**Possibility to Employ AHP as a Multi-Criteria Decision Making Method in Landscape Planning Initiatives**

Murat Akten

86 Advances in Landscape Architecture

José Manuel Pagés Madrigal

**Acknowledgement** 

**9. References** 

*Faculty of Architectural Engineering, Beirut Arab University, Lebanon* 

Pictures are from the author of this cahpter, except other indications

para prova de agregação.University Fernando Pessoa,2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10284/3249 accessed 12 december 2012

de 2006 . http://www.ub.edu/geocrit/sn/sn-218-55.htm

work that became the basis for preparing this chapter.

Report | Version 3rd/June/2011

University Press, USA;1977

as Laboratories Ed List Trento.2011

accessed 12th/12/2012

It is only fair to acknowledge the work done by my former students, architects today, Rui Pedro Silva, Raquel Campos and Rogério Soares that between 2009 and 2012 developed the

[1] Porter N. editor . Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary. G & C. Merriam Co.;1913. [2] Mücher, C.A.,Bunce, R.G.H.,Jongman, R.H.G.,Klijn, J.A.,Koomen, A.J.M.,Metzger, M.J.,Wascher, D.M. Identification and characterisation of environments and landscapes

in Europe (2003)Wageningen,Alterra, Green World research. Alterra Report, 832 [3] TECNALIA et altri, European Land Use Patterns. Applied Research 2013/1/8. Interim

[4] Pagés Madrigal,J.M. Terra Água e Homem. bases para um projecto territorial. Leción

[5] Alexander, Ch.. A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction. Oxford

[6] http://www.designingsocialinterfaces.com/patterns.wiki/index.php?title=Main\_Page,

[7] Picon, A. What Has Happened to Territory?. Architectural Design, 80:p 94–99. ;2010 [8] León G. M.C. Reconocimiento territorial y obra cartográfica de los ingenieros militares en Nueva España (segunda mitad del siglo XVIII) .S*cripta nova* revista electrónica de geografía y ciencias sociales universidad de Barcelona Vol. X, núm. 218 (55), 1 de agosto

[9] Pagés Madrigal, J. M & Malafaya Baptista,Ff. Territórios como laboratórios. Territories

**Author details** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55885

## **1. Introduction**

For Ersoy (2006), planning is a process set out to solve the problem. During planning, how and within what structural relationships this problem and/or problems have appeared, and how they can be resolved through interventions is analysed. A conceptual overview of plan and planning reveals that transformation of an intellectual model into a material design creates the "plan", and the entirety of the implementing process for realizing the plan constitutes "planning" (Akay, 2009). Planning is an all-round holistic action; contains social, economical, political, psychological, anthropological and technological factors; and is a multi-disciplinary, normative, democratic occupation and a professional engagement encouraging involvement and seeking action paths for options (Bulut and Atabeyoğlu, 2010). In brief, planning is deciding on the method for utilizing limited natural and cultural resources with a view to assuring and extending life quality (economical, social, psychological) of a country on national scale (Akay, 2009).

Parameters such as ensuring sustainable development, safeguarding natural resources, costeffective nature of investments during the incorporation and operation process, stripping catastrophic nature of acts of God, availability to enhance types preferred in land utilization, etc. represent the generally disregarded, yet crucially significant facts in land utilization practices. Negligences and wrong practices along these issues lead to economical and social harm on individual and national scale, and unrecoverable loss of natural resources and cultural heritage. To avoid such losses, need to Physical Planning initiatives in depth of physical geography and relying upon ecological principles comes to sight (Turoğlu, 2005).

Sustainable use of natural and cultural resources, in other words, seating decisions for physical planning upon an ecologically acceptable base progressively gain weight in spatial

© 2013 Akten, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

planning strategies today. In this sense, "landscape planning concept and practices" among other spatial planning strategies come to the forefront with its mediating and guiding attitude (Ayhan and Hepcan, 2009).

Possibility to Employ AHP as a Multi-Criteria Decision Making Method in Landscape Planning Initiatives 89

putting forward the balance between protection and use, analysing the ecological features, assessing the uses and therefore the ecological relationships, and then identifying the actions and construction of the environment that people can avail of to the utmost, yet that induces

For Lewis (1964), McHarg, (1967), Buchwald et al., (1973), Hills (1976) and Kiemstedt, (1967), landscape planning is an instrument allowing to build up an efficient balance between human and nature in terms of protection and development. Landscape planning is aimed at addressing the interactive pattern between natural and cultural resources and the people utilizing them followed by incorporation of the same into the physical planning process; minimizing adverse impacts induced by environmental conflicts through the optimum land utilization approach, and supervising zoning initiatives to ensure optimum and proper

Landscape planning does not merely constitute a special planning for a landscape arrangement in rural or urban space, but represents the process of planning the measures for flourishing, conserving and maintaining both spaces as per the laws on ecology

The fields of action for landscape planning and landscape management target securing sustainably the balance between protection and use throughout the human-nature interaction. Planning practices where the human-nature relationships and interactions are not properly analysed and assessed are among major factors that trigger environment issues (Şahin, 2009). The demonstrated understanding in the last century is that respecting a particular system and safeguarding the balance constitutes the condition precedent for the sustainability of life (clean and accessible water, air and food) in relationships with different systems. Natural resources that human needs to sustain life are limited to the capacity of the recycling mechanisms of those resources. Optimally utilizing the available resources, respecting the rights of future generations to utilize these resources and ensuring the sustainability of natural systems is a quite tough yet inevitable approach. What makes this approach tough is associated with the requirement to handle natural systems such that no damage should be induced to them throughout the entire range spanning from the initial phase of planning up to the construction, use, post-use and depletion phase (Çetinkaya,

To secure sustainable development, enhancing the environmental strategy, establishing a hierarchy of priorities for environment, and building efficient environmental policies in making decisions for investment are also needed besides economical and social policies.

In resolving the environmental issues, an ecology-based identification is needed with a view to setting up a hierarchy in the sustainable management of natural resources in relation to the type of solutions to be produced at the lower and upper scale. This is indeed "ecological land classification" adopted by myriad of European countries under different names including the bioregion, ecoregion, ecosystem classification, etc. Ecological land classification is a hierarchic classification of the space ranging from upper scale down to the lower scale. Setting up such a hierarchy owes to the assessment of different measures from

minimal damage to other organisms.

maintenance of landscapes (Yüksel, 2003).

(Köseoğlu, 1982).

2012).

## **1.1. Landscape planning**

Countries plan and reflect to the physical space their socio-economical decisions on national, regional and local scale for the development and enhancement of their societies. However, decisions for land utilization assuming various functions regarding residential areas influence economical actions in particular fields, and such actions consequentially induce adverse impacts in physical space as well as natural biotopes rising thereon such as the topography, soil, flora and fauna, and increasingly the ecological composition, culminating in environmental issues. Examining the topic from the standpoint of the benefit-cost theory reveals that, such decisions and practices yielding socio-economical benefits in the short run call forth adverse ecological costs driven by fading away natural assets with implications upon the whole society in the long run (Atabay, 1991).

According to Buchwald for the sake of preserving the efficiency and attributes of the nature, enhancing the skills for utilizing natural resources, the natural herbal and animal wealth, and human recreation in nature, landscape should be safeguarded within a sustainable framework. Landscape planning takes the following measures to assure the realization of these objectives: the optimal ecological-biological, visual composition and wealth of landscape is preserved and enhanced; cross-complementary zones precious for their ecological features are incorporated into the protected zones system, and plans suggesting optimal uses in ecological and visual terms where space utilization will have minimum impact on other uses are elaborated (Uzun, 2003).

The European Landscape Convention; describes "Landscape Planning" concept as the set of forward-looking actions launched to promote the value of, improve or construct the landscape (Anonymous, 2000). According to Başal (1998), safeguarding the nature and the land we live upon, availing of its existing potential in maximum, flourishing and then offering it to the benefit of future generations is only possible by exploring and scrutinizing the available use options that do not conflict with each other and implementing them based on a particular plan as buttressed by a consistent process maintenance and audit. Landscape planning targets, with reference to the idea favouring the flourishing of human-nature interaction as aligned to the balance between the process of protection and use, the construction of an environment promising healthy, free and high-quality life conditions to the society and its members (Benliay and Yldrm, 2012). According to Ahern (2002), landscape planning is aimed at protecting rare, scarce and unique resources; avoiding the hazards; conserving limited resources through a controlled use; and identifying areas suiting development actions (Ayhan and Hepcan, 2009).

Analysing the definitions suggested by Başal, Buchwald and the European Landscape Convention reveals that some key concepts are stressed for landscape planning, and objectives are put forward across such concepts. The priority in this process is attached to putting forward the balance between protection and use, analysing the ecological features, assessing the uses and therefore the ecological relationships, and then identifying the actions and construction of the environment that people can avail of to the utmost, yet that induces minimal damage to other organisms.

88 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**1.1. Landscape planning** 

attitude (Ayhan and Hepcan, 2009).

upon the whole society in the long run (Atabay, 1991).

impact on other uses are elaborated (Uzun, 2003).

suiting development actions (Ayhan and Hepcan, 2009).

planning strategies today. In this sense, "landscape planning concept and practices" among other spatial planning strategies come to the forefront with its mediating and guiding

Countries plan and reflect to the physical space their socio-economical decisions on national, regional and local scale for the development and enhancement of their societies. However, decisions for land utilization assuming various functions regarding residential areas influence economical actions in particular fields, and such actions consequentially induce adverse impacts in physical space as well as natural biotopes rising thereon such as the topography, soil, flora and fauna, and increasingly the ecological composition, culminating in environmental issues. Examining the topic from the standpoint of the benefit-cost theory reveals that, such decisions and practices yielding socio-economical benefits in the short run call forth adverse ecological costs driven by fading away natural assets with implications

According to Buchwald for the sake of preserving the efficiency and attributes of the nature, enhancing the skills for utilizing natural resources, the natural herbal and animal wealth, and human recreation in nature, landscape should be safeguarded within a sustainable framework. Landscape planning takes the following measures to assure the realization of these objectives: the optimal ecological-biological, visual composition and wealth of landscape is preserved and enhanced; cross-complementary zones precious for their ecological features are incorporated into the protected zones system, and plans suggesting optimal uses in ecological and visual terms where space utilization will have minimum

The European Landscape Convention; describes "Landscape Planning" concept as the set of forward-looking actions launched to promote the value of, improve or construct the landscape (Anonymous, 2000). According to Başal (1998), safeguarding the nature and the land we live upon, availing of its existing potential in maximum, flourishing and then offering it to the benefit of future generations is only possible by exploring and scrutinizing the available use options that do not conflict with each other and implementing them based on a particular plan as buttressed by a consistent process maintenance and audit. Landscape planning targets, with reference to the idea favouring the flourishing of human-nature interaction as aligned to the balance between the process of protection and use, the construction of an environment promising healthy, free and high-quality life conditions to the society and its members (Benliay and Yldrm, 2012). According to Ahern (2002), landscape planning is aimed at protecting rare, scarce and unique resources; avoiding the hazards; conserving limited resources through a controlled use; and identifying areas

Analysing the definitions suggested by Başal, Buchwald and the European Landscape Convention reveals that some key concepts are stressed for landscape planning, and objectives are put forward across such concepts. The priority in this process is attached to For Lewis (1964), McHarg, (1967), Buchwald et al., (1973), Hills (1976) and Kiemstedt, (1967), landscape planning is an instrument allowing to build up an efficient balance between human and nature in terms of protection and development. Landscape planning is aimed at addressing the interactive pattern between natural and cultural resources and the people utilizing them followed by incorporation of the same into the physical planning process; minimizing adverse impacts induced by environmental conflicts through the optimum land utilization approach, and supervising zoning initiatives to ensure optimum and proper maintenance of landscapes (Yüksel, 2003).

Landscape planning does not merely constitute a special planning for a landscape arrangement in rural or urban space, but represents the process of planning the measures for flourishing, conserving and maintaining both spaces as per the laws on ecology (Köseoğlu, 1982).

The fields of action for landscape planning and landscape management target securing sustainably the balance between protection and use throughout the human-nature interaction. Planning practices where the human-nature relationships and interactions are not properly analysed and assessed are among major factors that trigger environment issues (Şahin, 2009). The demonstrated understanding in the last century is that respecting a particular system and safeguarding the balance constitutes the condition precedent for the sustainability of life (clean and accessible water, air and food) in relationships with different systems. Natural resources that human needs to sustain life are limited to the capacity of the recycling mechanisms of those resources. Optimally utilizing the available resources, respecting the rights of future generations to utilize these resources and ensuring the sustainability of natural systems is a quite tough yet inevitable approach. What makes this approach tough is associated with the requirement to handle natural systems such that no damage should be induced to them throughout the entire range spanning from the initial phase of planning up to the construction, use, post-use and depletion phase (Çetinkaya, 2012).

To secure sustainable development, enhancing the environmental strategy, establishing a hierarchy of priorities for environment, and building efficient environmental policies in making decisions for investment are also needed besides economical and social policies.

In resolving the environmental issues, an ecology-based identification is needed with a view to setting up a hierarchy in the sustainable management of natural resources in relation to the type of solutions to be produced at the lower and upper scale. This is indeed "ecological land classification" adopted by myriad of European countries under different names including the bioregion, ecoregion, ecosystem classification, etc. Ecological land classification is a hierarchic classification of the space ranging from upper scale down to the lower scale. Setting up such a hierarchy owes to the assessment of different measures from

the upper scale down to the lower scale. The art of landscape ecology gaining a forward progress over the last years hierarchically divides landscape into various sub sections, and allows to make distinct comments on the structure, function and variation of landscape, and to identify zones in the sustainable ecological management (Uzun, 2003).

Possibility to Employ AHP as a Multi-Criteria Decision Making Method in Landscape Planning Initiatives 91

Multi-Criteria Decision Making method. The literature involves many studies where Multi-

In the traditional multi-criteria decision making methods, final assessment of criteria and alternatives is expressed with real numbers and decision is made based on the customary "alternative fully satisfies the criteria or not" rationale. However, due to the complexity of the real life and our limited capacity of perception, there are various objects that we are unable to comprehend in absolute terms which can only be assessed through subjective opinions. Therefore, to cope with decision-making for complex objects, the general characteristic feature of the object (e.g. beauty) is handled as a fuzzy attribute, and then a set of attributes is defined where each attribute corresponds to a single criterion. Hence, while establishing the alternatives, the decision maker employs linguistic assets involving uncertainty based on his/her personal opinions which may be represented by fuzzy sets. Once such type of alternatives produced by the decision maker are assessed in a fully objective manner against the existing criteria, they are sorted and then the most appropriate

It is possible to categorize by objective the huge bulk of multi-dimensional decision-making methods listed as decision-making methods in the literature in a plurality of forms based on various criteria such as optimization-consistency, reduction-classification, mathematicsstatistics, etc. (Halaç, 2001). Accordingly, classification of multi-dimensional decision-

In case some sub-systems with logical ties between, yet considered different from each other are handled in the decision-making process, the objectives of each sub system should be consistent with the objectives of the master system (macro objectives), in other words, they should be aligned to inflexible objectives. In such a case, we can talk about consistency, and methods employed for this purpose are called Methods Aimed at Consistency. On the other hand, there are also planning methods where consistency is replaced by accessible and proper objectives. And these methods are called Methods Aimed at Optimization. Data Reduction Methods represent the methods that describe the variation of the dataset containing variables in p number, and aimed at defining the data structure through a fewer number of variables (k<p) with no cross correlation. Classification Methods are the methods developed to facilitate to the actions for establishing prototype sets (groups, classes) for structures with unknown population characteristics, and further to assign new units to the preliminarily defined groups. Furthermore, most significant methods out of a vast set, each

with a distinctive intended use, are discussed under the heading "Other Methods".

There are also some other decision-making techniques in addition to those covered by Table 1. However, Table 1 encompasses techniques that are commonly employed for various objectives. On the other hand, given the intended use and dominant properties of some techniques in Table 1, it is understood that they may be involved in multiple classifications. For instance, some techniques aimed at consistency (PERT and CPM, Input-Output technique, etc.) may also be used for optimization purposes as well through sensitivity analyses and dynamic analyses. To display this situation, one or more of the numbers from

one is identified, leading to the optimum solution (Eminov and Ball, 2004).

Criteria Decision Making methods are employed.

making methods is shown in Table 1.

Landscape planning methods have greatly been enhanced in the course of time. Despite this however, like in all planning efforts, the planner should choose the most appropriate one among a plurality of distinct options impacted by a great number of factors in the landscape planning process. For the sake of obtaining a healthy decision support through a participatory approach, decision makers should compare and assess alternative land allocation forms according to the preferences, demands and expectations of the public, benefit-interest groups and sectoral specialists. Hence, alternative management strategies should be assessed in a multi-criteria pattern according to social, economical and environmental criteria through a participatory approach, and the most appropriate alternative should be chosen.

Such decision-making process may be quiet complicated some time, therefore multi-criteria decision making methods are employed to minimize potential errors.

## **2. Multi-criteria decision making methods**

Key issue of the decision-making process is to choose the best alternative out of the alternatives set assessed by means of criteria competing and conflicting with each other (Saaty, 1986). Decision-making issue is typically choosing the most appropriate alternative out of the options set according to at least one objective or criterion. In this sense, if there is only one possible way to go, in other words if there is no possibility to make a choice, then there is no decision-making (Ünal, 2010).

Decision making is to identify and choose the alternatives that would deliver the desired condition. Decision is only the outcome of particular processes.

It is observed that decision highlights distinct aspects including the choosing action, alternatives conflicting with each other, and the process. From this point of view, we can define decision-making as the process of choosing the most appropriate one among alternatives conflicting with each other to satisfy a particular objective (Ünal 2010).

Decision making and planning concepts require the holistic perception of objectives, targets and strategies within a systematic understanding.

There are various methods, analyses and techniques employed to make informed decisions on case basis as long as the paths to follow for attaining these objectives, data sources, IT methods and other similar conditions vary.

Capability to make efficient decisions for directors owes to the use of scientific methods that can concomitantly assess myriad of qualitative and quantitative factors in the decisionmaking process. At the forefront of the methods that may be employed in this process is the Multi-Criteria Decision Making method. The literature involves many studies where Multi-Criteria Decision Making methods are employed.

90 Advances in Landscape Architecture

alternative should be chosen.

the upper scale down to the lower scale. The art of landscape ecology gaining a forward progress over the last years hierarchically divides landscape into various sub sections, and allows to make distinct comments on the structure, function and variation of landscape, and

Landscape planning methods have greatly been enhanced in the course of time. Despite this however, like in all planning efforts, the planner should choose the most appropriate one among a plurality of distinct options impacted by a great number of factors in the landscape planning process. For the sake of obtaining a healthy decision support through a participatory approach, decision makers should compare and assess alternative land allocation forms according to the preferences, demands and expectations of the public, benefit-interest groups and sectoral specialists. Hence, alternative management strategies should be assessed in a multi-criteria pattern according to social, economical and environmental criteria through a participatory approach, and the most appropriate

Such decision-making process may be quiet complicated some time, therefore multi-criteria

Key issue of the decision-making process is to choose the best alternative out of the alternatives set assessed by means of criteria competing and conflicting with each other (Saaty, 1986). Decision-making issue is typically choosing the most appropriate alternative out of the options set according to at least one objective or criterion. In this sense, if there is only one possible way to go, in other words if there is no possibility to make a choice, then

Decision making is to identify and choose the alternatives that would deliver the desired

It is observed that decision highlights distinct aspects including the choosing action, alternatives conflicting with each other, and the process. From this point of view, we can define decision-making as the process of choosing the most appropriate one among

Decision making and planning concepts require the holistic perception of objectives, targets

There are various methods, analyses and techniques employed to make informed decisions on case basis as long as the paths to follow for attaining these objectives, data sources, IT

Capability to make efficient decisions for directors owes to the use of scientific methods that can concomitantly assess myriad of qualitative and quantitative factors in the decisionmaking process. At the forefront of the methods that may be employed in this process is the

alternatives conflicting with each other to satisfy a particular objective (Ünal 2010).

to identify zones in the sustainable ecological management (Uzun, 2003).

decision making methods are employed to minimize potential errors.

condition. Decision is only the outcome of particular processes.

