**Impacts of Improper Land Uses in Cities on the Natural Environment and Ecological Landscape Planning**

A. Esra Cengiz

18 Advances in Landscape Architecture

medterranean, Croatia.

Kienast, F. 1993. Analysis of historic landscape patterns with a Geographical Information System - a methodological outline, Landscape Ecology vol. 8 no. 2 pp 103-118. Pecova, H.S., 2000. Landscape Analysis in Spatial Planning, Landscape Ecology: theory and applications for practical purposes, The Problems of Landscape Ecology Vol VI., 93-101. Zaucer, L.B. and Golobic, M. 2010. Landscape plannng and vulnerablty assessment n the

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55755

## **1. Introduction**

Irregular and unsound urban development is the common problem of all urban settlements today. The increasing continuation of this problem is inevitable in this order, where the economy-ecology balance is not taken into consideration and economic concerns always win.

Urban growth, the density of which is continuing increasingly with the population increase that has taken place in urban areas in the recent years, leads to the vanishing of an extremely limited number of natural resources and to the occurrence of irregular and unsound urban areas, along with impairing the agricultural lands (Brueckner et al., 2001).

When considered from another perspective, it might be stated that urbanization gained momentum with the industrial revolution. When urbanization and industrialization are evaluated together in this context, it follows that the share of industrialization in the concentration of the population in urban areas and in the environmental pressure it creates is a fact which cannot be ignored (Aksu, 2011). The technological development, the population increase and the rapid change in cities that particularly occurred upon the industrial revolution have upset the ecological balance; consequently, the process of rapid degradation of natural resources commenced. Having continued with a gradual increase in the need for new living spaces and areas of use, this process of degradation has substantially altered the working of the ecosystem with either conscious or unconscious planning.

It is impossible to make up for the natural resources which have been used up due to the degraded ecosystem; furthermore, the vital impacts of this process are increasing day by day. The cities and industrial areas (technoecosystems) which continue to develop on natural areas especially due to the shortcomings/mistakes in city planning are striking as one of the most important results of this situation.

© 2013 Cengiz, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Technoecosystems are ecosystems which occur with the rearrangement of natural ecosystems and on which urban-industrial societies live. Being relatively new on the earth, these systems provide their power from advanced technologies and non-self-renewing energy resources. In order for urban-industrial formations to survive on the earth with limited resources, it is imperative that they be made more compatible with the natural ecosystem than that of today and that an order which benefits both parties be created without the impairment of the working of the ecosystem (Odum and Barrett, 2008).

Impacts of Improper Land Uses in Cities on the Natural Environment and Ecological Landscape Planning 21

By the phenomenon of urbanization which appeared in this process of growth, the sprawl of cities, the absolute necessity for establishing new settlements and the fact that urban lands could easily be turned into a matter of speculation resulted in the rapid inclusion of fertile

The rapid decrease in agricultural lands upon rapid urbanization and industrialization is a phenomenon which is observed worldwide besides in our country. The construction activities of industrial establishments, roads which are their infrastructure, sports facilities and entertainment centers take place in fertile agricultural lands generally with the

The reasons for improper use, meaning the use of agricultural land for nonagricultural purposes, include the gradual increase in urbanization, the rapidly developing industry and investments accordingly, and, finally, the gaps in laws and regulations. The economic earnings that develop depending on the construction of houses in rapidly growing areas where urban development is intensively felt are always higher and less risky than the yield of the activities to be carried out in agricultural lands, which manifests itself as the most

Improper use generally takes place on the fertile agricultural lands which are generally Class I to Class IV agricultural lands, where any plant can grow, which are plain, which are well-drained, where the soil depth is high, and which definitely should not be used for

In this way, urbanization, one of the most serious threats for the world's biodiversity, most dramatically and permanently alters land use in our country, as it does worldwide (Ricketts

Upon the industrial branch which developed afterwards, the identification of these lands, which continued to exist as urban development areas, as areas convenient for any nonagricultural investment and their use for these purposes were supported. Since no laws or regulations to prevent all these things and to protect fertile agricultural lands have been made or since, even if they have been made, they lack the necessary restrictions, the

With a wide variety of definitions, planning is an integrated system which involves a series of chaotic cases in theory and practice and which depends on various laws and regulations besides being a multidirectional and comprehensive concept. According to the definition by Keleş (1972), planning is regarded as the whole of decisions about the actions in the future, whereas planning also involves the absolute necessity for the rational use of the available resources and information. The process of preparation of the series of decisions aiming at attaining the targets which have been specified regarding the activities to take place in the future as a whole via the optimum means is called planning (Akay, 2009).

improper use of fertile agricultural lands continues as a great national problem.

**3. Planning and the planning hierarchy in Turkey** 

agricultural lands in urban lands (Keleş and Hamamc, 1993).

justification that they bring fewer economic losses (Çepel, 2008).

primary reason why such areas are preferred as urban settlements.

and Imhoff, 2003; Yli-Pelkonen and Niemelä, 2006).

nonagricultural purposes.

In conclusion, upon the impairment of the working of the ecosystem, the fertile agricultural lands which are particularly impossible to reclaim have been confronted with the danger of degradation and vanishing, along with the natural areas that must absolutely be conserved within the ecosystem. Therefore, preservation of the ecological balance and the concept of ecological landscape planning that developed accordingly are the primary issues on which one must strongly dwell today.

Considering the principle of integration of the urban ecosystem with the natural ecosystem, this study dwells on the impacts of improper use due to wrong urban development on the natural environment and the concept of ecological landscape planning. Within this scope, the subjects "*Improper Land Use, Planning and the Planning Hierarchy in Turkey, Ecological/Environmentally-Sensitive Landscape Planning and its Importance, and the Relationship between Sustainable Urbanization and Ecological Planning"* were included in the study.

At the next stage of the study, the losses of fertile agricultural lands resulting from the lands which were opened to development at the city center of Çanakkale, selected in order to explain the matter with a concrete example, are contained in the study with numerical expressions and figures. At the final stage, an overall evaluation of the planning hierarchy on the urban scale in our country was made, and the legal and administrative gaps in the improper use of the land were investigated thoroughly. Accordingly, the reasons for, the consequences of and the solutions to improper land uses frequently taking place in urban area planning were discussed.

## **2. Improper land use**

The importance attached, and the priority given, to the environment and to urban ecological planning varies by society. Furthermore, it is possible to see the variations in the perspectives of the environment at various stages. Urban development is defined with the increase in production and consumption following the industrial revolution with the assumption that the natural resources were endless and with intensive construction activities. This stage involves some extravagant energy and land use at this stage. The growth of the city against agricultural lands is regarded as an essential indication of development (Eke, 2000).

Especially the process of metropolitanization causes cities to grow rapidly in the space and sprawl over extensive areas and to predominate, economically and socially, in all surrounding urban and rural communities. As a result of this, the natural resources remaining within the metropolitan area enter the process of being used up rapidly. This manifests itself with the unplanned and uncontrolled growth particularly against the rapid population increase in the metropolises of developing countries (Sezgin and Varol, 2012).

By the phenomenon of urbanization which appeared in this process of growth, the sprawl of cities, the absolute necessity for establishing new settlements and the fact that urban lands could easily be turned into a matter of speculation resulted in the rapid inclusion of fertile agricultural lands in urban lands (Keleş and Hamamc, 1993).

20 Advances in Landscape Architecture

one must strongly dwell today.

**2. Improper land use** 

Technoecosystems are ecosystems which occur with the rearrangement of natural ecosystems and on which urban-industrial societies live. Being relatively new on the earth, these systems provide their power from advanced technologies and non-self-renewing energy resources. In order for urban-industrial formations to survive on the earth with limited resources, it is imperative that they be made more compatible with the natural ecosystem than that of today and that an order which benefits both parties be created

In conclusion, upon the impairment of the working of the ecosystem, the fertile agricultural lands which are particularly impossible to reclaim have been confronted with the danger of degradation and vanishing, along with the natural areas that must absolutely be conserved within the ecosystem. Therefore, preservation of the ecological balance and the concept of ecological landscape planning that developed accordingly are the primary issues on which

Considering the principle of integration of the urban ecosystem with the natural ecosystem, this study dwells on the impacts of improper use due to wrong urban development on the natural environment and the concept of ecological landscape planning. Within this scope, the subjects "*Improper Land Use, Planning and the Planning Hierarchy in Turkey, Ecological/Environmentally-Sensitive Landscape Planning and its Importance, and the Relationship* 

At the next stage of the study, the losses of fertile agricultural lands resulting from the lands which were opened to development at the city center of Çanakkale, selected in order to explain the matter with a concrete example, are contained in the study with numerical expressions and figures. At the final stage, an overall evaluation of the planning hierarchy on the urban scale in our country was made, and the legal and administrative gaps in the improper use of the land were investigated thoroughly. Accordingly, the reasons for, the consequences of and the solutions to improper land uses frequently taking place in urban area planning were discussed.

The importance attached, and the priority given, to the environment and to urban ecological planning varies by society. Furthermore, it is possible to see the variations in the perspectives of the environment at various stages. Urban development is defined with the increase in production and consumption following the industrial revolution with the assumption that the natural resources were endless and with intensive construction activities. This stage involves some extravagant energy and land use at this stage. The growth of the city against agricultural

Especially the process of metropolitanization causes cities to grow rapidly in the space and sprawl over extensive areas and to predominate, economically and socially, in all surrounding urban and rural communities. As a result of this, the natural resources remaining within the metropolitan area enter the process of being used up rapidly. This manifests itself with the unplanned and uncontrolled growth particularly against the rapid population increase in the metropolises of developing countries (Sezgin and Varol, 2012).

lands is regarded as an essential indication of development (Eke, 2000).

*between Sustainable Urbanization and Ecological Planning"* were included in the study.

without the impairment of the working of the ecosystem (Odum and Barrett, 2008).

The rapid decrease in agricultural lands upon rapid urbanization and industrialization is a phenomenon which is observed worldwide besides in our country. The construction activities of industrial establishments, roads which are their infrastructure, sports facilities and entertainment centers take place in fertile agricultural lands generally with the justification that they bring fewer economic losses (Çepel, 2008).

The reasons for improper use, meaning the use of agricultural land for nonagricultural purposes, include the gradual increase in urbanization, the rapidly developing industry and investments accordingly, and, finally, the gaps in laws and regulations. The economic earnings that develop depending on the construction of houses in rapidly growing areas where urban development is intensively felt are always higher and less risky than the yield of the activities to be carried out in agricultural lands, which manifests itself as the most primary reason why such areas are preferred as urban settlements.

Improper use generally takes place on the fertile agricultural lands which are generally Class I to Class IV agricultural lands, where any plant can grow, which are plain, which are well-drained, where the soil depth is high, and which definitely should not be used for nonagricultural purposes.

In this way, urbanization, one of the most serious threats for the world's biodiversity, most dramatically and permanently alters land use in our country, as it does worldwide (Ricketts and Imhoff, 2003; Yli-Pelkonen and Niemelä, 2006).

Upon the industrial branch which developed afterwards, the identification of these lands, which continued to exist as urban development areas, as areas convenient for any nonagricultural investment and their use for these purposes were supported. Since no laws or regulations to prevent all these things and to protect fertile agricultural lands have been made or since, even if they have been made, they lack the necessary restrictions, the improper use of fertile agricultural lands continues as a great national problem.

## **3. Planning and the planning hierarchy in Turkey**

With a wide variety of definitions, planning is an integrated system which involves a series of chaotic cases in theory and practice and which depends on various laws and regulations besides being a multidirectional and comprehensive concept. According to the definition by Keleş (1972), planning is regarded as the whole of decisions about the actions in the future, whereas planning also involves the absolute necessity for the rational use of the available resources and information. The process of preparation of the series of decisions aiming at attaining the targets which have been specified regarding the activities to take place in the future as a whole via the optimum means is called planning (Akay, 2009).

Article 166 of the 1982 Constitution is entitled "Planning" and assigns the state the task of planning which ensures "*economic, social and cultural development, particularly the rapid development of industry and agriculture at the national level in a balanced and compatible way, and the efficient use of national resources by making their inventory and evaluation*".

Impacts of Improper Land Uses in Cities on the Natural Environment and Ecological Landscape Planning 23

Even though most of the above-mentioned types of plans are in some way contained in the law, the majority are the types of plans with no implementation in practice. In Article 6, entitled "the Planning Hierarchy", of the second section entitled "Fundamental Principles on Development Plans" in the Development Law No. 3194 that was shaped with an understanding which was extremely far from conserving the natural resources and that was primarily organized in order to ensure the shaping of urban living spaces, it is laid down that *"Plans are prepared as "Regional Plans" in terms of the area they cover and their purposes, whereas development plans are prepared as "Master Plans" and "Implementation Development Plans"*. In other words, spatial plans are collected in two main ranks as *Upper-Scale Plans (the Regional Plan)* and *Lower-Scale Plans (Development Plans)*, although not clearly defined in the law. Development Plans are subdivided into two as *"the Master Plan"* and *"the Implementation Development Plan"*. Another type of plan included in Article 5 of the law, entitled "*Definitions*", is "*the Environmental Order Plan*". This type of plan should again be regarded as an upper-scale plan type both owing to the content provided in the definition and because it is not included in the definition of "Development Plans". In conclusion, when the related articles of the Development Law are evaluated together, it is possible to speak of three main plan ranks, namely *Regional Plans*, *Environmental Order Plans* and *Development* 

The types of plans and their definitions which are contained in the law are as follows (Ercoşkun et al., 2004; Erdem and Coşkun, 2009; Demirel, 2010; the Ministry of Environment

**Regional Plan**: The State Planning Organization (SPO) makes the regional plans which must reveal the socio-economic development trends and the potential of settlements for development, or it has them made, when it considers necessary. Having appeared on the agenda following the establishment of the SPO after the 1960s, this plan hierarchy did not draw significant interest. Even if it is mentioned in the Development Law, it is not definite how a plan will be made or will gain legality, and it is not obligatory to make it either.

Metropolitan Area Plans: "*Metropolitan Area Plans*", which are not contained in "Definitions" and "the Planning Hierarchy" in the Development Law No. 3194 but which are mentioned in Article 9 of the law although they must follow regional plans in the hierarchy of plans, are plans that must be between regional plans and environmental order plans in terms of scope

**Environmental Order Plan**: In Article 5 of the law, it was stated that "it is a plan which determines the decisions on settlement and land use, such as housing, industry, agriculture, tourism and transportation, in agreement with national and regional plan decisions"; however, no specific scale was mentioned. On the other hand, the scale of an Environmental Order Plan was specified as 1:25,000, 1:50,000, 1:100,000 or 1:200,000 in "the Regulation on Plan-Making" enacted depending on the same law and it was laid down that it was required to comply with regional plan decisions, if available. Aiming on the one hand to conserve natural resources and cultural, historical and environmental assets, but on the other, to

guide settlement demands, this plan has a quality of directing the low-ranking plans.

*Plans*, although not defined systematically (Ersoy, 2006).

and City Planning, 2012):

and scale.

There are numerous laws, statutes, regulations and circulars which direct development in our country, with the most determinative one being the Development Law No. 3194 and the regulations affiliated to it. Depending on the variety of the objects intended to be planned, a large number of types of plans are encountered in the development law. Some of these types of plans were organized in the Development Law No. 3194, while some of them were left to Article 4 of the law and the regulations to be made with special laws. It is possible to classify the plans which arise from the provisions of the Development Law as "types of plans for general purposes" and the plans which are for special purposes and which are envisaged for the areas that are the subject of a different planning regime as "types of plans for special purposes" (Table 1) (Erdem and Coşkun, 2009). Of the following types of plans, Upper-Scale Plans, the Physical Plan of the Country, the Regional Plan and the Land Use Plan are types of socio-economic and ecological plans, while the remaining plans are called "types of physical plans".


**Table 1.** Types of plans (Atabay, 2003; Erdem and Coşkun, 2009)

physical plans".

development plan)

inventory/analysis

(1:1,000)

and 1:10,000) Natural resource

The Physical Plan of the Country (A five-year

The Regional Plan (1:200,000, 1:50,000, 1:25,000,

The Land Use Plan (Conservation, Agriculture, Forest, Recreation, Settlement, Industry, etc.)

inventory/analysis, Socio-economic resource

The Implementation Development Plan

**Table 1.** Types of plans (Atabay, 2003; Erdem and Coşkun, 2009)

Article 166 of the 1982 Constitution is entitled "Planning" and assigns the state the task of planning which ensures "*economic, social and cultural development, particularly the rapid development of industry and agriculture at the national level in a balanced and compatible way, and* 

There are numerous laws, statutes, regulations and circulars which direct development in our country, with the most determinative one being the Development Law No. 3194 and the regulations affiliated to it. Depending on the variety of the objects intended to be planned, a large number of types of plans are encountered in the development law. Some of these types of plans were organized in the Development Law No. 3194, while some of them were left to Article 4 of the law and the regulations to be made with special laws. It is possible to classify the plans which arise from the provisions of the Development Law as "types of plans for general purposes" and the plans which are for special purposes and which are envisaged for the areas that are the subject of a different planning regime as "types of plans for special purposes" (Table 1) (Erdem and Coşkun, 2009). Of the following types of plans, Upper-Scale Plans, the Physical Plan of the Country, the Regional Plan and the Land Use Plan are types of socio-economic and ecological plans, while the remaining plans are called "types of

**Types of Plans for General Purposes Types of Plans for Special Purposes** Upper-Scale Plans The Development Plan for Conservation

The Metropolitan Master Plan (1:50,000) The Village Settlement Plan (1:1,000) The Environmental Order Plan (1:25,000) The Forestland Development Plan The Master Plan (1:5,000) The Coastal Development Plan

Complementary plans which bring change Planning in Agricultural Lands The Additional Plan Planning of Pastures, etc. The Partial Development Plan National Park Planning The Revision Development Plan Planning in Industrial Sites An Amendment to the Plan Planning in Water Basins

(1:5,000 and 1:1,000)

(1:5,000 and 1:1,000)

and 1:1,000)

1:1,000)

Areas

The Development Plan for Tourism (1:5,000

The Plan for a Special Environmental Conservation Zone (1:25,000, 1:5,000, and

The Development Plan for Rehabilitation

The Development Plan for Mass Housing

*the efficient use of national resources by making their inventory and evaluation*".

Even though most of the above-mentioned types of plans are in some way contained in the law, the majority are the types of plans with no implementation in practice. In Article 6, entitled "the Planning Hierarchy", of the second section entitled "Fundamental Principles on Development Plans" in the Development Law No. 3194 that was shaped with an understanding which was extremely far from conserving the natural resources and that was primarily organized in order to ensure the shaping of urban living spaces, it is laid down that *"Plans are prepared as "Regional Plans" in terms of the area they cover and their purposes, whereas development plans are prepared as "Master Plans" and "Implementation Development Plans"*. In other words, spatial plans are collected in two main ranks as *Upper-Scale Plans (the Regional Plan)* and *Lower-Scale Plans (Development Plans)*, although not clearly defined in the law. Development Plans are subdivided into two as *"the Master Plan"* and *"the Implementation Development Plan"*. Another type of plan included in Article 5 of the law, entitled "*Definitions*", is "*the Environmental Order Plan*". This type of plan should again be regarded as an upper-scale plan type both owing to the content provided in the definition and because it is not included in the definition of "Development Plans". In conclusion, when the related articles of the Development Law are evaluated together, it is possible to speak of three main plan ranks, namely *Regional Plans*, *Environmental Order Plans* and *Development Plans*, although not defined systematically (Ersoy, 2006).

The types of plans and their definitions which are contained in the law are as follows (Ercoşkun et al., 2004; Erdem and Coşkun, 2009; Demirel, 2010; the Ministry of Environment and City Planning, 2012):

**Regional Plan**: The State Planning Organization (SPO) makes the regional plans which must reveal the socio-economic development trends and the potential of settlements for development, or it has them made, when it considers necessary. Having appeared on the agenda following the establishment of the SPO after the 1960s, this plan hierarchy did not draw significant interest. Even if it is mentioned in the Development Law, it is not definite how a plan will be made or will gain legality, and it is not obligatory to make it either.

Metropolitan Area Plans: "*Metropolitan Area Plans*", which are not contained in "Definitions" and "the Planning Hierarchy" in the Development Law No. 3194 but which are mentioned in Article 9 of the law although they must follow regional plans in the hierarchy of plans, are plans that must be between regional plans and environmental order plans in terms of scope and scale.

**Environmental Order Plan**: In Article 5 of the law, it was stated that "it is a plan which determines the decisions on settlement and land use, such as housing, industry, agriculture, tourism and transportation, in agreement with national and regional plan decisions"; however, no specific scale was mentioned. On the other hand, the scale of an Environmental Order Plan was specified as 1:25,000, 1:50,000, 1:100,000 or 1:200,000 in "the Regulation on Plan-Making" enacted depending on the same law and it was laid down that it was required to comply with regional plan decisions, if available. Aiming on the one hand to conserve natural resources and cultural, historical and environmental assets, but on the other, to guide settlement demands, this plan has a quality of directing the low-ranking plans.

