot (conditioned) and cold (unconditioned) waters. Resilient Modulus and permameter test conducted. Samples were tested for hydraulic conductivity and indirect tensile strength. Figure 4 demonstrates the preparation of the Porous plastic asphalt samples.

#### **4.4. Laboratory tests**

Porous plastic asphalt samples were tested for hydraulic conductivity and indirect tensile strength. Hydraulic conductivity tests were operated using a falling head approach in conformity with a proceeding particularized in the researchers [57,58]. The indirect tensile tests were conducted in accordance with the ASTM C 6931-07 test methods.

**Figure 4.** Figure 4 Sample preparation for permeable plastic asphalt that mixing of LDPE, porous aggregates, binder to create

From equation 1 calculate hydraulic conductivity for testing in the falling head permameater test. After used Permameters to measure k, use this following formula. Calculate the hydraulic conductivity of the sediment by using the following formula:

$$\lambda = \frac{\nu \ge L}{(h\_o - h)\mathcal{A}\mathcal{x}t} \mathcal{X} \ln \frac{h\_o}{h} \tag{1}$$

Landscape Engineering, Protecting Soil, and Runoff Storm Water 713

y = 0.2426x0.5119 R² = 0.9898

According to Table 2 demonstrates the hydraulic conductivity (k) of the porous plastic asphalt samples. From Table 2, it has provided that the results of k diminished with the growth of porous plastic mixing. For instance, when the results of k mixed %4 binders with %1 LDPE were 0.204 in/s, the result of mixing %3 LDPE was 0.193 in/s. Obviously, while mixing with % of LDPE was increasing, the result of k was diminishing. Figure 5 represents

the results of permeability of porous plastic asphalt with mixing %1 LDPE.

**Binder LDPE k (in/s) % 4 %0 0.217**

**% 5 %0 0.259**

**% 6 %0 0.301**

**%1 0.204 %3 0.193 %6 0.178**

0 2 4 6 8 10

**hydraulic head (h/l)**

**%1 0.245 %3 0.234 %6 0.223**

**%1 0.294 %3 0.288 %6 0.272**

 t= sample thickness (in) d= sample diameter (in)

**Figure 5.** The results of k with mixing %1 LDPE

0

1

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

**dh/dt**

**Table 2.** The results of hydraulic conductivity

**5. Test results** 

**5.1. Permeability** 

where K = hydraulic conductivity of the sediment sample [L]/[T] V = volume of water that passed through the sample [L]3 L = sample length [L] h0 = height of top mark above outflow port [L] h = height of bottom mark above outflow port [L] A = cross sectional area of sample. For the NEIU permameters, this is 31.65 cm2. [L]2 t = total time for discharge [T]

The indirect tensile test that is one class of tensile strength test implemented in order to stabilize elements. The test has been run on asphalt-stabilized elements [35,59,60,61]. The test has many advantages, the most obvious being simplicity of test procedure. From equation 2 calculate ITS for testing in the resilient modulus (MR) test. After used with the diametrical Mr test (repetitive indirect tensile modulus test) to calculate ITS, as using the tensile strength St of the material is given by:

$$\mathcal{S}\_t = \frac{2P\text{max}}{\pi td} \tag{2}$$

Where P= total applied load (lb)

 t= sample thickness (in) d= sample diameter (in)

## **5. Test results**

712 Advances in Landscape Architecture

aggregates, binder to create

L = sample length [L]

t = total time for discharge [T]

tensile strength St of the material is given by:

Where P= total applied load (lb)

[L]2

**Figure 4.** Figure 4 Sample preparation for permeable plastic asphalt that mixing of LDPE, porous

Calculate the hydraulic conductivity of the sediment by using the following formula:

� = ��� ����������

A = cross sectional area of sample. For the NEIU permameters, this is 31.65 cm2.

The indirect tensile test that is one class of tensile strength test implemented in order to stabilize elements. The test has been run on asphalt-stabilized elements [35,59,60,61]. The test has many advantages, the most obvious being simplicity of test procedure. From equation 2 calculate ITS for testing in the resilient modulus (MR) test. After used with the diametrical Mr test (repetitive indirect tensile modulus test) to calculate ITS, as using the

�� <sup>=</sup> �����

where K = hydraulic conductivity of the sediment sample [L]/[T] V = volume of water that passed through the sample [L]3

 h0 = height of top mark above outflow port [L] h = height of bottom mark above outflow port [L]

From equation 1 calculate hydraulic conductivity for testing in the falling head permameater test. After used Permameters to measure k, use this following formula.