**2. Multi-criteria decision making methods** 

there is no decision-making (Ünal, 2010).

and strategies within a systematic understanding.

methods and other similar conditions vary.

In the traditional multi-criteria decision making methods, final assessment of criteria and alternatives is expressed with real numbers and decision is made based on the customary "alternative fully satisfies the criteria or not" rationale. However, due to the complexity of the real life and our limited capacity of perception, there are various objects that we are unable to comprehend in absolute terms which can only be assessed through subjective opinions. Therefore, to cope with decision-making for complex objects, the general characteristic feature of the object (e.g. beauty) is handled as a fuzzy attribute, and then a set of attributes is defined where each attribute corresponds to a single criterion. Hence, while establishing the alternatives, the decision maker employs linguistic assets involving uncertainty based on his/her personal opinions which may be represented by fuzzy sets. Once such type of alternatives produced by the decision maker are assessed in a fully objective manner against the existing criteria, they are sorted and then the most appropriate one is identified, leading to the optimum solution (Eminov and Ball, 2004).

It is possible to categorize by objective the huge bulk of multi-dimensional decision-making methods listed as decision-making methods in the literature in a plurality of forms based on various criteria such as optimization-consistency, reduction-classification, mathematicsstatistics, etc. (Halaç, 2001). Accordingly, classification of multi-dimensional decisionmaking methods is shown in Table 1.

In case some sub-systems with logical ties between, yet considered different from each other are handled in the decision-making process, the objectives of each sub system should be consistent with the objectives of the master system (macro objectives), in other words, they should be aligned to inflexible objectives. In such a case, we can talk about consistency, and methods employed for this purpose are called Methods Aimed at Consistency. On the other hand, there are also planning methods where consistency is replaced by accessible and proper objectives. And these methods are called Methods Aimed at Optimization. Data Reduction Methods represent the methods that describe the variation of the dataset containing variables in p number, and aimed at defining the data structure through a fewer number of variables (k<p) with no cross correlation. Classification Methods are the methods developed to facilitate to the actions for establishing prototype sets (groups, classes) for structures with unknown population characteristics, and further to assign new units to the preliminarily defined groups. Furthermore, most significant methods out of a vast set, each with a distinctive intended use, are discussed under the heading "Other Methods".

There are also some other decision-making techniques in addition to those covered by Table 1. However, Table 1 encompasses techniques that are commonly employed for various objectives. On the other hand, given the intended use and dominant properties of some techniques in Table 1, it is understood that they may be involved in multiple classifications. For instance, some techniques aimed at consistency (PERT and CPM, Input-Output technique, etc.) may also be used for optimization purposes as well through sensitivity analyses and dynamic analyses. To display this situation, one or more of the numbers from


Possibility to Employ AHP as a Multi-Criteria Decision Making Method in Landscape Planning Initiatives 93

b. Decision-making under the **risk** where the data may be defined through the

c. Decision-making under **uncertainty** where the data cannot be assigned to relative

While data can be defined well under certainty, the data is fuzzy under uncertainty. Hence,

In this section, the Analytical Hierarchical Process approach, one of the abovementioned

Linear programming methods is an example to decision-making under certainty. These methods are only suitable for cases that may be associated with mathematical linear functions where alternatives are well defined among each other. This section brings a different approach to cases where thoughts, ideas, senses and ambitions are measured such that decision alternatives are listed through a numerical scale. This approach is known as

The Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) is one of the multi-criteria decision-making methods defined by Thomas L. Saaty (1977). The AHS method imitates the mental action process for differentiating the groups intrinsically present in the human. The core essence of AHS is concept fragmentation and synthesis. Once the problem is fragmented into tiny integral bits, the system identifies the cross-significance of two elements compared as well as the magnitude of such significance. This system plays a critical role in human perception,

It is observed that the AHS method is commonly employed to solve the complex multicriteria decision-making problems. As a matter of fact, it is reported that, the process has been applied, since the date it was developed, to various decision-making problems in various fields including economy, planning, energy policies, resource allocation, health, resolution of conflicts, project selection, marketing, computer technology, budget allocation, accounting training, sociology, architecture and many else. Furthermore, there are examples

The AHS method is primarily a theory of measurement based on priority values yielded by the paired comparison of the elements. This method allows to consider both quantitative (objective) and qualitative (subjective) factors in choosing the best alternative. Thanks to its features such as simplicity, flexibility, ease of use and seamless interpretation demonstrated in the analysis of complex decision problems, the method seems to have a broad field of use in distinctive decision problems. In its current form, the method is interesting as one of the

concept formation, classification of examples and logical judgement (Cengiz, 2003).

as to the use of the method in complex environmental decision analyses too.

most popular multi-criteria decision-making methodologies today (Ylmaz, 1999).

weights representing the level of relationship in the decision process.

breakdowns of possibility.

decision-making under the risk is the "half-way" case.

**3. Decision-making under certainty** 

the Analytical Hierarchy Process (Taha, 2000).

**3.1. The analytical hierarchy process** 

models of decision-making under certainty will be discussed.

(\*) Figures in parentheses denote the dominant intended use of the methods.

**Table 1.** Classification of Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Methods.

1 to 5 denoting the methodological class in which the technique has been involved according to its intended use have been supplemented to each technique in Table 1.

The decision analysis deals with using a rational process for choosing the best out of the alternatives. How "ideal" a chosen alternative is depends on the quality of the data employed to define the decision case. In this case, the decision-making process may be involved in one of the three classes below (Taha, 2000):

a. Decision-making under **certainty** where data are deterministically known.


While data can be defined well under certainty, the data is fuzzy under uncertainty. Hence, decision-making under the risk is the "half-way" case.

In this section, the Analytical Hierarchical Process approach, one of the abovementioned models of decision-making under certainty will be discussed.

## **3. Decision-making under certainty**

92 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**1**. METHODS AIMED AT

2. METHODS AIMED AT

**3**. METHODS AIMED AT DATA

(such as surveying the dependence structure, building hypotheses and

(\*) Figures in parentheses denote the dominant intended use of the methods. **Table 1.** Classification of Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Methods.

involved in one of the three classes below (Taha, 2000):

to its intended use have been supplemented to each technique in Table 1.

a. Decision-making under **certainty** where data are deterministically known.

**4**. METHODS AIMED AT CLASSIFICATION

**5**. OTHER METHODS

hypothesis tests)

OPTIMIZATION

REDUCTION

CONSISTENCY

*BY INTENDED USE METHODS DECISION-MAKING TECHNIQUES*








1 to 5 denoting the methodological class in which the technique has been involved according

The decision analysis deals with using a rational process for choosing the best out of the alternatives. How "ideal" a chosen alternative is depends on the quality of the data employed to define the decision case. In this case, the decision-making process may be


Techniques (1, 2) - The Delphi Technique (2, 1)



Linear programming methods is an example to decision-making under certainty. These methods are only suitable for cases that may be associated with mathematical linear functions where alternatives are well defined among each other. This section brings a different approach to cases where thoughts, ideas, senses and ambitions are measured such that decision alternatives are listed through a numerical scale. This approach is known as the Analytical Hierarchy Process (Taha, 2000).

#### **3.1. The analytical hierarchy process**

The Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) is one of the multi-criteria decision-making methods defined by Thomas L. Saaty (1977). The AHS method imitates the mental action process for differentiating the groups intrinsically present in the human. The core essence of AHS is concept fragmentation and synthesis. Once the problem is fragmented into tiny integral bits, the system identifies the cross-significance of two elements compared as well as the magnitude of such significance. This system plays a critical role in human perception, concept formation, classification of examples and logical judgement (Cengiz, 2003).

It is observed that the AHS method is commonly employed to solve the complex multicriteria decision-making problems. As a matter of fact, it is reported that, the process has been applied, since the date it was developed, to various decision-making problems in various fields including economy, planning, energy policies, resource allocation, health, resolution of conflicts, project selection, marketing, computer technology, budget allocation, accounting training, sociology, architecture and many else. Furthermore, there are examples as to the use of the method in complex environmental decision analyses too.

The AHS method is primarily a theory of measurement based on priority values yielded by the paired comparison of the elements. This method allows to consider both quantitative (objective) and qualitative (subjective) factors in choosing the best alternative. Thanks to its features such as simplicity, flexibility, ease of use and seamless interpretation demonstrated in the analysis of complex decision problems, the method seems to have a broad field of use in distinctive decision problems. In its current form, the method is interesting as one of the most popular multi-criteria decision-making methodologies today (Ylmaz, 1999).

The following steps are followed to solve a decision-making problem by means of the AHS method (Göksu and Güngör, 2008).

Possibility to Employ AHP as a Multi-Criteria Decision Making Method in Landscape Planning Initiatives 95

upper element is compared in pairs. Let's say C1, C2, ..........Cn represents elements at any level, and let's say W1, W2, ……..Wn is the priority of impact (weight) induced by that element in the upper element to which they are linked, where Wi, reflects the impact power/weight of Ci on its own relative upper element. To create the weight vector (Wi), first n number of elements should be compared in pairs in terms of their impact on the respective

In these pairwise comparisons; by asking questions like "what element is preferred more (is more significant) when element 1 and element 2 are compared to the respective upper element?" and "what is degree of preference placed in favour of the more preferred element

The results of these comparisons are arranged in matrix form. The prioritization scale developed by Saaty (1998) used to convert the results of such pairwise comparisons in the

The table shows numerical values suggested for verbal preferences expressed by the person undertaking the pairwise comparisons. This scale is employed to construct the pairwise

**Verbal Preference Description Numerical** 

and its dominance is conspicuous in practice.

values above is assigned. When the second element is compared to the first, it gains an opposite value.

Equal Preference Two activities make equal contributions to the

 Partial Preference Experience or judgement places partial preference in favour of one action to the other

 High Preference Experience or judgement places high preference in favour of one action to the other

Very High Preference One action is highly preferred compared to the other

 Absolute Preference Proofs relating to the preference of an action to the other are greatly reliable.

Average Values Values falling between two successive judgements to

Opposite Values When an element is compared to the other, one of the

be used when compromise is necessary

**Table 2.** The Pairwise Comparisons Scale Used for Preferences in the AHS Method (Saaty, 1980).

**Value** 

1

3

5

7

9

2, 4, 6, 8

compared to the other?", the decision maker is prompted to make a judgement.

matrix into numerical values is presented in Table 2.

objective.

upper element (Ylmaz, 2004).

comparisons matrix.

**Judgement for** 

*Step 1***:** A decision hierarchy is formed with the decision elements such that the decisionmaking problem is identified.

*Step 2***:** The decision elements are compared on a pairwise basis between each other to yield a data set. While making pairwise comparisons, it is searched which of the two elements is more important and at what degree in decision making.

*Step 3***:** The relative priority (significance, weight) values of decision elements is estimated by means of the eigenvalue method.

*Step 4***:** Based on the relative priority of decision elements, general priority and sequence of decision alternatives is obtained.

### **Step 1: Hierarchical Model**

A complex system with many common characteristics, yet containing myriad of elements that are hard to concurrently consider can be simplified and more conveniently analysed by splitting them into sub systems. In this respect, by arranging the system in sequenced levels where each hosts different number of elements or factors, hierarchies are obtained. These hierarchies are formed based on the assumption that system elements can be split into discrete sets. Therefore, a rational and systematic solution can be reached for the problems by assessing all factors with potential relevance.

The process of setting up the hierarchic model starts with placing the general objective of the problem on the top level. Then, criteria to be employed in the assessment of alternatives are identified, and arranged in a hierarchic layout. In this hierarchy, a level consisting of the criteria and the sub level(s) into which each criterion is split into subcriteria are found. The decision alternatives of the problem are placed on the bottommost level of the hierarchy, so the hierarchy formation process is completed. Finally, the topmost level and the bottommost level of the hierarchy is associated with each other through intermediate levels (Ylmaz, 2004). Factors at the same level are defined independently from each other (Ejder, 2000).

Creation of the decision hierarchy would vary based on the number of hierarchic levels, the complexity of the problem, and the depth of detail needed by the person undertaking the analyses to solve the problem (Ylmaz, 1999).

#### **Step 2: Determining Priority Values**

Once the decision hierarchy is created, relative significance or the priority value of each element (criteria, sub-criteria, alternatives, etc.) at different levels of the hierarchy should be identified. In the AHS method, first pairwise comparisons are performed for this purpose.

*Pairwise Comparisons:* An element at any level is the relative element of the immediately upper level. The degree of impact induced by such relative elements in the immediately upper element is compared in pairs. Let's say C1, C2, ..........Cn represents elements at any level, and let's say W1, W2, ……..Wn is the priority of impact (weight) induced by that element in the upper element to which they are linked, where Wi, reflects the impact power/weight of Ci on its own relative upper element. To create the weight vector (Wi), first n number of elements should be compared in pairs in terms of their impact on the respective upper element (Ylmaz, 2004).

94 Advances in Landscape Architecture

method (Göksu and Güngör, 2008).

by means of the eigenvalue method.

decision alternatives is obtained.

**Step 1: Hierarchical Model** 

more important and at what degree in decision making.

by assessing all factors with potential relevance.

independently from each other (Ejder, 2000).

analyses to solve the problem (Ylmaz, 1999).

**Step 2: Determining Priority Values** 

purpose.

making problem is identified.

The following steps are followed to solve a decision-making problem by means of the AHS

*Step 1***:** A decision hierarchy is formed with the decision elements such that the decision-

*Step 2***:** The decision elements are compared on a pairwise basis between each other to yield a data set. While making pairwise comparisons, it is searched which of the two elements is

*Step 3***:** The relative priority (significance, weight) values of decision elements is estimated

*Step 4***:** Based on the relative priority of decision elements, general priority and sequence of

A complex system with many common characteristics, yet containing myriad of elements that are hard to concurrently consider can be simplified and more conveniently analysed by splitting them into sub systems. In this respect, by arranging the system in sequenced levels where each hosts different number of elements or factors, hierarchies are obtained. These hierarchies are formed based on the assumption that system elements can be split into discrete sets. Therefore, a rational and systematic solution can be reached for the problems

The process of setting up the hierarchic model starts with placing the general objective of the problem on the top level. Then, criteria to be employed in the assessment of alternatives are identified, and arranged in a hierarchic layout. In this hierarchy, a level consisting of the criteria and the sub level(s) into which each criterion is split into subcriteria are found. The decision alternatives of the problem are placed on the bottommost level of the hierarchy, so the hierarchy formation process is completed. Finally, the topmost level and the bottommost level of the hierarchy is associated with each other through intermediate levels (Ylmaz, 2004). Factors at the same level are defined

Creation of the decision hierarchy would vary based on the number of hierarchic levels, the complexity of the problem, and the depth of detail needed by the person undertaking the

Once the decision hierarchy is created, relative significance or the priority value of each element (criteria, sub-criteria, alternatives, etc.) at different levels of the hierarchy should be identified. In the AHS method, first pairwise comparisons are performed for this

*Pairwise Comparisons:* An element at any level is the relative element of the immediately upper level. The degree of impact induced by such relative elements in the immediately In these pairwise comparisons; by asking questions like "what element is preferred more (is more significant) when element 1 and element 2 are compared to the respective upper element?" and "what is degree of preference placed in favour of the more preferred element compared to the other?", the decision maker is prompted to make a judgement.

The results of these comparisons are arranged in matrix form. The prioritization scale developed by Saaty (1998) used to convert the results of such pairwise comparisons in the matrix into numerical values is presented in Table 2.

The table shows numerical values suggested for verbal preferences expressed by the person undertaking the pairwise comparisons. This scale is employed to construct the pairwise comparisons matrix.


**Table 2.** The Pairwise Comparisons Scale Used for Preferences in the AHS Method (Saaty, 1980).

$$A = \begin{bmatrix} a\_{11} & a\_{12} & \dots & \dots & a\_{1n} \\ a\_{21} & a\_{22} & \dots & \dots & a\_{2n} \\ \cdot & \cdot & \cdot & \cdot & \cdot & \cdot \\ \cdot & \cdot & \cdot & \cdot & \cdot & \cdot \\ \cdot & \cdot & \cdot & \cdot & \cdot & \cdot \\ a\_{n1} & a\_{n2} & \dots & \cdot & \cdot & a\_{nn} \end{bmatrix} \tag{1}$$

$$a\_{ll} = \frac{1}{a\_{ll}}\tag{2}$$

$$a\_{lk} = a\_{lj} a\_{lk} \text{(i, j, k = 1, 2, \dots, n)}\tag{3}$$

$$a\_{lj} = \frac{w\_l}{w\_j}(i, j = 1, 2, \dots n) \tag{4}$$

$$a\_{lk}a\_{kj} = \frac{W\_l}{W\_k} \frac{W\_k}{W\_l} = \frac{W\_l}{W\_l} = \
a\_{lj}(i, j, k = 1, 2, \dots, n)$$

$$a\_{ll} = 1 \tag{5}$$

$$a = \frac{a\_{lj}}{\Sigma\_{k=1}^n a\_{kj}} \tag{6}$$

$$\mathcal{W}\_{l} = \frac{\Sigma\_{l=1}^{n} a\_{lj}}{\Sigma\_{l=1}^{n} \Sigma\_{l=1}^{n} a\_{lj}} (l = 1, 2, \dots, n) \tag{7}$$

$$\mathcal{W} = \{\mathcal{W}\_1, \mathcal{W}\_2, \dots, \mathcal{W}\_n\} \tag{8}$$

$$a\_{l\ell} = \frac{W\_{\ell}}{\mathbf{w}\_{\ell}} = \frac{1}{\mathbf{w}\_{\ell}\Big/\_{\mathbf{W}\_{\ell}}} = \frac{1}{a\_{l\ell}}\tag{9}$$

$$a\_{lj} \frac{w\_l}{w\_l} = 1\tag{10}$$

$$\begin{aligned} \sum\_{l=1}^{n} a\_{lj} \, \mathcal{W}\_l \frac{1}{\mathcal{W}\_l} = n \end{aligned} \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \{l \, = 1, 2, \dots, n\} \tag{11}$$

$$\begin{array}{c} \sum\_{l=1}^{n} a\_{ll} \, \vert \, W\_{l} = \, \vert \, \mathcal{W}\_{l} \, \vert \, \tag{1} \\\end{array} \tag{l} = \begin{array}{c} \{1,2,\ldots,n\} \\\end{array} \tag{12}$$

$$\mathcal{W} = [\mathcal{W}\_1, \mathcal{W}\_2, \dots, \mathcal{W}\_n] \tag{13}$$

$$AW \,\,= nW \,\,\tag{14}$$

$$AX^\* = X\lambda\tag{15}$$

$$
\Sigma\_{l=1}^{n} \mathcal{A}\_{l} = n \tag{16}
$$

$$AW = \lambda\_{\text{max}} \, W \tag{17}$$

$$
\mathcal{L}I \, = \, \frac{\lambda\_{max} - n}{n - 1} \, \tag{18}
$$


In this matrix, if the significance of element Z compared to element Y is different than 2, than this pairwise comparisons matrix will be inconsistent. This fairly common condition does not constitute a major problem in solving the problem. While making assessments as to pairwise comparisons, if the decision maker merely refers to the (n-1) key assessment and neglects other assessments, then the pairwise comparisons matrix should be expected to be inconsistent. This is a very common case, however this does not lead to major issues in solving the problem (Cengiz, 2003). In this case, the matrix consistency ratio (1.20) is measured. Normalizing this measurement through the size of the pairwise comparisons matrix (n) is defined by Saaty as the consistency index-CI (1.18) (Ejder, 2000).