**Development Plans**: These plans are organized in accordance with the resolutions on the higher-level regional or environmental order plans and bring details concerning the implementation. Development plans are spatial arrangements which are developed on the present maps so as to find the best solutions that might be provided among urban functions, such as residing, working, resting and transportation, by meeting social and cultural needs in order to provide good quality of life by offering the required standards of living to the residents of a particular locality. The municipalities concerned make these plans, or have them made, and these plans come into force after having been approved by the municipal assembly. "*The requirement for the ensuring of compliance of development plans with regional plan and environmental plan decisions (if available)*" is mentioned in Article 8/b of the law. Development plans are basically implemented at two stages, i.e. the master plan and the implementation development plan. In Article 5 of the Development Law, it is stated that "*implementation development plans will be drawn according to the fundamental principles of the master plan, and master plans will be organized to form the basis for the preparation of implementation development plans*":

Impacts of Improper Land Uses in Cities on the Natural Environment and Ecological Landscape Planning 25

uncertainty. The section which defines the plans in the Development Law in force contains no elaborate explanation with respect to "*Regional Plans*" that are the second upper-scale plans and that are indicated as the first step of the legal plan hierarchy. It is clearly seen that these plans, stated to be made by the SPO in the law, must be on the scales of 1:100,000 and above, despite the presence of no provisions on this matter in the law. Nevertheless, not enough plans on this scale have been made in our country; moreover, since there is no legal regulation in the materialization of the projects drawn up, no reality could be achieved

Although the concept of "*Environmental Order Plan*", an upper-scale plan, is very frequently considered and discussed, it has not been finalized and clarified yet by which institution it will be prepared (Demirel, 2010). Especially the development about making an "*Environmental Order Plan*" is continually being disrupted due to the confusion of authority

Although the master plan and the implementation development plan are completely far from ecological concern in terms of their ways of implementation in our country, these plans are made to organize the utilization of soil (Keleş, 2012). However, "*the Environmental Order Plan*", "*the Master Plan*" and "*the Implementation Development Plan*" should be ecological plans for environmental conservation. These plans should envisage the conservation, planning and management of sensitive ecosystems and the areas with naturally and culturally unique features. According to the existing planning system, some shortcomings

In fact, environmental order plans should not be the magnified copies of regional plans; master plans should not be the magnified copies of environmental order plans; and implementation development plans should not be the magnified copies of master plans. These plans must be documents whereby abstract-to-concrete plan decisions are taken and which contain different features and details (Ersoy, 2006). Thus, the inclusion of ecological planning in the planning hierarchy in the existing system (Table 2) appears an obligation

Brought forward as a solution to/remedy for the consequence that all of these approaches and the planning ranks also contained in the legal legislation nationwide are inadequate and up against a brick wall at some point, ecological landscape planning is one of the planning approaches, the importance of which is gradually increasing today and which might

Upon the population increase and the phenomena of urbanization and industrialization which developed accordingly, all living environments and the natural assets which must be conserved have been endangered by the intensive pressure of the unlimited use by people. It is impossible to stop this bad course with standard planning approaches. Therefore,

**4. Ecological/environmentally-sensitive landscape planning and its** 

between the central government and the local government (Ylmaz, 2007).

and some cases which contradict with the definitions of plans occur in practice.

about their implementation (Ersoy, 2006; Akay, 2009).

(Tozar and Ayaşlgil, 2008).

**importance** 

prevent the systematic destruction of natural resources.

*Master Plan*: It is a plan which is recorded on the existing maps in agreement with the regional or environmental order plans, which is explained with a detailed report drawn up to form the basis for the preparation of implementation development plans, and which is prepared on the scales of 1:25,000, 1:5,000 and 1:2,000 with the new regulations. It includes the general ways of use of land pieces drawn with their cadastral status being recorded, if available, the types of regions, the future population density of regions, the building density, the development direction and size of various settlements as well as their principles, their transportation systems, and the solution to problems.

*Implementation Development Plan*: It is a plan on a scale of 1:1,000 which is drawn on the approved present maps – with the cadastral status being recorded, if available – according to the master plan and which shows in detail the city blocks of various regions, their density and order, the roads and the implementation stages that will form the basis for the development implementation programs required for implementation and other information. Moreover, in addition to this plan, *the Revision Development Plan*, *the Additional Development Plan* and *the Partial Development Plan* are also made when any type of plan on any scale fails to respond to the need or when it is impossible to implement it.

As also understood from these definitions and as also stated previously, when the recent legal regulations are read altogether, it is comprehended that the planning system in force consists of three main ranks, namely *Regional Plans, Environmental Order Plans,* and *Development Plans*. "*The Physical Plan of the Country*" at the top of the planning hierarchy is the planning which is not included in the law and has no implementation either. Instead, "*Development Plans*", which had been in five-year periods until 2009 and which have been covering a seven-year process since 2009, are prepared by the SPO. No plan concepts or approaches at the national level are included in the spatial planning system in force in our country; furthermore, the expressions about Regional Plans are extremely inadequate. Regional planning is a rank whose technical content and sanctions have entirely been left in uncertainty. The section which defines the plans in the Development Law in force contains no elaborate explanation with respect to "*Regional Plans*" that are the second upper-scale plans and that are indicated as the first step of the legal plan hierarchy. It is clearly seen that these plans, stated to be made by the SPO in the law, must be on the scales of 1:100,000 and above, despite the presence of no provisions on this matter in the law. Nevertheless, not enough plans on this scale have been made in our country; moreover, since there is no legal regulation in the materialization of the projects drawn up, no reality could be achieved about their implementation (Ersoy, 2006; Akay, 2009).

24 Advances in Landscape Architecture

*implementation development plans*":

**Development Plans**: These plans are organized in accordance with the resolutions on the higher-level regional or environmental order plans and bring details concerning the implementation. Development plans are spatial arrangements which are developed on the present maps so as to find the best solutions that might be provided among urban functions, such as residing, working, resting and transportation, by meeting social and cultural needs in order to provide good quality of life by offering the required standards of living to the residents of a particular locality. The municipalities concerned make these plans, or have them made, and these plans come into force after having been approved by the municipal assembly. "*The requirement for the ensuring of compliance of development plans with regional plan and environmental plan decisions (if available)*" is mentioned in Article 8/b of the law. Development plans are basically implemented at two stages, i.e. the master plan and the implementation development plan. In Article 5 of the Development Law, it is stated that "*implementation development plans will be drawn according to the fundamental principles of the master plan, and master plans will be organized to form the basis for the preparation of* 

*Master Plan*: It is a plan which is recorded on the existing maps in agreement with the regional or environmental order plans, which is explained with a detailed report drawn up to form the basis for the preparation of implementation development plans, and which is prepared on the scales of 1:25,000, 1:5,000 and 1:2,000 with the new regulations. It includes the general ways of use of land pieces drawn with their cadastral status being recorded, if available, the types of regions, the future population density of regions, the building density, the development direction and size of various settlements as well as their

*Implementation Development Plan*: It is a plan on a scale of 1:1,000 which is drawn on the approved present maps – with the cadastral status being recorded, if available – according to the master plan and which shows in detail the city blocks of various regions, their density and order, the roads and the implementation stages that will form the basis for the development implementation programs required for implementation and other information. Moreover, in addition to this plan, *the Revision Development Plan*, *the Additional Development Plan* and *the Partial Development Plan* are also made when any type of plan on any scale fails

As also understood from these definitions and as also stated previously, when the recent legal regulations are read altogether, it is comprehended that the planning system in force consists of three main ranks, namely *Regional Plans, Environmental Order Plans,* and *Development Plans*. "*The Physical Plan of the Country*" at the top of the planning hierarchy is the planning which is not included in the law and has no implementation either. Instead, "*Development Plans*", which had been in five-year periods until 2009 and which have been covering a seven-year process since 2009, are prepared by the SPO. No plan concepts or approaches at the national level are included in the spatial planning system in force in our country; furthermore, the expressions about Regional Plans are extremely inadequate. Regional planning is a rank whose technical content and sanctions have entirely been left in

principles, their transportation systems, and the solution to problems.

to respond to the need or when it is impossible to implement it.

Although the concept of "*Environmental Order Plan*", an upper-scale plan, is very frequently considered and discussed, it has not been finalized and clarified yet by which institution it will be prepared (Demirel, 2010). Especially the development about making an "*Environmental Order Plan*" is continually being disrupted due to the confusion of authority between the central government and the local government (Ylmaz, 2007).

Although the master plan and the implementation development plan are completely far from ecological concern in terms of their ways of implementation in our country, these plans are made to organize the utilization of soil (Keleş, 2012). However, "*the Environmental Order Plan*", "*the Master Plan*" and "*the Implementation Development Plan*" should be ecological plans for environmental conservation. These plans should envisage the conservation, planning and management of sensitive ecosystems and the areas with naturally and culturally unique features. According to the existing planning system, some shortcomings and some cases which contradict with the definitions of plans occur in practice.

In fact, environmental order plans should not be the magnified copies of regional plans; master plans should not be the magnified copies of environmental order plans; and implementation development plans should not be the magnified copies of master plans. These plans must be documents whereby abstract-to-concrete plan decisions are taken and which contain different features and details (Ersoy, 2006). Thus, the inclusion of ecological planning in the planning hierarchy in the existing system (Table 2) appears an obligation (Tozar and Ayaşlgil, 2008).

Brought forward as a solution to/remedy for the consequence that all of these approaches and the planning ranks also contained in the legal legislation nationwide are inadequate and up against a brick wall at some point, ecological landscape planning is one of the planning approaches, the importance of which is gradually increasing today and which might prevent the systematic destruction of natural resources.

## **4. Ecological/environmentally-sensitive landscape planning and its importance**

Upon the population increase and the phenomena of urbanization and industrialization which developed accordingly, all living environments and the natural assets which must be conserved have been endangered by the intensive pressure of the unlimited use by people. It is impossible to stop this bad course with standard planning approaches. Therefore,

ecological planning is the most important approach among the approaches set forth in order to conserve and reclaim the ecosystem which is degrading rapidly today.

Impacts of Improper Land Uses in Cities on the Natural Environment and Ecological Landscape Planning 27

Elimination of the pressure on resources and the carrying out of planning that is suitable for this are prerequisites for the economical use, and sustainability, of natural resources. In the ecological landscape planning studies which have substantially developed in the recent years, it is recommended not to disregard ecological convenience in land uses by developing a multidirectional way of ecological arrangement and planning (Dramstad et al., 1996; Makhzoumi and Pungetti, 1999; Ndubisi; 2002). In ecologically-based land uses, particularly the conservation of natural resources should be the fundamental objective, and the principle of integration of natural areas into the conventional urban land use planning should be adopted. The aim of ecological planning, in which the ecology-economy balance is absolutely taken into consideration in planning studies, is to utilize a region at the optimum level according to the existing physical factors and open it to multidirectional use (Cook,

The ecological landscape planning studies date back to very ancient times, and the first and most fundamental work on this subject is "Design with Nature" – the most important planning book of the 20th century by McHarg (Akpnar, 2008). Ecological planning differs from physical plans in that it aims at a balanced organization among land uses. This is achieved when all existing and potential uses in an area maintain the negative impacts with

So far, various definitions and explanations have been set forth on ecological planning/urban ecological planning – the most influential means of the protection of the nature, its development, and carrying it to the future. The following are some of these

According to Stitt (2009), ecological planning is defined as "the use of natural and sociocultural information so as to suggest various probabilities and restrictions in the process of

Ecological landscape planning is an area of expertise within the scope of landscape planning studies and focuses on making a connection between ecological patterns and the processes. Moreover, it also encompasses social and economic dimensions in terms of human activities and cultural values. In conclusion, ecological landscape planning bases its research and plan

On the one hand urbanization, industrialization and technological developments provide societies with better living conditions, but on the other, they lead to the degradation of the natural environment and cause natural resources to be used up and the environmental pollution to increase. It is these factors which make it imperative to attach more importance to cities in environmental conservation studies and to adopt an ecological approach in city

The ecological planning approach in urban areas can be summarized as an approach to a sustainable urban life which prioritizes the methods and implementations that support the evaluation and development of urban data according to natural, i.e. ecological, criteria as

decision-making regarding the use of natural resources" (Özügül and Atabay, 2006).

the environment and among themselves at the minimum level (Kocataş, 2010).

1991; McHarg, 1992; Colding, 2007).

definitions with common goals:

planning (Eke, 2000).

suggestions on ecological spatial units (Akpnar, 2008).

well as conservation and reuse (Gül and Polat, 2009).


**Table 2.** The existing planning hierarchy in our country (adapted from Ersoy, 2006)

Elimination of the pressure on resources and the carrying out of planning that is suitable for this are prerequisites for the economical use, and sustainability, of natural resources. In the ecological landscape planning studies which have substantially developed in the recent years, it is recommended not to disregard ecological convenience in land uses by developing a multidirectional way of ecological arrangement and planning (Dramstad et al., 1996; Makhzoumi and Pungetti, 1999; Ndubisi; 2002). In ecologically-based land uses, particularly the conservation of natural resources should be the fundamental objective, and the principle of integration of natural areas into the conventional urban land use planning should be adopted. The aim of ecological planning, in which the ecology-economy balance is absolutely taken into consideration in planning studies, is to utilize a region at the optimum level according to the existing physical factors and open it to multidirectional use (Cook, 1991; McHarg, 1992; Colding, 2007).

26 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Planning Area** 

The area which remains within the provincial boundaries

Metropolitan

Basin and Region

which remains within the boundaries of

the

The

Metropolitan Municipality

Municipality and the Adjacent Area

Municipality and the Adjacent Area

Area

**Regional Plan** Region Uncertain The State

**Name of the** 

**Provincial Environmental Order Plan** 

**Metropolitan Development** 

**Environmental Order Plan** 

**Master Plan** The area

**Master Plan** The

**Implementation Development** 

**Plan** 

**Plan** 

**Plan** 

ecological planning is the most important approach among the approaches set forth in order

**Plan-Making** 

Planning Organization

Provincial Administration **Authority of Plan Approval** 

The State Planning Organization

The Special Provincial Administration

The Ministry of Environment and City Planning

The Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs

Metropolitan Municipality

The

The

municipality concerned

municipality concerned

and the Municipality concerned

**Legal Basis** 

Development Law No. 3194

Development Law No. 3194

Environment Law No. 2872 which was amended by Law No. 5491

Metropolitan Municipality Law No. 5216

Development Law No. 3194

Development Law No. 3194

Special Provincial Administration Law No. 5302

**Scale Authority of** 

Uncertain The Special

Uncertain The Ministry of

1:25,000 Metropolitan

All

Environment and City Planning

The Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs

Municipality

Municipalities

municipalities other than the Metropolitan Municipalities

to conserve and reclaim the ecosystem which is degrading rapidly today.

1:50,000 1:100,000

1:5,000 1:2,000

1:1,000 All

**Table 2.** The existing planning hierarchy in our country (adapted from Ersoy, 2006)

The ecological landscape planning studies date back to very ancient times, and the first and most fundamental work on this subject is "Design with Nature" – the most important planning book of the 20th century by McHarg (Akpnar, 2008). Ecological planning differs from physical plans in that it aims at a balanced organization among land uses. This is achieved when all existing and potential uses in an area maintain the negative impacts with the environment and among themselves at the minimum level (Kocataş, 2010).

So far, various definitions and explanations have been set forth on ecological planning/urban ecological planning – the most influential means of the protection of the nature, its development, and carrying it to the future. The following are some of these definitions with common goals:

According to Stitt (2009), ecological planning is defined as "the use of natural and sociocultural information so as to suggest various probabilities and restrictions in the process of decision-making regarding the use of natural resources" (Özügül and Atabay, 2006).

Ecological landscape planning is an area of expertise within the scope of landscape planning studies and focuses on making a connection between ecological patterns and the processes. Moreover, it also encompasses social and economic dimensions in terms of human activities and cultural values. In conclusion, ecological landscape planning bases its research and plan suggestions on ecological spatial units (Akpnar, 2008).

On the one hand urbanization, industrialization and technological developments provide societies with better living conditions, but on the other, they lead to the degradation of the natural environment and cause natural resources to be used up and the environmental pollution to increase. It is these factors which make it imperative to attach more importance to cities in environmental conservation studies and to adopt an ecological approach in city planning (Eke, 2000).

The ecological planning approach in urban areas can be summarized as an approach to a sustainable urban life which prioritizes the methods and implementations that support the evaluation and development of urban data according to natural, i.e. ecological, criteria as well as conservation and reuse (Gül and Polat, 2009).

The natural environment and landscape have been evaluated in an integrated way in physical planning in the recent years when the environmental problems have reached the most advanced dimensions. Ecological planning is a planning process in which the favorable/restrictive conditions of an area and biophysical and socio-cultural data are used when determining the optimum places for land use in areas which have not degraded yet (Tozar and Ayaşlgil, 2008). In other words, it is a planning approach which provides an opportunity of choosing the living space that is optimum in terms of natural potential among our living spaces and therefore has sustainability and which entails the spatial organization of different types of land uses (Çelikyay, 2005).

Impacts of Improper Land Uses in Cities on the Natural Environment and Ecological Landscape Planning 29

(Cheng and Hu, 2009). In other words, urban sustainability can be achieved as a result of the

Urbanization, expressed as the rate of people living in urban areas, displays rapid growth,

The population increase in the world began to manifest itself in all regions in the midst of the 18th century and went on increasing rapidly in the 1950s in particular. Recently, the world's population has approached 7 billion people, and this figure is estimated to reach 10.5 billion in 2050 (Kocataş, 2010; Aksu, 2011). Although it was expressed by Niemelä (1999) that 60% of the world's population lived in cities as of 2005, in the Sustainable Cities Development Report (2009) that was prepared by the United Nations in 2009, it was stated that urban and rural populations were first equalized in the history of the world in 2008 and that 70% of the world's population would live in urban areas in 2050 (Aydn,

Sustainable development has become an important problem of the agenda since the Conference of the United Nations that was held in Rio in 1992. According to "**the Report of the Commission on Environment and Development**", also known as "**the Brundtland Report**", prepared in 1987 by the United Nations, sustainable development is defined as "*development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future* 

According to "**the Sustainable Cities Development Report**" prepared in 2009 by the United Nations, it is stated that for sustainable development, far more ambitious policies are needed today for development and in order to limit the energy consumption and it is stressed that the first thing to do is to reduce pollution and conserve natural areas and

The main problems resulting from urbanization – one of the basic features of the European civilizations – are the upsetting of the ecological balance for reasons, such as the increase in building as a result of the human activities depending on the population increase and the improper use of natural areas, and the vital changes that have developed accordingly

Particularly when the losses of green areas and natural resources are considered today, it is evident that urban development over the urban nature is gradually increasing and that urbanization is an issue which should be considered with care (Yli-Pelkonen and Kohl, 2005). The concept of ecological landscape planning, which occurred as the minimization of the problems urbanization caused in the natural environment and as an organization that supported a sustainable urban life and on which various studies have been made for long

years, is regarded as the only solution to the problems caused by urbanization.

**5. The relationship between sustainable urbanization and ecological** 

with the values reaching about 80% in most European countries today (Antrop, 2004).

conservation-use balance provided with ecological landscape planning.

*generations to meet their own needs*" (WCED, 1987).

arable lands (Naess, 2001).

(Antrop, 2004; Berry, 2008).

**planning** 

2010).

Ecological landscape planning is a process which encompasses land use planning besides decision-making with respect to the way of, and strategies for, using natural resources. Additionally, it is the whole of the objectives which the society wishes to attain in planning and the process of physical change resulting from the implementation of these objectives (Marsh, 1997; Steiner, 2000).

Ecological planning is one of the basic sections of physical planning, and it is generally related to the arrangement of the physical space for ecological objectives. The primary purpose of this planning is to enhance the optimum and continuous efficiency of the natural and artificial environments in all special physical planning. In other words, it refers to filtering special plan objectives (all wishes regarding the physical structure) through the filter of ecological planning that is the complementary planning (Köseoğlu, 1982).

Çelikyay (2006) states that the aim of ecological evaluations is to determine the negative effects of human actions and physical factors on natural resources. Ecological planning both is a link between the process of spatial planning which is particularly directed to land use and the process of effect evaluation for natural resources and constitutes the foundation of the effective management of natural resources.

The ecological planning approach envisages preventing environmental problems just before they occur and arranging the spaces where one will live accordingly. In this planning approach, first of all, natural-local resources are determined and the uses are arranged considering the features of these resources. The objective is not to repress the resource with the planning made but to prevent the damage caused by the uses through planning according to the resource (Uğur, 2009). Accordingly, ecological planning is the process of examining the physical and social factors about the determination of the optimum place for the types of land uses selected in order to reveal the opportunities of, and barriers to, decision-making regarding the use of natural resources (Akpnar, 2008).

According to Atabay (2003), when there is sustainability in planning, first of all, it is necessary to set forth the sustainable development strategies which are based on the natural environment, which is only possible through ecological planning. Atabay (2005) states that particularly country-, region- and basin-based "Ecological Master Plans" are needed in order to ensure the sustainable conservation and use of natural resources.

In conclusion, the ability of urban settlements to survive is directly correlated with the concept of sustainable development that also depends on the conservation and use of natural resources (Cheng and Hu, 2009). In other words, urban sustainability can be achieved as a result of the conservation-use balance provided with ecological landscape planning.

## **5. The relationship between sustainable urbanization and ecological planning**

28 Advances in Landscape Architecture

(Marsh, 1997; Steiner, 2000).

the effective management of natural resources.

The natural environment and landscape have been evaluated in an integrated way in physical planning in the recent years when the environmental problems have reached the most advanced dimensions. Ecological planning is a planning process in which the favorable/restrictive conditions of an area and biophysical and socio-cultural data are used when determining the optimum places for land use in areas which have not degraded yet (Tozar and Ayaşlgil, 2008). In other words, it is a planning approach which provides an opportunity of choosing the living space that is optimum in terms of natural potential among our living spaces and therefore has sustainability and which entails the spatial

Ecological landscape planning is a process which encompasses land use planning besides decision-making with respect to the way of, and strategies for, using natural resources. Additionally, it is the whole of the objectives which the society wishes to attain in planning and the process of physical change resulting from the implementation of these objectives

Ecological planning is one of the basic sections of physical planning, and it is generally related to the arrangement of the physical space for ecological objectives. The primary purpose of this planning is to enhance the optimum and continuous efficiency of the natural and artificial environments in all special physical planning. In other words, it refers to filtering special plan objectives (all wishes regarding the physical structure) through the

Çelikyay (2006) states that the aim of ecological evaluations is to determine the negative effects of human actions and physical factors on natural resources. Ecological planning both is a link between the process of spatial planning which is particularly directed to land use and the process of effect evaluation for natural resources and constitutes the foundation of

The ecological planning approach envisages preventing environmental problems just before they occur and arranging the spaces where one will live accordingly. In this planning approach, first of all, natural-local resources are determined and the uses are arranged considering the features of these resources. The objective is not to repress the resource with the planning made but to prevent the damage caused by the uses through planning according to the resource (Uğur, 2009). Accordingly, ecological planning is the process of examining the physical and social factors about the determination of the optimum place for the types of land uses selected in order to reveal the opportunities of, and barriers to,

According to Atabay (2003), when there is sustainability in planning, first of all, it is necessary to set forth the sustainable development strategies which are based on the natural environment, which is only possible through ecological planning. Atabay (2005) states that particularly country-, region- and basin-based "Ecological Master Plans" are needed in

In conclusion, the ability of urban settlements to survive is directly correlated with the concept of sustainable development that also depends on the conservation and use of natural resources

filter of ecological planning that is the complementary planning (Köseoğlu, 1982).

decision-making regarding the use of natural resources (Akpnar, 2008).

order to ensure the sustainable conservation and use of natural resources.

organization of different types of land uses (Çelikyay, 2005).