��� ���

� (1)

��� (2)

### **5.1. Permeability**

According to Table 2 demonstrates the hydraulic conductivity (k) of the porous plastic asphalt samples. From Table 2, it has provided that the results of k diminished with the growth of porous plastic mixing. For instance, when the results of k mixed %4 binders with %1 LDPE were 0.204 in/s, the result of mixing %3 LDPE was 0.193 in/s. Obviously, while mixing with % of LDPE was increasing, the result of k was diminishing. Figure 5 represents the results of permeability of porous plastic asphalt with mixing %1 LDPE.

**Figure 5.** The results of k with mixing %1 LDPE


**Table 2.** The results of hydraulic conductivity

#### **5.2. Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS)**

Use this test method to determine the tensile strength of compacted bituminous mixtures. The porous plastic mixed tested as a conditioned and unconditioned. After compaction, samples were kept in the hot water (conditioned situation) and cold water (unconditioned situation). The objective of this test was to measure the water resistance of the mixture after immersion for 24 hours at 60oC. After that, testing the resilient modulus provided the results of ITS. The purpose of results was to evaluate the resistance of porous plastic asphalt mix on plastic deformation. Furthermore, from equation 3 Tensile strength ratio (TSR) calculated that divided by conditioned to unconditioned situation. TSR < 70% considered Susceptible to Moisture. As a result it provides that the performance of strength of porous plastic asphalt. Moisture Susceptibility of Porous Plastic tested in accordance with ASTM C 6931- 07. Samples were cured at room temperature, 100oC and 160oC for 24 hours. Samples dimension is Diameter=4", Height=2.5".

$$T\mathcal{S}R = \frac{\mathcal{S}1}{\mathcal{S}2} \tag{3}$$

Landscape Engineering, Protecting Soil, and Runoff Storm Water 715

unconditioned average ITS condotioned average ITS

The results of k and ITS of porous plastic asphalt mixtures were within the approximately predictable ranked come up in the literature for conventional asphalt showing Table 4. It is an indication that porous plastic asphalt should be used as a sustainable alternative for

> **References ITS ranges (psi)** [62] 29.29-69.76 [63] 18.17-38.82 [64] 253.9-377.09 [65] 29-65.26 [66] 26.1-130.53 [19] 18.30-55.90

0123456

**% of LDPE** 

Permeable Plastic Asphalt samples with different percentage of plastic to aggregate ratio were composed and then tested for hydraulic conductivity (k) and indirect tensile strength (ITS). Results represented which k and ITS results of samples were within the predictable results observed in the literature for porous pavements. In addition to it was come up with that the k, ITS values diminished as the percentage of plastic waste increased. The research results of Permeable Plastic Asphalt demonstrated that Permeable Plastic Asphalt should be a sufficient recycle and stormwater runoff with important reasonable economic and

This research was taken in charge to evaluate the hydraulic and mechanical features of innovative porous plastic asphalt for implementing in permeable pavements. The test represented that the result of hydraulic conductivity diminished with the growth of porous plastic mixing. On the other hand, while the results of unconditioned decreased with the growth of porous plastic mixing, the result of conditioned increased simultaneously with

permeable pavements.

0

20

40

**ITS**

60

80

**Figure 6.** The results of ITS with mixing %6 LDPE

**Table 4.** Summary of ITS porous asphalt from literature

**6. Discussion and conclusion** 

ecological associations.

Where:

S1 = conditioned set (wet)

S2 = unconditioned set (dry)

According to Table 3 demonstrates that the results of unconditioned decreased with the growth of porous plastic mixing. For instance, when the results of mixed %5 binders with %3 LDPE were 57 psi, the result of mixing %6 LDPE was 54 psi. Obviously, while mixing with % of LDPE was increasing, the results of conditioned ITS was decreasing. On the contrary, the result of conditioned increased simultaneously with the growth of porous plastic mixing. Figure 6 represents that the result of conditioned ITS diminished while unconditioned ITS increased. According to the results of TSR is considered to susceptible to moisture. It provides that %3 LDPE and over is very strength.


**Table 3.** The results of Indirect Tensile Strength test (ITS)

The results of k and ITS of porous plastic asphalt mixtures were within the approximately predictable ranked come up in the literature for conventional asphalt showing Table 4. It is an indication that porous plastic asphalt should be used as a sustainable alternative for permeable pavements.

**Figure 6.** The results of ITS with mixing %6 LDPE

714 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**5.2. Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS)** 

dimension is Diameter=4", Height=2.5".