To calculate the Consistency Ratio, the "*Random Index (RI)*" values should also be known. These values have been constructed by randomly placing 100 matrices in each node of the 1- 15 size matrices and then averaging the Consistency Ratios calculated according to the following formula. However, as the values of random indices increase with the growing matrix size, 500 random pairwise comparisons matrices have been formed for each matrix size of 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15, and calculations have been repeated. Hence, RI values by matrix size as shown in Table 2 have been obtained (Ylmaz, 1999).

$$
\mathcal{CR} = \frac{cI}{R} \tag{19}
$$

Possibility to Employ AHP as a Multi-Criteria Decision Making Method in Landscape Planning Initiatives 101

Since the priority value of the overall objective is 1, multiplication of this value to the priority values of elements at the second level will make no difference. In other words, the priority values of elements at the second level of the hierarchy will remain the

Hence, priority values of decision alternatives in reference to the overall objective are obtained by multiplying the priority value of each element at the second level of the hierarchy to priority values of subordinate elements at the third level, and then by summing such weighted values of the alternatives. This procedure may be illustrated in matrix form

> � � � � �

� � � � � � �� �� . . . ��� � � � � �

By calculating the Wi general priority values, a solution is offered to solve complex decisionmaking problems. Hence, the highest of these priority values may also be treated as the best,

While previously associated with minor pollution issues together with short-term solutions aimed at eliminating them, environment today reveals itself as the entire set of natural, economical, social and cultural values. Comprehending this fact has triggered the abandonment of traditional development models and exploration towards new models. Therefore, the traditional unlimited development and unlimited consumption models have

Safeguarding the nature and the land we live upon, availing of its existing potential in maximum, flourishing and then offering it to the benefit of future generations is only possible by exploring and scrutinizing the available use options that do not conflict with each other and implementing them based on a particular plan as buttressed by a consistent

As a managerial instrument, Landscape Planning reveals the inventory and analysis of natural and cultural environment, and so ensures that optimum decisions can be taken for land utilization alternatives. It is clearly known today that analyses with single dimension or variable are not sufficient in solving complex problems like the landscape analysis. The major assumption in single-dimension analyses is to consider the impacts of other dimensions in the case as constant and study only one dimension (factor) every time. However, events and objects in the universe are formed not under the influence of only one factor, but under the collective influence of myriad of internal and external factors, and

started to be replaced by sustainable and more balanced development models.

 = ��� �� ...��� (20)

same.

as follows (20):

**4. Conclusion** 

� � � � � �

��� ��� ...��� ��� ��� ...��� . . ... . . . ... . . . ... . ��� ��� ... � ���

in other words the decision alternative to be chosen.

process maintenance and audit (Başal, 1998).

If this ratio (19) is zero, then the judgements of the decision maker are fully consistent. With this ratio approximating to 1.00, it may be argued that the pairwise comparisons matrix based on the decision maker's judgements are not rational and consistent, but random. Furthermore, a consistency ratio of 0.10 or less indicates that the results obtained are within acceptable limits (Taha, 2000).

#### **Step 4: Determining General Priority Values**

The last stage of the AHS method is to identify the general priority values of bottommost elements of the decision hierarchy (decision alternatives) in reference to the topmost general objective. For the sake of a description clarity, this may be illustrated on a sample three-level decision hierarchy as follows (Ylmaz, 1999).

The first level of the three-level decision hierarchy consists of a single element that represents the overall objective, and has a priority value of 1. Let's assume that the second level of this hierarchy consists of n elements and third level consists of m elements. Accordingly;

Wh = Priority value of the element at the first level (overall objective),

Vi = Priority values of elements at the second level (i = 1,2,...,n ),

Wij = Priority values of j elements (decision alternatives) at the third level compared to the element i at the second level (j = 1,2,...,m),

Wi = Priority values of decision alternatives in reference to the overall objective (i = 1,2,...,m)

Since the priority value of the overall objective is 1, multiplication of this value to the priority values of elements at the second level will make no difference. In other words, the priority values of elements at the second level of the hierarchy will remain the same.

Hence, priority values of decision alternatives in reference to the overall objective are obtained by multiplying the priority value of each element at the second level of the hierarchy to priority values of subordinate elements at the third level, and then by summing such weighted values of the alternatives. This procedure may be illustrated in matrix form as follows (20):

$$
\begin{bmatrix}
W\_{11} & W\_{21} & \dots & \dots & W\_{n1} \\
W\_{12} & W\_{22} & \dots & \dots & W\_{n2} \\
\vdots & \dots & \ddots & \dots & \ddots \\
\vdots & \dots & \dots & \dots & \dots \\
W\_{1m} & W\_{2m} & \dots & \dots & \dots & W\_{nm}
\end{bmatrix}
\begin{bmatrix}
V\_{1} \\
V\_{2} \\
\vdots \\
\vdots \\
\vdots \\
\vdots
\end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix}
W\_{1} & W\_{2} & \dots & \dots & W\_{m}
\end{bmatrix}
\tag{20}
$$

By calculating the Wi general priority values, a solution is offered to solve complex decisionmaking problems. Hence, the highest of these priority values may also be treated as the best, in other words the decision alternative to be chosen.

## **4. Conclusion**

100 Advances in Landscape Architecture

acceptable limits (Taha, 2000).

Accordingly;

**Step 4: Determining General Priority Values** 

decision hierarchy as follows (Ylmaz, 1999).

element i at the second level (j = 1,2,...,m),

In this matrix, if the significance of element Z compared to element Y is different than 2, than this pairwise comparisons matrix will be inconsistent. This fairly common condition does not constitute a major problem in solving the problem. While making assessments as to pairwise comparisons, if the decision maker merely refers to the (n-1) key assessment and neglects other assessments, then the pairwise comparisons matrix should be expected to be inconsistent. This is a very common case, however this does not lead to major issues in solving the problem (Cengiz, 2003). In this case, the matrix consistency ratio (1.20) is measured. Normalizing this measurement through the size of the pairwise comparisons

To calculate the Consistency Ratio, the "*Random Index (RI)*" values should also be known. These values have been constructed by randomly placing 100 matrices in each node of the 1- 15 size matrices and then averaging the Consistency Ratios calculated according to the following formula. However, as the values of random indices increase with the growing matrix size, 500 random pairwise comparisons matrices have been formed for each matrix size of 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15, and calculations have been repeated. Hence, RI values by matrix

ܥܴ ൌ ூ

If this ratio (19) is zero, then the judgements of the decision maker are fully consistent. With this ratio approximating to 1.00, it may be argued that the pairwise comparisons matrix based on the decision maker's judgements are not rational and consistent, but random. Furthermore, a consistency ratio of 0.10 or less indicates that the results obtained are within

The last stage of the AHS method is to identify the general priority values of bottommost elements of the decision hierarchy (decision alternatives) in reference to the topmost general objective. For the sake of a description clarity, this may be illustrated on a sample three-level

The first level of the three-level decision hierarchy consists of a single element that represents the overall objective, and has a priority value of 1. Let's assume that the second level of this hierarchy consists of n elements and third level consists of m elements.

Wij = Priority values of j elements (decision alternatives) at the third level compared to the

Wi = Priority values of decision alternatives in reference to the overall objective (i = 1,2,...,m)

Wh = Priority value of the element at the first level (overall objective),

Vi = Priority values of elements at the second level (i = 1,2,...,n ),

ோூ (19)

matrix (n) is defined by Saaty as the consistency index-CI (1.18) (Ejder, 2000).

size as shown in Table 2 have been obtained (Ylmaz, 1999).

While previously associated with minor pollution issues together with short-term solutions aimed at eliminating them, environment today reveals itself as the entire set of natural, economical, social and cultural values. Comprehending this fact has triggered the abandonment of traditional development models and exploration towards new models. Therefore, the traditional unlimited development and unlimited consumption models have started to be replaced by sustainable and more balanced development models.

Safeguarding the nature and the land we live upon, availing of its existing potential in maximum, flourishing and then offering it to the benefit of future generations is only possible by exploring and scrutinizing the available use options that do not conflict with each other and implementing them based on a particular plan as buttressed by a consistent process maintenance and audit (Başal, 1998).

As a managerial instrument, Landscape Planning reveals the inventory and analysis of natural and cultural environment, and so ensures that optimum decisions can be taken for land utilization alternatives. It is clearly known today that analyses with single dimension or variable are not sufficient in solving complex problems like the landscape analysis. The major assumption in single-dimension analyses is to consider the impacts of other dimensions in the case as constant and study only one dimension (factor) every time. However, events and objects in the universe are formed not under the influence of only one factor, but under the collective influence of myriad of internal and external factors, and reveal a complex nature. For this reason, events and objects should be defined not based on a single variable, but on myriad of variables and their collective impacts.

Possibility to Employ AHP as a Multi-Criteria Decision Making Method in Landscape Planning Initiatives 103

[8] Cengiz, T., 2003. "Peyzaj Değerlerinin Korunmasna Yönelik Krsal Kalknma Modeli Üzerine Bir Araştrma: Seben İlçesi (Bolu) Alpağut Köyü Örneği". Ankara University,

[9] Çetinkaya, K.F., 2012. "Peyzaj Planlamada Ekolojik Parametreler" Turkish Journal of

[10] Ejder, E., 2000. "Mobilya Endüstrisinde Analitik Hiyerarşi Süreci Yöntemi İle Kuruluş Yer Seçimi". Hacettepe University, Institute of Science and Technology, Master Thesis,

[11] Göksu, A., Güngör, İ., 2008. "Bulank Analitik Hiyerarşi Prosesi ve Üniversite Tercih Sralamasnda Uygulanmas". Suleyman Demirel University, The Journal of Faculty of

[12] Halaç, O., 2001. "Kantitatif Karar Verme Teknikleri (Yöneylem Araştrmas)". (5th

[13] McHarg, I.L., 1969. "Processes As Values, In Design with Nature". Published For The

[14] Saaty, L.T., 1986. "Axiomatic Foundation of the Analytic Hierarchy Process",

[15] Şahin, S., 2009. "Peyzaj Ekolojisi Kavramsal Temelleri ve Uygulama Alanlar". Institute of Public Administration for Turkey and Middle East Publication No: 354, Local

[16] Taha, H.A., 2000. "Yöneylem Araştrmas". (Translated and adapted by: Ş.A. Baray and Ş. Esnaf), Translation from the 6th Edition, Literatür Press, ISBN: 975-8431-28-5, 910 p.

[17] Turoglu, H., 2005, "Fiziksel Planlama ve Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri", Ege University, Symposium on Ege Geographic Information Systems, 27-29 Nisan 2005, Books of

[18] Uzun, O., 2003. "Düzce Akarsuyu Havzas Peyzaj Değerlendirmesi ve Yönetim Modelinin Geliştirilmesi". Ankara University, Institute of Science and Technology, Phd

[19] Uzun, O., 2009. "Peyzaj Ekolojisi". Institute of Public Administration for Turkey and Middle East Publication No: 354, Local Administrations Central Publication No: 27, p.

[20] Ünal, F.Ö., 2010. "Analitik Hiyerarşi Prosesi İle Yetkinlik Bazl İnsan Kaynaklar Yöneticisi Seçimi". Süleyman Demirel University, Social Sciences Institute, Unpublished

[21] Ylmaz, E., 1999. "Analitik Hiyerarşi Süreci Kullanlarak Çok Kriterli Karar Verme Problemlerinin Çözümü". East Mediterranean Forestry Research Institute, DOA Journal, Tarsus, Ministry of Forestry Publication No: 127, DOA Publication No: 16, 5,

[22] Ylmaz, E., 2004. "Orman Kaynaklarnn İşlevsel Bölümlemesine İlişkin Çözümlemeler". Istanbul University, Institute of Science and Technology, Phd Thesis, 388 p. Istanbul.

Institute of Science and Technology, Phd Thesis, 301 p. Ankara.

103 p. Ankara.

Istanbul.

Abstracts, S: 51, İzmir.

57-80, Ankara.

Phd Thesis, Isparta.

ISSN: 1300-8544, 95-122.

Thesis, 470 p. Ankara. Ankara.

Edition) Alfa Press, Bursa.

Scientific Reviews 6 (1): 55-57, 2013, SSN: 1308-0040, E-ISSN: 2146-0132.

Economics and Administrative Sciences. Vol.13, No.3 pp.1-26. Isparta.

American Museum of Natural History, 298 p. NewYork.

Management Science, Volume 32, Issue7, pages 841-855.

Administrations Central Publication No: 27, p. 31-56, Ankara.

When decision makers encounter a complex system formed by interrelated components (resources, outputs proposed, constraints, etc.) in landscape analyses, they first endeavour to gain a thorough insight into the composition of this system. Hence, judgements and decisions made are rather informed. In landscape analyses, particularly in identifying the criterion weights of natural data, user opinions are of great significance. However, entities proposing to solve a complex decision problem may take different decisions despite employing the same method. The reason is that people have different value judgements. And different value judgements would lead to different priorities. In other words, different decision makers may attach different priorities to the components of the system. At this point, AHS comes up as a process distinguished from other decision making approaches as it directly considers the value judgements of different decision makers.

## **Author details**

#### Murat Akten

*Süleyman Demirel University Faculty of Forestry, Landscape Architecture of Department, Turkey* 

## **5. References**


[8] Cengiz, T., 2003. "Peyzaj Değerlerinin Korunmasna Yönelik Krsal Kalknma Modeli Üzerine Bir Araştrma: Seben İlçesi (Bolu) Alpağut Köyü Örneği". Ankara University, Institute of Science and Technology, Phd Thesis, 301 p. Ankara.

102 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Author details** 

**5. References** 

Nilgül GÖRER.

ISSN: 2146-0132.

page:1494-1593.

November 5, Istanbul.

Congress, June 15-1 Gaziantep-Adana

Murat Akten

reveal a complex nature. For this reason, events and objects should be defined not based on

When decision makers encounter a complex system formed by interrelated components (resources, outputs proposed, constraints, etc.) in landscape analyses, they first endeavour to gain a thorough insight into the composition of this system. Hence, judgements and decisions made are rather informed. In landscape analyses, particularly in identifying the criterion weights of natural data, user opinions are of great significance. However, entities proposing to solve a complex decision problem may take different decisions despite employing the same method. The reason is that people have different value judgements. And different value judgements would lead to different priorities. In other words, different decision makers may attach different priorities to the components of the system. At this point, AHS comes up as a process distinguished from other decision making approaches as

*Süleyman Demirel University Faculty of Forestry, Landscape Architecture of Department, Turkey* 

[1] Eminov, M., Ball, S., 2004. "Karmaşk Problemler İçin Belirsizlik Altnda Çok Kriterli Bulank Karar Verme". Operational Research/Industrial Engineering - XXIVth National

[2] Anonymous, 2000. "European Landscape Convention", Strasbourg Translation: Dr.

[3] Atabay, S., 1991. "Doğal Çevreye Uyumlu Planlama", Cumhuriyet Newspaper,

[4] Atay, A., 2009. "Türkiye'de Planlama ve Planlama Hiyerarşisi. Peyzaj Yönetimi". Institute of Public Administration for Turkey and Middle East Publication No: 354,

[5] Ayhan, K.Ç., Hepcan, Ş., 2009. "Özgün Peyzaj Karakteristiklerine Sahip Mekanlara Yönelik Bir Peyzaj Planlama Yönteminin Ortaya Konulmas; Bozcaada Örneği"

[6] Benliay, A., Yldrm, E., 2013. "Peyzaj Planlama Çalşmalarnda Peyzaj Metriklerinin Kullanm" Turkish Journal of Scientific Reviews 6 (1): 07-11, 2013 ISSN: 1308-0040, E-

[7] Bulut, Y., Atabeyoglu, Ö., 2010. "Kent Planlamasnda Peyzaj Mimarlarnn Yeri Ve Önemi" 3rd National Black Sea Forestry Congress, May 20-22, 2010, Volume: IV,

Local Administrations Central Publication No: 27, p. 1-30, Ankara.

Tekirdağ Faculty of Agriculture Journal No: 2009 6(1), Tekirdağ.

a single variable, but on myriad of variables and their collective impacts.

it directly considers the value judgements of different decision makers.


[23] Yüksel, D.Ü., 2003. "Amerika ve Avrupa'da Ekolojik Planlama Yaklaşmlar". Ankara University, Institute of Science and Technology, Phd Thesis, 23 p. Ankara.

**Chapter 5** 

© 2013 Karadağ, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Interactions between human society, biosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere have increased extensively, sometimes for the welfare of mankind and environment, but frequently for their man. These interactions are characterized by increasing complexity, diversity, use, and misuse of natural resources, the latter permanently decreasing. And this holds true for any scale in space and time, from global to local and from long-term to short term.On the regional and local scale the interactions between society, hydrosphere, and biosphere are relevant (Kaden, 2003) and these interactions determine the future of the

Landscape is complex and far-reaching. People have strong ties to landscapes and use them in various ways. Thus landscape is interweaves with climate change and ecology, development, economics, politics, and culture (Bastian *et al.,* 2006; Jones, *et al.,* 2007). Landscape changes as a result of these relationships that human-nature interaction. The changes in landscape were brought up idea of planning for sustainable use, conservation and management. But landscape character and structure make difficult landscape planning decisions. Therefore it must be understood primarily "landscape" to successful landscape

Two different approaches have emerged to defining landscape, when the definitions of landscape are evaluated. According to the first approach, landscape is ecological units. In this context Forman (1995) defined landscape as a mosaic where the mix of local ecosystems or land uses is repeated in similar form over a kilometers-wide area. A landscape manifests an ecological unity thought its area. Within a landscape several attributes tend to be similar and repeated across the whole area, including geologic land forms, soil types, vegetation types, local faunas, natural disturbance regimes, land uses, and human aggregation pattern. Thus a repeated cluster of spatial elements characterizes a landscape. Burel and Baudry

**Use of Watersheds Boundariesin** 

**the Landscape Planning** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Aybike Ayfer Karadağ

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55765

**1. Introduction** 

landscape.

planning.

## **Use of Watersheds Boundariesin the Landscape Planning**

Aybike Ayfer Karadağ

104 Advances in Landscape Architecture

[23] Yüksel, D.Ü., 2003. "Amerika ve Avrupa'da Ekolojik Planlama Yaklaşmlar". Ankara

University, Institute of Science and Technology, Phd Thesis, 23 p. Ankara.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55765

## **1. Introduction**

Interactions between human society, biosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere have increased extensively, sometimes for the welfare of mankind and environment, but frequently for their man. These interactions are characterized by increasing complexity, diversity, use, and misuse of natural resources, the latter permanently decreasing. And this holds true for any scale in space and time, from global to local and from long-term to short term.On the regional and local scale the interactions between society, hydrosphere, and biosphere are relevant (Kaden, 2003) and these interactions determine the future of the landscape.