Urbanization, expressed as the rate of people living in urban areas, displays rapid growth, with the values reaching about 80% in most European countries today (Antrop, 2004).

The population increase in the world began to manifest itself in all regions in the midst of the 18th century and went on increasing rapidly in the 1950s in particular. Recently, the world's population has approached 7 billion people, and this figure is estimated to reach 10.5 billion in 2050 (Kocataş, 2010; Aksu, 2011). Although it was expressed by Niemelä (1999) that 60% of the world's population lived in cities as of 2005, in the Sustainable Cities Development Report (2009) that was prepared by the United Nations in 2009, it was stated that urban and rural populations were first equalized in the history of the world in 2008 and that 70% of the world's population would live in urban areas in 2050 (Aydn, 2010).

Sustainable development has become an important problem of the agenda since the Conference of the United Nations that was held in Rio in 1992. According to "**the Report of the Commission on Environment and Development**", also known as "**the Brundtland Report**", prepared in 1987 by the United Nations, sustainable development is defined as "*development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs*" (WCED, 1987).

According to "**the Sustainable Cities Development Report**" prepared in 2009 by the United Nations, it is stated that for sustainable development, far more ambitious policies are needed today for development and in order to limit the energy consumption and it is stressed that the first thing to do is to reduce pollution and conserve natural areas and arable lands (Naess, 2001).

The main problems resulting from urbanization – one of the basic features of the European civilizations – are the upsetting of the ecological balance for reasons, such as the increase in building as a result of the human activities depending on the population increase and the improper use of natural areas, and the vital changes that have developed accordingly (Antrop, 2004; Berry, 2008).

Particularly when the losses of green areas and natural resources are considered today, it is evident that urban development over the urban nature is gradually increasing and that urbanization is an issue which should be considered with care (Yli-Pelkonen and Kohl, 2005). The concept of ecological landscape planning, which occurred as the minimization of the problems urbanization caused in the natural environment and as an organization that supported a sustainable urban life and on which various studies have been made for long years, is regarded as the only solution to the problems caused by urbanization.

Nevertheless, although the economic and ecological approaches are complementary when measuring sustainable development (Rennings and Wiggering, 1997), there has been a continuous conflict between economic gains and the ecological balance since the past. The natural areas which were opened to use with economic concerns are now confronted with many problems with the rapidly increasing urban development. Introducing a real solution to all those land uses which remain between two contradictory dimensions as ecological conservation and the economic life today, ecological planning advocates that natural resources such as water, air, soil and vegetation must definitely be conserved (Van Lier, 1998), for these natural areas are particularly in a position to be the lungs of urban ecosystems.

Impacts of Improper Land Uses in Cities on the Natural Environment and Ecological Landscape Planning 31

Particularly from the environmental problems cities have caused in the recent years, it follows that the city must also be in harmony with its environment and that cities must also be considered an ecosystem. Every entity that is randomly (in an unplanned and uncontrolled way) and rapidly growing without considering the bearing capacity of the life support system means that it is also preparing its own end rapidly. When the infrastructure necessary to support and carry on this rapid growth is unavailable, every rapid growth will inevitably be followed by a rapid end. As Odum and Barrett (2008) also state, the natural ecosystem and the urban ecosystem must absolutely be integrated in the understanding of

**Figure 2.** The schematic integration of ecologically-based land use (Van Lier, 1998)

It is impossible to speak of any sustainable society and environment with sustainable urban planning as long as it is failed to conserve and develop natural resources. The environment and natural resources are important restrictive elements today and at the point of the possibility of meeting social and economic needs of the future generations (Cheng and Hu, 2009) (Figure 3).

**Figure 3.** The relationship of the environment with economy and social development (Cheng and Hu, 2009)

sustainable city planning (Figure 2).

Urban ecosystems are able to survive by obtaining their large amounts of food, water, energy, minerals and other needs from nearby or distant agricultural lands, forests, mines and water basins. As urban areas grow, the need for resources and pollution create a gradually increasing pressure on water resources, aquatic regions, estuaries, forests, cultivated & planted lands, and untouched rural areas (Erdem, 2000).

As also seen in Figure 1, when the relationship of cities with the environment is considered, their first-degree dependence on the neighboring ecosystems is striking. Cities meet their vital needs such as raw material, water, food and energy first of all from the ecosystems located on their fringe, and they leave their wastes again in these areas. That is to say, first of all, the conservation and continuity of these natural areas are indispensable for the continuity of cities (Aydn, 2010).

**Figure 1.** The relationship among natural, structural and social environments (Aydn, 2010)

Particularly from the environmental problems cities have caused in the recent years, it follows that the city must also be in harmony with its environment and that cities must also be considered an ecosystem. Every entity that is randomly (in an unplanned and uncontrolled way) and rapidly growing without considering the bearing capacity of the life support system means that it is also preparing its own end rapidly. When the infrastructure necessary to support and carry on this rapid growth is unavailable, every rapid growth will inevitably be followed by a rapid end. As Odum and Barrett (2008) also state, the natural ecosystem and the urban ecosystem must absolutely be integrated in the understanding of sustainable city planning (Figure 2).

30 Advances in Landscape Architecture

continuity of cities (Aydn, 2010).

Nevertheless, although the economic and ecological approaches are complementary when measuring sustainable development (Rennings and Wiggering, 1997), there has been a continuous conflict between economic gains and the ecological balance since the past. The natural areas which were opened to use with economic concerns are now confronted with many problems with the rapidly increasing urban development. Introducing a real solution to all those land uses which remain between two contradictory dimensions as ecological conservation and the economic life today, ecological planning advocates that natural resources such as water, air, soil and vegetation must definitely be conserved (Van Lier, 1998), for these

Urban ecosystems are able to survive by obtaining their large amounts of food, water, energy, minerals and other needs from nearby or distant agricultural lands, forests, mines and water basins. As urban areas grow, the need for resources and pollution create a gradually increasing pressure on water resources, aquatic regions, estuaries, forests,

As also seen in Figure 1, when the relationship of cities with the environment is considered, their first-degree dependence on the neighboring ecosystems is striking. Cities meet their vital needs such as raw material, water, food and energy first of all from the ecosystems located on their fringe, and they leave their wastes again in these areas. That is to say, first of all, the conservation and continuity of these natural areas are indispensable for the

**Figure 1.** The relationship among natural, structural and social environments (Aydn, 2010)

natural areas are particularly in a position to be the lungs of urban ecosystems.

cultivated & planted lands, and untouched rural areas (Erdem, 2000).

**Figure 2.** The schematic integration of ecologically-based land use (Van Lier, 1998)

It is impossible to speak of any sustainable society and environment with sustainable urban planning as long as it is failed to conserve and develop natural resources. The environment and natural resources are important restrictive elements today and at the point of the possibility of meeting social and economic needs of the future generations (Cheng and Hu, 2009) (Figure 3).

**Figure 3.** The relationship of the environment with economy and social development (Cheng and Hu, 2009)

Today sustainable city planning and sustainable development are concepts which are widely used in the development of urban areas and in environmental issues (Yli-Pelkonen and Niemelä, 2005). Sustainable city planning, a phenomenon with economic and social dimensions besides its ecological dimension (Figure 4), is an understanding of planning that is developed against the use of the environment as a resource without attaching importance to its consumption and loss. It is a contemporary evaluation which considers not only the addressing of the environment only to the users of that period and its provision of the most benefits but also the right of the future generations to use the environmental resources (Ercoşkun, 2005).

Impacts of Improper Land Uses in Cities on the Natural Environment and Ecological Landscape Planning 33

**Figure 5.** The geographical location of the sample area, Çanakkale, Turkey

a Development Plan in the Fifth Period (between 1993 and 1995).

according to all development periods.

*Improperly Used Natural Areas According to the Development Plan Periods* 

At this stage of the study, first of all, the areas with a development plan at the city center of Çanakkale selected as the sample area, were classified into five periods by utilizing Koç (2006), and they were digitized by means of the GISs (the Geographic Information Systems) and computerized. Accordingly, the development periods in Çanakkale can be listed by date as follows (Figure 6): a) Areas with a Development Plan in the First Period (between 1949 and 1963) b) Areas with a Development Plan in the Second Period (between 1963 and 1978) c) Areas with a Development Plan in the Third Period (between 1978 and 1984) d) Areas with a Development Plan in the Fourth Period (between 1984 and 1993) e) Areas with

Secondly, "the Previous Land Use Map" included in "the Land Inventory" on a scale of 1:100,000 in the Report on the Provincial Land Asset of Çanakkale, prepared in 1999 by the Directorate General of Village Services, was digitized by means of the GIS and computerized in order to express concretely the amount of the loss of agricultural lands

At this point, attention should be drawn to the fact that the soil classification was entirely amended by "the Soil Conservation and Land Law" No. 5403, and different definitions were made under the headings of absolute agricultural lands, planted agricultural lands, marginal agricultural lands, pasture, forest, settlements, and other areas (such as rushy areas, marshes, and rocky areas). There is a "Land Asset Map" that was prepared in 2008 according to this new type of classification by the Provincial Directorate of Food,

**Figure 4.** A simple conceptual framework to ensure urban sustainability - The connection between the human-social system and the ecological system in the planning process (Yli-Pelkonen and Niemelä, 2005)

As Lyle (1993) also states, the cities of the future must embrace the ecology of the landscape that surrounds them (Odum and Barrett, 2008). The conservation of natural habitats has gradually gained importance depending on the increase in people's sensitivity to the conservation of the natural environment particularly in the last fifty years. Accordingly, ecology and ecological landscape planning approaches have gained importance as a response to the questions of how sustainable cities can be formed and how improper land uses will be prevented.

In conclusion, the first thing to do in city planning that is based on the conservation of the ecological structure is to determine the natural and cultural resource inventory of the area and to carry out planning accordingly. An ecologically-based planning approach is also imperative for the sound development of cities besides the conservation of natural & cultural resources (Niemelä, 1999; Termorshuizen et al., 2007).

## **6. The sample area: the city center of Çanakkale**

The city center of Çanakkale, selected as the sample area, is located between 40º 09ʹ and 40º 18ʹ northern latitudes and 26º 33ʹ and 26º 48ʹ eastern longitudes and covers an area of about 17.83 km² (Figure 5). The sample area was specified as the municipal boundaries of the central district of Çanakkale (Çanakkale Municipality, 2011).

Impacts of Improper Land Uses in Cities on the Natural Environment and Ecological Landscape Planning 33

32 Advances in Landscape Architecture

2005)

uses will be prevented.

Today sustainable city planning and sustainable development are concepts which are widely used in the development of urban areas and in environmental issues (Yli-Pelkonen and Niemelä, 2005). Sustainable city planning, a phenomenon with economic and social dimensions besides its ecological dimension (Figure 4), is an understanding of planning that is developed against the use of the environment as a resource without attaching importance to its consumption and loss. It is a contemporary evaluation which considers not only the addressing of the environment only to the users of that period and its provision of the most benefits but also the right of the future generations to use the environmental resources (Ercoşkun, 2005).

**CITY AIMING AT SUSTAINABILITY** 

HUMAN-SOCIAL SYSTEM

URBAN LAND USE PLANNING PROCESS

**Figure 4.** A simple conceptual framework to ensure urban sustainability - The connection between the human-social system and the ecological system in the planning process (Yli-Pelkonen and Niemelä,

ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM

As Lyle (1993) also states, the cities of the future must embrace the ecology of the landscape that surrounds them (Odum and Barrett, 2008). The conservation of natural habitats has gradually gained importance depending on the increase in people's sensitivity to the conservation of the natural environment particularly in the last fifty years. Accordingly, ecology and ecological landscape planning approaches have gained importance as a response to the questions of how sustainable cities can be formed and how improper land

In conclusion, the first thing to do in city planning that is based on the conservation of the ecological structure is to determine the natural and cultural resource inventory of the area and to carry out planning accordingly. An ecologically-based planning approach is also imperative for the sound development of cities besides the conservation of natural &

The city center of Çanakkale, selected as the sample area, is located between 40º 09ʹ and 40º 18ʹ northern latitudes and 26º 33ʹ and 26º 48ʹ eastern longitudes and covers an area of about 17.83 km² (Figure 5). The sample area was specified as the municipal boundaries of the

cultural resources (Niemelä, 1999; Termorshuizen et al., 2007).

**6. The sample area: the city center of Çanakkale** 

central district of Çanakkale (Çanakkale Municipality, 2011).

*Improperly Used Natural Areas According to the Development Plan Periods* 

At this stage of the study, first of all, the areas with a development plan at the city center of Çanakkale selected as the sample area, were classified into five periods by utilizing Koç (2006), and they were digitized by means of the GISs (the Geographic Information Systems) and computerized. Accordingly, the development periods in Çanakkale can be listed by date as follows (Figure 6): a) Areas with a Development Plan in the First Period (between 1949 and 1963) b) Areas with a Development Plan in the Second Period (between 1963 and 1978) c) Areas with a Development Plan in the Third Period (between 1978 and 1984) d) Areas with a Development Plan in the Fourth Period (between 1984 and 1993) e) Areas with a Development Plan in the Fifth Period (between 1993 and 1995).

Secondly, "the Previous Land Use Map" included in "the Land Inventory" on a scale of 1:100,000 in the Report on the Provincial Land Asset of Çanakkale, prepared in 1999 by the Directorate General of Village Services, was digitized by means of the GIS and computerized in order to express concretely the amount of the loss of agricultural lands according to all development periods.

At this point, attention should be drawn to the fact that the soil classification was entirely amended by "the Soil Conservation and Land Law" No. 5403, and different definitions were made under the headings of absolute agricultural lands, planted agricultural lands, marginal agricultural lands, pasture, forest, settlements, and other areas (such as rushy areas, marshes, and rocky areas). There is a "Land Asset Map" that was prepared in 2008 according to this new type of classification by the Provincial Directorate of Food,

Agriculture and Animal Husbandry of Çanakkale. However, in order to express the loss of fertile agricultural lands more clearly at this stage, a re-classification was made according to the law concerned besides using "the Previous Land Use Map" with an earlier date, i.e. 1999. According to this classification, the uses were collected under the headings of urban area (settlement, recreation, and airport), agriculture (irrigated and rain-fed agricultural lands), planted agriculture (olive, fruit, and vineyard), forest, and pasture.

Impacts of Improper Land Uses in Cities on the Natural Environment and Ecological Landscape Planning 35

**Figure 7.** The loss of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in the first period

**Figure 8.** The loss of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in the second period

**Figure 6.** Distribution of the areas with a development plan by development plan period

To express the losses of fertile lands of the development periods more clearly and to show the periodic losses of each development period, the five development periods and "the Previous Land Use Map" were overlapped in the computer medium by means of the GIS. To what use the boundary of each development period corresponds on the previous land use map and their numerical values are provided in the following maps and tables (Figures 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11; Tables 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7).

Agriculture and Animal Husbandry of Çanakkale. However, in order to express the loss of fertile agricultural lands more clearly at this stage, a re-classification was made according to the law concerned besides using "the Previous Land Use Map" with an earlier date, i.e. 1999. According to this classification, the uses were collected under the headings of urban area (settlement, recreation, and airport), agriculture (irrigated and rain-fed agricultural

lands), planted agriculture (olive, fruit, and vineyard), forest, and pasture.

**Figure 6.** Distribution of the areas with a development plan by development plan period

7, 8, 9, 10 and 11; Tables 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7).

To express the losses of fertile lands of the development periods more clearly and to show the periodic losses of each development period, the five development periods and "the Previous Land Use Map" were overlapped in the computer medium by means of the GIS. To what use the boundary of each development period corresponds on the previous land use map and their numerical values are provided in the following maps and tables (Figures

**Figure 7.** The loss of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in the first period

**Figure 8.** The loss of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in the second period


Impacts of Improper Land Uses in Cities on the Natural Environment and Ecological Landscape Planning 37

**Quality of the Area Covering Area (km²) Covering Percentage (%)**

**Table 5.** Distribution of the losses of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in

**Figure 10.** The loss of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in the fourth

**Quality of the Area Kaplama Alan (km²) Kaplama Yüzdesi (%)** 

**Table 6.** Distribution of the losses of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in

Urban Area 1.17 40.91 Agriculture (Irrigated and rain-fed) 1.69 59.09 **Total 2.86 100.00** 

Urban Area 2.86 76.68 Agriculture (Irrigated and rain-fed) 0.09 2.41 Planted Agriculture 0.61 16.35 Pasture 0.17 4.56 **Total 3.73 100.00** 

the third period

period

the fourth period

**Table 3.** Distribution of the losses of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in the first period


**Table 4.** Distribution of the losses of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in the second period

**Figure 9.** The loss of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in the third period

Impacts of Improper Land Uses in Cities on the Natural Environment and Ecological Landscape Planning 37


36 Advances in Landscape Architecture

the first period

the second period

**Quality of the Area Covering Area (km²) Covering Percentage (%)**

**Table 3.** Distribution of the losses of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in

**Quality of the Area Covering Area (km²) Covering Percentage (%)**

**Table 4.** Distribution of the losses of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in

**Figure 9.** The loss of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in the third period

Urban Area 1.32 46.48 Agriculture (Irrigated and rain-fed) 1.52 53.52 **Total 2.84 100.00** 

Urban Area 3.48 82.46 Agriculture (Irrigated and rain-fed) 0.54 12.80 Planted agriculture 0.20 4.74 **Total 4.22 100.00**  **Table 5.** Distribution of the losses of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in the third period

**Figure 10.** The loss of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in the fourth period


**Table 6.** Distribution of the losses of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in the fourth period

Impacts of Improper Land Uses in Cities on the Natural Environment and Ecological Landscape Planning 39

agricultural lands and 11.67% are planted agricultural (olive, vineyard, and garden) lands.

**Quality of the Area Covering Area (km²) Covering Percentage (%)**

Accordingly, as also understood from this table, the master and implementation development plans of the entire sample area with a size of 17.83 km² were made and, as a result, the areas transformed into an urban settlement by being used improperly are 7.77 km² of fertile agricultural lands (43.58%) – 5.69 km² of irrigated and rain-fed agriculture and

Urban Area 9.02 50.59 Agriculture (Irrigated and rain-fed) 5.69 31.91 Planted Agriculture 2.08 11.67 Pasture 0.88 4.93 Forest 0.02 0.11 The Sarçay Stream 0.14 0.79 **Total 17.83 100.00** 

There is a small amount of pasture areas in an area with a rate of 4.93%.

**Figure 12.** The previous land use in areas with a development plan

**Table 8.** The previous land use at the city center of Çanakkale (km²/%)

**Figure 11.** The loss of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in the fifth period


**Table 7.** Distribution of the losses of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in the fifth period

Even though there were losses of fertile lands in the second and third periods as well, serious losses took place especially in the first, fourth and fifth development periods. While it is observed that as the city expanded towards its fringes, these losses were in irrigated and rain-fed absolute agricultural lands in particular, the planted agricultural lands also experienced significant losses, along with the areas that were opened to development.

The following is the numerical distribution of the land asset in all areas with a development plan – i.e. the sample area – according to the data by the Directorate General of Village Services (1999) (Figure 12, Table 8).

When all the areas opened to development as of 2011 are considered according to the table above, it is seen that only 50.59% of the land asset map corresponds to the urban area. When the other land uses are considered, it is seen that 31.91% are rain-fed and irrigated agricultural lands and 11.67% are planted agricultural (olive, vineyard, and garden) lands. There is a small amount of pasture areas in an area with a rate of 4.93%.

**Figure 12.** The previous land use in areas with a development plan

38 Advances in Landscape Architecture

the fifth period

Services (1999) (Figure 12, Table 8).

**Figure 11.** The loss of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in the fifth period

**Quality of the Area Covering Area (km²) Covering Percentage (%)**

**Table 7.** Distribution of the losses of fertile agricultural lands in the areas with a development plan in

Even though there were losses of fertile lands in the second and third periods as well, serious losses took place especially in the first, fourth and fifth development periods. While it is observed that as the city expanded towards its fringes, these losses were in irrigated and rain-fed absolute agricultural lands in particular, the planted agricultural lands also experienced significant losses, along with the areas that were opened to development.

The following is the numerical distribution of the land asset in all areas with a development plan – i.e. the sample area – according to the data by the Directorate General of Village

When all the areas opened to development as of 2011 are considered according to the table above, it is seen that only 50.59% of the land asset map corresponds to the urban area. When the other land uses are considered, it is seen that 31.91% are rain-fed and irrigated

Urban Area 0.19 4.71 Agriculture (Irrigated and rain-fed) 1.84 45.66 Planted Agriculture 1.27 31.51 Pasture 0.71 17.62 Forest 0.02 0.50 **Total 4.03 100.00** 


**Table 8.** The previous land use at the city center of Çanakkale (km²/%)

Accordingly, as also understood from this table, the master and implementation development plans of the entire sample area with a size of 17.83 km² were made and, as a result, the areas transformed into an urban settlement by being used improperly are 7.77 km² of fertile agricultural lands (43.58%) – 5.69 km² of irrigated and rain-fed agriculture and

2.08 km² of planted agriculture. From this result, it is understood that almost half of the entire area has a "fertile agricultural land" status and that an area with such a dimension has been transformed completely into an urban area with the master and implementation development plans prepared.

Impacts of Improper Land Uses in Cities on the Natural Environment and Ecological Landscape Planning 41

At this stage of the study, "the Existing Land Use Map" prepared in 2011 (Çanakkale Municipality, 2011) was used as the basic data so as to make a clearer and more accurate evaluation. At the next stage, to detect the areas used improperly, the boundary of "the Previous Land Use Map (1999)" and "the Existing Land Use Map (2011)" were overlapped in the GIS medium. Accordingly, how much of the industrial and settlement areas currently in use was used improperly and excluded from the agricultural land status was expressed

with concrete data (Figures 14 and 15, Table 9).