 S1 = conditioned set (wet) S2 = unconditioned set (dry)

moisture. It provides that %3 LDPE and over is very strength.

**Table 3.** The results of Indirect Tensile Strength test (ITS)

Where:

**% 4** 

**% 5** 

**% 6** 

Use this test method to determine the tensile strength of compacted bituminous mixtures. The porous plastic mixed tested as a conditioned and unconditioned. After compaction, samples were kept in the hot water (conditioned situation) and cold water (unconditioned situation). The objective of this test was to measure the water resistance of the mixture after immersion for 24 hours at 60oC. After that, testing the resilient modulus provided the results of ITS. The purpose of results was to evaluate the resistance of porous plastic asphalt mix on plastic deformation. Furthermore, from equation 3 Tensile strength ratio (TSR) calculated that divided by conditioned to unconditioned situation. TSR < 70% considered Susceptible to Moisture. As a result it provides that the performance of strength of porous plastic asphalt. Moisture Susceptibility of Porous Plastic tested in accordance with ASTM C 6931- 07. Samples were cured at room temperature, 100oC and 160oC for 24 hours. Samples

ܴܶܵ ൌ ௌଵ

According to Table 3 demonstrates that the results of unconditioned decreased with the growth of porous plastic mixing. For instance, when the results of mixed %5 binders with %3 LDPE were 57 psi, the result of mixing %6 LDPE was 54 psi. Obviously, while mixing with % of LDPE was increasing, the results of conditioned ITS was decreasing. On the contrary, the result of conditioned increased simultaneously with the growth of porous plastic mixing. Figure 6 represents that the result of conditioned ITS diminished while unconditioned ITS increased. According to the results of TSR is considered to susceptible to

**Binder LDPE Unconditioned (psi) Conditioned (psi) TSR (con/uncon)** 

**%0 67 45** 0.67 **%1 58 52** 0.90 **%3 46 56** 1.22 **%6 41 63** 1.54

**%0 71 54** 0.76 **%1 62 59** 0.95 **%3 57 62** 1.09 **%6 54 68** 1.26

**%0 73 63** 0.86 **%1 69 67** 0.97 **%3 66 71** 1.08 **%6 61 75** 1.23

ௌଶ (3)


**Table 4.** Summary of ITS porous asphalt from literature

## **6. Discussion and conclusion**

Permeable Plastic Asphalt samples with different percentage of plastic to aggregate ratio were composed and then tested for hydraulic conductivity (k) and indirect tensile strength (ITS). Results represented which k and ITS results of samples were within the predictable results observed in the literature for porous pavements. In addition to it was come up with that the k, ITS values diminished as the percentage of plastic waste increased. The research results of Permeable Plastic Asphalt demonstrated that Permeable Plastic Asphalt should be a sufficient recycle and stormwater runoff with important reasonable economic and ecological associations.

This research was taken in charge to evaluate the hydraulic and mechanical features of innovative porous plastic asphalt for implementing in permeable pavements. The test represented that the result of hydraulic conductivity diminished with the growth of porous plastic mixing. On the other hand, while the results of unconditioned decreased with the growth of porous plastic mixing, the result of conditioned increased simultaneously with

the growth of porous plastic mixing. Furthermore, the results of TSR are the best result over 1 for susceptible to Moisture. The results of experiments were approximately come across that expected from literature. According to results that demonstrate porous plastic asphalt could be implement sustainable alternative pavements. It also provides also recycling.

Landscape Engineering, Protecting Soil, and Runoff Storm Water 717

Consecutive chapters of this research will count profoundly on the outcomes of the test pavements mentioned above, as well as efficiency data issued in the research. Detailed representing results of the several researches projects will be debated during the research.

Effectively managing the collection, separation and processing of plastic waste can limit the environmental damages limited by eliminating the waste from our streets. Thus, we can prevent to fill the landfill with plastic waste when we mix the plastic with the other

Laboratory tests and real life implementation will study that the life expectancy of a plastic polymer road as compared to a conventional road. Future study will need to study for expanding of life expectancy for plastic. This study proved that investigates, summarizes preliminary results, and debates key properties to be considered for future alternative pavement. Future researchers will keep going to research the better permeable pavement for

A long-term monitoring project to document changes in performance, evaluation of different maintenance strategies, and lifecycle costs of permeable plastic asphalts is recommended for future research. Future experience is based on designs that provide to improve future properties such as increased new materials, and developed construction and

*College of Engineering, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Temple University,* 

[1] McKenna, GT. Sustainable Mine Reclamation and Landscape Engineering. PhD Thesis in Geotechnical Engineering, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,

http://www.asla.org/ppn/Article.aspx?id=1206&terms=landscape%20engineering

The author gratefully acknowledged Dr. Naji Khoury for his guidance and help.

elements with soil, asphalt and cement in order to use future studies.