Landscape is complex and far-reaching. People have strong ties to landscapes and use them in various ways. Thus landscape is interweaves with climate change and ecology, development, economics, politics, and culture (Bastian *et al.,* 2006; Jones, *et al.,* 2007). Landscape changes as a result of these relationships that human-nature interaction. The changes in landscape were brought up idea of planning for sustainable use, conservation and management. But landscape character and structure make difficult landscape planning decisions. Therefore it must be understood primarily "landscape" to successful landscape planning.

Two different approaches have emerged to defining landscape, when the definitions of landscape are evaluated. According to the first approach, landscape is ecological units. In this context Forman (1995) defined landscape as a mosaic where the mix of local ecosystems or land uses is repeated in similar form over a kilometers-wide area. A landscape manifests an ecological unity thought its area. Within a landscape several attributes tend to be similar and repeated across the whole area, including geologic land forms, soil types, vegetation types, local faunas, natural disturbance regimes, land uses, and human aggregation pattern. Thus a repeated cluster of spatial elements characterizes a landscape. Burel and Baudry

© 2013 Karadağ, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

(2003) argue that landscape is a level of organization of ecological systems that is higher than the ecosystem level (Farina *et al.,* 2005). It is characterized essentially by its heterogeneity and its dynamics, partly governed by human activities. It exists independently of perception. Landscape is considered mainly a mosaic of geographical entities in which organisms deal with the spatial arrangement of these entities determined by complex dynamics (Farina *et al.,* 2005). Landscape is geographic unit at second approach. Geography, where the landscape plays a central role and may be considered a fundamental unit, is of particular importance in the attempt to delineate a clear, scientifically useful concept of landscape. The definitions in geography essentially focus on the dynamic relationship between natural landforms or physiographic and human cultural groups (Forman and Godron, 1986). Landscape refers to a common perceivable part of the earth's surface. Landscape became a core topic of geography, in particular regional geography. It was seen as a unique synthesis between the natural and cultural characteristics of a region (Mander and Antrop, 2003). As Zonneveld (1979) stated, landscape is part of the spaces on the earth's surface, consisting of a complex of systems, formed by the activity of rock, water, air, plants, animals and man, and that by its physiognomy forms a recognizable entity (Forman and Godron, 1986). The European Landscape Convention defines landscape as "an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors" (Anonymous, 2000). In this context Turner *et al.*(2002) indicated landscape as an area that is spatially heterogeneous in at least one factor of interest. Opdam *et al.* (2006) defined landscape as a "geographical unit characterized by a specific pattern of ecosystem types, formed by interaction of geographical, ecological and human-induced forces."

Use of Watersheds Boundaries in The Landscape Planning 107

Consequently, landscapes differ from place to place and different landscape types can be recognized as well as different landscape regions (Mander and Antrop, 2003). In this context three main factors can be identified in determining landscape: physical, biological and anthropic. Their interaction are continuously composing the landscape in such a way that we can distinguish between a spatial and a temporal aspect of this composition. The spatial landscape variety consists in the present interrelation of these three factors in a certain place (Kerkstra *et al.,* as cited in Makhzoumi, 1973 and Pungetti, 1999). In addition history and ecology are essential factors in the structuring and understanding of landscapes. No reference is made to "special" landscapes such as "spectacular" or "ordinary" ones, to rural,

industrial or urban ones; all landscapes should be considered equally (Antrop, 2005).

problems (Forman, 1995).

the landscape (Forman, 1995).

Landscape ecology provides understanding of change of landscapes. In addition landscape ecology provides a strong conceptual and theoretical basis for management and planning at the landscape level by contributing to a better understanding of the structure and function (Uzun, 2003; Ivits *et al*., 2005). Landscape ecology, a subdiscipline of ecology, is the study of how landscape structure affects the abundance and distribution of organisms. Landscape ecology is the study of the pattern1 and interaction between ecosystems within a region of interest, and the way the interactions affect ecological processes, especially the unique effects of spatial heterogeneity on these interactions (Clark, 2010). Landscape pattern consists of three elements: patches2, corridors3 and a matrix4. In addition, landscape ecology involves the application of these principles in the formulation and solving of real-world

Landscape planning has come up in the process of understanding, maintainable usage and preservation of the landscape that changed as a result of the relationship and interaction between the man and the nature (Bastian *et al.,* 2006; Jones, *et al.,* 2007). Landscape planning is the key planning instrument for nature conservation. The basis for the concept of planning is formed by the idea of ''balancing the needs and the sources by complying with rational priorities in the long term to reach certain goals with scarce resources'' (Keleş, 2004). From upper scale to subscale, the planning includes physical environment, socio-cultural life, history on economic and political issues, decisions concerning today and future (Uzun, *et al.,* 2012). Also, social and physical are grouped as executive and object planning (Zaimoğlu, 2003). At that point, landscape planning is evaluated as the subtopic of physical

The European Landscape Convention defines landscape planning as "strong forwardlooking action to enhance, restore or create landscape" (Anonymous, 2000). Landscape planning is an activity that analyses, plans and localises landscape and environmental characteristics, resources and values (Dökmeci, 1996). Steiner (1999) used the term of

1 Pattern refers to its spatial arranges of ecosystems and their type, number, size, shape, and relative relationship over

2Patch is a wide relatively homogeneous area that differs from its surroundings. Patches have familiar attributes, such

planning (Köseoğlu, 1982) and accepted as the basis for it (Zaimoğlu, 2003).

as large or small, rounded or elongated, and straight or convoluted boundaries (Forman, 1995). 3Corridors, as strips that differ from their surroundings, permeate the land (Forman, 1995).

4 Matrix is the background ecological system of a landscape (Forman, 1995).

Regardless of how landscape is defined, landscape can be characterized by *structure, function, and change* (Kurum and Şahin, 2000). *Structure,* the spatial relationships among the distinctive ecosystems or elements present-more specifically, the distribution of energy, materials, and species in relation to the sizes, shapes, numbers, kinds, and configurations of the ecosystems. Landscape structure is generally dened in terms of "composition" and "conguration". Dunning *et al.* (1992), these are, respectively, the kinds of patches present in the landscape and the amount of each, and the spatial relationships among them as indices of landscape structure, landscape metrics can be used to describe the composition and spatial arrangement of a landscape (Forman and Godron, 1986). They can be applied at different levels to describe single landscape elements by such features as size, shape, number or for whole landscapes by describing the arrangement of landscape elements and the diversity of landscape (Forman and Godron, 1986; Waltz, 2011). Forman and Godron (1986) dened *landscape function* from a systems-theoretical point of view as "the interactions among the spatial elements, that is, the ows of energy, materials, and species among the component ecosystems". Leser (1997) emphasized that it is necessary to analyze functions and functional interactions between landscape factors and landscape components in order to understand the relationships within the system (Bastian, *et al.* 2006). *Change,* the alteration in the structure and function of the ecological mosaic over time (Baker, 1989).

Landscape change, because they are the perceivable expression of dynamic interactions between the physical and material environment and natural and cultural forces. In addition, Consequently, landscapes differ from place to place and different landscape types can be recognized as well as different landscape regions (Mander and Antrop, 2003). In this context three main factors can be identified in determining landscape: physical, biological and anthropic. Their interaction are continuously composing the landscape in such a way that we can distinguish between a spatial and a temporal aspect of this composition. The spatial landscape variety consists in the present interrelation of these three factors in a certain place (Kerkstra *et al.,* as cited in Makhzoumi, 1973 and Pungetti, 1999). In addition history and ecology are essential factors in the structuring and understanding of landscapes. No reference is made to "special" landscapes such as "spectacular" or "ordinary" ones, to rural, industrial or urban ones; all landscapes should be considered equally (Antrop, 2005).

106 Advances in Landscape Architecture

ecological and human-induced forces."

(2003) argue that landscape is a level of organization of ecological systems that is higher than the ecosystem level (Farina *et al.,* 2005). It is characterized essentially by its heterogeneity and its dynamics, partly governed by human activities. It exists independently of perception. Landscape is considered mainly a mosaic of geographical entities in which organisms deal with the spatial arrangement of these entities determined by complex dynamics (Farina *et al.,* 2005). Landscape is geographic unit at second approach. Geography, where the landscape plays a central role and may be considered a fundamental unit, is of particular importance in the attempt to delineate a clear, scientifically useful concept of landscape. The definitions in geography essentially focus on the dynamic relationship between natural landforms or physiographic and human cultural groups (Forman and Godron, 1986). Landscape refers to a common perceivable part of the earth's surface. Landscape became a core topic of geography, in particular regional geography. It was seen as a unique synthesis between the natural and cultural characteristics of a region (Mander and Antrop, 2003). As Zonneveld (1979) stated, landscape is part of the spaces on the earth's surface, consisting of a complex of systems, formed by the activity of rock, water, air, plants, animals and man, and that by its physiognomy forms a recognizable entity (Forman and Godron, 1986). The European Landscape Convention defines landscape as "an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors" (Anonymous, 2000). In this context Turner *et al.*(2002) indicated landscape as an area that is spatially heterogeneous in at least one factor of interest. Opdam *et al.* (2006) defined landscape as a "geographical unit characterized by a specific pattern of ecosystem types, formed by interaction of geographical,

Regardless of how landscape is defined, landscape can be characterized by *structure, function, and change* (Kurum and Şahin, 2000). *Structure,* the spatial relationships among the distinctive ecosystems or elements present-more specifically, the distribution of energy, materials, and species in relation to the sizes, shapes, numbers, kinds, and configurations of the ecosystems. Landscape structure is generally dened in terms of "composition" and "conguration". Dunning *et al.* (1992), these are, respectively, the kinds of patches present in the landscape and the amount of each, and the spatial relationships among them as indices of landscape structure, landscape metrics can be used to describe the composition and spatial arrangement of a landscape (Forman and Godron, 1986). They can be applied at different levels to describe single landscape elements by such features as size, shape, number or for whole landscapes by describing the arrangement of landscape elements and the diversity of landscape (Forman and Godron, 1986; Waltz, 2011). Forman and Godron (1986) dened *landscape function* from a systems-theoretical point of view as "the interactions among the spatial elements, that is, the ows of energy, materials, and species among the component ecosystems". Leser (1997) emphasized that it is necessary to analyze functions and functional interactions between landscape factors and landscape components in order to understand the relationships within the system (Bastian, *et al.* 2006). *Change,* the alteration

in the structure and function of the ecological mosaic over time (Baker, 1989).

Landscape change, because they are the perceivable expression of dynamic interactions between the physical and material environment and natural and cultural forces. In addition, Landscape ecology provides understanding of change of landscapes. In addition landscape ecology provides a strong conceptual and theoretical basis for management and planning at the landscape level by contributing to a better understanding of the structure and function (Uzun, 2003; Ivits *et al*., 2005). Landscape ecology, a subdiscipline of ecology, is the study of how landscape structure affects the abundance and distribution of organisms. Landscape ecology is the study of the pattern1 and interaction between ecosystems within a region of interest, and the way the interactions affect ecological processes, especially the unique effects of spatial heterogeneity on these interactions (Clark, 2010). Landscape pattern consists of three elements: patches2, corridors3 and a matrix4. In addition, landscape ecology involves the application of these principles in the formulation and solving of real-world problems (Forman, 1995).

Landscape planning has come up in the process of understanding, maintainable usage and preservation of the landscape that changed as a result of the relationship and interaction between the man and the nature (Bastian *et al.,* 2006; Jones, *et al.,* 2007). Landscape planning is the key planning instrument for nature conservation. The basis for the concept of planning is formed by the idea of ''balancing the needs and the sources by complying with rational priorities in the long term to reach certain goals with scarce resources'' (Keleş, 2004). From upper scale to subscale, the planning includes physical environment, socio-cultural life, history on economic and political issues, decisions concerning today and future (Uzun, *et al.,* 2012). Also, social and physical are grouped as executive and object planning (Zaimoğlu, 2003). At that point, landscape planning is evaluated as the subtopic of physical planning (Köseoğlu, 1982) and accepted as the basis for it (Zaimoğlu, 2003).

The European Landscape Convention defines landscape planning as "strong forwardlooking action to enhance, restore or create landscape" (Anonymous, 2000). Landscape planning is an activity that analyses, plans and localises landscape and environmental characteristics, resources and values (Dökmeci, 1996). Steiner (1999) used the term of

<sup>1</sup> Pattern refers to its spatial arranges of ecosystems and their type, number, size, shape, and relative relationship over the landscape (Forman, 1995).

<sup>2</sup>Patch is a wide relatively homogeneous area that differs from its surroundings. Patches have familiar attributes, such as large or small, rounded or elongated, and straight or convoluted boundaries (Forman, 1995).

<sup>3</sup>Corridors, as strips that differ from their surroundings, permeate the land (Forman, 1995).

<sup>4</sup> Matrix is the background ecological system of a landscape (Forman, 1995).

landscape plan to emphasize that such as plans should incorporate natural and social consideration. Uzun *et al.,* (2012) stated that landscape planning had two basic approaches which were ''depending on a certain territory'' and ''directed to problem solving''. The landscape planning studies that depend on a certain territory are examples of the planning studies concerning an area having a developmental potential. It contains the approaches concerning the formation of criteria about determining the territorial usage (agriculture, recreation, etc.) in the process of development of a newly developing region or a sub-region. The landscape planning studies directed to problem solving have the aim of solving the present problems in the landscape planning and the problems concerning the planned usage. Choosing places for industry, settlement, highway route, etc. and landscape renovations are examples for these planning. In addition Uzun and Gültekin (2012) emphasized landscape planning which is one of the fields of study that creates a balance between natural sciences and engineering sciences in the best possible way is also important for natural resource management. One of the main purposes is a balanced planning of people and nature, instead of people oriented planning. In landscape planning, the approaches in which landscape functions are analyzed and the structure and change of landscape is presented have been supported by ecology and landscape ecology sciences.

Use of Watersheds Boundaries in The Landscape Planning 109

landscape ecology have also attached great significance to the issue of scale, and the "landscape units" is more widely canvassed as a framework for analyzing inter-relationship and delivering joined-up policy within a comprehensible and identifiable space (Selman,

In this study, the concept of boundary in landscape planning is emphasized. Additionally,

Natural systems are usually considered parts of hierarchies—an ordering from biggest to smallest (or vice-versa). For our purposes (planning, management, etc.), ecological hierarchy

Scale is the dimension of an object or process. It can be described as resolution and range, which indicate in how much detail the object or process has been understood (Du-ning and Xiu-Zhen, 1999). Scale is a key issue in planning. Due to the interdependencies of ecosystems, a planning approach is need that examines a site in its broader context. Scale is

A spatial dimension: -the mostly cited component of landscape scale, based on both a

A temporal dimension: -implying a continuum from the earliest human use of a

 A modification dimension: -from intensely urbanized areas, through farmland and other types of natural use, to pristine or wilderness areas, with some areas processing such intense degrees of alteration that the landscape requires human assistance to

The concept of scale can allow to the analysis on the level of different hierarchal system that can be related to each other and it can be related to the hierarchy theory. Allen and Star (1982) stated that the hierarchy theory was developed as a study outline for analysis of complex systems or situations which became organized in certain types. The systems that become organised hierarchically can be divided into functional components. These elements' structure, function and characteristics related to time and space can be formed in scale or on different levels. There is no basic hierarchy in the hierarchy theory. Its focus level can change according to considered events (Hersperger, 1994 as cited in Uzun, 2009). The hierarchical theory is a useful instrument for exploring numerous patterns and processes through various scales in space and time. Considering complexity as an attribute that is intrinsic to a landscape, the hierarchy paradigm explains how the various components located on certain scales enter into contact with other ones that are visible on different scales of resolution. The hierarchical theory views a system as a component in a larger system that consists of subsystems (Allen and Starr, 1982; O'Neill *et al*., 1986; Allen and Hoekstra, 1992

the use of the ArcHydro Model was described to delineate watershed boundaries.

**2. Exploring the boundaries in landscape planning** 

rational and intuitive recognitions of distinct physical units.

landscape into the sustainable use by future generation.

accelerate the recovery of its "regenerative" properties.

will be discussed from the largest to the smallest scale.

related to three dimensions (Selman, 2006).

as cited in Farina, 2001).

2006).

L. McHarg (1920-2000), the pioneer of the environmental movement, revealed that natural sciences should be evaluated in solving the problems, by focusing on the natural life processes and their determinative effects on area usage plans (Şahin, 2009a). In this context, putting preservation and usage balance forward, examining the ecological features, analysing the usages and accordingly the ecological relationships, and after these examinations, defining the actions and forming an environment which people will take the most benefit of, but will be less threat for other animals are emphasised in the landscape planning (Uzun *et al.,* 2012). At the same time landscape planning provides a coordinated information basis for all natural resources, which enables us to rapidly obtain an overview of the nature and landscape situation within the planning areas; fragmented changes to individual parts of nature and the landscape can be assessed with respect to their effect on the whole existing condition; planning and nature conservation experts in the administration can use this as basis for quick and uncomplicated comments. The complex interaction of all the factors affecting the balance of nature such as soil, water, air and climate, plants, and animals, as well as diversity, characteristic features and beauty and the recreational value of nature and landscape as well as the effects of existing and foreseeable land usages, are analysed and assessed within the landscape planning. As a result, extensive basic information about nature and the landscape is available for the whole area. The spatial objectives, measures and requirements developed in the landscape on the protection, maintenance and development of nature and the landscape (Anonymous, 2008).

In the basis of a successful landscape planning lies understanding and knowing the landscape. In this context, landscape structure, landscape processes and the changes in landscape were effective items. Uzun *et al*. (2012) states that the structure and functions of landscape are evaluated, landscape processes are analysed and landscape ecology based approaches are put forward in the recent landscape planning studies. In this context landscape ecology have also attached great significance to the issue of scale, and the "landscape units" is more widely canvassed as a framework for analyzing inter-relationship and delivering joined-up policy within a comprehensible and identifiable space (Selman, 2006).

In this study, the concept of boundary in landscape planning is emphasized. Additionally, the use of the ArcHydro Model was described to delineate watershed boundaries.

## **2. Exploring the boundaries in landscape planning**

108 Advances in Landscape Architecture

landscape plan to emphasize that such as plans should incorporate natural and social consideration. Uzun *et al.,* (2012) stated that landscape planning had two basic approaches which were ''depending on a certain territory'' and ''directed to problem solving''. The landscape planning studies that depend on a certain territory are examples of the planning studies concerning an area having a developmental potential. It contains the approaches concerning the formation of criteria about determining the territorial usage (agriculture, recreation, etc.) in the process of development of a newly developing region or a sub-region. The landscape planning studies directed to problem solving have the aim of solving the present problems in the landscape planning and the problems concerning the planned usage. Choosing places for industry, settlement, highway route, etc. and landscape renovations are examples for these planning. In addition Uzun and Gültekin (2012) emphasized landscape planning which is one of the fields of study that creates a balance between natural sciences and engineering sciences in the best possible way is also important for natural resource management. One of the main purposes is a balanced planning of people and nature, instead of people oriented planning. In landscape planning, the approaches in which landscape functions are analyzed and the structure and change of landscape is presented have been supported by ecology and landscape ecology sciences.

L. McHarg (1920-2000), the pioneer of the environmental movement, revealed that natural sciences should be evaluated in solving the problems, by focusing on the natural life processes and their determinative effects on area usage plans (Şahin, 2009a). In this context, putting preservation and usage balance forward, examining the ecological features, analysing the usages and accordingly the ecological relationships, and after these examinations, defining the actions and forming an environment which people will take the most benefit of, but will be less threat for other animals are emphasised in the landscape planning (Uzun *et al.,* 2012). At the same time landscape planning provides a coordinated information basis for all natural resources, which enables us to rapidly obtain an overview of the nature and landscape situation within the planning areas; fragmented changes to individual parts of nature and the landscape can be assessed with respect to their effect on the whole existing condition; planning and nature conservation experts in the administration can use this as basis for quick and uncomplicated comments. The complex interaction of all the factors affecting the balance of nature such as soil, water, air and climate, plants, and animals, as well as diversity, characteristic features and beauty and the recreational value of nature and landscape as well as the effects of existing and foreseeable land usages, are analysed and assessed within the landscape planning. As a result, extensive basic information about nature and the landscape is available for the whole area. The spatial objectives, measures and requirements developed in the landscape on the protection,

maintenance and development of nature and the landscape (Anonymous, 2008).