**Figure 14.** The existing land use

**Figure 15.** The previous land use and improper land uses

As also understood from the tables and figures, quite substantial losses of fertile agricultural lands took place in all development periods. The Master and Implementation Development Plans of all areas with a development plan, also indicated in periods above, were made and the activities of house construction are still ongoing in the agricultural lands located in these areas. Although the agricultural activities are still ongoing in the fertile lands which have remained in a small amount within the city, all of these lands have been excluded from the agricultural land status and transformed into an urban area with the development plans made (Figure 13).

**Figure 13.** The agricultural lands with a development plan at the city center, Çanakkale, Turkey (a-b: on the Çanakkale-Lapseki ring road, c-d: Şekerpnar locality, e-f: around the airport in Barbaros District)

At this stage of the study, "the Existing Land Use Map" prepared in 2011 (Çanakkale Municipality, 2011) was used as the basic data so as to make a clearer and more accurate evaluation. At the next stage, to detect the areas used improperly, the boundary of "the Previous Land Use Map (1999)" and "the Existing Land Use Map (2011)" were overlapped in the GIS medium. Accordingly, how much of the industrial and settlement areas currently in use was used improperly and excluded from the agricultural land status was expressed with concrete data (Figures 14 and 15, Table 9).

**Figure 14.** The existing land use

40 Advances in Landscape Architecture

development plans prepared.

2.08 km² of planted agriculture. From this result, it is understood that almost half of the entire area has a "fertile agricultural land" status and that an area with such a dimension has been transformed completely into an urban area with the master and implementation

As also understood from the tables and figures, quite substantial losses of fertile agricultural lands took place in all development periods. The Master and Implementation Development Plans of all areas with a development plan, also indicated in periods above, were made and the activities of house construction are still ongoing in the agricultural lands located in these areas. Although the agricultural activities are still ongoing in the fertile lands which have remained in a small amount within the city, all of these lands have been excluded from the agricultural land status and transformed into an urban area with the development plans made (Figure 13).

**Figure 13.** The agricultural lands with a development plan at the city center, Çanakkale, Turkey (a-b: on the Çanakkale-Lapseki ring road, c-d: Şekerpnar locality, e-f: around the airport in Barbaros District)

**Figure 15.** The previous land use and improper land uses


Impacts of Improper Land Uses in Cities on the Natural Environment and Ecological Landscape Planning 43

The most serious problem in the planning hierarchy is the absence of Regional Plans that must be made by the State Planning Organization (SPO). "*The decisions & main strategies, whose main headings are given as the ensuring of interregional balanced development by using the regional potential and the determination of where public investments and the private capital will be located and which should be decided by Regional Plans*" have unfortunately been assumed by the Environmental Order Plans (Demirel, 2010). Furthermore, Environmental Order Plans are not made with a continuous and serious approach but only when they are considered necessary by the authorized institutions. However, the physical plan which is directive and binding at the highest level in Turkey is "the Environmental Order Plan" (Akay, 2007;

The fact that "the Regional Plan" and "the Environmental Order Plan", upper-scale plans, are made only when considered necessary by central governments according to the Development Law can be expressed as another serious problem. Many urban and metropolitan settlements do not have such a planning approach. This negative situation prevents the formation of an integrated and a sound strategic planning approach. For the formation of the sound planning approach concerned, the plan decisions from the upper scale to the lower scale should be consistent with each other. At this point, within the framework of the principle of "graded coexistence" of plans, each lower-scale plan must contain more information and details than the one upper-scale plan. An original plan which also encompasses the new information and data required by the respective original scale of lower-scale plans but which preserves the main decisions of the one upper scale is expected

"*the inclusion of provisions like 'The State Planning Organization makes the regional and basin plans to be prepared in order to determine socio-economic development trends, the potential of settlements for development, sectoral objectives and activities, and the distribution of infrastructural services unique to these activities, or has them made, when it considers necessary', its definition by ignoring natural resources, and its leaving of this important* 

in Paragraph a of Article 8 in the Development Law No. 3194 with respect to regional

At this point, although the inclusion of some decisions in the law makes no sense, leaving of the planning decisions directly concerning the conservation of natural resources to arbitrary administration is striking as an extremely disadvantageous approach with no sanctions.

Additionally, there is quite great chaos in our country about the planning hierarchy which is a serious problem. Accordingly, "the Special Provincial Administration Law" No. 5302, which came into force in 2005, is essential in terms of the affiliating of public services to single administration and, through this law, the authority of "the Provincial Environmental Order Plan-Making and Approving" was granted to "the Special Provincial Administrations", appearing the most influential institutions today (Demirel, 2010). With

Cengiz and Gönüz, 2011).

(Öztürk, 2004; Ersoy, 2006).

*planning stage optional*",

planning, as a great shortcoming for the Development Law.

Atabay (2005) expressed

**Table 9.** Improper land uses

As understood from the figures and the table above, of the urban settlement area in current use which is totally 15.51 km², 8.20 km² (46.42%) with a fertile agricultural land status have been used improperly and opened to settlement. It has been detected that of the industrial area again in current use which is 0.46 km², 0.43 km2 (93.48%) must indeed be used for settlement.

## **7. Discussion and conclusion**

"*All living things are either directly or indirectly soil-dependent for survival. In other words, soil is a natural space in which all plant species and intra-soil living things survive and a natural resource by which food is provided*" (Kocataş, 2010).

As a result of the population which has piled up in cities, urbanization gave rise to the need for accommodation. This led to the use of the land for nonagricultural purposes and caused the housing sector to capture the land. The limited arable lands and the gradually increasing improper use of these lands gave rise to a serious problem of degradation and loss of agricultural lands (Keleş and Hamamc, 1993; Ercoşkun and Karaaslan, 2009).

The perception of the concept of "Development" merely as the opening of new settlement zones to development in the process of planning of cities or settlements leads to consequences that are impossible to compensate for in the ecological dimension in terms of cities. The important thing here is the materialization of upper-scale plan decisions by local governments and the production of policies for conservation. In this context, the upper-scale plan decisions developed in line with the objectives and strategies concerning both the city and the conservation of the components of the city are of vital importance to the prevention of the consequences concerned (Erdem and Meşhur, 2005).

Today the uncontrolled growth of cities and the issue of how they can respond to the needs of the public are among the significant planning problems of countries. The most important issue that must be carried out in order for settlements to display regular and planned development is how development affairs will be done with a joint interdisciplinary study in the light of technological and scientific developments (Akay, 2007). The planning hierarchy in our country is just a ball of problems in this sense. The entry of institutions into each other's area of authority with the continually amended laws and regulations further complicates the already complicated system; consequently, our natural resource assets are being destroyed day by day.

The most serious problem in the planning hierarchy is the absence of Regional Plans that must be made by the State Planning Organization (SPO). "*The decisions & main strategies, whose main headings are given as the ensuring of interregional balanced development by using the regional potential and the determination of where public investments and the private capital will be located and which should be decided by Regional Plans*" have unfortunately been assumed by the Environmental Order Plans (Demirel, 2010). Furthermore, Environmental Order Plans are not made with a continuous and serious approach but only when they are considered necessary by the authorized institutions. However, the physical plan which is directive and binding at the highest level in Turkey is "the Environmental Order Plan" (Akay, 2007; Cengiz and Gönüz, 2011).

The fact that "the Regional Plan" and "the Environmental Order Plan", upper-scale plans, are made only when considered necessary by central governments according to the Development Law can be expressed as another serious problem. Many urban and metropolitan settlements do not have such a planning approach. This negative situation prevents the formation of an integrated and a sound strategic planning approach. For the formation of the sound planning approach concerned, the plan decisions from the upper scale to the lower scale should be consistent with each other. At this point, within the framework of the principle of "graded coexistence" of plans, each lower-scale plan must contain more information and details than the one upper-scale plan. An original plan which also encompasses the new information and data required by the respective original scale of lower-scale plans but which preserves the main decisions of the one upper scale is expected (Öztürk, 2004; Ersoy, 2006).

#### Atabay (2005) expressed

42 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Table 9.** Improper land uses

**7. Discussion and conclusion** 

*natural resource by which food is provided*" (Kocataş, 2010).

of the consequences concerned (Erdem and Meşhur, 2005).

being destroyed day by day.

agricultural lands (Keleş and Hamamc, 1993; Ercoşkun and Karaaslan, 2009).

settlement.

As understood from the figures and the table above, of the urban settlement area in current use which is totally 15.51 km², 8.20 km² (46.42%) with a fertile agricultural land status have been used improperly and opened to settlement. It has been detected that of the industrial area again in current use which is 0.46 km², 0.43 km2 (93.48%) must indeed be used for

"*All living things are either directly or indirectly soil-dependent for survival. In other words, soil is a natural space in which all plant species and intra-soil living things survive and a* 

As a result of the population which has piled up in cities, urbanization gave rise to the need for accommodation. This led to the use of the land for nonagricultural purposes and caused the housing sector to capture the land. The limited arable lands and the gradually increasing improper use of these lands gave rise to a serious problem of degradation and loss of

The perception of the concept of "Development" merely as the opening of new settlement zones to development in the process of planning of cities or settlements leads to consequences that are impossible to compensate for in the ecological dimension in terms of cities. The important thing here is the materialization of upper-scale plan decisions by local governments and the production of policies for conservation. In this context, the upper-scale plan decisions developed in line with the objectives and strategies concerning both the city and the conservation of the components of the city are of vital importance to the prevention

Today the uncontrolled growth of cities and the issue of how they can respond to the needs of the public are among the significant planning problems of countries. The most important issue that must be carried out in order for settlements to display regular and planned development is how development affairs will be done with a joint interdisciplinary study in the light of technological and scientific developments (Akay, 2007). The planning hierarchy in our country is just a ball of problems in this sense. The entry of institutions into each other's area of authority with the continually amended laws and regulations further complicates the already complicated system; consequently, our natural resource assets are "*the inclusion of provisions like 'The State Planning Organization makes the regional and basin plans to be prepared in order to determine socio-economic development trends, the potential of settlements for development, sectoral objectives and activities, and the distribution of infrastructural services unique to these activities, or has them made, when it considers necessary', its definition by ignoring natural resources, and its leaving of this important planning stage optional*",

in Paragraph a of Article 8 in the Development Law No. 3194 with respect to regional planning, as a great shortcoming for the Development Law.

At this point, although the inclusion of some decisions in the law makes no sense, leaving of the planning decisions directly concerning the conservation of natural resources to arbitrary administration is striking as an extremely disadvantageous approach with no sanctions.

Additionally, there is quite great chaos in our country about the planning hierarchy which is a serious problem. Accordingly, "the Special Provincial Administration Law" No. 5302, which came into force in 2005, is essential in terms of the affiliating of public services to single administration and, through this law, the authority of "the Provincial Environmental Order Plan-Making and Approving" was granted to "the Special Provincial Administrations", appearing the most influential institutions today (Demirel, 2010). With

the "Law on Environment" No. 2872, amended by Law No. 5491, the Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs was empowered to make "the Environmental Order Plan". When the recent case in the authority of plan-making is considered, it is the Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs which is empowered to make "the Environmental Order Plan" on the scales of 1:100,000 and 1:50,000; it is the Ministry of Environment and City Planning which is empowered to make "the Metropolitan Area Plan" on a scale of 1:50,000; and it is the Metropolitan Municipalities which are empowered to make "the Provincial Environmental Order Plan" on a scale of 1:25,000 and "the Master Plan" and "the Implementation Development Plan", which are lower-scale plans, in metropolitan provinces.

Impacts of Improper Land Uses in Cities on the Natural Environment and Ecological Landscape Planning 45

the planning hierarchy are considered, there is no doubt that the confusion of authority among the institutions which results from empowering several institutions to make certain plans will soon give rise to various problems as well, although the developments about

The actual problem in the continuation of the chaos experienced in the legal process is experienced in the process following the completion of these plans. It is an essential and functional requirement for the creation of sustainable cities that primarily the professional group of landscape architecture have a say in taking the decisions on land use accurately, particularly in landscape and ecological planning (Atl et al., 2005). The fact that naturalists are not included in the team in these projects that are predominantly prepared for the objective of using natural and cultural resources by conserving them causes these plans, which are made in some way, to fail to attain their target in practice (Demirel, 2010). Besides, various professional disciplines about the matter (e.g. Geographer and Biologist) should also have a say in decisions and implementations when taking planning decisions and preparing plans. The necessity for target-oriented interdisciplinary studies should be kept at a high level in city planning studies which aim at preserving the ecological balance (Slaydn, 2007;

At this stage, planners must first of all regard ecology and environmental assets as an integral part of their professional ethics and disciplines in the context of their position and

One of the most important and negative results of urbanization is the continuous increase in the need for new urban areas. The generally pursued urbanization policies pit economy and ecology against each other, and this event culminates in the destruction of the natural environment. Nevertheless, "ecology" is the element which must rank first in the formation

Economic concerns are remarkable as the primary factors in the opening of fertile agricultural lands to development. Especially the problem of opening fertile agricultural lands to development is because the professional disciplines that are specialized in the subject do not take part in the teams which prepare all these planning approaches and these

"*The state is liable to prevent the improper use and destruction of agricultural lands as well as* 

"*Agricultural lands cannot be planned in order to be used for nonagricultural purposes* without obtaining the permits stated in the Soil Conservation and Land Use Law" in Paragraph c of Article 8 in the Development Law No. 3194 regarding the preparation of plans and putting

the task(s) they have assumed in the society (Arapkirlioğlu, 2003).

of urban environments (Tunçer and Ercoşkun, 2007).

Article 45 of the 1982 Constitution contains the provision

*meadows and pastures*".

them into effect supports this expression too.

Besides, the provision

upper-scale planning in particular are promising.

Cengiz and Gönüz, 2011).

plans.

At this point, it appears an appropriate decision that the plans on a scale of 1:25,000 have been organized as an obligation particularly for metropolitan municipalities, regarding "the Provincial Environmental Order Plan" – one of the most important rings of upper-scale planning. Nevertheless, the failure to form a relationship between the authority of the central government that is empowered concerning "the Environmental Order Plan" and "the Provincial Environmental Order Plan" which local governments are empowered to make upon this recent regulation paves the way for the probability of the occurrence of some problems on this matter (Ylmaz, 2007).

In addition, the chaos experienced in the planning hierarchy in our country worsened upon the transfer of the authority of making Master and Implementation Development Plans to metropolitan and district municipalities from the central governments with the Development Law No. 3194. With this amendment in the law, rent-based approaches in the division of city block lots and implementations of poor quality in building increased substantially.

While the need for integrated ecological planning in this process is evident, it is extremely saddening that only the understanding of city planning generally predominates in the society in general and in the governments and that the efforts remain on a personal scale. The fact that planning has been stuck between "the Master Plan" and "the Implementation Development Plan", two plans implemented only in practice, causes this vicious circle to continue. However, within the scope of the conservation and development of natural and cultural resource assets found within the settlements, the plans with a special purpose (such as the Development Plan for Conservation, the Plan for Tourism & Recreation, the Special Environmental Conservation Plan, the Development Plan for Rehabilitation, the Agricultural Land Conservation Plan, and Land Consolidation) must absolutely be produced and materialized by the local governments concerned, along with upper-scale plans (such as the Environmental Order Plan and the Regional Plan), with adhering to the planning hierarchy and first of all with an approach that aims to conserve and carry on the ecological balance (Cengiz and Gönüz, 2011).

It should be the main goal to carry out upper-scale planning studies at a level whereby the balance between urban sprawl and the natural ecosystem can be achieved, make them widespread, and turn them into a state policy. At this point, when the legal regulations in the planning hierarchy are considered, there is no doubt that the confusion of authority among the institutions which results from empowering several institutions to make certain plans will soon give rise to various problems as well, although the developments about upper-scale planning in particular are promising.

The actual problem in the continuation of the chaos experienced in the legal process is experienced in the process following the completion of these plans. It is an essential and functional requirement for the creation of sustainable cities that primarily the professional group of landscape architecture have a say in taking the decisions on land use accurately, particularly in landscape and ecological planning (Atl et al., 2005). The fact that naturalists are not included in the team in these projects that are predominantly prepared for the objective of using natural and cultural resources by conserving them causes these plans, which are made in some way, to fail to attain their target in practice (Demirel, 2010). Besides, various professional disciplines about the matter (e.g. Geographer and Biologist) should also have a say in decisions and implementations when taking planning decisions and preparing plans. The necessity for target-oriented interdisciplinary studies should be kept at a high level in city planning studies which aim at preserving the ecological balance (Slaydn, 2007; Cengiz and Gönüz, 2011).

At this stage, planners must first of all regard ecology and environmental assets as an integral part of their professional ethics and disciplines in the context of their position and the task(s) they have assumed in the society (Arapkirlioğlu, 2003).

One of the most important and negative results of urbanization is the continuous increase in the need for new urban areas. The generally pursued urbanization policies pit economy and ecology against each other, and this event culminates in the destruction of the natural environment. Nevertheless, "ecology" is the element which must rank first in the formation of urban environments (Tunçer and Ercoşkun, 2007).

Economic concerns are remarkable as the primary factors in the opening of fertile agricultural lands to development. Especially the problem of opening fertile agricultural lands to development is because the professional disciplines that are specialized in the subject do not take part in the teams which prepare all these planning approaches and these plans.

Article 45 of the 1982 Constitution contains the provision

"*The state is liable to prevent the improper use and destruction of agricultural lands as well as meadows and pastures*".

#### Besides, the provision

44 Advances in Landscape Architecture

the "Law on Environment" No. 2872, amended by Law No. 5491, the Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs was empowered to make "the Environmental Order Plan". When the recent case in the authority of plan-making is considered, it is the Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs which is empowered to make "the Environmental Order Plan" on the scales of 1:100,000 and 1:50,000; it is the Ministry of Environment and City Planning which is empowered to make "the Metropolitan Area Plan" on a scale of 1:50,000; and it is the Metropolitan Municipalities which are empowered to make "the Provincial Environmental Order Plan" on a scale of 1:25,000 and "the Master Plan" and "the Implementation

At this point, it appears an appropriate decision that the plans on a scale of 1:25,000 have been organized as an obligation particularly for metropolitan municipalities, regarding "the Provincial Environmental Order Plan" – one of the most important rings of upper-scale planning. Nevertheless, the failure to form a relationship between the authority of the central government that is empowered concerning "the Environmental Order Plan" and "the Provincial Environmental Order Plan" which local governments are empowered to make upon this recent regulation paves the way for the probability of the occurrence of

In addition, the chaos experienced in the planning hierarchy in our country worsened upon the transfer of the authority of making Master and Implementation Development Plans to metropolitan and district municipalities from the central governments with the Development Law No. 3194. With this amendment in the law, rent-based approaches in the division of city block lots and implementations of poor quality in building increased

While the need for integrated ecological planning in this process is evident, it is extremely saddening that only the understanding of city planning generally predominates in the society in general and in the governments and that the efforts remain on a personal scale. The fact that planning has been stuck between "the Master Plan" and "the Implementation Development Plan", two plans implemented only in practice, causes this vicious circle to continue. However, within the scope of the conservation and development of natural and cultural resource assets found within the settlements, the plans with a special purpose (such as the Development Plan for Conservation, the Plan for Tourism & Recreation, the Special Environmental Conservation Plan, the Development Plan for Rehabilitation, the Agricultural Land Conservation Plan, and Land Consolidation) must absolutely be produced and materialized by the local governments concerned, along with upper-scale plans (such as the Environmental Order Plan and the Regional Plan), with adhering to the planning hierarchy and first of all with an approach that aims to conserve and carry on the

It should be the main goal to carry out upper-scale planning studies at a level whereby the balance between urban sprawl and the natural ecosystem can be achieved, make them widespread, and turn them into a state policy. At this point, when the legal regulations in

Development Plan", which are lower-scale plans, in metropolitan provinces.

some problems on this matter (Ylmaz, 2007).

ecological balance (Cengiz and Gönüz, 2011).

substantially.

"*Agricultural lands cannot be planned in order to be used for nonagricultural purposes* without obtaining the permits stated in the Soil Conservation and Land Use Law" in Paragraph c of Article 8 in the Development Law No. 3194 regarding the preparation of plans and putting them into effect supports this expression too.

The laws and regulations enacted to ensure the prevention of the destruction of fertile agricultural lands in particular and the natural resources in our country are full of legal & administrative gaps which will lead to extremely restricted and wrong implementations in terms of content. The recent example of this is striking with many aspects in "the Soil Conservation and Land Law" No. 5403 that came into force on 03.07.2005. Even though in the law it seems that the improper use of agricultural lands is prevented, the law actually contains various clear expressions on the facilitation of using these lands for other purposes. In fact, the first thing to do in such laws should be to determine the fundamental principles to encourage the use of agricultural land for agricultural purposes and make this widespread but not to determine the fundamental principles for the improper use of agricultural land.

Impacts of Improper Land Uses in Cities on the Natural Environment and Ecological Landscape Planning 47

integration of the phenomenon of "Ecological Planning" into the existing planning system

Especially the planning studies which remain only on the urban scale are stuck at some point and remain inadequate to produce the expected solutions. The true implementation of ecological planning is only possible within a planning system that continues systematically from the highest rank to the lowest rank and that will take place on an integrated scale. On the other hand, the ecological planning studies considered within a narrow scope by ignoring the integrated scale serve the process of postponing the problem rather than a solution. As Slaydn (2007) also states, the ecological conservation studies produced on the urban scale only become meaningful within an integrated ecological planning construct

Losses of natural areas will continue increasingly as long as urban planning decisions are defined independently of upper-scale plans and as long as upper-scale plans are not included in the planning hierarchy. At this point, the ecologically-based "Regional Plans" which preserve their place as upper-scale plans in the planning hierarchy in our country but

Besides, "the Basin Plan" is also recommended as an upper-scale plan rank in some studies. Basins define the natural boundaries required for the conservation of the water cycle and the natural resources depending on it. Basin-based planning is an important stage of the planning understanding for the conservation of natural resources. Thus, a planning rank with the mental power of comprehending the nature in an integrated way for ecological planning is formed with "the Basin Plan". Besides the fact that "Basin Plans" are of great importance to national and regional planning, it is useful to underline that "the Ecological Basin Master Plan" is an indispensable method in the context of the sustainable development of a country. The basin-based planning understanding has not been included in any planning rank yet. However, it is an issue which "the Regional Development Commission" – a working sub-commission of the State Planning Organization (SPO) –

which lack adequate implementations must be materialized comprehensively.

strongly considers (Slaydn, 2007; Efe and Aydn, 2009; Küçükali and Atabay, 2013).