**7. Future research** 

maintenance activities.

*Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA* 

University of Alberta, Edmonton, 2002.

(accessed 5 September 2012).

[2] American Society of Landscape Architecture. ASLA.

[3] American Society of Landscape Architecture. ASLA.

**Acknowledgement** 

**8. References** 

**Author details** 

Mehmet Cetin

economic, environmental and nature.

This research concentrated on the hydraulic and mechanical properties of a permeable pavement like permeable plastic asphalt. Permeable Plastic Asphalt was composed of plastic waste, aggregates, and asphalt. Permeable Plastic Asphalt should provide a sufficient method for decreasing stormwater runoff, contributing a structural pavement sufficient for pedestrian and vehicular loadings. Furthermore, Permeable Plastic Asphalt should take the part of the currently ongoing recycling aims as a critical role that support to deflect a majority of plastic from landfills and incinerators.

The laboratory test indicates that aggregate, binder with mixing LDPE affected the results of k and ITS. Thus, permeability and strength of porous plastic asphalt is getting better with mixing LDPE. It proves that porous plastic asphalt help to diminish storm water runoff times diminish urban heat island effects. A new pavement increases for the sustainability of the nature that will be benefit users for many years. The design of plastic pavements contains developed pedestrian and public transportation as well as parking lot, driveway, bridges.

The results represents porous plastic asphalt should be implemented as a sustainable alternative for permeable pavements. Porous plastic asphalt is a peerless choice in that it undertakes two environmental problems that decreasing stormwater runoff and prevent to fill out with plastic waste at landfills. In the way that we keep up our way to green building and construction, porous plastic asphalt is new approach on the way to eco-friendly improvement. The innovative technology comes to grips with two environmental problems that are plastic waste and stormwater runoff. It provides to prevent a large quantity of plastic waste at landfills and incinerators, thus the plastic waste uses fro recycling. Also it decreases stormwater runoff and decreases the use of natural resources.

Permeable plastic pavement has whole with its permeability should be determined by valid void. Valid void should be directly implement to mixing ratio of permeable plastic pavement that both take control sufficiently the forming of run off and restrict urban flood.

All above results that Landscape Engineering considers that the progress of permeable plastic uses to efficiently integrate the mixing permeable plastic pavements with land use planning. Using recycling service with very powerful has approached to create pleasing environments in the world. According to test results that the advantages of plastic asphalt provide that is stronger road with increased plastic, better resistance during stormwater, without stripping and rutting, develop binder and better linking of the mix. Besides it support that is the strength of the road is increased. Using permeable plastic asphalt that is the cost of road construction diminish the maintenance cost of road gradually diminish as well. Obviously, as the plastic mix with pavement for using, the disposal of waste plastic will no longer be issue. As a result of that, using plastic helps to decrease in pores in aggregate save bitumen and help recycling.

Consecutive chapters of this research will count profoundly on the outcomes of the test pavements mentioned above, as well as efficiency data issued in the research. Detailed representing results of the several researches projects will be debated during the research.

## **7. Future research**

716 Advances in Landscape Architecture

bridges.

majority of plastic from landfills and incinerators.

aggregate save bitumen and help recycling.

the growth of porous plastic mixing. Furthermore, the results of TSR are the best result over 1 for susceptible to Moisture. The results of experiments were approximately come across that expected from literature. According to results that demonstrate porous plastic asphalt could be implement sustainable alternative pavements. It also provides also recycling.

This research concentrated on the hydraulic and mechanical properties of a permeable pavement like permeable plastic asphalt. Permeable Plastic Asphalt was composed of plastic waste, aggregates, and asphalt. Permeable Plastic Asphalt should provide a sufficient method for decreasing stormwater runoff, contributing a structural pavement sufficient for pedestrian and vehicular loadings. Furthermore, Permeable Plastic Asphalt should take the part of the currently ongoing recycling aims as a critical role that support to deflect a

The laboratory test indicates that aggregate, binder with mixing LDPE affected the results of k and ITS. Thus, permeability and strength of porous plastic asphalt is getting better with mixing LDPE. It proves that porous plastic asphalt help to diminish storm water runoff times diminish urban heat island effects. A new pavement increases for the sustainability of the nature that will be benefit users for many years. The design of plastic pavements contains developed pedestrian and public transportation as well as parking lot, driveway,