In the basis of a successful landscape planning lies understanding and knowing the landscape. In this context, landscape structure, landscape processes and the changes in landscape were effective items. Uzun *et al*. (2012) states that the structure and functions of landscape are evaluated, landscape processes are analysed and landscape ecology based approaches are put forward in the recent landscape planning studies. In this context Natural systems are usually considered parts of hierarchies—an ordering from biggest to smallest (or vice-versa). For our purposes (planning, management, etc.), ecological hierarchy will be discussed from the largest to the smallest scale.

Scale is the dimension of an object or process. It can be described as resolution and range, which indicate in how much detail the object or process has been understood (Du-ning and Xiu-Zhen, 1999). Scale is a key issue in planning. Due to the interdependencies of ecosystems, a planning approach is need that examines a site in its broader context. Scale is related to three dimensions (Selman, 2006).


The concept of scale can allow to the analysis on the level of different hierarchal system that can be related to each other and it can be related to the hierarchy theory. Allen and Star (1982) stated that the hierarchy theory was developed as a study outline for analysis of complex systems or situations which became organized in certain types. The systems that become organised hierarchically can be divided into functional components. These elements' structure, function and characteristics related to time and space can be formed in scale or on different levels. There is no basic hierarchy in the hierarchy theory. Its focus level can change according to considered events (Hersperger, 1994 as cited in Uzun, 2009). The hierarchical theory is a useful instrument for exploring numerous patterns and processes through various scales in space and time. Considering complexity as an attribute that is intrinsic to a landscape, the hierarchy paradigm explains how the various components located on certain scales enter into contact with other ones that are visible on different scales of resolution. The hierarchical theory views a system as a component in a larger system that consists of subsystems (Allen and Starr, 1982; O'Neill *et al*., 1986; Allen and Hoekstra, 1992 as cited in Farina, 2001).

The concept of boundary is a spatial expression of the scale and it can be expressed in different ways with hierarchy theory. Such as the biosphere or planet is boundary and is subdivided into continents (and oceans) within hierarchical theory. Continents are subdivided into regions, region into landscapes, and landscapes into local ecosystems or land uses. Region is a broad geographical area with a common macroclimate and sphere of human activity and interest. This concept links the physical environment of macroclimate, major soil groups, and biomes, with the human dimensions of politics, social structure, culture, and consciousness, expressed in the idea of regionalism (Forman, 1995). A region therefore almost always contains a number of landscapes (Forman and Godron, 1986; Duning and Xiu-Zhen, 1999). In addition the region is composed of patches, corridors and a matrix that vary widely in size and shape. In this case the spatial elements are whole landscapes. Unlike the recurring landscape elements in a landscape, a region does not exhibit a pattern of repeated landscape. Usually the distribution of landscape simply mirrors the typically coarse-grained, geomorphic land surface. Thus, most regions are coarse grained or variable-grained with group of small landscapes. In short, the spatial pattern or arrangement of landscape in a region is just as important functionally as the pattern of continents on the globe, local ecosystems in a landscape (Forman, 1995).

Use of Watersheds Boundaries in The Landscape Planning 111

processes act to constrain or influence finer-scale phenomena is one of the key principles of hierarchy theory and "supply-side" ecology. The importance of the landscape context is dependent on the phenomenon of interest, but typically varies as a function of the "openness" of the landscape. The "openness" of the landscape depends not only on the phenomenon under consideration, but on the basis used for delineating the landscape boundary. For example, from a geomorphological or hydrological perspective, the watershed forms a natural landscape, and a landscape defined in this manner might be considered relatively "closed". Of course, energy and materials flow out of this landscape and the landscape context influences the input of energy and materials by affecting climate and so forth, but the system is nevertheless relatively closed. Conversely, from the perspective of a bird population, topographic boundaries may have little ecological relevance, and the landscape defined on the basis of watershed boundaries might be

Landscape has different hierarchical systems. The classication of a landscape as one goes from lower to increasingly higher levels in the hierarchy: ecotope (the basic unit in a landscape consisting of biotic and abiotic elements); microchore (the spatial distribution of ecotopes); mesochore (the environmental system composed of a group of microchores); macrochore (a mosaic of landscapes); and megachore (a group of geographical elements covering several kilometers). A system exists independently of its components and is generally able to organize itself and to transmit information; in other words, it is able to exist as a cybernetic system. A landscape exhibits its own type of complexity, and in order to understand it fully it is necessary to focus on a certain organizational level. There are innumerable hierarchical levels and thus an equal number of systems that are nested inside them in one way or another. The behavior of a given subsystem conditions nearby systems both above and below it. The speed with which the processes unfold and thus the scales in time are specic to each level. When going from one level to another, it is therefore necessary to adjust the resolution (Farina, 2001). In the most variants of the landscape, researchers refer to something framed at the human scale. However, this is revised upwards to reveal patterns from satellites, and downwards to reveal mosaics related to the life-spaces of meso- and micro- organism. McPherson and DeStefano (2003), writing from an ecological perspective, identify landscape studies as being those undertaken at quite an extensive spatial scale: less extensive than the "biome" or biosphere", but larger than the ecosystem,

Landscape ecological concepts and applied metric are likely to be useful to addresses the spatial dimension of sustainable planning. The landscape ecological aspect of spatial scale has received so much attention in the literature. Landscape ecology is the study of the interactions between the temporal and spatial aspects of a landscape and its flora, fauna, and cultural components in so far as this impact on ecosystem properties. However, the subject also incorporates the study of water movements, particularly insofar as these impact on ecosystem properties. An understanding of ecological and hydrological pattern and processes not only reveals the complex web of natural interdependencies, but also enroll economic and social systems at these strongly modify the energy and materials inputs into

considered a relatively "open" system (Farina, 2001).

community, population, organism or cell (Selman, 2006).

Landscape is a dynamic and hierarchical setting. Landscape comprises so many hierarchically constructed ecosystems from a single molecule to the whole Earth and even the limitless emptiness called the space (Selman, 2006). Considering complexity as an attribute that is intrinsic to a landscape, the hierarchy paradigm explains how the various components located on certain scales enter into contact with other ones that are visible on different scales of resolution (Farina, 2001). Every ecosystem has its own boundaries yet is in relation with other ecosystems through the flow of energy and data which ensure the continuity of the system. A system is theoretically in balance when the inputs and outputs required for its functions within its natural boundaries are equal. Therefore, the assessments in defining the capability, capacity and sensitivity of the area for any human activity should be performed within the natural boundaries (Şahin, 2009b). For instance, bioregionalists have argued that "nature" defines its own integral systems and that, historically, sustainability in human systems has been a consequence of close alignment between socioeconomic practices and environmental capacity. This leads to arguments, discussed more fully below, that natural, rather than political, boundaries could form the basis of many planning and management choices (Selman, 2006).

A landscape can vary in size from a few centimeters to tens of kilometers. The heterogeneity might be expressed as physically identiable structures. At any rate, the degree of heterogeneity varies according to the spatial arrangement of the single component parts. Landscapes do not exist in isolation. Landscapes are nested within larger landscapes that are nested within larger landscapes, and so on. In other words, each landscape has a context or regional setting, regardless of scale and how the landscape is defined. The landscape context may constrain processes operating within the landscape. Landscapes are "open" systems; energy, materials, and organisms move into and out of the landscape. This is especially true in practice, where landscapes are often somewhat arbitrarily delineated. That broad-scale processes act to constrain or influence finer-scale phenomena is one of the key principles of hierarchy theory and "supply-side" ecology. The importance of the landscape context is dependent on the phenomenon of interest, but typically varies as a function of the "openness" of the landscape. The "openness" of the landscape depends not only on the phenomenon under consideration, but on the basis used for delineating the landscape boundary. For example, from a geomorphological or hydrological perspective, the watershed forms a natural landscape, and a landscape defined in this manner might be considered relatively "closed". Of course, energy and materials flow out of this landscape and the landscape context influences the input of energy and materials by affecting climate and so forth, but the system is nevertheless relatively closed. Conversely, from the perspective of a bird population, topographic boundaries may have little ecological relevance, and the landscape defined on the basis of watershed boundaries might be considered a relatively "open" system (Farina, 2001).

110 Advances in Landscape Architecture

The concept of boundary is a spatial expression of the scale and it can be expressed in different ways with hierarchy theory. Such as the biosphere or planet is boundary and is subdivided into continents (and oceans) within hierarchical theory. Continents are subdivided into regions, region into landscapes, and landscapes into local ecosystems or land uses. Region is a broad geographical area with a common macroclimate and sphere of human activity and interest. This concept links the physical environment of macroclimate, major soil groups, and biomes, with the human dimensions of politics, social structure, culture, and consciousness, expressed in the idea of regionalism (Forman, 1995). A region therefore almost always contains a number of landscapes (Forman and Godron, 1986; Duning and Xiu-Zhen, 1999). In addition the region is composed of patches, corridors and a matrix that vary widely in size and shape. In this case the spatial elements are whole landscapes. Unlike the recurring landscape elements in a landscape, a region does not exhibit a pattern of repeated landscape. Usually the distribution of landscape simply mirrors the typically coarse-grained, geomorphic land surface. Thus, most regions are coarse grained or variable-grained with group of small landscapes. In short, the spatial pattern or arrangement of landscape in a region is just as important functionally as the pattern of

Landscape is a dynamic and hierarchical setting. Landscape comprises so many hierarchically constructed ecosystems from a single molecule to the whole Earth and even the limitless emptiness called the space (Selman, 2006). Considering complexity as an attribute that is intrinsic to a landscape, the hierarchy paradigm explains how the various components located on certain scales enter into contact with other ones that are visible on different scales of resolution (Farina, 2001). Every ecosystem has its own boundaries yet is in relation with other ecosystems through the flow of energy and data which ensure the continuity of the system. A system is theoretically in balance when the inputs and outputs required for its functions within its natural boundaries are equal. Therefore, the assessments in defining the capability, capacity and sensitivity of the area for any human activity should be performed within the natural boundaries (Şahin, 2009b). For instance, bioregionalists have argued that "nature" defines its own integral systems and that, historically, sustainability in human systems has been a consequence of close alignment between socioeconomic practices and environmental capacity. This leads to arguments, discussed more fully below, that natural, rather than political, boundaries could form the basis of many

A landscape can vary in size from a few centimeters to tens of kilometers. The heterogeneity might be expressed as physically identiable structures. At any rate, the degree of heterogeneity varies according to the spatial arrangement of the single component parts. Landscapes do not exist in isolation. Landscapes are nested within larger landscapes that are nested within larger landscapes, and so on. In other words, each landscape has a context or regional setting, regardless of scale and how the landscape is defined. The landscape context may constrain processes operating within the landscape. Landscapes are "open" systems; energy, materials, and organisms move into and out of the landscape. This is especially true in practice, where landscapes are often somewhat arbitrarily delineated. That broad-scale

continents on the globe, local ecosystems in a landscape (Forman, 1995).

planning and management choices (Selman, 2006).

Landscape has different hierarchical systems. The classication of a landscape as one goes from lower to increasingly higher levels in the hierarchy: ecotope (the basic unit in a landscape consisting of biotic and abiotic elements); microchore (the spatial distribution of ecotopes); mesochore (the environmental system composed of a group of microchores); macrochore (a mosaic of landscapes); and megachore (a group of geographical elements covering several kilometers). A system exists independently of its components and is generally able to organize itself and to transmit information; in other words, it is able to exist as a cybernetic system. A landscape exhibits its own type of complexity, and in order to understand it fully it is necessary to focus on a certain organizational level. There are innumerable hierarchical levels and thus an equal number of systems that are nested inside them in one way or another. The behavior of a given subsystem conditions nearby systems both above and below it. The speed with which the processes unfold and thus the scales in time are specic to each level. When going from one level to another, it is therefore necessary to adjust the resolution (Farina, 2001). In the most variants of the landscape, researchers refer to something framed at the human scale. However, this is revised upwards to reveal patterns from satellites, and downwards to reveal mosaics related to the life-spaces of meso- and micro- organism. McPherson and DeStefano (2003), writing from an ecological perspective, identify landscape studies as being those undertaken at quite an extensive spatial scale: less extensive than the "biome" or biosphere", but larger than the ecosystem, community, population, organism or cell (Selman, 2006).

Landscape ecological concepts and applied metric are likely to be useful to addresses the spatial dimension of sustainable planning. The landscape ecological aspect of spatial scale has received so much attention in the literature. Landscape ecology is the study of the interactions between the temporal and spatial aspects of a landscape and its flora, fauna, and cultural components in so far as this impact on ecosystem properties. However, the subject also incorporates the study of water movements, particularly insofar as these impact on ecosystem properties. An understanding of ecological and hydrological pattern and processes not only reveals the complex web of natural interdependencies, but also enroll economic and social systems at these strongly modify the energy and materials inputs into

landscape (Selman, 2006). In this context, watershed boundaries, for having well-defined edges make up a fundamental unit for landscape planning (Makhdoum, 2008).

Use of Watersheds Boundaries in The Landscape Planning 113

groundwater. According to United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), watershed is the area of land where all of the water that is under it or drains off of it goes into the same place (Anonymous, 2012b). A watershed is a catchment basin that is bound by topographic features, such as ridge tops (Anonymous, 2012c). In addition watershed defined as a physiographic landscape (Şahin, 2007) and units of hydrologically independent areas (McHarg, 1991). In addition a functioning natural unit with interacting biotic and abiotic components in a system whose boundaries is determined by the cycles and flux of energy, materials and organisms. It is valid to describe different ecosystems with different, overlapping sets of boundaries in the same geographic area (e.g. forest ecosystems, watershed ecosystems and wetland ecosystems). A watershed is one of many types of

A large numbers of terms are very frequently and loosely used to classify watershed in different sizes (micro, small, and large). "Small watersheds are those where the overland flow is the main contributor to peak runoff / flow and channel characteristic do not affect the overland flow". "Large watersheds are those give peak flows are greatly influenced by channel characteristics and basin storage". Watershed classified according to drainage systems; main river watersheds, watersheds and sub-watersheds (micro watersheds). River watersheds are the areas which all the flows on the ground (river, lake, etc.) flow into the sea through a single river mouth, an estuary or delta from a certain point on the water route. Watersheds are defined as multiple territorial areas which feed a certain water resource (river watershed). However, sub-watersheds (micro watersheds) are defined as catchment areas concerning drainage lines in various sizes which feed watersheds and river

Hydrological systems have along with ecological units, long been viewed as a natural basis for division of the earth's surface. Thus the "watershed" or "catchment" has often been proposed as the most appropriate division for landscape planning. Key reasons have been: its relative self-containment in terms of flows of water, other materials and energy; its relationship to geomorphic processes and the consequent recognisability of landform characterizing individual catchments; and the importance of water, often in short or excess supply, to human settlements. Increasingly, landscape ecologists also recognize the importance of water catchments in influencing the nature and functionality of ecosystem, through their role not only in supplying moisture but also moving chemical nutrients along

Watershed classification provides a means for generalizing or grouping watersheds by characteristics such as ecological properties, or land use patterns, so that they can be managed, treated, or compared efficiently. Classification can be based on a number of attributes related to natural or anthropogenic differences in watersheds. Natural features include climate, physiography, soils, nutrient productivity, watershed size and connectivity to other aquatic ecosystems. Anthropogenic features are primarily related to land use and include land-use types (urban, agriculture, forest), the degree of hydrologic disturbance and imperviousness, water withdrawals, water quality, in stream habitat conditions, and

ecosystems (O' Keefe *et al.,* 2012).

watersheds (Karadağ, 2007).

rivers and though ground and soil water (Selman, 2006).

riparian integrity (Page, *et al.,* 1999).

A widely advocated approach to landscape planning is to steward resources on the basis of biogeographic units: that is, segments of the earth's surface defined, not on the basis of traditional political and administrative boundaries. Selman (2006) stated that landscape planning has three main reasons for the popularity of biogeographic units. First, natural systems, as watershed, often form logical units for many resources management decisions, and focusing on an integrative landscape unit may help reduce fragmentation of environmental processes and of policy delivery. Second, neither wildlife species nor hydrological systems recognize administrative boundaries, and their natural geographical range and extend must be taken into account in spatial planning, or even serve as its framework. Finally, people develop particular attachments to landscape on the basis of both physical and cultural factors, and so may possibly identify with distinctive biogeographic space more than with, say, local government districts (Selman, 2006).

Graff, 1993; Metzger and Muller, 1996; Şahin, 1996; Tangtham, 1996; Farrina 2006; Uzun, 2003; Selman, 2006; Bulley *et al.,* 2007; Karadağ, 2007; Şahin, 2007; Makhdoum, 2008; Şahin, 2009b; Uzun, 2003 and Uzun *et al*., 2012 have drawn attention to the information of watershed in landscape planning. Watersheds can be considered as landscapes. It seems useful to study landscapes by applying the scale of watersheds, which can be considered as multifunctional units in which ows of water and the transfer of nutrients are distinctive processes (Farina, 2001).

## **3. Watershed**

Water effects on the environmental and on life in all forms in distribution and circulation of waters (O'Callaghan, 1996). Surface flow, travel of water which is called hydrological circuit and feeding of ground waters, form the basis for ecological processes. The flow of water not only provides a unique ecological feature, but also forms geographically unique areas/spaces.

Surface flow, travel of water which is called hydrological circuit and feeding of ground waters affect landscape from different aspects. Surface flow of water and feeding of the ground waters are related to water period of landscape. Water period depends on permeability values (Uzun and Gültekin, 2013). Hydrological circuit is the process of evaporation and condensation of surface waters with the effects of climactic factors (Karadağ, 2007).

A watershed is the area drained by a river or stream and its tributaries. Generally many watersheds are included in a landscape, and a landscape boundary may or not correspond to the boundaries of watershed (Forman and Godron, 1986). A watershed is a landscape surface area that surrounds and drains into a common waterbody such as a lake, small stream or river basin system (Anonymous, 2012a). Davenport, *et al*. (2012) defined as watershed is an area of land that drains into a lake or river. As rainwater and melting snow run downhill, they carry sediment and other materials into streams, lakes, wetlands and groundwater. According to United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), watershed is the area of land where all of the water that is under it or drains off of it goes into the same place (Anonymous, 2012b). A watershed is a catchment basin that is bound by topographic features, such as ridge tops (Anonymous, 2012c). In addition watershed defined as a physiographic landscape (Şahin, 2007) and units of hydrologically independent areas (McHarg, 1991). In addition a functioning natural unit with interacting biotic and abiotic components in a system whose boundaries is determined by the cycles and flux of energy, materials and organisms. It is valid to describe different ecosystems with different, overlapping sets of boundaries in the same geographic area (e.g. forest ecosystems, watershed ecosystems and wetland ecosystems). A watershed is one of many types of ecosystems (O' Keefe *et al.,* 2012).

112 Advances in Landscape Architecture

processes (Farina, 2001).

**3. Watershed** 

areas/spaces.