In conclusion, the running out of natural resources is striking as one of the most serious ecological problems at the present. A wrong understanding of city planning is expressed as one of the most fundamental causes of this problem, for the selection of locations for the ways of land use in the present city planning is done without considering the existence of

In addition, the natural areas in our country are continuing to be damaged rapidly as "Ecologically-Based Landscape Plans" have not been included in the legal processes and upper-scale plans implemented in our country yet and as the implementations in the law

Turkey has turned "the European Landscape Convention", a framework convention on the conservation, management and planning of natural and cultural landscapes as a whole, into a part of its domestic law with Law No. 4881, dated 10/06/2003. Thus, it is also extremely

based on natural boundaries (e.g. the basin boundary).

in our country.

natural resources.

remain inadequate (Şahin, 2009).

It is an inevitable outcome that the phenomena of house and industry are always in front of agriculture in the urban growth patterns due to their economic yield. Thus, to increase the economic yield of agricultural land besides its conservation, new regulations should be made in "the Soil Conservation and Land Law" No. 5403 that is in force now for this purpose or various legal and administrative studies should be made on this matter.

The conservation of natural areas before all depends on the use of land in a way which is suitable for the nature. This approach basically contains the division of national territories into "Land Use Capacity Classes" in terms of suitability for various purposes of use (Kşlaloğlu and Berkes, 2009). This is indeed a sound approach for the conservation of national territories and for utilizing them more accurately. Previously made by the Directorates General of Village Services, these plans have not been made for long years. Upon the establishment of the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Animal Husbandry in 2011, it was expressed that studies such as land planning and soil classification would be carried out by the Department of Agricultural Land Utilization of the Directorate General of Agricultural Reform that was affiliated to this ministry. Nevertheless, the problems occurring in practice and their outcomes are more important than the making of such plans by the institutions concerned. That is, the articles on

"*ensuring the use of an agricultural land basically in agriculture and the allocation of an agricultural land for nonagricultural purposes under the condition that this be confined to obligatory cases*" and "*evaluating the demands for nonagricultural land use*" among the duties of the Directorate General of Agricultural Reform actually confirm that agricultural lands have not been taken under conservation yet and are in some way left to nonagricultural sectors.

It is possible to multiply such examples in the law. It is obvious that it is not enough to enact laws for an efficient implementation and a successful outcome on this matter. In conclusion, the laws and regulations on the matter are inadequate and open to exploitation to the same extent. In order for urban formation to survive, there is a need for radical change in the vision of urban planning. In this new planning vision, it should be ensured that cities form harmonious integrity with the nature and with their environment (Ercoşkun and Karaaslan, 2009). It is impossible to preserve the ecological balance with the standard understanding of city planning; moreover, this integrity is only possible through the integration of the phenomenon of "Ecological Planning" into the existing planning system in our country.

46 Advances in Landscape Architecture

The laws and regulations enacted to ensure the prevention of the destruction of fertile agricultural lands in particular and the natural resources in our country are full of legal & administrative gaps which will lead to extremely restricted and wrong implementations in terms of content. The recent example of this is striking with many aspects in "the Soil Conservation and Land Law" No. 5403 that came into force on 03.07.2005. Even though in the law it seems that the improper use of agricultural lands is prevented, the law actually contains various clear expressions on the facilitation of using these lands for other purposes. In fact, the first thing to do in such laws should be to determine the fundamental principles to encourage the use of agricultural land for agricultural purposes and make this widespread but not to

It is an inevitable outcome that the phenomena of house and industry are always in front of agriculture in the urban growth patterns due to their economic yield. Thus, to increase the economic yield of agricultural land besides its conservation, new regulations should be made in "the Soil Conservation and Land Law" No. 5403 that is in force now for this

The conservation of natural areas before all depends on the use of land in a way which is suitable for the nature. This approach basically contains the division of national territories into "Land Use Capacity Classes" in terms of suitability for various purposes of use (Kşlaloğlu and Berkes, 2009). This is indeed a sound approach for the conservation of national territories and for utilizing them more accurately. Previously made by the Directorates General of Village Services, these plans have not been made for long years. Upon the establishment of the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Animal Husbandry in 2011, it was expressed that studies such as land planning and soil classification would be carried out by the Department of Agricultural Land Utilization of the Directorate General of Agricultural Reform that was affiliated to this ministry. Nevertheless, the problems occurring in practice and their outcomes are more important than the making of such plans

"*ensuring the use of an agricultural land basically in agriculture and the allocation of an agricultural land for nonagricultural purposes under the condition that this be confined to obligatory cases*" and "*evaluating the demands for nonagricultural land use*" among the duties of the Directorate General of Agricultural Reform actually confirm that agricultural lands have not been taken

It is possible to multiply such examples in the law. It is obvious that it is not enough to enact laws for an efficient implementation and a successful outcome on this matter. In conclusion, the laws and regulations on the matter are inadequate and open to exploitation to the same extent. In order for urban formation to survive, there is a need for radical change in the vision of urban planning. In this new planning vision, it should be ensured that cities form harmonious integrity with the nature and with their environment (Ercoşkun and Karaaslan, 2009). It is impossible to preserve the ecological balance with the standard understanding of city planning; moreover, this integrity is only possible through the

under conservation yet and are in some way left to nonagricultural sectors.

determine the fundamental principles for the improper use of agricultural land.

purpose or various legal and administrative studies should be made on this matter.

by the institutions concerned. That is, the articles on

Especially the planning studies which remain only on the urban scale are stuck at some point and remain inadequate to produce the expected solutions. The true implementation of ecological planning is only possible within a planning system that continues systematically from the highest rank to the lowest rank and that will take place on an integrated scale. On the other hand, the ecological planning studies considered within a narrow scope by ignoring the integrated scale serve the process of postponing the problem rather than a solution. As Slaydn (2007) also states, the ecological conservation studies produced on the urban scale only become meaningful within an integrated ecological planning construct based on natural boundaries (e.g. the basin boundary).

Losses of natural areas will continue increasingly as long as urban planning decisions are defined independently of upper-scale plans and as long as upper-scale plans are not included in the planning hierarchy. At this point, the ecologically-based "Regional Plans" which preserve their place as upper-scale plans in the planning hierarchy in our country but which lack adequate implementations must be materialized comprehensively.

Besides, "the Basin Plan" is also recommended as an upper-scale plan rank in some studies. Basins define the natural boundaries required for the conservation of the water cycle and the natural resources depending on it. Basin-based planning is an important stage of the planning understanding for the conservation of natural resources. Thus, a planning rank with the mental power of comprehending the nature in an integrated way for ecological planning is formed with "the Basin Plan". Besides the fact that "Basin Plans" are of great importance to national and regional planning, it is useful to underline that "the Ecological Basin Master Plan" is an indispensable method in the context of the sustainable development of a country. The basin-based planning understanding has not been included in any planning rank yet. However, it is an issue which "the Regional Development Commission" – a working sub-commission of the State Planning Organization (SPO) – strongly considers (Slaydn, 2007; Efe and Aydn, 2009; Küçükali and Atabay, 2013).

In conclusion, the running out of natural resources is striking as one of the most serious ecological problems at the present. A wrong understanding of city planning is expressed as one of the most fundamental causes of this problem, for the selection of locations for the ways of land use in the present city planning is done without considering the existence of natural resources.

In addition, the natural areas in our country are continuing to be damaged rapidly as "Ecologically-Based Landscape Plans" have not been included in the legal processes and upper-scale plans implemented in our country yet and as the implementations in the law remain inadequate (Şahin, 2009).

Turkey has turned "the European Landscape Convention", a framework convention on the conservation, management and planning of natural and cultural landscapes as a whole, into a part of its domestic law with Law No. 4881, dated 10/06/2003. Thus, it is also extremely

important that the environmentally-sensitive/ecological planning approach introduced by the convention to the planning understanding be integrated into the legal process and be applicable (Erdem and Coşkun, 2009).

Impacts of Improper Land Uses in Cities on the Natural Environment and Ecological Landscape Planning 49

Atabay, S. (2003). The Future of Landscape Planning Education in Turkey within the Framework of Harmonization with the European Union Legislation on Education. *A Book of Papers of the Symposium on the European Landscape Convention and Turkey*, Editor: Prof. Dr. Semra Atabay,

Atabay, S. (2005). Strategic Environmental Effect Evaluation and Physical Planning Relationships*. A Book of the First Council on Environment and Forestry*, Publications of the Ministry of Environment and Forestry of the Republic of Turkey, p: 312-319, Antalya. Atl, A., Gülgün, B., and Yörük, İ. (2005). Sustainable Cities and Landscape Architecture.

Aydn, B. (2010). Determination of the Criteria for Ecological Urban Settlement in the Development Areas and their Interpretation within the Scope of the Development Plan: the Example of Ömerli Basin-Sancaktepe. *Graduate Thesis* (Unpublished). Section of Urban Design in the Institute of Natural and Applied Sciences at İstanbul Technical

Berry, B. J. L. (2008). *Urbanization (Urban Ecology An International Perspective on the Interaction Between Humans and Nature)*. Editors: John M. Marzluff, Eric Shulenberger, Wilfried Endlicher, Marina Alberti, Gordon Bradley, Clare Ryan, Ute Simon, Craig ZumBrunnen, Online ISBN: 978-0-387-73412-5, p: 25-48, Springer Science Business

Brueckner, J. K., Mills, E. and Kremer, M. (2001). Urban Sprawl: Lessons from Urban Economics (with Comments). *Brookings-Wharton Papers on Urban Affairs*, Brookings Institution Press, pp: 65-97. Date of Access: 13.12.2012, Available at

Cengiz, A. E. and Gönüz, A. (2011). Urban Land Uses in Ecological Sense: An Example of the City Center of Çanakkale. *Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture at Atatürk University*, 42

Cheng, H. and Hu, Y. (2010). Planning for Sustainability in China's Urban Development: Status and Challenges for Dongtan Eco-City Project. *Journal of Environmental Monitoring,*  DOI: 10.1039/b911473d, 12: 119-126. Date of Access: 02.11.2011, Available at

Colding, J., 2007. Ecological Land-Use Complementation for Building Resilience in Urban

Cook, E. A., 1991. Urban Landscape Networks: An Ecological Planning Framework.

Çanakkale Municipality (2011). *The Digital Development Map of Çanakkale Municipality*.

Çelikyay, S. (2005). Determination of Land Uses with the Ecological Threshold Analysis; An Experiment in the Example of Bartn. *PhD Dissertation* (Unpublished). Section of City and Regional Planning in the Institute of Natural and Applied Sciences at Yldz

Çelikyay, S. (2006). Strategic Environmental Effect Evaluation in the Process of Ecological Planning and a Sample Study on Bartn. *Journal of the Faculty of Forestry at Zonguldak* 

Arapkirlioğlu, K. (2003). Ecology and Planning. *Journal of Planning*, 2003/1: 4-8.

the Printing Center of the Faculty of Architecture at YTU, İstanbul.

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However, although a period of nine years passed, there have not been any constructive studies that support the convention either in the plan hierarchy or in laws and regulations. This is saddening in terms of the development of the process concerned and worrisome in terms of the timeout experienced. The fact that ecological conservation now remains merely in theory postpones the solution process, and more concrete approaches are needed at this point. As Turan (2007) also states, the conditions of the European Landscape Convention and the infrastructures brought about by the conditions (such as laws and regulations and institutions) should be interpreted very carefully at the current stage and materialized rapidly. In this context, the requirements of the convention should be formulated with landscape architects, city planners, jurists, and the other disciplines concerned, and they should take their part on the regional scale.

Our country is not at an irreversible point yet with respect to the prevention of improper land uses and the allocation of the necessary place to "Ecological Landscape Planning" studies in the planning hierarchy. The prevention of improper land uses for new development areas in particular and the endeavors on the matter by local governments stand out at this point. The full inclusion of "Ecological Landscape Planning" in the plan hierarchy is an extremely important step for the sustainable city planning understanding. In this context, first of all, the phenomenon we call "Ecological Consciousness" must descend to the public level, and the nongovernmental organizations must do what falls to them regarding this matter.

## **Author details**

#### A.Esra Cengiz

*Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Architecture and Design, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

## **8. References**


Impacts of Improper Land Uses in Cities on the Natural Environment and Ecological Landscape Planning 49

Arapkirlioğlu, K. (2003). Ecology and Planning. *Journal of Planning*, 2003/1: 4-8.

48 Advances in Landscape Architecture

applicable (Erdem and Coşkun, 2009).

should take their part on the regional scale.

**Author details** 

*Architecture, Turkey* 

**8. References** 

A.Esra Cengiz

important that the environmentally-sensitive/ecological planning approach introduced by the convention to the planning understanding be integrated into the legal process and be

However, although a period of nine years passed, there have not been any constructive studies that support the convention either in the plan hierarchy or in laws and regulations. This is saddening in terms of the development of the process concerned and worrisome in terms of the timeout experienced. The fact that ecological conservation now remains merely in theory postpones the solution process, and more concrete approaches are needed at this point. As Turan (2007) also states, the conditions of the European Landscape Convention and the infrastructures brought about by the conditions (such as laws and regulations and institutions) should be interpreted very carefully at the current stage and materialized rapidly. In this context, the requirements of the convention should be formulated with landscape architects, city planners, jurists, and the other disciplines concerned, and they

Our country is not at an irreversible point yet with respect to the prevention of improper land uses and the allocation of the necessary place to "Ecological Landscape Planning" studies in the planning hierarchy. The prevention of improper land uses for new development areas in particular and the endeavors on the matter by local governments stand out at this point. The full inclusion of "Ecological Landscape Planning" in the plan hierarchy is an extremely important step for the sustainable city planning understanding. In this context, first of all, the phenomenon we call "Ecological Consciousness" must descend to the public level, and the

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**Chapter 3** 

© 2013 Madrigal, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

**Architectures on Territories ‒** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

This perception is always important for a territorial planning.

proposed small-scale landscapes are defined.

José Manuel Pagés Madrigal

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55849

**1. Introduction** 

territorial drafting.

**2. Topics for a chapter** 

introducing.

architects.

structuring.

**Methodologies for the Graphical Representation** 

Territories were always referred to their architectures in a continuous transformation's process. These architectures were based on natural materials, as a direct consequence of the agricultural functions and are essential for a right perception of the logic of territorial

This chapter deals problems of the scales' study and its validity in certain areas and smallscale landscapes. Some case studies are being compared and analysis proposal prior to the

The proposal is to individual redraw of territories, as a method of knowledge appropriate for the planning level. Comparisons are made between the performed methods in similar territories. In the first case an entirely hand survey is done, and in the second one the survey is based on the knowledge of computer applications. The conclusions summarize the pros and cons of each of the cases we have studied. Also the basis for a territorial approach

The main argument of this chapter is based on a certain number of topics we are

Our initial point into this discourse is the idea of considering there are architectures without

From our point of view, territories were made by the Man, as the real architect of them, in a continuous process, as a dialogue between him and the surrounding environment. The

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


www.iudergi.com/tr/index.php/orman/article/view/9645/8940


José Manuel Pagés Madrigal

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55849

## **1. Introduction**

52 Advances in Landscape Architecture

p: 31-57, Ankara.

*and Planning*, p: 102-109.

Architects), 2007/1-2: 44-47, Ankara.

Ankara University, Ankara.

documents.net/wced-ocf.htm

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004-2124-7, 14: 1947–1967.

10.1007/s11252-006-8591-8, 9: 211–226.

(1): 3-14.

State University Press, 275 p., USA.

(1): 17-36. Date of Access: 20.09.2012, Available at

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(97)00061-3

www.iudergi.com/tr/index.php/orman/article/view/9645/8940

 10.4305/METU.JFA.2012.1.15. Date of Access: 19.11.2012, Available at jfa.arch.metu.edu.tr/archive/0258-5316/2012/cilt29/.../273-288.pdf

Symposium on Ecological Architecture and Planning, p: 86-88, Antalya.

into Landscape Planning. *Landscape and Urban Planning*, 79 (3-4): 374-384.

Slaydn, M. B. (2007). Ecological Planning: Is it Possible through the Planning Action and Conservation Efforts Conducted on the Urban Scale? A Book of Papers of the National

Steiner, F. (2000). *The Living Landscape: An Ecological Approach to Landscape Planning*. Arizona

Şahin, Ş. (2009). *Landscape Management* (*Conceptual Bases and Implementation Areas of Landscape Ecology*). Editor: Asl Akay and Münevver Demirbaş Özen. Publication of the Turkish and Middle Eastern Public Administration Institute, No: 354, ISBN: 978-975-8918-36-2,

Termorshuizen, J. W.,Opdam, P., Brink, A. (2007). Incorporating Ecological Sustainability

Tozar, T. and Ayaşlgil, T. (2008). Methods of Ecological Planning Developed for the Sustainability of Natural Resources. Journal of the Faculty of Forestry at IU, Series A, 58

Tunçer, M. and Ercoşkun, Y. Ö. (2007). Ecological Planning for Antalya that is shaped under the Pressure of Urban Rent. *A Book of Papers of the Symposium on Ecological Architecture* 

Turan, Y. B. (2007). Structuring of the Mechanism of Landscape Planning in the European Union and Turkey. *Journal of Landscape Architecture,* Publications of the Chamber of Landscape Architects of UCTEA (the Union of Chambers of Turkish Engineers and

Uğur, S. (2009). Studying the Large-Scale Parks Created around Natural Water Surfaces in terms of Ecological Criteria: An Example of Mogan Park. *Graduate Thesis* (Unpublished). Section of Landscape Architecture in the Institute of Natural and Applied Sciences at

Van Lier, H. N. (1998). The Role of Land Use Planning in Sustainable Rural Systems. *Landscape and Urban Planning.* 41 (2): 83–91. Date of Access: 11.12.2012, Available at

WCED (1987). *World Commission on Environment and Development (Our Common Future)*. United Nations, 247 p. Date of Access: 20.10.2012, Available at http://www.un-

Ylmaz, H. (2007). Current Regulations and Problems concerning the Environmental Order

Yli-Pelkonen, V. and Kohl, J. (2005). The Role of Local Ecological Knowledge in Sustainable Urban Planning: Perspectives from Finland. *Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy,* 1

Yli-Pelkonen, V. and Niemelä, J. (2005). Linking Ecological and Social Systems in Cities: Urban Planning in Finland as a Case. *Biodiversity and Conservation*, DOI 10.1007/s10531-

Yli-Pelkonen, V. and Niemelä, J. (2006). Use of Ecological Information in Urban Planning: Experiences from the Helsinki Metropolitan Area, Finland. *Urban Ecosyst*, DOI Territories were always referred to their architectures in a continuous transformation's process. These architectures were based on natural materials, as a direct consequence of the agricultural functions and are essential for a right perception of the logic of territorial structuring.

This perception is always important for a territorial planning.

This chapter deals problems of the scales' study and its validity in certain areas and smallscale landscapes. Some case studies are being compared and analysis proposal prior to the territorial drafting.

The proposal is to individual redraw of territories, as a method of knowledge appropriate for the planning level. Comparisons are made between the performed methods in similar territories. In the first case an entirely hand survey is done, and in the second one the survey is based on the knowledge of computer applications. The conclusions summarize the pros and cons of each of the cases we have studied. Also the basis for a territorial approach proposed small-scale landscapes are defined.

## **2. Topics for a chapter**

The main argument of this chapter is based on a certain number of topics we are introducing.

Our initial point into this discourse is the idea of considering there are architectures without architects.

From our point of view, territories were made by the Man, as the real architect of them, in a continuous process, as a dialogue between him and the surrounding environment. The

result of this dialogue was, and continues to be, the creation of objects on these territories. This idea is not really new. It was implicit in the definition of the landscape of Webster dictionary on 1913: "A portion of land or territory which the eye can comprehend in a single view, including all the objects it contains" [1]

Architectures on Territories – Methodologies for the Graphical Representation 55

But this scale can be found in other territories. Lebanese country presents a clear morphological division (fig. 5):. The waterfront facing to Mediterranean Sea and the inlands.

All these two regions reflect the small-medium sized scales.

**Figure 1.** Bárrio-Ponte de Lima-Portugal , by author.

**Figure 2.** Correlhã-Ponte de Lima-Portugal, by author

The identification and characterization of environments and landscapes in Europe was made taking in consideration such scale of the landscapes. In fact the European Landscape map showed us Europe as a conjunct of 2682 different landscapes as the result of a classification among the 202 types of detected landscapes. Two thousand and six hundred of theselandscape units were a dimension larger than 2500 Ha. This quantity lets know the large diversity of landscapes characteristic for specific regions as one of the key culturalheritage elements of Europe.[2]

It is important to remember that this dimension (2500 Ha) is equivalent to the size of all Carnoedo1 (Spain) It is one of our case studies will be presented. This dimension represents five times the extension of Bárrio2, that is the other case study into Ponte de Lima Municipality, northern region of Portugal.

These numbers can synthesize the problem we have in front of us. These two spaces are representative of so many areas into the European continent. They are so rich from a landscape point of view that so many things and changes are experimented into them. In our opinion the small scale landscapes are clearly out of the considered dimension. This chapter is based on this idea: the need to consider the various scales involved in the process of territorial structure.

The second topic we must underline is the idea of considering the territorial analysis as the ideal tool to understand their internal structuring. Each analysis has an adequate dimension, according to its goals. And this dimension is directly associated to the scale of the territory. When territories to be analyzed are out of the conventional dimensions they are usually applied we can risk to lose an important number of elements into them, not recognizable by the tools are used for developing the analysis.

The third topic is related to the existence of constants, as elements able to explain the different territorial configurations of the place. The temporal dimension becomes as a reference into it. We can confirm the existence of a number of constants that occur in any territory.