The results represents porous plastic asphalt should be implemented as a sustainable alternative for permeable pavements. Porous plastic asphalt is a peerless choice in that it undertakes two environmental problems that decreasing stormwater runoff and prevent to fill out with plastic waste at landfills. In the way that we keep up our way to green building and construction, porous plastic asphalt is new approach on the way to eco-friendly improvement. The innovative technology comes to grips with two environmental problems that are plastic waste and stormwater runoff. It provides to prevent a large quantity of plastic waste at landfills and incinerators, thus the plastic waste uses fro recycling. Also it

Permeable plastic pavement has whole with its permeability should be determined by valid void. Valid void should be directly implement to mixing ratio of permeable plastic pavement that both take control sufficiently the forming of run off and restrict urban flood. All above results that Landscape Engineering considers that the progress of permeable plastic uses to efficiently integrate the mixing permeable plastic pavements with land use planning. Using recycling service with very powerful has approached to create pleasing environments in the world. According to test results that the advantages of plastic asphalt provide that is stronger road with increased plastic, better resistance during stormwater, without stripping and rutting, develop binder and better linking of the mix. Besides it support that is the strength of the road is increased. Using permeable plastic asphalt that is the cost of road construction diminish the maintenance cost of road gradually diminish as well. Obviously, as the plastic mix with pavement for using, the disposal of waste plastic will no longer be issue. As a result of that, using plastic helps to decrease in pores in

decreases stormwater runoff and decreases the use of natural resources.

Effectively managing the collection, separation and processing of plastic waste can limit the environmental damages limited by eliminating the waste from our streets. Thus, we can prevent to fill the landfill with plastic waste when we mix the plastic with the other elements with soil, asphalt and cement in order to use future studies.

Laboratory tests and real life implementation will study that the life expectancy of a plastic polymer road as compared to a conventional road. Future study will need to study for expanding of life expectancy for plastic. This study proved that investigates, summarizes preliminary results, and debates key properties to be considered for future alternative pavement. Future researchers will keep going to research the better permeable pavement for economic, environmental and nature.

A long-term monitoring project to document changes in performance, evaluation of different maintenance strategies, and lifecycle costs of permeable plastic asphalts is recommended for future research. Future experience is based on designs that provide to improve future properties such as increased new materials, and developed construction and maintenance activities.

## **Author details**

Mehmet Cetin *College of Engineering, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA* 

## **Acknowledgement**

The author gratefully acknowledged Dr. Naji Khoury for his guidance and help.

## **8. References**


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**Section 5** 

**Geographic Information System** 

**and Remote Sensing** 


**Geographic Information System and Remote Sensing** 

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**Chapter 28** 

© 2013 Ergen and Ergen, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

**Application of Geographical Information** 

One of the most rapidly growing applications of remotely sensed data is the derivation of landscape pattern metrics for the assessment of land use condition and landscape dynamics (Betts et al., 2003; Colombo et al., 2004; Egbert et al., 2002; Griffith et al., 2003; Hansen et al., 2001; Imbernon and Branthomme, 2001; Ji et al., 2008; Millington et al., 2003; Santiago et al., 2007; Yu and Ng, 2006). The characteristics of green areas are generally analyzed with raster data by many scholars. In contrast with common practice, this study used vector data instead of raster data in the analysis of urban green areas in the study area. The fact that study analyzed urban development plans was the underlying reason that vector data was primarily used for this research. Geographical Information System (GIS) is one of the most useful methods for analyzing land use. All land uses for an urban development plan were considered and comparisons were made based on relative percentage of whole area. The data was derived from digitized data from an urban development. Urban green area proportion in the current city development condition was determined. Active and passive green areas were determined from an urban development plan and were prepared for analysis of trends of land use

GIS data has significant utility in analysis of urban green areas in city development (Ji et al., 2008). Land use offers critical guidance to identify current landscape characteristics in urban areas. The study explored urban green areas associated with landscape features in urban areas and effectively supported an analysis of urban green area characteristics. Urban green areas can prove to be valid and useful characteristics for general landscape analysis of an

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**System to the Analysis of Urban Green** 

**Areas in Urban Development Plans** 

Yasar Bahri Ergen and Mustafa Ergen

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55752

**1. Introduction** 

urban environment.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

**– A Case Study of Zonguldak, Turkey** 

condition in the city. GIS was used as an analytical tool for this approach.