(Karadağ, 2007).

landscape (Selman, 2006). In this context, watershed boundaries, for having well-defined

A widely advocated approach to landscape planning is to steward resources on the basis of biogeographic units: that is, segments of the earth's surface defined, not on the basis of traditional political and administrative boundaries. Selman (2006) stated that landscape planning has three main reasons for the popularity of biogeographic units. First, natural systems, as watershed, often form logical units for many resources management decisions, and focusing on an integrative landscape unit may help reduce fragmentation of environmental processes and of policy delivery. Second, neither wildlife species nor hydrological systems recognize administrative boundaries, and their natural geographical range and extend must be taken into account in spatial planning, or even serve as its framework. Finally, people develop particular attachments to landscape on the basis of both physical and cultural factors, and so may possibly identify with distinctive biogeographic

Graff, 1993; Metzger and Muller, 1996; Şahin, 1996; Tangtham, 1996; Farrina 2006; Uzun, 2003; Selman, 2006; Bulley *et al.,* 2007; Karadağ, 2007; Şahin, 2007; Makhdoum, 2008; Şahin, 2009b; Uzun, 2003 and Uzun *et al*., 2012 have drawn attention to the information of watershed in landscape planning. Watersheds can be considered as landscapes. It seems useful to study landscapes by applying the scale of watersheds, which can be considered as multifunctional units in which ows of water and the transfer of nutrients are distinctive

Water effects on the environmental and on life in all forms in distribution and circulation of waters (O'Callaghan, 1996). Surface flow, travel of water which is called hydrological circuit and feeding of ground waters, form the basis for ecological processes. The flow of water not only provides a unique ecological feature, but also forms geographically unique

Surface flow, travel of water which is called hydrological circuit and feeding of ground waters affect landscape from different aspects. Surface flow of water and feeding of the ground waters are related to water period of landscape. Water period depends on permeability values (Uzun and Gültekin, 2013). Hydrological circuit is the process of evaporation and condensation of surface waters with the effects of climactic factors

A watershed is the area drained by a river or stream and its tributaries. Generally many watersheds are included in a landscape, and a landscape boundary may or not correspond to the boundaries of watershed (Forman and Godron, 1986). A watershed is a landscape surface area that surrounds and drains into a common waterbody such as a lake, small stream or river basin system (Anonymous, 2012a). Davenport, *et al*. (2012) defined as watershed is an area of land that drains into a lake or river. As rainwater and melting snow run downhill, they carry sediment and other materials into streams, lakes, wetlands and

edges make up a fundamental unit for landscape planning (Makhdoum, 2008).

space more than with, say, local government districts (Selman, 2006).

A large numbers of terms are very frequently and loosely used to classify watershed in different sizes (micro, small, and large). "Small watersheds are those where the overland flow is the main contributor to peak runoff / flow and channel characteristic do not affect the overland flow". "Large watersheds are those give peak flows are greatly influenced by channel characteristics and basin storage". Watershed classified according to drainage systems; main river watersheds, watersheds and sub-watersheds (micro watersheds). River watersheds are the areas which all the flows on the ground (river, lake, etc.) flow into the sea through a single river mouth, an estuary or delta from a certain point on the water route. Watersheds are defined as multiple territorial areas which feed a certain water resource (river watershed). However, sub-watersheds (micro watersheds) are defined as catchment areas concerning drainage lines in various sizes which feed watersheds and river watersheds (Karadağ, 2007).

Hydrological systems have along with ecological units, long been viewed as a natural basis for division of the earth's surface. Thus the "watershed" or "catchment" has often been proposed as the most appropriate division for landscape planning. Key reasons have been: its relative self-containment in terms of flows of water, other materials and energy; its relationship to geomorphic processes and the consequent recognisability of landform characterizing individual catchments; and the importance of water, often in short or excess supply, to human settlements. Increasingly, landscape ecologists also recognize the importance of water catchments in influencing the nature and functionality of ecosystem, through their role not only in supplying moisture but also moving chemical nutrients along rivers and though ground and soil water (Selman, 2006).

Watershed classification provides a means for generalizing or grouping watersheds by characteristics such as ecological properties, or land use patterns, so that they can be managed, treated, or compared efficiently. Classification can be based on a number of attributes related to natural or anthropogenic differences in watersheds. Natural features include climate, physiography, soils, nutrient productivity, watershed size and connectivity to other aquatic ecosystems. Anthropogenic features are primarily related to land use and include land-use types (urban, agriculture, forest), the degree of hydrologic disturbance and imperviousness, water withdrawals, water quality, in stream habitat conditions, and riparian integrity (Page, *et al.,* 1999).

Climate, hydrology, and geomorphology are physical template to shape forces of ecosystems. The three elements of the physical template and other factors also interact significantly in determining the structure and composition of a watershed and its biotic communities. As a result of different combinations of these formative processes, different types of watersheds are created (O' Keefe *et al.,* 2012). Besides watersheds are continually changing and evolving. Some changes are natural, or are accelerated by human activities. A watershed contains information about all the things happening and lands use history within it (Anonymous, 2012d). Because of that watersheds are frequently used to study and manage environmental resources because hydrologic boundaries define the flow of contaminants and other stressors (O' Keefe *et al.,* 2012).

Use of Watersheds Boundaries in The Landscape Planning 115

Implementing a watershed approach has environmental, financial, social and administrative benefits. As well as its potential for considerable impact on the environment, this type of approach can result in cost savings by building upon the financial resources, knowledge and the willingness of interested people in the watershed to take action. An action plan that focuses on solutions evolves from those knowing the local issues and opportunities. This can help to enhance local and regional economic viability in ways that are environmentally

The advantage of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology lies in its data synthesis, the geography simulation, and spatial analysis ability. Spatial analytical techniques, geographical analysis and modeling methods are therefore required to analyses data and to facilitate the decision process at all levels within an urban regional context. GIS approach is very efficient as a tool to facilitate the decision-making process (Laurini, 2001). GIS has emerged as a significant support tool for managingand analyzing water resources

Various methods are used in determining the river basin boundaries. The traditional methods are determining and drawing the boundaries of drainage divides, peaks, stream beds on the topographical maps by hand. However, the modern methods are determining

Arc Hydro is a geospatial and temporal data model for water resources designed to operate within ArcGIS (Maidment, 2003). Arc Hydro is a geographical data model that describes hydrological systems. A data model is a set of conceptsexpressed in a data structure; the data model describes a simplification of reality using tables and relationships within a database. Geographic data models use database structures to describe the world or part of it usingGIS technology. The ArcHydro data model is a conceptualization of surface water systems and describes features such as river networks, watersheds and channels. The data model can be the basis for a "hydrologic information system" which is a synthesis of geospatial and temporal data supporting hydrologic analysis and modeling. Arc Hydro integrates geospatial and temporal information into a defined structure. Based on this structure analysis and modeling tools can be applied. The data model provides a common characterization and understanding of the hydrological system and this description canbe utilized by multiple models, analysis tools and decision support systems all referring to the

This study is going to demonstrate the use of the ArcHydroModel to determine watershed boundaries of a small stream (Köprü stream) in the Central Mediterranean Basin. The hydrologic modeling involves delineating streams network and watersheds, and getting some basic watershed properties such as area, flow length, stream network density, etc. Traditionally this was (and still is!) being done manually by using topographic/contour maps. But in ArcHydro Model analysis is performed by using DEM (Ayhan *et al*., 2012). DEM generation from topographic maps that derived from a 10 meter DEM from the

the boundaries by digitising and analysing the contour lines developed by GIS.

same common structure (Kovar and Nachtnebel, 1996; Strassberg *et al.,*2011).

General Command of Mapping (Turkey).

sound and consistent with defined watershed objectives (Anonymous, 2012b).

**4. How to delineate watershed using the archydro model** 

using digital elevation models (DEM) of land surface terrain.

Each part of a watershed is unique, even though the characteristics of any watershed are similar. All watersheds flow from headwaters to outlets, eventually ending in an ocean. As the water flows, it passes through many parts. And like the parts of a puzzle, if one happens to be damaged, the result affects the whole picture (Anonymous, 2012d). The watersheds are complex ecosystems in which land use, surficial geology, climate, and topography are interrelated with biological components such as vegetation communities (Page, *et al.,* 1999). Weekes (2009) believe that headwater stream flow patterns are homogenous when they have similar climate, bedrock type and hardness, topographical range, drainage area, soils and vegetation). In addition his investigations strongly support that meso-scale geomorphic processes and structures are first order drivers of hydrologic regimes. Geomorphic processes are a part of landscape function. Landscape ecology and catchment hydrology, both disciplines deal with patterns and processes as well as their interactions and functional implications (Schroder, 2006).

A watershed has three primary functions. First, it captures water from the atmosphere. Ideally, all moisture received from the atmosphere, whether in liquid or solid form, has the maximum opportunity to enter the ground where it falls. The water infiltrates the soil and percolates downward. Several factors affect the infiltration rate, including soil type, topography, climate, and vegetative cover. Percolation is also aided by the activity of burrowing animals, insects, and earthworms. Second, a watershed stores rainwater once it filters through the soil. Once the watershed's soils are saturated, water will either percolate deeper, or runoff the surface. This can result in freshwater aquifers and springs. The type and amount of vegetation, and the plant community structure, can greatly affect the storage capacity in any one watershed. The root mass associated with healthy vegetative cover keeps soil more permeable and allows the moisture to percolate deep into the soil for storage. Vegetation in the riparian zone affects both the quantity and quality of water moving through the soil. Water moves through the soil to seeps and springs, and is ultimately released into streams, rivers, and the ocean. Slow release rates are preferable to rapid release rates, which result in short and severe peaks in stream flow. Storm events which generate large amounts of run-off can lead to flooding, soil erosion and siltation of streams (Anonymous, 2012b). This situation, as Schroder (2006) stated, forms the interaction between the landscape and watershed.

Implementing a watershed approach has environmental, financial, social and administrative benefits. As well as its potential for considerable impact on the environment, this type of approach can result in cost savings by building upon the financial resources, knowledge and the willingness of interested people in the watershed to take action. An action plan that focuses on solutions evolves from those knowing the local issues and opportunities. This can help to enhance local and regional economic viability in ways that are environmentally sound and consistent with defined watershed objectives (Anonymous, 2012b).

## **4. How to delineate watershed using the archydro model**

114 Advances in Landscape Architecture

implications (Schroder, 2006).

between the landscape and watershed.

contaminants and other stressors (O' Keefe *et al.,* 2012).

Climate, hydrology, and geomorphology are physical template to shape forces of ecosystems. The three elements of the physical template and other factors also interact significantly in determining the structure and composition of a watershed and its biotic communities. As a result of different combinations of these formative processes, different types of watersheds are created (O' Keefe *et al.,* 2012). Besides watersheds are continually changing and evolving. Some changes are natural, or are accelerated by human activities. A watershed contains information about all the things happening and lands use history within it (Anonymous, 2012d). Because of that watersheds are frequently used to study and manage environmental resources because hydrologic boundaries define the flow of

Each part of a watershed is unique, even though the characteristics of any watershed are similar. All watersheds flow from headwaters to outlets, eventually ending in an ocean. As the water flows, it passes through many parts. And like the parts of a puzzle, if one happens to be damaged, the result affects the whole picture (Anonymous, 2012d). The watersheds are complex ecosystems in which land use, surficial geology, climate, and topography are interrelated with biological components such as vegetation communities (Page, *et al.,* 1999). Weekes (2009) believe that headwater stream flow patterns are homogenous when they have similar climate, bedrock type and hardness, topographical range, drainage area, soils and vegetation). In addition his investigations strongly support that meso-scale geomorphic processes and structures are first order drivers of hydrologic regimes. Geomorphic processes are a part of landscape function. Landscape ecology and catchment hydrology, both disciplines deal with patterns and processes as well as their interactions and functional

A watershed has three primary functions. First, it captures water from the atmosphere. Ideally, all moisture received from the atmosphere, whether in liquid or solid form, has the maximum opportunity to enter the ground where it falls. The water infiltrates the soil and percolates downward. Several factors affect the infiltration rate, including soil type, topography, climate, and vegetative cover. Percolation is also aided by the activity of burrowing animals, insects, and earthworms. Second, a watershed stores rainwater once it filters through the soil. Once the watershed's soils are saturated, water will either percolate deeper, or runoff the surface. This can result in freshwater aquifers and springs. The type and amount of vegetation, and the plant community structure, can greatly affect the storage capacity in any one watershed. The root mass associated with healthy vegetative cover keeps soil more permeable and allows the moisture to percolate deep into the soil for storage. Vegetation in the riparian zone affects both the quantity and quality of water moving through the soil. Water moves through the soil to seeps and springs, and is ultimately released into streams, rivers, and the ocean. Slow release rates are preferable to rapid release rates, which result in short and severe peaks in stream flow. Storm events which generate large amounts of run-off can lead to flooding, soil erosion and siltation of streams (Anonymous, 2012b). This situation, as Schroder (2006) stated, forms the interaction The advantage of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology lies in its data synthesis, the geography simulation, and spatial analysis ability. Spatial analytical techniques, geographical analysis and modeling methods are therefore required to analyses data and to facilitate the decision process at all levels within an urban regional context. GIS approach is very efficient as a tool to facilitate the decision-making process (Laurini, 2001). GIS has emerged as a significant support tool for managingand analyzing water resources using digital elevation models (DEM) of land surface terrain.

Various methods are used in determining the river basin boundaries. The traditional methods are determining and drawing the boundaries of drainage divides, peaks, stream beds on the topographical maps by hand. However, the modern methods are determining the boundaries by digitising and analysing the contour lines developed by GIS.

Arc Hydro is a geospatial and temporal data model for water resources designed to operate within ArcGIS (Maidment, 2003). Arc Hydro is a geographical data model that describes hydrological systems. A data model is a set of conceptsexpressed in a data structure; the data model describes a simplification of reality using tables and relationships within a database. Geographic data models use database structures to describe the world or part of it usingGIS technology. The ArcHydro data model is a conceptualization of surface water systems and describes features such as river networks, watersheds and channels. The data model can be the basis for a "hydrologic information system" which is a synthesis of geospatial and temporal data supporting hydrologic analysis and modeling. Arc Hydro integrates geospatial and temporal information into a defined structure. Based on this structure analysis and modeling tools can be applied. The data model provides a common characterization and understanding of the hydrological system and this description canbe utilized by multiple models, analysis tools and decision support systems all referring to the same common structure (Kovar and Nachtnebel, 1996; Strassberg *et al.,*2011).

This study is going to demonstrate the use of the ArcHydroModel to determine watershed boundaries of a small stream (Köprü stream) in the Central Mediterranean Basin. The hydrologic modeling involves delineating streams network and watersheds, and getting some basic watershed properties such as area, flow length, stream network density, etc. Traditionally this was (and still is!) being done manually by using topographic/contour maps. But in ArcHydro Model analysis is performed by using DEM (Ayhan *et al*., 2012). DEM generation from topographic maps that derived from a 10 meter DEM from the General Command of Mapping (Turkey).

Watershed and drainage systems can define generally with 4 stages and 11 analysis in ArcHydro module. At the first stage of the analysis, ''DEM reconditioning'' and ''fill sink'' analysis, which are confirmation and preparation processes for the given analysis, are carried out. At the second stage, ''Flow direction, Flow Accumulation, Stream Definition'' and ''Stream Segmentation'' analysis, by which evaluations concerning surface flow are made, are carried out. At the third stage, ''Catchment Grid Delineation'' and ''Catchment Polygon Processing'' analysis, by which catchment areas are determined, are carried out. At the last stage, "Drainage Line Processing", "Drainage Point Processing" and "Batch Watershed Delineation" analysis, by which watershed boundaries are defined by evaluating drainage systems according to surface flow and catchment areas, are carried out. But first of all, Archydro tools must be downloaded to the computer to start the analysis. Archydro tool 1.3 is downloaded because of ArcMap 9.3 is used in this study.

Use of Watersheds Boundaries in The Landscape Planning 117

**Figure 1.** DEM Reconditioning menu and AgreeDEMlayer.

2009; Ayha n*et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

**Figure 2.** Fill Sinks menuand Fillayer.

Confirm that the input for DEM is AgreeDEM. The output is the Hydro DEM layer, named by default Fil. This default name can be overwritten. Leave the other options unchanged. The Fil layer is added to the map, when the process completed (Figure 2.) (Mervade *et al.,*

**Flow direction:** This function computes the flow direction for a given grid. Each grid has a value of height and water flow will be towards the lowest one, by comparing the height values of 8 grids. The flow direction is defined as ''8 directional flow model'' in the computer environment. Digital values, which are developed depending on the directions, are used to show the flow direction of the grid in the module. This function is located on

First stage of Archydro Model is Terrain Preprocessing. Arc Hydro Terrain Preprocessing should be performed in sequential order. All of the preprocessing must be completed before Watershed Processing functions can be used. DEM reconditioning and filling sinks might not be required depending on the quality of the initial DEM. DEM reconditioning involves modifying the elevation data to be more consistent with the input vector stream network. This implies an assumption that the stream network data are more reliable than the DEM data, so you need to use knowledge of the accuracy and reliability of the data sources when deciding whether to do DEM reconditioning. By doing the DEM reconditioning you can increase the degree of agreement between stream networks delineated from the DEM and the input vector stream networks (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

**DEM Reconditioning:** This function modifies a DEM by imposing linear features onto it (burning/fencing). The function needs as input a raw dem and a linear feature class (like the river network) that both have to be present in the map document (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012). This function is located on Terrain Preprocessing on the ArcHydro Toolbar (*Terrain Preprocessing*→DEM Manipulation→DEM Reconditioning) (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

Select the appropriate Raw DEM (köprü\_dem) and AGREE stream feature (köprü\_str). Set the Agree parameters as shown. You should reduce the Sharp drop/raise parameter to 10 from its default 1000. The output is a reconditioned Agree DEM (default name Agree DEM). A personal geodatabase with the same name as your ArcMap document has also been created as shown in the following ArcCatalog view (Figure 1.)(Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

**Fill Sinks:** This function fills the sinks in a grid. If cells with higher elevation surround a cell, the water is trapped in that cell and cannot flow. The Fill Sinks function modifies the elevation value to eliminate these problems.The model readjusts the height value with this stage to solve the problem. Therefore, the drainage networks' being asunder is prevented. This function is located on Terrain Preprocessing on the ArcHydrotoolbar (Terrain Preprocessing→ → DataManipulation Fill Sinks) (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

#### Use of Watersheds Boundaries in The Landscape Planning 117

**Figure 1.** DEM Reconditioning menu and AgreeDEMlayer.

116 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Watershed and drainage systems can define generally with 4 stages and 11 analysis in ArcHydro module. At the first stage of the analysis, ''DEM reconditioning'' and ''fill sink'' analysis, which are confirmation and preparation processes for the given analysis, are carried out. At the second stage, ''Flow direction, Flow Accumulation, Stream Definition'' and ''Stream Segmentation'' analysis, by which evaluations concerning surface flow are made, are carried out. At the third stage, ''Catchment Grid Delineation'' and ''Catchment Polygon Processing'' analysis, by which catchment areas are determined, are carried out. At the last stage, "Drainage Line Processing", "Drainage Point Processing" and "Batch Watershed Delineation" analysis, by which watershed boundaries are defined by evaluating drainage systems according to surface flow and catchment areas, are carried out. But first of all, Archydro tools must be downloaded to the computer to start the analysis. Archydro tool

First stage of Archydro Model is Terrain Preprocessing. Arc Hydro Terrain Preprocessing should be performed in sequential order. All of the preprocessing must be completed before Watershed Processing functions can be used. DEM reconditioning and filling sinks might not be required depending on the quality of the initial DEM. DEM reconditioning involves modifying the elevation data to be more consistent with the input vector stream network. This implies an assumption that the stream network data are more reliable than the DEM data, so you need to use knowledge of the accuracy and reliability of the data sources when deciding whether to do DEM reconditioning. By doing the DEM reconditioning you can increase the degree of agreement between stream networks delineated from the DEM and the input vector stream networks (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

**DEM Reconditioning:** This function modifies a DEM by imposing linear features onto it (burning/fencing). The function needs as input a raw dem and a linear feature class (like the river network) that both have to be present in the map document (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012). This function is located on Terrain Preprocessing on the ArcHydro Toolbar (*Terrain Preprocessing*→DEM Manipulation→DEM Reconditioning)

Select the appropriate Raw DEM (köprü\_dem) and AGREE stream feature (köprü\_str). Set the Agree parameters as shown. You should reduce the Sharp drop/raise parameter to 10 from its default 1000. The output is a reconditioned Agree DEM (default name Agree DEM). A personal geodatabase with the same name as your ArcMap document has also been created as shown in the following ArcCatalog view (Figure 1.)(Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et* 

**Fill Sinks:** This function fills the sinks in a grid. If cells with higher elevation surround a cell, the water is trapped in that cell and cannot flow. The Fill Sinks function modifies the elevation value to eliminate these problems.The model readjusts the height value with this stage to solve the problem. Therefore, the drainage networks' being asunder is prevented. This function is located on Terrain Preprocessing on the ArcHydrotoolbar (Terrain Preprocessing→ → DataManipulation Fill Sinks) (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012;

1.3 is downloaded because of ArcMap 9.3 is used in this study.

(Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

*al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

Mervade, 2012).

Confirm that the input for DEM is AgreeDEM. The output is the Hydro DEM layer, named by default Fil. This default name can be overwritten. Leave the other options unchanged. The Fil layer is added to the map, when the process completed (Figure 2.) (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayha n*et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

**Flow direction:** This function computes the flow direction for a given grid. Each grid has a value of height and water flow will be towards the lowest one, by comparing the height values of 8 grids. The flow direction is defined as ''8 directional flow model'' in the computer environment. Digital values, which are developed depending on the directions, are used to show the flow direction of the grid in the module. This function is located on

Terrain Preprocessing on the ArcHydro toolbar (Djokic 2008, Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

Use of Watersheds Boundaries in The Landscape Planning 119

**Figure 4.** Flow Accumulation menu and Faclayer.

**Figure 5.** Stream Defination menu and Str layer.

Mervade, 2012).

Mervade, 2012).

**Stream Definition:** This function computes a stream grid which contains a value of "1" for all the cells in the input flow accumulation grid that have a value greater than the given threshold. All other cells in the Stream Grid contain no data. This function is located on Terrain Preprocessing on the ArcHydro toolbar (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012;

Confirm that the input for the Flow Accumulation Grid is "Fac". The output is the Stream Grid. "Str" is its default name that can be overwritten. The stream grid Str is added to the map, when the process completed (Figure 5.) (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012;

Confirm that the input for Hydro DEM is Fil. The output is the Flow Direction Grid, named by default Fdr. This default name can be overwritten. The flow direction grid Fdr is added to the map, when the process completed (Figure 3.) (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

**Figure 3.** Flow direction menu and Fdrlayer.

**Flow Accumulation:** This is the stage in which the cells taking place in the catchment area of each cell are calculated. The water gathered in the lowest grade is calculated, by assuming that each cell has 1 unit of water. The system defines the value of the cells having no flow as zero, and cells in which water gathers are defined in the number of cells having flow. The flow calculation is carried out by taking 8 cells as basis. This function is located on Terrain Preprocessing on the ArcHydrotoolbar (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

Confirm that the input of the Flow Direction Grid is Fdr. The output is the Flow Accumulation Grid having a default name of Fac that can be overwritten. The flow direction grid Fac is added to the map, when the process completed. Adjust the symbology of the Flow Accumulation layer Fac to a multiplicatively increasing scale to illustrate the increase of flow accumulation as one descends into the grid flow network (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

Zoom-in to a stream network junction to see how the symbology changes from light to dark color as the number of upstream cells draining to a stream increase from upstream to downstream. If you click at any point along the stream network on Fac grid using the identify button you can find the area draining to that point by multiplying the Fac number by the area of each cell (cell size x cell size which is 30.89 x 30.89 in this case) (Figure 4.) (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

#### Use of Watersheds Boundaries in The Landscape Planning 119


**Figure 4.** Flow Accumulation menu and Faclayer.

118 Advances in Landscape Architecture

*al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

**Figure 3.** Flow direction menu and Fdrlayer.

Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

(Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

Mervade, 2012).

Terrain Preprocessing on the ArcHydro toolbar (Djokic 2008, Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et* 

Confirm that the input for Hydro DEM is Fil. The output is the Flow Direction Grid, named by default Fdr. This default name can be overwritten. The flow direction grid Fdr is added to the map, when the process completed (Figure 3.) (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012;

**Flow Accumulation:** This is the stage in which the cells taking place in the catchment area of each cell are calculated. The water gathered in the lowest grade is calculated, by assuming that each cell has 1 unit of water. The system defines the value of the cells having no flow as zero, and cells in which water gathers are defined in the number of cells having flow. The flow calculation is carried out by taking 8 cells as basis. This function is located on Terrain Preprocessing on the ArcHydrotoolbar (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012). Confirm that the input of the Flow Direction Grid is Fdr. The output is the Flow Accumulation Grid having a default name of Fac that can be overwritten. The flow direction grid Fac is added to the map, when the process completed. Adjust the symbology of the Flow Accumulation layer Fac to a multiplicatively increasing scale to illustrate the increase of flow accumulation as one descends into the grid flow network (Mervade *et al.,* 2009;

Zoom-in to a stream network junction to see how the symbology changes from light to dark color as the number of upstream cells draining to a stream increase from upstream to downstream. If you click at any point along the stream network on Fac grid using the identify button you can find the area draining to that point by multiplying the Fac number by the area of each cell (cell size x cell size which is 30.89 x 30.89 in this case) (Figure 4.) **Stream Definition:** This function computes a stream grid which contains a value of "1" for all the cells in the input flow accumulation grid that have a value greater than the given threshold. All other cells in the Stream Grid contain no data. This function is located on Terrain Preprocessing on the ArcHydro toolbar (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

Confirm that the input for the Flow Accumulation Grid is "Fac". The output is the Stream Grid. "Str" is its default name that can be overwritten. The stream grid Str is added to the map, when the process completed (Figure 5.) (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

**Figure 5.** Stream Defination menu and Str layer.

**Stream Segmentation:** This function creates a grid of stream segments that have a unique identification. Either a segment may be a head segment, or it may be defined as a segment between two segment junctions. All the cells in a particular segment have the same grid code that is specific to that segment. This function is located on Terrain Preprocessing on the ArcHydro toolbar (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

Use of Watersheds Boundaries in The Landscape Planning 121

**Figure 7.** Catchment grid menu and Cat layer.

**Figure 8.** Catchment polygon processing menu and Catchment layer.

Confirm that the input to the CatchmentGrid is Cat. The output is the Catchment polygon feature class, having the default name Catchment that can be overwritten. The polygon feature class Catchment is added to the map, when the process completed. In addition there are important information (HydroID assigned, Length and Area attributes of catchment) in attribute table of Catchment (Figure 8.) (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

**Drainage Line Processing:** This function converts the input Stream Link grid into a Drainage Line feature class. Each line in the feature class carries the identifier of the

Confirm that Fdr and Str are the inputs for the Flow Direction Grid and the Stream Grid respectively. Unless you are using your sinks for inclusion in the stream network delineation, the sink watershed grid and sink link grid inputs are Null. The output is the stream link grid, with the default name StrLnk that can be overwritten. The link grid StrLnk is added to the map, when the process completed (Figure 6.) (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

**Figure 6.** Stream Segmentation menu and StrLnk layer.

**Catchment Grid Delination:** This function creates a grid in which each cell carries a value (grid code) indicating to which catchment the cell belongs. The value corresponds to the value carried by the stream segment that drains that area, defined in the stream segment link grid. This function is located on Terrain Preprocessing on the ArcHydro toolbar (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

Confirm that the input to the Flow Direction Grid and Link Grid are Fdr and Lnk respectively. The output is the Catchment Grid layer. Cat is its default name that can be overwritten by the user. The link grid StrLnk is added to the map, when the process completed. The Catchment grid Cat is added to the map, when the process completed. In addition study case will have 70 catchment (Figure 7.) (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

**Catchment Polygon Processing:**This function converts a catchment grid into a catchment polygon feature. This function is located on Terrain Preprocessing on the ArcHydro toolbar (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

**Figure 7.** Catchment grid menu and Cat layer.

*al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

2012; Mervade, 2012).

**Figure 6.** Stream Segmentation menu and StrLnk layer.

(Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

(Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

**Stream Segmentation:** This function creates a grid of stream segments that have a unique identification. Either a segment may be a head segment, or it may be defined as a segment between two segment junctions. All the cells in a particular segment have the same grid code that is specific to that segment. This function is located on Terrain Preprocessing on the

Confirm that Fdr and Str are the inputs for the Flow Direction Grid and the Stream Grid respectively. Unless you are using your sinks for inclusion in the stream network delineation, the sink watershed grid and sink link grid inputs are Null. The output is the stream link grid, with the default name StrLnk that can be overwritten. The link grid StrLnk is added to the map, when the process completed (Figure 6.) (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et* 

**Catchment Grid Delination:** This function creates a grid in which each cell carries a value (grid code) indicating to which catchment the cell belongs. The value corresponds to the value carried by the stream segment that drains that area, defined in the stream segment link grid. This function is located on Terrain Preprocessing on the ArcHydro toolbar

Confirm that the input to the Flow Direction Grid and Link Grid are Fdr and Lnk respectively. The output is the Catchment Grid layer. Cat is its default name that can be overwritten by the user. The link grid StrLnk is added to the map, when the process completed. The Catchment grid Cat is added to the map, when the process completed. In addition study case will have 70 catchment (Figure 7.) (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*.,

**Catchment Polygon Processing:**This function converts a catchment grid into a catchment polygon feature. This function is located on Terrain Preprocessing on the ArcHydro toolbar

ArcHydro toolbar (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

Confirm that the input to the CatchmentGrid is Cat. The output is the Catchment polygon feature class, having the default name Catchment that can be overwritten. The polygon feature class Catchment is added to the map, when the process completed. In addition there are important information (HydroID assigned, Length and Area attributes of catchment) in attribute table of Catchment (Figure 8.) (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).


**Figure 8.** Catchment polygon processing menu and Catchment layer.

**Drainage Line Processing:** This function converts the input Stream Link grid into a Drainage Line feature class. Each line in the feature class carries the identifier of the

catchment in which it resides. This function is located on Terrain Preprocessing on the ArcHydro toolbar (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

Use of Watersheds Boundaries in The Landscape Planning 123

and click on individual grid cells. Our goal is to create an outlet point on the flow accumulation path indicated by Fac grid where the flow leaves the Köprü stream watershed

(Mervade, 2012).

**Figure 10.** Point processing menu and Drainage point layer.

**Figure 11.** Batch Point generation

Confirm that the input to Link Grid is Lnk and to Flow Direction Grid Fdr. The output Drainage Line has the default name DrainageLine that can be overwritten.The linear feature class DrainageLine is added to the map, when the process completed (Figure 9.) (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

**Figure 9.** Drainage line processing menu and Drainageline layer.

**Drainage Point Processing:** This function allows generating the drainage points associated to the catchments. This function is located on Terrain Preprocessing on the ArcHydro tools(Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

Confirm that the inputs are as below. The output is Drainage Point with the default name DrainagePoint that can be overwritten. Upon completion of the process, the point feature class "DrainagePoint" is added to the map (Figure 10.) (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

**Watershed Processing:** Arc Hydro toolbar also provides an extensive set of tools for delineating watersheds and subwatersheds. These tools rely on the datasets derived during terrain processing.

Batch watershed delineation function delineates the watershed upstream of each point in an input Batch Point feature class. Batch Point Generation can be used to determine the outlet of the watershed. Arrange your display so that Fac, Catchment and DrainageLine datasets are visible. Zoom-in near the outlet of the Köprü stream watershed (Figure 11.). The display should look similar to the figure shown below and be zoomed in sufficiently so you can see and click on individual grid cells. Our goal is to create an outlet point on the flow accumulation path indicated by Fac grid where the flow leaves the Köprü stream watershed (Mervade, 2012).

**Figure 10.** Point processing menu and Drainage point layer.

122 Advances in Landscape Architecture

*al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

**Figure 9.** Drainage line processing menu and Drainageline layer.

tools(Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

2012; Mervade, 2012).

terrain processing.

catchment in which it resides. This function is located on Terrain Preprocessing on the

Confirm that the input to Link Grid is Lnk and to Flow Direction Grid Fdr. The output Drainage Line has the default name DrainageLine that can be overwritten.The linear feature class DrainageLine is added to the map, when the process completed (Figure 9.) (Mervade *et* 

**Drainage Point Processing:** This function allows generating the drainage points associated to the catchments. This function is located on Terrain Preprocessing on the ArcHydro

Confirm that the inputs are as below. The output is Drainage Point with the default name DrainagePoint that can be overwritten. Upon completion of the process, the point feature class "DrainagePoint" is added to the map (Figure 10.) (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*.,

**Watershed Processing:** Arc Hydro toolbar also provides an extensive set of tools for delineating watersheds and subwatersheds. These tools rely on the datasets derived during

Batch watershed delineation function delineates the watershed upstream of each point in an input Batch Point feature class. Batch Point Generation can be used to determine the outlet of the watershed. Arrange your display so that Fac, Catchment and DrainageLine datasets are visible. Zoom-in near the outlet of the Köprü stream watershed (Figure 11.). The display should look similar to the figure shown below and be zoomed in sufficiently so you can see

ArcHydro toolbar (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).


**Figure 11.** Batch Point generation

Batch watershed delineation function delineates the watershed. This function is located on Watershed Processing on the ArcHydro Toolbar. Confirm that Fdr is the input to Flow Direction Grid, Str to Stream Grid, Catchment to Catchment, AdjointCatchment to AdjointCatchment, and BatchPoint to Batch Point. For output, the Watershed Point is WatershedPoint, and Watershed is Watershed (Figure 12.). WatershedPoint and Watershed are default names that can be overwritten (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade, 2012).

Use of Watersheds Boundaries in The Landscape Planning 125

planning, which is evaluated in different topics, and transformed landscape planning into a part of the future. Therefore, ecological, aesthetic and economic importance of landscape has become a topic for many researchers and the need for landscape planning is emphasised. At last, vital importance of landscape and need for its being planned were transferred to a legal

The aims of European Landscape Convention are to promote landscape protection, management and planning, and to organise European co-operation on landscape issues. The Convention applies to the entire territory of the Parties and covers natural, rural, urban and peri-urban areas. It includes land, inland water and marine areas. It concerns landscapes that might be considered outstanding as well as every day or degraded landscapes. Landscape planning means strong forward-looking action to enhance, restore or create landscapes in the Convention (Anonymous, 2000). The convention intended to plan landscape with a "comprehensive, pedant, holistic, coordinated, participant, rationalist" approach. Also, with the expression "transboundary landscape", which took place in 9th clause of the convention and which emphasised local and regional cooperation, brought

The planning, which is defined as balancing the needs and the resources in the long run by complying with the reasonable priorities to reach certain aims with limited resources (Keleş, 2004), is a versatile activity from upper scale to subscale and a body of decisions related to past, present and future integrating social, economic, political, physical, anthropogenic and technical elements, as Alipour (1996) stated (Uzun *et. al.* 2012). This general definition of planning requires landscape planning to be made in different scales and accordingly in certain boundaries. Also, as Uzun *et. al.* (2012) stated, the boundaries of the study area are the first stage of planning and are very important in clarifying the goal. The data gathering, which enables the planning to be carried out systematically and defines success (Mcharg, 1967), depends on the boundaries of the planning area. Ultimately, the management process of realising the plan will be integrated with the administrative structuring within the boundaries. All these put the importance of the question ''What should be the boundary of

When determining the boundaries of landscape, the fact that landscape is "a space in which natural, socio-cultural and economical life come together" should not be ignored. This situation emphasises that the boundary of landscape shouldn't just describe the natural areas (eco-zone, ecoregion, habitat, etc.) or administrative spaces. Therefore, the boundary will be integrated with the body of the landscape. Within this context of approach, there are various consistent points of view about the boundary of landscape. Meijerink (1985) considered that watersheds were the best units in which the interactions of human and natural resources, and the geographical distribution of their consequences could be observed and modeled (Metzger and Muller, 1996). Gregersen *et al*. (1987), said watersheds can use as a physical-biological and a socioeconomic-political units for planning of natural resources (Graff, 1993). According to Farrina (2006) watersheds are examples of the hierarchical organization of the landscape. River watershed is composed of sub-watershed,

text when European Landscape Convention was signed in 20 October 2000.

about the concept of "planning boundary".

landscape planning?'' forward.

You can see that area and length, if you open the attribute table of Köprü\_watershed. In addition you will see that these two are related through HydroID–the DrainID of WatershedPoint is equal to the HydroID of the watershed, when you open the attribute table of catchment and DranaigePoint. At the same time you can learn length of drainage line from attributes table of DranaigeLine (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Mervade, 2012).

**Figure 12.** Batch watershed delineation and Köprü stream watershed

## **5. Conclusion**

The future of our present societies is determined by environmental, social, economic and political situations and the problems and the solutions concerning these issues. Landscape, which can be defined as the interaction space or product of natural and cultural processes, puts its relation with future at this point. The concept of future brought about the concept of planning, which is evaluated in different topics, and transformed landscape planning into a part of the future. Therefore, ecological, aesthetic and economic importance of landscape has become a topic for many researchers and the need for landscape planning is emphasised. At last, vital importance of landscape and need for its being planned were transferred to a legal text when European Landscape Convention was signed in 20 October 2000.

124 Advances in Landscape Architecture

2012).

Batch watershed delineation function delineates the watershed. This function is located on Watershed Processing on the ArcHydro Toolbar. Confirm that Fdr is the input to Flow Direction Grid, Str to Stream Grid, Catchment to Catchment, AdjointCatchment to AdjointCatchment, and BatchPoint to Batch Point. For output, the Watershed Point is WatershedPoint, and Watershed is Watershed (Figure 12.). WatershedPoint and Watershed are default names that can be overwritten (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Ayhan *et al*., 2012; Mervade,

You can see that area and length, if you open the attribute table of Köprü\_watershed. In addition you will see that these two are related through HydroID–the DrainID of WatershedPoint is equal to the HydroID of the watershed, when you open the attribute table of catchment and DranaigePoint. At the same time you can learn length of drainage

line from attributes table of DranaigeLine (Mervade *et al.,* 2009; Mervade, 2012).

**Figure 12.** Batch watershed delineation and Köprü stream watershed

The future of our present societies is determined by environmental, social, economic and political situations and the problems and the solutions concerning these issues. Landscape, which can be defined as the interaction space or product of natural and cultural processes, puts its relation with future at this point. The concept of future brought about the concept of

**5. Conclusion** 

The aims of European Landscape Convention are to promote landscape protection, management and planning, and to organise European co-operation on landscape issues. The Convention applies to the entire territory of the Parties and covers natural, rural, urban and peri-urban areas. It includes land, inland water and marine areas. It concerns landscapes that might be considered outstanding as well as every day or degraded landscapes. Landscape planning means strong forward-looking action to enhance, restore or create landscapes in the Convention (Anonymous, 2000). The convention intended to plan landscape with a "comprehensive, pedant, holistic, coordinated, participant, rationalist" approach. Also, with the expression "transboundary landscape", which took place in 9th clause of the convention and which emphasised local and regional cooperation, brought about the concept of "planning boundary".