These elements, in combination, cause the different architectures on these lands, in a continuous process, in a process of transformation of the territory. It is the place where the Man is the real protagonist.

Medium and short sized scales in territories are the basis for a right perception of extended areas and regions in all around the world. We can find these characteristics in western European territories within countries as Ireland, Great Britain, Holland, Spain and Portugal.

<sup>1</sup> Carnoedo's dimension is 27,49 km2

<sup>2</sup> Barrio is a place into Ponte de Lima Municipality with an extension of 5,31 km2

But this scale can be found in other territories. Lebanese country presents a clear morphological division (fig. 5):. The waterfront facing to Mediterranean Sea and the inlands. All these two regions reflect the small-medium sized scales.

**Figure 1.** Bárrio-Ponte de Lima-Portugal , by author.

54 Advances in Landscape Architecture

heritage elements of Europe.[2]

of territorial structure.

territory.

Man is the real protagonist.

1 Carnoedo's dimension is 27,49 km2

view, including all the objects it contains" [1]

Municipality, northern region of Portugal.

the tools are used for developing the analysis.

2 Barrio is a place into Ponte de Lima Municipality with an extension of 5,31 km2

result of this dialogue was, and continues to be, the creation of objects on these territories. This idea is not really new. It was implicit in the definition of the landscape of Webster dictionary on 1913: "A portion of land or territory which the eye can comprehend in a single

The identification and characterization of environments and landscapes in Europe was made taking in consideration such scale of the landscapes. In fact the European Landscape map showed us Europe as a conjunct of 2682 different landscapes as the result of a classification among the 202 types of detected landscapes. Two thousand and six hundred of theselandscape units were a dimension larger than 2500 Ha. This quantity lets know the large diversity of landscapes characteristic for specific regions as one of the key cultural-

It is important to remember that this dimension (2500 Ha) is equivalent to the size of all Carnoedo1 (Spain) It is one of our case studies will be presented. This dimension represents five times the extension of Bárrio2, that is the other case study into Ponte de Lima

These numbers can synthesize the problem we have in front of us. These two spaces are representative of so many areas into the European continent. They are so rich from a landscape point of view that so many things and changes are experimented into them. In our opinion the small scale landscapes are clearly out of the considered dimension. This chapter is based on this idea: the need to consider the various scales involved in the process

The second topic we must underline is the idea of considering the territorial analysis as the ideal tool to understand their internal structuring. Each analysis has an adequate dimension, according to its goals. And this dimension is directly associated to the scale of the territory. When territories to be analyzed are out of the conventional dimensions they are usually applied we can risk to lose an important number of elements into them, not recognizable by

The third topic is related to the existence of constants, as elements able to explain the different territorial configurations of the place. The temporal dimension becomes as a reference into it. We can confirm the existence of a number of constants that occur in any

These elements, in combination, cause the different architectures on these lands, in a continuous process, in a process of transformation of the territory. It is the place where the

Medium and short sized scales in territories are the basis for a right perception of extended areas and regions in all around the world. We can find these characteristics in western European territories within countries as Ireland, Great Britain, Holland, Spain and Portugal.

**Figure 2.** Correlhã-Ponte de Lima-Portugal, by author

Architectures on Territories – Methodologies for the Graphical Representation 57

Several actions in the way of considering the specificities of these kinds of territories can be appreciated in the last five years. We highlight last international seminar in Refóios do Lima3-Ponte de Lima-Portugal on May 2011 "Small scale landscapes in Western Europe, methodological developments in habitat recording and monitoring". (fig.6) It was possible there to identify certain alternative studies to fill the existent lacks in the normal scale for the

CLC maps for Europe, when compared with other European initiatives.

3 Escola Superor Agrária. Instituto Politénico de Viana do Castelo (IPVC)-Portugal

**Figure 6.** Flyer for the seminar

**Figure 5.** Lebanon's population distribution

**Figure 3.** Landscape's Portuguese Atlas, from "Contributos para a identificação e caracterização da paisagem em Portugal continental"

**Figure 4.** Lima Valley's landscape units-Portugal, from: "Contributos para a identificação e caracterização da paisagem em Portugal continental"

**Figure 5.** Lebanon's population distribution

56 Advances in Landscape Architecture

paisagem em Portugal continental"

**Figure 3.** Landscape's Portuguese Atlas, from "Contributos para a identificação e caracterização da

**Figure 4.** Lima Valley's landscape units-Portugal, from: "Contributos para a identificação e

caracterização da paisagem em Portugal continental"

Several actions in the way of considering the specificities of these kinds of territories can be appreciated in the last five years. We highlight last international seminar in Refóios do Lima3-Ponte de Lima-Portugal on May 2011 "Small scale landscapes in Western Europe, methodological developments in habitat recording and monitoring". (fig.6) It was possible there to identify certain alternative studies to fill the existent lacks in the normal scale for the CLC maps for Europe, when compared with other European initiatives.

**Figure 6.** Flyer for the seminar

<sup>3</sup> Escola Superor Agrária. Instituto Politénico de Viana do Castelo (IPVC)-Portugal

## **3. CLC studies: The problems related to the land use and land cover analysis**

One of the most direct reflections of all these patterns into the landscape is the land use.4 The land use patterns in Europe could be seen as an expression of centuries of human intervention on its environment, an expression of the continuous transformation process previously referred. Historically, the development of rural areas has depended heavily on the exploitation of its natural resources

Architectures on Territories – Methodologies for the Graphical Representation 59

The right evaluation of the detected changes about the land uses must consider these aspects. Problems are coming for the small scale territories when the applied grid (1 km\* 1 km) is too big to be identified with a unique dominant use. This classification is hiding other important functions being developed on the same grid. The relations among the several functions into

Such of these small scale landscapes have linked their characteristics to national or regional identities8. The main characteristics of these landscapes can be summarized as follows:

The property structure is helping to consider this diversity into the small scale. This heterogeneity is supported by the small patches and the different interpretations about the landscape concept. This system runs the risk of disappearing some centuries after this basic

8 Ireland case study can be a clear example about the national identity. Porto and Douro river are identified with a

specific territory where the terraces' landscape play an important role as a "territorial branding"

territories with a high density use are complex and complementary.

The number of different habitats present within a certain agrarian unit

 The existence of a large number of small lots The extent and number of linear features. The overlaps between lines and areas

**Figure 7.** Bárrio-Ponte de Lima-Portugal- 1 km2 grid

**Figure 8.** Évora-Portugal- 1 km2 grid

heterogeneity.

But social components are not the unique elements to define the land use patterns. Other external elements as the geographical context and the capability to produce enough resources must be considered. In a parallel way the economic evolution of the territories and the societies linked to them will depend of these concepts and its demographic evolution.

The interim report of the EU-LUPA5[3] describes the process using the work from SOER6, as follows:

"Land use specialization (urbanization, agricultural intensification and abandonment, natural forestation) decrease of arable land and permanent crops and land artificialization (residential, economic sites and infrastructures) are major trends that could be identified in the last decades (SOER, 2010). Those trends are the result of interacting driving forces including policies."

Land uses and land covers are the trend topics for the CORINE project7. The basis of this project is the grid of 1 km2 dimension applied over all the European territory, analyzing the several functions develop on this square grid trying to identify the dominant uses can characterize this cell. Technical reasons were supporting it.

Comparative studies about the evolution of the land use in the partner countries are a reality today. Analysis on 1990, 2000 and 2006 were a strong contribution. At the same time the major image resolution has improved the analysis capability detecting a bigger and more detailed number of topics.

Use changes are always linked to several aspects, where human activities work as the engine for the changes in the economic field.

<sup>4</sup> We must remember that Land Use Functions (LUFs) express the goods and services that the use of the land provides to human society that are of economical, ecological and socio-cultural value and likely to be affected by policy changes In EU-LUPA six LUFs have been identified considering the following criteria:

<sup>•</sup> The main uses of the land in Europe are represented (i.e. agriculture, forestry ,nature conservation, tourism, urban settlement, transport and energy infrastructure);

<sup>•</sup> Ensure that all three dimensions of sustainability (economic, environmental and societal) have an equal representation;

<sup>•</sup> The functions are likely to be affected by European policies

<sup>5</sup>EU-LUPA is the acronym of *European Land Use Patterns*

<sup>6</sup> The European environment — state and outlook 2010 (SOER 2010)

<sup>7</sup> CORINE project (**C**o-**OR**dination of **IN**formation on the **E**nvironment) was launched in 1985 as an EU initiative. The main goal is to provide the information on the status and changes detected in the environmental fields. One of the databases integrated within this project is the CORINE land cover database (CLC). The working area is a encompassing most of the European countries

The right evaluation of the detected changes about the land uses must consider these aspects.

Problems are coming for the small scale territories when the applied grid (1 km\* 1 km) is too big to be identified with a unique dominant use. This classification is hiding other important functions being developed on the same grid. The relations among the several functions into territories with a high density use are complex and complementary.

Such of these small scale landscapes have linked their characteristics to national or regional identities8. The main characteristics of these landscapes can be summarized as follows:


58 Advances in Landscape Architecture

the exploitation of its natural resources

interacting driving forces including policies."

characterize this cell. Technical reasons were supporting it.

In EU-LUPA six LUFs have been identified considering the following criteria:

**analysis** 

follows:

representation;

detailed number of topics.

engine for the changes in the economic field.

• The functions are likely to be affected by European policies 5EU-LUPA is the acronym of *European Land Use Patterns*

6 The European environment — state and outlook 2010 (SOER 2010)

settlement, transport and energy infrastructure);

encompassing most of the European countries

**3. CLC studies: The problems related to the land use and land cover** 

One of the most direct reflections of all these patterns into the landscape is the land use.4 The land use patterns in Europe could be seen as an expression of centuries of human intervention on its environment, an expression of the continuous transformation process previously referred. Historically, the development of rural areas has depended heavily on

But social components are not the unique elements to define the land use patterns. Other external elements as the geographical context and the capability to produce enough resources must be considered. In a parallel way the economic evolution of the territories and the societies linked to them will depend of these concepts and its demographic evolution.

The interim report of the EU-LUPA5[3] describes the process using the work from SOER6, as

Land uses and land covers are the trend topics for the CORINE project7. The basis of this project is the grid of 1 km2 dimension applied over all the European territory, analyzing the several functions develop on this square grid trying to identify the dominant uses can

Comparative studies about the evolution of the land use in the partner countries are a reality today. Analysis on 1990, 2000 and 2006 were a strong contribution. At the same time the major image resolution has improved the analysis capability detecting a bigger and more

Use changes are always linked to several aspects, where human activities work as the

4 We must remember that Land Use Functions (LUFs) express the goods and services that the use of the land provides to human society that are of economical, ecological and socio-cultural value and likely to be affected by policy changes

• The main uses of the land in Europe are represented (i.e. agriculture, forestry ,nature conservation, tourism, urban

• Ensure that all three dimensions of sustainability (economic, environmental and societal) have an equal

7 CORINE project (**C**o-**OR**dination of **IN**formation on the **E**nvironment) was launched in 1985 as an EU initiative. The main goal is to provide the information on the status and changes detected in the environmental fields. One of the databases integrated within this project is the CORINE land cover database (CLC). The working area is a

"Land use specialization (urbanization, agricultural intensification and abandonment, natural forestation) decrease of arable land and permanent crops and land artificialization (residential, economic sites and infrastructures) are major trends that could be identified in the last decades (SOER, 2010). Those trends are the result of The number of different habitats present within a certain agrarian unit

The property structure is helping to consider this diversity into the small scale. This heterogeneity is supported by the small patches and the different interpretations about the landscape concept. This system runs the risk of disappearing some centuries after this basic heterogeneity.

**Figure 7.** Bárrio-Ponte de Lima-Portugal- 1 km2 grid

**Figure 8.** Évora-Portugal- 1 km2 grid

<sup>8</sup> Ireland case study can be a clear example about the national identity. Porto and Douro river are identified with a specific territory where the terraces' landscape play an important role as a "territorial branding"

landscape transformations. The images below are expressing the radical different points of view about the landscape changing (fig. 12) This process was filled within a 50 years period. Aerial photographs show the effects of this controlled planning when comparisons between both sides of the border, as in the case of Sejby and Moorbad-harbach in the border between

the Czech Republic and Austria (fig12) 9

**Figure 11.** Moorbad-harbach- Austria

**Figure 12.** Border space between Moorbad-harbach and Sejby. From Google earth

<sup>10</sup> We take this concept from the different Aldo Rossi's works about the city, applied to territories

technologies for the agricultural functions existed.

Faculty of Forestry can be consulted.

Estorãos is the first developed project about the land reparcelling in Portugal, into 60's. The changes were experienced in a short period, between 1961 and 1969 (fig.13, respectively on the left and on the right). These changes were based about the maintenance of the infrastructures but grouping the smallest lots where extreme difficulties to apply new

Landscapes tried to be adapted to the new scale. Actors were the same, primary elements10 into the memory of the social practices continued to be the same ones. Scale alteration was

9 For a more detailed information Works published by Zdeněk Lipský de Czech University of Agriculture Prague,

**Figure 9.** Bárrio-Ponte de Lima-Portugal-250mx250m grid

## **4. Small agricultural landscapes - The vision of the planner**

Studies of local history, regional history, rural geography and archaeology itself reveal the strong relationship between agricultural use of the various areas and continuous transformation. In Europe we see the existence of a secular agrarian structure tied in large parts of the continent. We must look for these phenomena into an dispersed ownership structure that caused the existence of small-scale agricultural landscape. This small scale has been disappearing for several reasons. In some cases this change was abrupt: at this point a broader political project have converged with a landscape incidence. We can see it in two countries: Czechoslovakia and Portugal. In the first case, we must remember the landscapes' consequences of the socialist revolution (Fig.10) with the change of the economic system. In th second case, it is clear the Estorãos'(Portugal) and its new land parceling. On the opposite side, the fragmentation of the landscape has been seen in the new irrigation systems in the river Guadiana (Spain). In general terms, abundant water and small property usually go together.

**Figure 10.** Sejby-Czech Republic

Central Bohemia region experienced great changes which occurred during the 40 years of socialist collectivism. The changing process of the property structure reflected important landscape transformations. The images below are expressing the radical different points of view about the landscape changing (fig. 12) This process was filled within a 50 years period. Aerial photographs show the effects of this controlled planning when comparisons between both sides of the border, as in the case of Sejby and Moorbad-harbach in the border between the Czech Republic and Austria (fig12) 9

**Figure 11.** Moorbad-harbach- Austria

60 Advances in Landscape Architecture

together.

**Figure 10.** Sejby-Czech Republic

**Figure 9.** Bárrio-Ponte de Lima-Portugal-250mx250m grid

**4. Small agricultural landscapes - The vision of the planner** 

Studies of local history, regional history, rural geography and archaeology itself reveal the strong relationship between agricultural use of the various areas and continuous transformation. In Europe we see the existence of a secular agrarian structure tied in large parts of the continent. We must look for these phenomena into an dispersed ownership structure that caused the existence of small-scale agricultural landscape. This small scale has been disappearing for several reasons. In some cases this change was abrupt: at this point a broader political project have converged with a landscape incidence. We can see it in two countries: Czechoslovakia and Portugal. In the first case, we must remember the landscapes' consequences of the socialist revolution (Fig.10) with the change of the economic system. In th second case, it is clear the Estorãos'(Portugal) and its new land parceling. On the opposite side, the fragmentation of the landscape has been seen in the new irrigation systems in the river Guadiana (Spain). In general terms, abundant water and small property usually go

Central Bohemia region experienced great changes which occurred during the 40 years of socialist collectivism. The changing process of the property structure reflected important

**Figure 12.** Border space between Moorbad-harbach and Sejby. From Google earth

Estorãos is the first developed project about the land reparcelling in Portugal, into 60's. The changes were experienced in a short period, between 1961 and 1969 (fig.13, respectively on the left and on the right). These changes were based about the maintenance of the infrastructures but grouping the smallest lots where extreme difficulties to apply new technologies for the agricultural functions existed.

Landscapes tried to be adapted to the new scale. Actors were the same, primary elements10 into the memory of the social practices continued to be the same ones. Scale alteration was

<sup>9</sup> For a more detailed information Works published by Zdeněk Lipský de Czech University of Agriculture Prague, Faculty of Forestry can be consulted.

<sup>10</sup> We take this concept from the different Aldo Rossi's works about the city, applied to territories

enough for the landscape transformation. The work consisted of checking how the primary elements, once recycled and reinterpreted after the redistricting process parcel, are still conditioning the final layout of the landscape. This hypothesis was not confirmed. However it was found that the elements shaped the landscape were still present in the new landscapes resulting from land redistribution although relations were altered depending on the change of scale. This time the political territorial planning caused effects similar to found in the case of border space between Czech Republic and Austria(fig. 12).

Architectures on Territories – Methodologies for the Graphical Representation 63

We must resume that small scales present a heterogeneity only compared between them, with own dynamics. Too many things are happening on these territories where the distance between two places can be around 200 meters. Correlhã is paradigmatic. We can see these changes occur all along the Portuguese *Caminho de Santiago12*, as a sequence of places. Original representation at 1/500 of this continuity may reflect it.13 (fig. 16). Done work

Through all the referred case studies we can repair that the initial situation, identified as heterogeneity, is decreasing, turning to a specialization caused by the low rates of

This specialization is based on the urbanization, mixed with the short number of fixed residents, converting some areas into a second residential area, more active during the

These questions are helping to provoke important changes in the identities of these places.

Identities are tied closely to their respective territorial morphologies. The understanding of identity cannot be separated from its territory, as tangible reference point for the development of the social practices. The maps, as mere and accurate mapping, do not

The conventional maps use the same criteria of intensity and representation, merely

The characterization of these identities is vital in order to act over these territories,

13 Correlhã is a *freguesia* close to Ponte de Lima was studied by the students of University Fernando Pessoa in the years

expressing formal characterizations. They confirm the reiteration of facts in one place.

But the intangibles are hardly expressed in an automatic way, impersonal, thoughtless.

But, at the same time, this scale will be always essential for choosing the adequate tools.

2010-2011 and 2011-2012, with the goal to identify the rural morphologies understood as primary elements.

12 Caminho de Santiago is the Pilgrim's Route from Portugal to Santiago de Compostela

expresses the characteristics of the relationship between domestic space and land.

employing in the agricultural sector and the low activity in the last years

**Figure 15.** Badajoz's surroundings.1956

week-ends.

express these relationships.

regardless of the scale of the performance.

Finally, the new process of land redistribution experienced in Badajoz-Spain province was a part of a global strategy: the new irrigation of a large tract of land along the Guadiana river.

This program included the construction of new villages and the displacement of several thousand people, the new colonists of the twentieth century. More than 40.000 colonists spread on 59 new settlements,11 together with the irrigation infrastructure, were transforming totally these territories as perceived in the comparative pictures.(fig 14 and 15).

**Figure 13.** Estorãos-Ponte de Lima-Portugal, Land registry 1961-1969

**Figure 14.** Badajoz's surroundings.2011

<sup>11</sup> Data on 2009, but the first settlements were built on 1956

**Figure 15.** Badajoz's surroundings.1956

62 Advances in Landscape Architecture

river.

enough for the landscape transformation. The work consisted of checking how the primary elements, once recycled and reinterpreted after the redistricting process parcel, are still conditioning the final layout of the landscape. This hypothesis was not confirmed. However it was found that the elements shaped the landscape were still present in the new landscapes resulting from land redistribution although relations were altered depending on the change of scale. This time the political territorial planning caused effects similar to found

Finally, the new process of land redistribution experienced in Badajoz-Spain province was a part of a global strategy: the new irrigation of a large tract of land along the Guadiana

This program included the construction of new villages and the displacement of several thousand people, the new colonists of the twentieth century. More than 40.000 colonists spread on 59 new settlements,11 together with the irrigation infrastructure, were transforming totally these territories as perceived in the comparative pictures.(fig 14 and 15).

in the case of border space between Czech Republic and Austria(fig. 12).

**Figure 13.** Estorãos-Ponte de Lima-Portugal, Land registry 1961-1969

**Figure 14.** Badajoz's surroundings.2011

11 Data on 2009, but the first settlements were built on 1956

We must resume that small scales present a heterogeneity only compared between them, with own dynamics. Too many things are happening on these territories where the distance between two places can be around 200 meters. Correlhã is paradigmatic. We can see these changes occur all along the Portuguese *Caminho de Santiago12*, as a sequence of places. Original representation at 1/500 of this continuity may reflect it.13 (fig. 16). Done work expresses the characteristics of the relationship between domestic space and land.

Through all the referred case studies we can repair that the initial situation, identified as heterogeneity, is decreasing, turning to a specialization caused by the low rates of employing in the agricultural sector and the low activity in the last years

This specialization is based on the urbanization, mixed with the short number of fixed residents, converting some areas into a second residential area, more active during the week-ends.

These questions are helping to provoke important changes in the identities of these places.

Identities are tied closely to their respective territorial morphologies. The understanding of identity cannot be separated from its territory, as tangible reference point for the development of the social practices. The maps, as mere and accurate mapping, do not express these relationships.

The conventional maps use the same criteria of intensity and representation, merely expressing formal characterizations. They confirm the reiteration of facts in one place.

But the intangibles are hardly expressed in an automatic way, impersonal, thoughtless.

The characterization of these identities is vital in order to act over these territories, regardless of the scale of the performance.

But, at the same time, this scale will be always essential for choosing the adequate tools.

<sup>12</sup> Caminho de Santiago is the Pilgrim's Route from Portugal to Santiago de Compostela

<sup>13</sup> Correlhã is a *freguesia* close to Ponte de Lima was studied by the students of University Fernando Pessoa in the years 2010-2011 and 2011-2012, with the goal to identify the rural morphologies understood as primary elements.

Such Atlantic Europe small scale landscapes are known by their rich biodiversities, but their capability to define "per se" the elements are defining the Landscape character14. Some of these elements are related to the definition of "primary element". We understand them as the elements able to define the basic structure of a territory; basic elements are repeated

The small scale is capable of receiving therein a larger number of events than other larger scales, a greater number of elements. A huge variety of scenarios can be checked. They are created within a small area. This phenomenon provokes a greater distinctive appearance

These characteristics are coinciding en several cases with the definition of a national or regional identity[4]. The image of the small landscape is an important component of this identity15). Marketing Porto wine's example was referred previously. But this example is not the only one. "*Vinho verde* region" is a concept exclusively linked to Alto Minho(NUT III) region. (fig. 17) In the same way, but with specific characteristics we can talk about the virtual region of Maronite sanctuaries in Lebanon, almost all of them dedicated to the wine's

The heterogeneity of these spaces is coming from the numerous actors on a short space. This heterogeneity is the core of the identity. A few primary elements are composing the several visual scenarios. Monitoring of these spaces is normally more complicated than larger scales: several habitats and patches are sharing almost the same spaces; the multifunctionality of the spaces is a normal solution with two levels of agricultural practices in

[2] The overlapping between lines and areas, especially talking about the fences where

The knowledge of all these realities is clearly harder and more difficult. The tools for

14 Landscape character is an English term used for defining what makes an area unique. It is defined as "a distinct, recognizable and consistent pattern of elements, be it natural (soil, landform) and/or human (for example settlement and development) in the landscape that makes one landscape different from another, rather than better or worse". The Countryside Agency (2002) defines the Landscape character as "a distinct, recognizable and consistent pattern of

15 Works about this issue from Natalino Martins (coordination), Estela Domingos, Félix Ribeiro and Paulo de Carvalho

[4] The extent and number of linear features, when compared with the small areas.

achieving this knowledge must be more precise, according the territorial scales.

elements in the landscape that makes one landscape different from another ,rather than better or worse"-

The solutions coming from a right planning must be in the same level.

and amount of agricultural products, into the agricultural landscapes' small scale.

culture as an identity signal confronted to other religions at Lebanon.

We can resume the general characteristics of this scale:

[1] A relative important number of habitats in a short space

the grape is defining the different types of fences. [3] A larger number or small lots (smallholding).

**5. Small landscapes and landscape-characters** 

within the territorial morphologies.

the Minho-Galicia region.

can be a good reference about it.

**Figure 16.** Portuguese Caminho de Santiago (Pilgrim's route)

## **5. Small landscapes and landscape-characters**

64 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 16.** Portuguese Caminho de Santiago (Pilgrim's route)

Such Atlantic Europe small scale landscapes are known by their rich biodiversities, but their capability to define "per se" the elements are defining the Landscape character14. Some of these elements are related to the definition of "primary element". We understand them as the elements able to define the basic structure of a territory; basic elements are repeated within the territorial morphologies.

The small scale is capable of receiving therein a larger number of events than other larger scales, a greater number of elements. A huge variety of scenarios can be checked. They are created within a small area. This phenomenon provokes a greater distinctive appearance and amount of agricultural products, into the agricultural landscapes' small scale.

These characteristics are coinciding en several cases with the definition of a national or regional identity[4]. The image of the small landscape is an important component of this identity15). Marketing Porto wine's example was referred previously. But this example is not the only one. "*Vinho verde* region" is a concept exclusively linked to Alto Minho(NUT III) region. (fig. 17) In the same way, but with specific characteristics we can talk about the virtual region of Maronite sanctuaries in Lebanon, almost all of them dedicated to the wine's culture as an identity signal confronted to other religions at Lebanon.

The heterogeneity of these spaces is coming from the numerous actors on a short space. This heterogeneity is the core of the identity. A few primary elements are composing the several visual scenarios. Monitoring of these spaces is normally more complicated than larger scales: several habitats and patches are sharing almost the same spaces; the multifunctionality of the spaces is a normal solution with two levels of agricultural practices in the Minho-Galicia region.

We can resume the general characteristics of this scale:


[4] The extent and number of linear features, when compared with the small areas.

The knowledge of all these realities is clearly harder and more difficult. The tools for achieving this knowledge must be more precise, according the territorial scales.

The solutions coming from a right planning must be in the same level.

<sup>14</sup> Landscape character is an English term used for defining what makes an area unique. It is defined as "a distinct, recognizable and consistent pattern of elements, be it natural (soil, landform) and/or human (for example settlement and development) in the landscape that makes one landscape different from another, rather than better or worse". The Countryside Agency (2002) defines the Landscape character as "a distinct, recognizable and consistent pattern of elements in the landscape that makes one landscape different from another ,rather than better or worse"-

<sup>15</sup> Works about this issue from Natalino Martins (coordination), Estela Domingos, Félix Ribeiro and Paulo de Carvalho can be a good reference about it.

**Figure 18.** Several cultural on the same space. Correlhã. Ponte de Lima-Portugal

de Lima. Portugal

landscapes

**Figure 19.** The formal results of the several *eiras* with several properties and cultures. Correlhã. Ponte

**Figure 20.** The *espigueiro* appears in the middle of this small scale as architectural reference into these

The application of 1 km2 grid is logic in certain parts of the region, especially in the landscape units whose primary elements are related to ecosystem "montado".17 We can

<sup>17</sup> *Montado* is a Portuguese word refers the Mediterranean grassland.

**Figure 17.** Territorial branding with landscapes through the different wines in Northern Portugal.

This adequate relationship between the previous concepts is crucial for the perception of these territories. Certain tools are unreflective in these processes. The 1 km2 grid used in CLC is very criticized in such small scales. Too many things are happening in these territories within this grid, where the antropization process is more evident. The choice of one dominant function, not coincident with the key one sometimes, reduces the possibilities to observe the multi-functionality of small scale landscapes.(fig. 18) This limitative problem suggests the proposal of smaller grids able to identify the several functions or characteristics into these spaces. The 0,625 km2 area (250m \* 250 m grid) on fig. 9 seems more adequate to the scale and its needs. We must remember, as a reference, that the typical *eira16* in some places of this region is 220 m2. (fig. 19-20) The fragmentation of these territories provokes this variety, normally associated to these phenomena:


A high antropization process during a long period.

Into the opposite side we can repair the Alentejo case study. Alentejo region occupies most of the southern half of mainland Portugal. Its extension is equivalent to 35.44% of all mainland Portugal. Its 128 units are grouped in 22 sets. Five of them refer totally or partially Alentejo. Both the extent and homogeneity landscape, despite their variety, only 19.5% of the national total units are in the region.

<sup>16</sup> *Eira* is the name for the minimal agriculture unit normally close to the house, as a result of smallholder ownership structure

**Figure 18.** Several cultural on the same space. Correlhã. Ponte de Lima-Portugal

66 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 17.** Territorial branding with landscapes through the different wines in Northern Portugal.

this variety, normally associated to these phenomena:

A high antropization process during a long period.

The existence of a strong rural concentration.

A very scattered property structure.

the national total units are in the region.

structure

This adequate relationship between the previous concepts is crucial for the perception of these territories. Certain tools are unreflective in these processes. The 1 km2 grid used in CLC is very criticized in such small scales. Too many things are happening in these territories within this grid, where the antropization process is more evident. The choice of one dominant function, not coincident with the key one sometimes, reduces the possibilities to observe the multi-functionality of small scale landscapes.(fig. 18) This limitative problem suggests the proposal of smaller grids able to identify the several functions or characteristics into these spaces. The 0,625 km2 area (250m \* 250 m grid) on fig. 9 seems more adequate to the scale and its needs. We must remember, as a reference, that the typical *eira16* in some places of this region is 220 m2. (fig. 19-20) The fragmentation of these territories provokes

Into the opposite side we can repair the Alentejo case study. Alentejo region occupies most of the southern half of mainland Portugal. Its extension is equivalent to 35.44% of all mainland Portugal. Its 128 units are grouped in 22 sets. Five of them refer totally or partially Alentejo. Both the extent and homogeneity landscape, despite their variety, only 19.5% of

<sup>16</sup> *Eira* is the name for the minimal agriculture unit normally close to the house, as a result of smallholder ownership

**Figure 19.** The formal results of the several *eiras* with several properties and cultures. Correlhã. Ponte de Lima. Portugal

**Figure 20.** The *espigueiro* appears in the middle of this small scale as architectural reference into these landscapes

The application of 1 km2 grid is logic in certain parts of the region, especially in the landscape units whose primary elements are related to ecosystem "montado".17 We can

<sup>17</sup> *Montado* is a Portuguese word refers the Mediterranean grassland.

repair in these aspects in the comparative photography of an Alentejo landscape, where it is clear that small grid is unnecessary to be applied for these purposes. Figures 7 and 8 reveal this contrast between Évora region and Ponte de Lima.

Architectures on Territories – Methodologies for the Graphical Representation 69

This is the reason why some actual problems need specific solutions.

these areas indicate there is no generational renewal capacity. (fig.22).

**Figure 21.** Abandoned lands into Bárrio *freguesia*.Ponte de Lima.Portugal. From the author

**Figure 22.** Populational pyramid. Ponte de Lima.2001, from Diagnostico social Conselho Local de

But at the same time, crisis times are more reflected in the urban field. It implies a good chance for the rural areas, especially for the small landscape areas where the proximity to

Acção Social Ponte de Lima, 2008, adapted

One of these problems is the progressive abandonment of the "traditional" cultures. (fig. 21) This question must be lethal for the landscapes were created by day. And this problem is much better in the small scale where the accessibility to the different spaces is "enlarging" the visual impact of the problem. This problem is clear in the landscapes based on the continuous hand work of the Man. This man is not already exists. Demographics data of

## **6. Territorial design and its scales within the small landscapes**

Territorial Design is about generating value to a territory through establishing and reinforcing its identity, while revitalizing the strength of existing icons in the area.

Territorial design aims to develop a relationship among cultural, social, and economical processes, searching for references in architecture, urbanism, anthropology and design. This methodology is considered a "project approach" of strategic design, building scenarios for dealing with innovation and sustainability aspects in a territory.

We understand the need to define appropriate tools on a right approach to the problem of the various territorial scales.

It has raised the need to address the problem of small-scale with greater detail, involving more physical approach to this reality. However, we must remember that this small scale, usually in very sensitive situations, depends in turn on its regional context. In the specific case of Ponte de Lima, one can observe that the territorial branding is based on the small scale in turn survives by the peculiar structure of existent relationships between the various scales. The wine stands as a region's economic engine18, which in turn is defined by primary landscape elements associated with this activity.

But the survival of this land is related through a system of competitive territories to the existence of a territorial strategy, a territorial project. At the same time this strategy should be very respectful with the small scale, where branding marks of this land are, as the primary elements that support. It is, therefore, a two-way process. Need two parallel actions: we must get to the small-scale project from the upper levels, and proposed solutions to this small scale should be taken into account in structuring the territorial project. Applying these design tools, based on the analysis in the project, is essential to achieve these objectives.

The question would be which is the architect's role in this process. In the same way of other design's scales and maybe in a stronger and a deeper level we need to consider the identity signals as the basis for this territorial design.

The identification of these primary elements will not be enough but the perfect understanding if the relations among them.

There will be an adequate territorial design if the primary elements are preserved and improved. And this improvement must be related to the correct utilization of the existent resources. These resources must be ready to be used or recycled into regional competitiveness, but identity signals can survive.

<sup>18</sup> The *Adega Cooperativa Ponte de Lima* is a coop based on the wine's product of more than 200 families of the region.

This is the reason why some actual problems need specific solutions.

68 Advances in Landscape Architecture

the various territorial scales.

objectives.

this contrast between Évora region and Ponte de Lima.

dealing with innovation and sustainability aspects in a territory.

landscape elements associated with this activity.

signals as the basis for this territorial design.

understanding if the relations among them.

competitiveness, but identity signals can survive.

repair in these aspects in the comparative photography of an Alentejo landscape, where it is clear that small grid is unnecessary to be applied for these purposes. Figures 7 and 8 reveal

Territorial Design is about generating value to a territory through establishing and

Territorial design aims to develop a relationship among cultural, social, and economical processes, searching for references in architecture, urbanism, anthropology and design. This methodology is considered a "project approach" of strategic design, building scenarios for

We understand the need to define appropriate tools on a right approach to the problem of

It has raised the need to address the problem of small-scale with greater detail, involving more physical approach to this reality. However, we must remember that this small scale, usually in very sensitive situations, depends in turn on its regional context. In the specific case of Ponte de Lima, one can observe that the territorial branding is based on the small scale in turn survives by the peculiar structure of existent relationships between the various scales. The wine stands as a region's economic engine18, which in turn is defined by primary

But the survival of this land is related through a system of competitive territories to the existence of a territorial strategy, a territorial project. At the same time this strategy should be very respectful with the small scale, where branding marks of this land are, as the primary elements that support. It is, therefore, a two-way process. Need two parallel actions: we must get to the small-scale project from the upper levels, and proposed solutions to this small scale should be taken into account in structuring the territorial project. Applying these design tools, based on the analysis in the project, is essential to achieve these

The question would be which is the architect's role in this process. In the same way of other design's scales and maybe in a stronger and a deeper level we need to consider the identity

The identification of these primary elements will not be enough but the perfect

There will be an adequate territorial design if the primary elements are preserved and improved. And this improvement must be related to the correct utilization of the existent resources. These resources must be ready to be used or recycled into regional

18 The *Adega Cooperativa Ponte de Lima* is a coop based on the wine's product of more than 200 families of the region.

**6. Territorial design and its scales within the small landscapes** 

reinforcing its identity, while revitalizing the strength of existing icons in the area.

One of these problems is the progressive abandonment of the "traditional" cultures. (fig. 21) This question must be lethal for the landscapes were created by day. And this problem is much better in the small scale where the accessibility to the different spaces is "enlarging" the visual impact of the problem. This problem is clear in the landscapes based on the continuous hand work of the Man. This man is not already exists. Demographics data of these areas indicate there is no generational renewal capacity. (fig.22).

**Figure 21.** Abandoned lands into Bárrio *freguesia*.Ponte de Lima.Portugal. From the author

**Figure 22.** Populational pyramid. Ponte de Lima.2001, from Diagnostico social Conselho Local de Acção Social Ponte de Lima, 2008, adapted

But at the same time, crisis times are more reflected in the urban field. It implies a good chance for the rural areas, especially for the small landscape areas where the proximity to

the urban areas can be a call for the return of younger population and becoming the future generations for these lands.

Architectures on Territories – Methodologies for the Graphical Representation 71

relationships are channeled through this relationship between man and land and it implies. And these group relations, as social animal that is man, implies the possible evaluation through social patterns of behavior. In 1977 Christopher Alexander published "A Pattern

These books tried to define new structure for the understanding of the three levels were

Drawing territories, its representation was an obsession from earlier times. The feeling of control about territories was feeding the need to know about the form, about the conditions

Antoine Picon[7] evokes the earlier meaning of territory for administrators, architects and engineers. They considered territories as lands that were integrated into nations or colonies by the early modern European countries. This obsession about administrative separation were dominating the perceptions of territory specially within the 18th- and 19th-century. This obsession led to a continuation of the ideas in the case of American colonization by the

This desire to represent the territory as its control element is evident in the figure 25. The author relates the main elements of territorial characterization, not as an actual approach, but as a way of understanding of the difficulties involved in Mexico's relationship with water, through the port of Veracruz, in Mexico.(Fig.26) Maps and different territorial representations were orientated in these lines. This rigorous representation was vital for

Working on actions for territorial planning obliges to use specific tools, because territorial planning means at this case territorial project. The key steps for a right process can be the graphical representation of this territory, where the small details are so important. The

Drawing must be considered as a rational activity, basic for the development of the creative acts into a design activity. The communication of an idea would be different without this

various scales determine the use of specific tools of representation.

"At the core... is the idea that people should design for themselves their own houses, streets and communities. This idea... comes simply from the observation that most of the wonderful places of the world were not made by architects but by the people".[19] At the same time this idea is linked to the definition of social patterns, including the anthropologic ones. "These are patterns in what people do, with or without interfaces designed for those purposes. These patterns are interesting and fun to talk about and they

Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction"[5] justifying it.

help us understand what's likely to happen,… "[6]

and potentialities form all the points of view.

considered:

*6. Re-drawing territories* 

Spanish military engineers [8]

achieving the referred goals.

<sup>19</sup> From the book flap in the original version of this book

tool. 

**Figure 23.** Territorial representation into Projecto V course. University Fernando Pessoa-Portugal-2009- 2010. Author: Rui Pedro Silva. Original scale:1/7000

**Figure 24.** Anta-Correlhã.Ponte de Lima.Portugal. Representation 1/500 scale in original drawing.

There seems to be a clear statement on the issue of small-scale: the approach between the territory and the Man is greater the smaller the spatial scale of perception. And many of the relationships are channeled through this relationship between man and land and it implies. And these group relations, as social animal that is man, implies the possible evaluation through social patterns of behavior. In 1977 Christopher Alexander published "A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction"[5] justifying it.

These books tried to define new structure for the understanding of the three levels were considered:

"At the core... is the idea that people should design for themselves their own houses, streets and communities. This idea... comes simply from the observation that most of the wonderful places of the world were not made by architects but by the people".[19]

At the same time this idea is linked to the definition of social patterns, including the anthropologic ones. "These are patterns in what people do, with or without interfaces designed for those purposes. These patterns are interesting and fun to talk about and they help us understand what's likely to happen,… "[6]

#### *6. Re-drawing territories*

70 Advances in Landscape Architecture

generations for these lands.

2010. Author: Rui Pedro Silva. Original scale:1/7000

the urban areas can be a call for the return of younger population and becoming the future

**Figure 23.** Territorial representation into Projecto V course. University Fernando Pessoa-Portugal-2009-

**Figure 24.** Anta-Correlhã.Ponte de Lima.Portugal. Representation 1/500 scale in original drawing.

There seems to be a clear statement on the issue of small-scale: the approach between the territory and the Man is greater the smaller the spatial scale of perception. And many of the Drawing territories, its representation was an obsession from earlier times. The feeling of control about territories was feeding the need to know about the form, about the conditions and potentialities form all the points of view.

Antoine Picon[7] evokes the earlier meaning of territory for administrators, architects and engineers. They considered territories as lands that were integrated into nations or colonies by the early modern European countries. This obsession about administrative separation were dominating the perceptions of territory specially within the 18th- and 19th-century. This obsession led to a continuation of the ideas in the case of American colonization by the Spanish military engineers [8]

This desire to represent the territory as its control element is evident in the figure 25. The author relates the main elements of territorial characterization, not as an actual approach, but as a way of understanding of the difficulties involved in Mexico's relationship with water, through the port of Veracruz, in Mexico.(Fig.26) Maps and different territorial representations were orientated in these lines. This rigorous representation was vital for achieving the referred goals.

Working on actions for territorial planning obliges to use specific tools, because territorial planning means at this case territorial project. The key steps for a right process can be the graphical representation of this territory, where the small details are so important. The various scales determine the use of specific tools of representation.

Drawing must be considered as a rational activity, basic for the development of the creative acts into a design activity. The communication of an idea would be different without this tool.

<sup>19</sup> From the book flap in the original version of this book

Architectures on Territories – Methodologies for the Graphical Representation 73

work was more effective as a rethought drawing, as a rational act that increased the

Taking in consideration this idea, we can apply this technique to the territorial analysis. T

will be a way to feel territory, overwriting territories over maps or aerial photos.

student's analytical skills.

**Figure 27.** Carnoedo. Spain.From Google-earth

**Figure 28.** Path to Lobos' beach-Carnoedo-Spain

**Figure 25.** Almeria. Spain. 18th century from Archivo General de Simancas-Spain

**Figure 26.** Diego García Cinde-1798- Plano dirección de los caminos de bajan de México a Veracruz. Biblioteca Nacional. Madrid. Spain

A methodology for the site analysis has been developed during last thirty years as the basis for an adequate territorial planning. This analysis was firstly applied to the Carnoedo case study, in northern Galicia-Spain, using a hand drawing system (1982).

The aerial photography as a first approach to the reality, confirmed or rejected by the personal ocular inspection to the place, is a classic methodology related to the hand drawing as the best way to represent the several aspects of this reality. At the same time, the representation of intagible appears when the individual interpretation of aerial photography arises from a process of personal analysis.

The drawing tells us the concept. One classical pedagogic activity into the Faculties of Architecture during the 60's and 70's was redrawing the images of the most important works from some sacred architects. When the pen was going up photograph analysis of the work was more effective as a rethought drawing, as a rational act that increased the student's analytical skills.

Taking in consideration this idea, we can apply this technique to the territorial analysis. T will be a way to feel territory, overwriting territories over maps or aerial photos.

**Figure 27.** Carnoedo. Spain.From Google-earth

72 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Biblioteca Nacional. Madrid. Spain

arises from a process of personal analysis.

**Figure 25.** Almeria. Spain. 18th century from Archivo General de Simancas-Spain

study, in northern Galicia-Spain, using a hand drawing system (1982).

**Figure 26.** Diego García Cinde-1798- Plano dirección de los caminos de bajan de México a Veracruz.

A methodology for the site analysis has been developed during last thirty years as the basis for an adequate territorial planning. This analysis was firstly applied to the Carnoedo case

The aerial photography as a first approach to the reality, confirmed or rejected by the personal ocular inspection to the place, is a classic methodology related to the hand drawing as the best way to represent the several aspects of this reality. At the same time, the representation of intagible appears when the individual interpretation of aerial photography

The drawing tells us the concept. One classical pedagogic activity into the Faculties of Architecture during the 60's and 70's was redrawing the images of the most important works from some sacred architects. When the pen was going up photograph analysis of the

**Figure 28.** Path to Lobos' beach-Carnoedo-Spain

## **7. The methodology**

The work consists of taking territorial redraw as support recognition through numerous visits to the lot and the aerial photography. It dispenses with the existing conventional mapping. We understand it could be a disturbing element in the search for relationships in the analysis process. Thus establishing a direct link between the territory and its observer.

Architectures on Territories – Methodologies for the Graphical Representation 75

Finally, the comparison of data collected from the first phase were corroborated or rejected

after the site visit, as a form of complementary knowledge of the local.

**Figure 30.** Identification of the primary elements Original scale 1/2000

these areas as a landscape unit to be studied.

This process contributed to the breakdown of exclusive knowledge through the plan (standard error of architecture student). Direct relationships between the plan and the third dimension were attributed through this method. For example, a shadow in the aerial photograph contributed greatly to this knowledge and assumed values for height, defining per se he third dimension. After the location of certain primary elements we define one of

The choice is according to the existent topography and the primary elements previously identified. Thus, the student approaches the overall understanding of the territory where

the primary elements in its structure constants, abstract territorial complexity.

The proposed work includes a number of stages, referred to below:

The redrawing of the territory (fig. 29) through exclusive data extraction from aerial photography work involved two levels. First, the careful observation of this photograph allowed a selection of elements that made up this country and they deserved representation, assuming a first level of analysis. There were thus identified territorial primary elements. (fig. 30)

**Figure 29.** Handmade graphical representation Original scale 1/2000.

Second, learning techniques of representation required for recycling of previous knowledge and identifying the relationship between territorial primary elements.

Finally, the comparison of data collected from the first phase were corroborated or rejected after the site visit, as a form of complementary knowledge of the local.

74 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**7. The methodology** 

(fig. 30)

The work consists of taking territorial redraw as support recognition through numerous visits to the lot and the aerial photography. It dispenses with the existing conventional mapping. We understand it could be a disturbing element in the search for relationships in the analysis process. Thus establishing a direct link between the territory and its observer.

The redrawing of the territory (fig. 29) through exclusive data extraction from aerial photography work involved two levels. First, the careful observation of this photograph allowed a selection of elements that made up this country and they deserved representation, assuming a first level of analysis. There were thus identified territorial primary elements.

**Figure 29.** Handmade graphical representation Original scale 1/2000.

and identifying the relationship between territorial primary elements.

Second, learning techniques of representation required for recycling of previous knowledge

**Figure 30.** Identification of the primary elements Original scale 1/2000

This process contributed to the breakdown of exclusive knowledge through the plan (standard error of architecture student). Direct relationships between the plan and the third dimension were attributed through this method. For example, a shadow in the aerial photograph contributed greatly to this knowledge and assumed values for height, defining per se he third dimension. After the location of certain primary elements we define one of these areas as a landscape unit to be studied.

The choice is according to the existent topography and the primary elements previously identified. Thus, the student approaches the overall understanding of the territory where the primary elements in its structure constants, abstract territorial complexity.

The proposed work includes a number of stages, referred to below:


**Figure 32.** Detail of the whole elements, included terraces. Original scale 1/500

This first step is basic for all the process, happening after an initial analysis about the place, according the observer´s background. It must occur in parallel with the second stage, as a way of approximation from the tangible, which tries to identify the fundamental joint elements of the territory. The always individual data collection is completed with the identification of these elements on the aerial photo of the site and the use of the camera as

Data relating to the territory under study, both statistical and anthropological level, are important. Knowledge of the various social practices is essential in personal and sensitive approach to the intangibles. Knowledge of these data helps the development of the state of

*Understanding the process of territorial transformation, taking knowledge of science or knowledge* 

This process arises from the combination of two strong concepts. On one side we have the knowledge collected in the state of the arts. On the other side territorial representation will be present. This phase helps the understanding of how the territory as a single complex

The identification of the primary elements is a direct consequence of the previous phase. Primary elements concept were previously defined. In practice, the relationship between the respective elements having primary and the other elements helps perception of a first order formed by the set of elements. It was established around them a set of relationships that

allow identification of relationships which typically repeat as a constant.

The different proposed stages are shown in the following:

*Visual recognition case study* 

*Personal data collection on-site.* 

the arts over the territory.

*The identification of the primary elements* 

the main ally.

*cross.* 

reality.


This work enables deep personal approach to the country's territorial reality. Knowledge of the various relationships between the various elements and levels of training implies territorial, while a valuable tool for future project phases.

**Figure 31.** Interaction between primary elements and path's net.

**Figure 32.** Detail of the whole elements, included terraces. Original scale 1/500

The different proposed stages are shown in the following:

#### *Visual recognition case study*

76 Advances in Landscape Architecture

knowledge.

 Visual recognition case study Personal data collection on-site.

The identification of the primary elements

the various primary elements previously identified. The definition of the forms resulting from this combination. Eventual classification of the various combinations detected.

territorial, while a valuable tool for future project phases.

**Figure 31.** Interaction between primary elements and path's net.

Understanding the process of territorial transformation, coming from the transversal

Understanding the territorial syntax, as a result of the combination and interaction of

 Global understanding of the territory, as the resulting object of a complex process. In this process, the man appears as an actor in this transformation slowly but steadily. This work enables deep personal approach to the country's territorial reality. Knowledge of the various relationships between the various elements and levels of training implies

> This first step is basic for all the process, happening after an initial analysis about the place, according the observer´s background. It must occur in parallel with the second stage, as a way of approximation from the tangible, which tries to identify the fundamental joint elements of the territory. The always individual data collection is completed with the identification of these elements on the aerial photo of the site and the use of the camera as the main ally.

#### *Personal data collection on-site.*

Data relating to the territory under study, both statistical and anthropological level, are important. Knowledge of the various social practices is essential in personal and sensitive approach to the intangibles. Knowledge of these data helps the development of the state of the arts over the territory.

### *Understanding the process of territorial transformation, taking knowledge of science or knowledge cross.*

This process arises from the combination of two strong concepts. On one side we have the knowledge collected in the state of the arts. On the other side territorial representation will be present. This phase helps the understanding of how the territory as a single complex reality.

#### *The identification of the primary elements*

The identification of the primary elements is a direct consequence of the previous phase. Primary elements concept were previously defined. In practice, the relationship between the respective elements having primary and the other elements helps perception of a first order formed by the set of elements. It was established around them a set of relationships that allow identification of relationships which typically repeat as a constant.

*Understanding the territorial syntax*, as a result of the combination and interaction of the various main elements identified above.

Architectures on Territories – Methodologies for the Graphical Representation 79

**Figure 33.** Whole graphic representation, with the different definition of the places.

Thus, it was established a direct link between the territory and its observer. After the location of certain primary elements, such as formal constants appearing in shaping the

territory, one of these areas was defined, such as landscape unit to study.(fig 34)

**Figure 34.** Campo da Cruz place.Carnoedo

In that sense, the primary elements are not really the most important thing in these cases, but the relationship between them. It is about understanding how to configure and interact with each other, and how they feel and express these relationships.

This issue is contrary to the consideration of individual elements. The student knows eventually that these relationships allow consideration of a territorial system, a landscape unit.

## *The definition of the forms resulting from this combination.*

After having defined these formal systems such as landscape units, the resulting set of forms must provide a first global perception of the territory under study. This vision must come previously reinforced by the existence of different transition elements. This transition will depend on the relative position origin of the linkage to perform functions and their appearance over time. The transition elements are also subject to possible classification.

*Global understanding of the territory* as the resulting object of a complex process. In this process, the man appears as an actor in this transformation slowly but steadily.

We present in this chapter two versions of territorial representation. The first example draws on Carnoedo parish in the municipality of Sada (La Coruña) - Spain).This municipality reflects the characteristics of any of the lands that make up the Galician Rias Altas with significant housing density20. The landscape shows a remarkable territorial complexity from a continuous process of anthropization 21 .(fig. 33)

It was therefore a small-scale agrarian context, typical of the locale of Galicia and, by extension, of the ledge Northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. On that occasion the methodology used was based on hand territorial redraw at scale 1/1000. The final layout is presented at scale 1/2000. The study aimed, among other objectives, the definition of the primary territorial elements analyzed.(fig. 30)

Among these elements relate the terraces and *Agras* as territorial configurator completed by a road structure which allows high permeability. In line with both elements property system and the capillary structure of the water were analyzed.

Both elements are vital to understand the agricultural cadastre reflecting tensions between terraces, *Agras*, roads and water mains. (fig. 31) Last step of this analysis will refer constructed elements, superimposed to territorial building. Every stage was following a strong relationship to the outside .In the beginning there were not architectural typologies but dialogue between territory and built through the various modes of occupation on the parcel were not absent. (fig. 32)

<sup>20</sup> Available data for this area in 2011 defined a density of 540.92 inhabitants /km2

<sup>21</sup> Technical term from the Italian (*antropizzazione*) that relates the work of transforming the natural environment applied by humans to meet their needs and improve quality of life, often at the expense of the ecological conditions

**Figure 33.** Whole graphic representation, with the different definition of the places.

**Figure 34.** Campo da Cruz place.Carnoedo

78 Advances in Landscape Architecture

unit.

various main elements identified above.

*Understanding the territorial syntax*, as a result of the combination and interaction of the

In that sense, the primary elements are not really the most important thing in these cases, but the relationship between them. It is about understanding how to configure and interact

This issue is contrary to the consideration of individual elements. The student knows eventually that these relationships allow consideration of a territorial system, a landscape

After having defined these formal systems such as landscape units, the resulting set of forms must provide a first global perception of the territory under study. This vision must come previously reinforced by the existence of different transition elements. This transition will depend on the relative position origin of the linkage to perform functions and their appearance over time. The transition elements are also subject to possible classification.

*Global understanding of the territory* as the resulting object of a complex process. In this

We present in this chapter two versions of territorial representation. The first example draws on Carnoedo parish in the municipality of Sada (La Coruña) - Spain).This municipality reflects the characteristics of any of the lands that make up the Galician Rias Altas with significant housing density20. The landscape shows a remarkable territorial

It was therefore a small-scale agrarian context, typical of the locale of Galicia and, by extension, of the ledge Northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. On that occasion the methodology used was based on hand territorial redraw at scale 1/1000. The final layout is presented at scale 1/2000. The study aimed, among other objectives, the definition of the

Among these elements relate the terraces and *Agras* as territorial configurator completed by a road structure which allows high permeability. In line with both elements property system

Both elements are vital to understand the agricultural cadastre reflecting tensions between terraces, *Agras*, roads and water mains. (fig. 31) Last step of this analysis will refer constructed elements, superimposed to territorial building. Every stage was following a strong relationship to the outside .In the beginning there were not architectural typologies but dialogue between territory and built through the various modes of occupation on the

21 Technical term from the Italian (*antropizzazione*) that relates the work of transforming the natural environment applied by humans to meet their needs and improve quality of life, often at the expense of the ecological conditions

process, the man appears as an actor in this transformation slowly but steadily.

complexity from a continuous process of anthropization 21 .(fig. 33)

primary territorial elements analyzed.(fig. 30)

parcel were not absent. (fig. 32)

and the capillary structure of the water were analyzed.

<sup>20</sup> Available data for this area in 2011 defined a density of 540.92 inhabitants /km2

with each other, and how they feel and express these relationships.

*The definition of the forms resulting from this combination.* 

Thus, it was established a direct link between the territory and its observer. After the location of certain primary elements, such as formal constants appearing in shaping the territory, one of these areas was defined, such as landscape unit to study.(fig 34)

The choice was made based on the topography and the existence of *Agras*. (fig 33) Thus, the student approached the overall understanding of the territory where the trinomial, Sea, Agra, Mount summarized to territorial complexity. Road structure converged on it. It was the three scales running along only one path: The urban scale, as the road assumed his relationship with Sada; the agricultural scale, when the road was associated with the various *agras* and plots that make up the landscape around the different places of the Carnoedo parish and finally the scale when the extension of this road towards formalizing the *corredoiras*22 going to communal forest area.

Architectures on Territories – Methodologies for the Graphical Representation 81

**Figure 36.** CAD graphical representation about Bárrio-Ponte de Lima. Portugal

**Figure 37.** Topography and water structures

**Figure 38.** Primary elements into Bárrio.

Previous experience served as a reference for the development of the work done thirty years later 23. This territorial representation is about Arrestim and Ponte Nova (Igreja) sites, in the parish of Bárrio - Ponte de Lima,(fig. 35) a Portuguese town near the border between Galicia and Alto Minho. The morphology responds to the characteristics already referred to the ledge northwestern Iberian Peninsula. In this case it is a more rugged topography, predominantly terraced structure with "socalco"24 as a structuring element for the construction of the territory.

**Figure 35.** Bárrio-Ponte de Lima.Portugal from Google-earth

<sup>22</sup> Galician term refers specifically to the cart path.

<sup>23</sup> Work done by students Rachel Campos and Rogério Soares under supervision of the author of this article

<sup>24</sup> *Socalco* is the Portuguese name for the terraces.

**Figure 36.** CAD graphical representation about Bárrio-Ponte de Lima. Portugal

**Figure 37.** Topography and water structures

80 Advances in Landscape Architecture

construction of the territory.

*corredoiras*22 going to communal forest area.

**Figure 35.** Bárrio-Ponte de Lima.Portugal from Google-earth

23 Work done by students Rachel Campos and Rogério Soares under supervision of the author of this article

22 Galician term refers specifically to the cart path.

<sup>24</sup> *Socalco* is the Portuguese name for the terraces.

The choice was made based on the topography and the existence of *Agras*. (fig 33) Thus, the student approached the overall understanding of the territory where the trinomial, Sea, Agra, Mount summarized to territorial complexity. Road structure converged on it. It was the three scales running along only one path: The urban scale, as the road assumed his relationship with Sada; the agricultural scale, when the road was associated with the various *agras* and plots that make up the landscape around the different places of the Carnoedo parish and finally the scale when the extension of this road towards formalizing the

Previous experience served as a reference for the development of the work done thirty years later 23. This territorial representation is about Arrestim and Ponte Nova (Igreja) sites, in the parish of Bárrio - Ponte de Lima,(fig. 35) a Portuguese town near the border between Galicia and Alto Minho. The morphology responds to the characteristics already referred to the ledge northwestern Iberian Peninsula. In this case it is a more rugged topography, predominantly terraced structure with "socalco"24 as a structuring element for the

**Figure 38.** Primary elements into Bárrio.

**Figure 41.** Whole graphical representation for Bárrio.

Topography, existing land parcel boundaries

Road infrastructure linking all the above items.

by irrigation.(fig. 42)

for the different levels of information.

The development of the process took place as follows:

aerial photography, always based on following conditions:

We started working on the municipality digital format as graphic bases at 1/5000. Several visits to the site helped define at first the landscape "unit" study, with the support of existing

Water structure, and natural and artificial joint are various levadas and plots affected

Based on the foregoing, we defined a perimeter defined by paths that are directed to the lowest point defined by the course of the riverbank Labruja25 in at Ponte Nova. So, we proceeded to the individual recognition of the terrain and extensive data collection unit and considered. This confirmed the structuring role of architectures socalcos and wine in its various variants studied before.[9] It was also noted the role delineation of water structures, both natural, formed by the banks of San Gens, Labruja and Mestre, and the artificial one. This project, integrating the Levada do Caneiro, do Tested, do run it and do Casal,

The analysis took advantage of the characteristics of the CAD application to designate layers

Identification of the primary elements of the study area territorial configurators

developed in previous decades to proceed to irrigate the plots studied.

25 Labruja is the main left stream of Lima river. (Limia, while running through galician lands)

**Figure 39.** Topography,water structures,terraces and built elements

**Figure 40.** *Socalco* and *ramada*, as primary elements in Bárrio.

Road's scheme and water mains interact resulting in an agricultural system where wine architecture, in its various types, define the dominant landscape. The case study prevents the study of the phenomena of construction in the area in a first phase. It was only in the characterization influence of agricultural land, avoiding interference built elements. The following objectives were defined:


**Figure 41.** Whole graphical representation for Bárrio.

82 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 39.** Topography,water structures,terraces and built elements

**Figure 40.** *Socalco* and *ramada*, as primary elements in Bárrio.

following objectives were defined:

future professional career.

layers or levels of information.

keeping certain territorial structure till now.

Road's scheme and water mains interact resulting in an agricultural system where wine architecture, in its various types, define the dominant landscape. The case study prevents the study of the phenomena of construction in the area in a first phase. It was only in the characterization influence of agricultural land, avoiding interference built elements. The

a. The student's approach to the territorial level, where it is expected he will develop his

b. The identification and subsequent analysis of territorial primary elements, ie elements that make up a presence and / or lack of the territory, in turn distributed in different

c. The knowledge of syntax territorial modes how territorial these primary elements

d. The transdisciplinary understanding of relationships existing in this territory allowed

e. The development process of the project. It was based on the knowledge of the scale of

already identified are interrelated, and the results from these interactions.

action and its location, as a direct consequence of the previous work.

The development of the process took place as follows:

We started working on the municipality digital format as graphic bases at 1/5000. Several visits to the site helped define at first the landscape "unit" study, with the support of existing aerial photography, always based on following conditions:


Identification of the primary elements of the study area territorial configurators

Based on the foregoing, we defined a perimeter defined by paths that are directed to the lowest point defined by the course of the riverbank Labruja25 in at Ponte Nova. So, we proceeded to the individual recognition of the terrain and extensive data collection unit and considered. This confirmed the structuring role of architectures socalcos and wine in its various variants studied before.[9] It was also noted the role delineation of water structures, both natural, formed by the banks of San Gens, Labruja and Mestre, and the artificial one. This project, integrating the Levada do Caneiro, do Tested, do run it and do Casal, developed in previous decades to proceed to irrigate the plots studied.

The analysis took advantage of the characteristics of the CAD application to designate layers for the different levels of information.

<sup>25</sup> Labruja is the main left stream of Lima river. (Limia, while running through galician lands)

This issue is an improvement with respect to previous work, given the correction facilities introduced in the process and the ability to interrelate two or more levels of information mechanically.

Architectures on Territories – Methodologies for the Graphical Representation 85

1. The use of CAD in the redrawing of the territory has the following advantages:

processes, and choose from several editing modes mechanically.

is a mechanical device incapable of interpreting by itself.

reducing the freshness of the final result.

We can define a set of initial findings in all this work:

process was more advantageous.

the provided information.

regards interaction layers.

define the guidelines of design.

are equally valid, with specificities.

c. The ability to reach scales of analysis hardly achievable in manual drafting

disadvantages with regard to analysis or manually territorial redrawing:

immediate.

achieved.

**8. Conclusions** 

a. Those are known in CAD drawing, its versatility and its ability to copy repetitive

b. Assignment to the respective levels of information layers, leading to the possibility of establishing relations between the various levels of information in a direct and

2. On the contrary, the use of these computer applications led to a series of difficulties or

a. The interposition of the computer between the territorial redraw and final expression. It

b. Failure to express the author's subjective attitudes into the formal territorial analysis,

c. The inability to ensure entirely personal processes. Redrawing can be the result of a joint action that disrupts the production of educational goals facing the approach to architectural design. Only except personal commitment of the students goals would be

d. The lack of agility in non mechanical processes was confirmed, where the manual

1. The conventional territorial representation involves a process that necessarily reduces

4. Solving such problems can be obtained through an individual complementary survey

5. The manual or computerized surveys methods developed according this methodology

6. The manual method allows a greater voice, especially when talking about qualitative aspects of the territory, but is slower. This method allows rapid consideration of the

7. The computer method loses freshness of expression, but is very effective as far as

8. In any of the cases we have studied, the method allows a very efficient approach to

9. The method reveals its effectiveness for small and medium scale. In these cases the

10. The limitations come from the spent time in performing a conventional project

dimensions have ranged 27,39 km2 for Carnoedo and 5,41 km2 for Bárrio.

planning, making it difficult to extrapolate to higher dimensions.

2. This reduction is an important obstacle to the development of territorial project.

3. This problem becomes more complex in the small and medium scales.

work. Intangible items must be included somehow in this work.

interactions between the various layers of information.

Given these results, it seems logical to make a comparative study of the two processes.

**Figure 42.** Levada in Bárrio-Ponte de Lima . Portugal

**Figure 43.** Detail of ramada in Bárrio-Ponte de Lima. Portugal

**Figure 44.** Ramadas in Bárrio-Ponte de Lima.Portugal


## **8. Conclusions**

84 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 42.** Levada in Bárrio-Ponte de Lima . Portugal

**Figure 43.** Detail of ramada in Bárrio-Ponte de Lima. Portugal

**Figure 44.** Ramadas in Bárrio-Ponte de Lima.Portugal

mechanically.

This issue is an improvement with respect to previous work, given the correction facilities introduced in the process and the ability to interrelate two or more levels of information

Given these results, it seems logical to make a comparative study of the two processes.

We can define a set of initial findings in all this work:


## **Author details**

José Manuel Pagés Madrigal *Faculty of Architectural Engineering, Beirut Arab University, Lebanon* 

## **Acknowledgement**

It is only fair to acknowledge the work done by my former students, architects today, Rui Pedro Silva, Raquel Campos and Rogério Soares that between 2009 and 2012 developed the work that became the basis for preparing this chapter.

**Chapter 4** 

© 2013 Akten, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Possibility to Employ AHP as a Multi-Criteria** 

**Initiatives** 

Murat Akten

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55885

**1. Introduction** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

psychological) of a country on national scale (Akay, 2009).

**Decision Making Method in Landscape Planning** 

For Ersoy (2006), planning is a process set out to solve the problem. During planning, how and within what structural relationships this problem and/or problems have appeared, and how they can be resolved through interventions is analysed. A conceptual overview of plan and planning reveals that transformation of an intellectual model into a material design creates the "plan", and the entirety of the implementing process for realizing the plan constitutes "planning" (Akay, 2009). Planning is an all-round holistic action; contains social, economical, political, psychological, anthropological and technological factors; and is a multi-disciplinary, normative, democratic occupation and a professional engagement encouraging involvement and seeking action paths for options (Bulut and Atabeyoğlu, 2010). In brief, planning is deciding on the method for utilizing limited natural and cultural resources with a view to assuring and extending life quality (economical, social,

Parameters such as ensuring sustainable development, safeguarding natural resources, costeffective nature of investments during the incorporation and operation process, stripping catastrophic nature of acts of God, availability to enhance types preferred in land utilization, etc. represent the generally disregarded, yet crucially significant facts in land utilization practices. Negligences and wrong practices along these issues lead to economical and social harm on individual and national scale, and unrecoverable loss of natural resources and cultural heritage. To avoid such losses, need to Physical Planning initiatives in depth of physical geography and relying upon ecological principles comes to sight (Turoğlu, 2005).

Sustainable use of natural and cultural resources, in other words, seating decisions for physical planning upon an ecologically acceptable base progressively gain weight in spatial

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Pictures are from the author of this cahpter, except other indications

## **9. References**