The planning, which is defined as balancing the needs and the resources in the long run by complying with the reasonable priorities to reach certain aims with limited resources (Keleş, 2004), is a versatile activity from upper scale to subscale and a body of decisions related to past, present and future integrating social, economic, political, physical, anthropogenic and technical elements, as Alipour (1996) stated (Uzun *et. al.* 2012). This general definition of planning requires landscape planning to be made in different scales and accordingly in certain boundaries. Also, as Uzun *et. al.* (2012) stated, the boundaries of the study area are the first stage of planning and are very important in clarifying the goal. The data gathering, which enables the planning to be carried out systematically and defines success (Mcharg, 1967), depends on the boundaries of the planning area. Ultimately, the management process of realising the plan will be integrated with the administrative structuring within the boundaries. All these put the importance of the question ''What should be the boundary of landscape planning?'' forward.

When determining the boundaries of landscape, the fact that landscape is "a space in which natural, socio-cultural and economical life come together" should not be ignored. This situation emphasises that the boundary of landscape shouldn't just describe the natural areas (eco-zone, ecoregion, habitat, etc.) or administrative spaces. Therefore, the boundary will be integrated with the body of the landscape. Within this context of approach, there are various consistent points of view about the boundary of landscape. Meijerink (1985) considered that watersheds were the best units in which the interactions of human and natural resources, and the geographical distribution of their consequences could be observed and modeled (Metzger and Muller, 1996). Gregersen *et al*. (1987), said watersheds can use as a physical-biological and a socioeconomic-political units for planning of natural resources (Graff, 1993). According to Farrina (2006) watersheds are examples of the hierarchical organization of the landscape. River watershed is composed of sub-watershed, each of which is composed of smaller-order watershed. The upper and lower limits of this hierarchy are not definitive but it is possible to move in both directions, including smaller and larger basins. Tangtham (1996) and Karadağ (2007) lay stress on watershed classification is thus anticipated as a useful tool for management and planning of natural resources. Selman (2006) emphasized the importance of watershed boundaries in landscape ecology. Makhdoum (2008) indicated that the mapping unite (or land unit) is freely derived from watershed, land system, land form units and ecosystems, at different scale level. He accepted watershed as one of mapping units in land ecology. Bulley *et al.* (2007) point out that watershed provides an important spatial framework to develop a classification system. Şahin (2007) and Şahin (2009) suggests that watershed can be descriptive and administrative units for landscape planning. According to EPA watershed is an example of hierarchical system in nature (Anonymous 2012a). Efe and Aydn (2009), indicated that the provincial boundaries which constitute the framework of the administrative organization where planning is currently authorized do not coincide with the natural boundaries. They suggest redefining the provincial boundaries compatible with watershed for the protection of the nature.

Use of Watersheds Boundaries in The Landscape Planning 127

Anonymous, 2012b. What is a Watershed. United States Environmental Protection Agency. www. http://www. water.epa.gov Anonymous, 2012a. (Accessed on: 2.12.2012)

http://www.gdrc.org/uem/water/watershed/introduction.html (Accessed on: 12.01.2012)

Antrop, M. 2005. From Holistic Landscape Synthesis to Transdisciplinary Landscape Management. In: Tress, B., Tress, G. Fry, G. En Opdam, P. From Landscape Research to Landscape Planning: Aspect of Integration, Education and Aplication. Wageningen,

Ayhan, N. G., Seyrek, K. and Sargn, A. H., 2012. Application of Geographic Information Systems in Hydrology and Water Resources Management.Printed Course Note. ISLEM

Baker, W. L. 1989. A Review of Models of Landscape Change. Landscape Ecology, 2(2),

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Booth, B. 2000. Using ArcGIS 3D Analyst GIS by ESRİ. Environmental Systems Research

Bulley, H.N. N., Merchant, J. W., Marx, D. B., Holz, J. C. and Holz, A. A.H. 2007. A GIS-Based Approach to Watershed Classification for Nebraska Reservoirs. Journal of The

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Clark, W. 2010. Principles of Landscape Ecology. Nature Education Knowledge, 3(10), 34p. Davenport, T., Minsch, K., Novak, C. Olsenholler, S., Sagona, F., Sprunger, E. and Warren, J.

Dijokic, D. 2008. Comprehensive Terrain Preprocessing Using Arc Hydro Tools. ESRI, New

Dökmeci, V. H. 1996. Sustainable and Landscape Planning. Unprinted Master Seminar. University of Ankara, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Department of

Du-ning, X. and Xiu-Zhen, L. 1999. Core Concepts of Landscape Ecology. Journal of

Efe, M. and Aydn, B. A. 2009. Change ability of Planning Based on Administrative Boundaries and Proposal Boundaries of Provincial Based on Basin. Aegean

Farina, A. 2001. Landscapes and Their Ecological Components. The Living World, Vol. 4,

Farina, A., Bogaert, J. and Scipani, I. 2005. Cognitive Landscape and Information: New Perspectives to Investigate the Ecological Complexity. Bio Systems, No. 79, p.235–240.

Anonymous, 2012c. An Introduction to Urban Watersheds.

http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca (Accessed on: 12.12.2012).

Group of Companies, Ankara, Turkey, 80p.

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Geographical Journal, Izmir, Turkey, 18(1-2), p.73-84.

Anonymous, 2012d. Getting to Know.

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p.435-448.

374.

Actually watershed clarifies the complexity of boundary in the landscape. When we consider the importance of water in life of living things, its effect on establishing, developing and even collapsing civilisations, it is clear that watershed will be effective boundaries in landscape planning; because water turns into the interaction space of natural and cultural life while forming socio-cultural and economical life by its presence. This situation enables a watershed to turn into not only a natural boundary, but also a boundary that effects a human's life. Also, the landscape changes as nature reshapes with human life. The changing landscape gains a new character. This character is not only a product of the change of the natural structure caused by the human presence, but also can be expressed with a hierarchal system from a local scale to upper scales. Thus, the watershed supports the scale approach in the planning with its hierarchal structure (main river basin, basin, subbasin, microbasin). Along with that, the main river basins that go beyond the national boundaries will be able to easily define its collaborators in the transnational landscapes.

## **Author details**

Aybike Ayfer Karadağ *Düzce University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

## **6. References**

Anonymous, 2000. The European Landscape Convention. Council of European, 51p.

Anonymous, 2008. Landscape Planning the Basis of Sustainable Landscape Development. Federal Agency for Nature Conservation. Gebr Klingenberg Buchkunst Leipzing Gmbh Printed, 52p.

Anonymous, 2012a. Watershed Planning http://www.conservewy.com (Accessed on: 10.11.2012) Anonymous, 2012b. What is a Watershed. United States Environmental Protection Agency. www. http://www. water.epa.gov Anonymous, 2012a. (Accessed on: 2.12.2012)

Anonymous, 2012c. An Introduction to Urban Watersheds.

126 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Author details** 

**6. References** 

Aybike Ayfer Karadağ

Printed, 52p.

Anonymous, 2012a. Watershed Planning

http://www.conservewy.com (Accessed on: 10.11.2012)

each of which is composed of smaller-order watershed. The upper and lower limits of this hierarchy are not definitive but it is possible to move in both directions, including smaller and larger basins. Tangtham (1996) and Karadağ (2007) lay stress on watershed classification is thus anticipated as a useful tool for management and planning of natural resources. Selman (2006) emphasized the importance of watershed boundaries in landscape ecology. Makhdoum (2008) indicated that the mapping unite (or land unit) is freely derived from watershed, land system, land form units and ecosystems, at different scale level. He accepted watershed as one of mapping units in land ecology. Bulley *et al.* (2007) point out that watershed provides an important spatial framework to develop a classification system. Şahin (2007) and Şahin (2009) suggests that watershed can be descriptive and administrative units for landscape planning. According to EPA watershed is an example of hierarchical system in nature (Anonymous 2012a). Efe and Aydn (2009), indicated that the provincial boundaries which constitute the framework of the administrative organization where planning is currently authorized do not coincide with the natural boundaries. They suggest redefining the

provincial boundaries compatible with watershed for the protection of the nature.

*Düzce University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

Anonymous, 2000. The European Landscape Convention. Council of European, 51p.

Anonymous, 2008. Landscape Planning the Basis of Sustainable Landscape Development. Federal Agency for Nature Conservation. Gebr Klingenberg Buchkunst Leipzing Gmbh

Actually watershed clarifies the complexity of boundary in the landscape. When we consider the importance of water in life of living things, its effect on establishing, developing and even collapsing civilisations, it is clear that watershed will be effective boundaries in landscape planning; because water turns into the interaction space of natural and cultural life while forming socio-cultural and economical life by its presence. This situation enables a watershed to turn into not only a natural boundary, but also a boundary that effects a human's life. Also, the landscape changes as nature reshapes with human life. The changing landscape gains a new character. This character is not only a product of the change of the natural structure caused by the human presence, but also can be expressed with a hierarchal system from a local scale to upper scales. Thus, the watershed supports the scale approach in the planning with its hierarchal structure (main river basin, basin, subbasin, microbasin). Along with that, the main river basins that go beyond the national boundaries will be able to easily define its collaborators in the transnational landscapes.

 http://www.gdrc.org/uem/water/watershed/introduction.html (Accessed on: 12.01.2012) Anonymous, 2012d. Getting to Know.

http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca (Accessed on: 12.12.2012).


Farina, A. 2006. Principles and Methods in Landscape Ecology. Kluwer Academic Publishers, USA, 436p.

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Mervade, V. 2012. Watershed and Stream Network Delineation Using ArcHydro Tools. University of Purdue, School of Civil Engineering, Printed Lecture Note, USA, 22p. Metzger, J. P. and Muller, E. 1996. Characterizing the Complexity of Landscape Boundaries

Mostaghimi, S., Park, S.W., Cooke, R.A. and Wang S. Y. 1997. Assessment of Management Alternatives On a Small Agricultural Watershed. Journal of Water Resources, 31 (8), p.

Opdam, P., Steingröver, E. and Van Rooij, S. 2006. Ecological Networks: A Spatial Concept for Multi-Actor Planning of Sustainable Landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning, 75

O'Callaghan, J. R. 1996. Land Use: The Interaction of Economics, Ecology and Hydrology.

O' Keefe, T. C., Elliott, S. R. and Naiman, R. J. 2012. Introduction to Watershed Ecology. Watershed Academy Web Documents, Environmental Protection Agency, USA, p.1-37. Page, N., Rood, K., Holz, T, Zandbergen, P., Horner, R. and McPhee, M. 1999. Proposed Watershed Classification System for Stormwater Management in The GVS & DD Area. Environmental Monitoring and Assessments Task Group, Washington, USA, 125p. Schroder, B. 2006. Pattern, Process, and Function in Landscape Ecology and Catchment Hydrology–How can Quantitative Landscape Ecology Support Predictions in Ungauged Basins (PUB). Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discuss, p.1185–1214. Selman, P. 2006. Planning at the Landscape Scale. Routledge Publisher, Newyork, USA,

Steiner, F. 1999. The Living Landscape: An Ecological Approach to Landscape Planning.

Strassberg, G., Jones, N.L. and Maidment, D. R. 2011. Arc Hydro Groundwater: GIS for

Şahin, Ş. 1996. A Research on Determining and Evaluating the Landscape Potential of Dikmen Valley. Ph. D. Thesis. Ankara University, Graduate School of Natural and

Şahin, Ş. 2009a. Landscape Ecology: Concepts, Methods and Applications. Public Administration Institute for Turkey and the Middle East (TODAIE) Publisher, Ankara,

Şahin 2009b. Sustainable Landscape Assessment of River Catchments in the Example of Dikmen Brook in Ankara, Turkey. International Journal of Geosciences, 57 (2), p.33-46. Tangtham, N. 1996. Watershed Classification: The Macro Land-Use Planning for the Sustainable Development of Water Resources. Advances in Water Resources Management and Wastewater Treatment Technologies Workshop. Suranaree

Applied Sciences, Department of Landscape Architecture, Ankara, Turkey, 160p. Şahin, Ş. 2007. Co-Operative Approach in the Implementation of European Landscape Conventionand European Water Framework Directive in Turkey: Joined up Thinking.

International Congress River Basin Management, No.1, p.218-227.

McHarg, I. L. 1991. Design With Nature. Wiley and Sons, New York, USA, 198p.

by Remote Sensing.Landscape Ecology, 11 (2), p.65-77.

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620p.

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& Science, 3 (3), p.147-160.

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Forman, R. T.T. 1995. Land Mosaic. The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions. Cambridge

Graff, J. 1993. Soil Conservation and Sustainable Land Use. A Royal Institute Series,

Ivits, E., Koch, B., Blaschke, T., Jochum, M and P. Adler, P. 2005. Landscape Structure Assessment with Image Grey-Values and Object-Based Classification at Three Spatial

Jones, M., Howar, J., Olwing K. R., Primdahl, J. and Herlin, I. S. 2007. Multiple Interfaces of the European Landscape. Norwegian Journal of Geography, 61(4), p.207–216. Kaden, S. 2003. GIS in Water-Related Environmental Planning and Management: Problems and Solutions. Application of Geographic Information Systems in Hydrology and Water

Karadağ, A. A. 2007. Development of Participatory Watershed Management Model: The Case of Kovada Lake. Ph. D. Thesis. University of Ankara, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Department of Landscape Architecture, Ankara, Turkey, 254p.

Kovar, K and Nachtnebel H.P. 1996. Application of Geographic Information Systems in Hydrology and Water Resources Management. The International Association of

Köseoğlu, M. 1982. Landscape Evaluation Methods. University of Ege Faculty of

Kurum, E. and Şahin, Ş. 2000. Determination of High Landscape Value in Watershed Management Areas: Analysis of Soil-Vegetation Protection. Our Environment and Landscape Architecture in the 2000's Symposium. University of Ankara, Turkey, p.75-

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Turner, M. G., Gardner, R. H. And O'Neill, R.V. 2002. Landscape Ecology in Theory and Practices: Pattern and Process. Springer Verlag, New York, USA, 404p.

**Chapter 6** 

© 2013 Erdogan, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Stakeholder Involvement in Sustainable** 

Water is a key element for human life and philosophy. Many of the thinkers had considered on this issue and they have produced several theories. For example, Thales' most famous belief was his cosmological thesis, which held that the world started from water. This thesis was the first try to explain how was the beginning of the creation and world, in the terms of the logical and systematical way. On the other side, Aristotle considered this belief roughly equivalent to the later ideas of Anaximenes, who held that everything in the world was composed of air. The best explanation of Thales' view is the following passage from Aristotle's Metaphysics (Anonymous, 2012a). The passage contains words from the theory of matter and form that were adopted by science with quite different meanings. "That from which is everything that exists and from which it first becomes and into which it is rendered at last, its substance remaining under it, but transforming in qualities, that they say is the element and principle of things that are." Again: "For it is necessary that there be some nature, either one or more than one, from which become the other things of the object being saved... Thales the founder of this type of philosophy says that it is water". A deeper dip into the waters of the theory of matter and form is properly reserved to other articles (Anonymous, 2012a). Thales taught as follows: "Water constituted the principle of all things." Heraclitus Homericus states that Thales drew his conclusion from seeing moist substance turn into air, slime and earth. It seems likely that Thales viewed the Earth as solidifying from the water on which it floated and which surrounded Ocean (Anonymous, 2012b). On the other hand, Heraclitus said, "everything in life is changing and will change too". He is famous for his insistence on ever-present change in the universe, as stated in the famous saying, "No man ever steps in the same river twice". This quote is the famous speech about waters and river in the

**Watershed Management** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Reyhan Erdogan

**1. Introduction** 

philosophy.

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55798

**1.1. Water is a main source of life** 


## **Stakeholder Involvement in Sustainable Watershed Management**

Reyhan Erdogan

130 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Conservation, Ankara, Turkey, 175p.

of Landscape Architecture, Ankara, 141p.

Landscape Research, 5(3), p.1-35.

USA, 151 p.

Turner, M. G., Gardner, R. H. And O'Neill, R.V. 2002. Landscape Ecology in Theory and

Uzun O. 2003. Landscape Assessment and Development of Management Model for Düzce, Asarsuyu Watershed. Ph. D. Thesis. University of Ankara, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Department of Landscape Architecture, Ankara, Turkey, 470p. Uzun, O. and Gültekin, P. 2012. Process Analysis in Landscape Planning, The Example of

Uzun, O., İlke E. F., Çetinkaya, G., Erduran, F. and Açksöz, S. 2012. Landscape Management: Conservation and Planning Project for Konya, Bozkr-Seydişehir-Ahrl- Yalhüyük Districts and Suğla Lake. The Project. Ministry of Environment and Forestry, General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks, Division of Landscape

Waltz, U. 2011. Landscape Structure, Landscape Metrics and Biodiversity. Living Reviews in

Weekes, A. 2009. Process Domains as a Unifying Concept to Characterize Geohydrological Linkages in Glaciated Mountain Headwaters. Ph. D. Thesis. University of Washington,

Zaimoğlu, E. 2003. A Search on Landscape Planning of Selçuk (Izmir) and It's Around. Msc Thesis. Ege University, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Department

Practices: Pattern and Process. Springer Verlag, New York, USA, 404p.

Sakarya/Kocaali, Turkey. Scientific Research and Essays, 6(2), p.313-331.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55798

## **1. Introduction**

## **1.1. Water is a main source of life**

Water is a key element for human life and philosophy. Many of the thinkers had considered on this issue and they have produced several theories. For example, Thales' most famous belief was his cosmological thesis, which held that the world started from water. This thesis was the first try to explain how was the beginning of the creation and world, in the terms of the logical and systematical way. On the other side, Aristotle considered this belief roughly equivalent to the later ideas of Anaximenes, who held that everything in the world was composed of air. The best explanation of Thales' view is the following passage from Aristotle's Metaphysics (Anonymous, 2012a). The passage contains words from the theory of matter and form that were adopted by science with quite different meanings. "That from which is everything that exists and from which it first becomes and into which it is rendered at last, its substance remaining under it, but transforming in qualities, that they say is the element and principle of things that are." Again: "For it is necessary that there be some nature, either one or more than one, from which become the other things of the object being saved... Thales the founder of this type of philosophy says that it is water". A deeper dip into the waters of the theory of matter and form is properly reserved to other articles (Anonymous, 2012a). Thales taught as follows: "Water constituted the principle of all things." Heraclitus Homericus states that Thales drew his conclusion from seeing moist substance turn into air, slime and earth. It seems likely that Thales viewed the Earth as solidifying from the water on which it floated and which surrounded Ocean (Anonymous, 2012b). On the other hand, Heraclitus said, "everything in life is changing and will change too". He is famous for his insistence on ever-present change in the universe, as stated in the famous saying, "No man ever steps in the same river twice". This quote is the famous speech about waters and river in the philosophy.

© 2013 Erdogan, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

On the other hand, problems about the water should be necessarily solved and it is very important for human life. The main problem about water is permanent since the human history. In the right term humans are the main factor of the problems about water and rivers, they have been effected by these problems in the first hand, but in the same time humans are responsible about to solve these problems The most challenging activity about water is the shape and nature of the water. Water can break walls, buildings and cities. Besides this destructive nature of the water, humans need water for sustaining their lives too. They need it, to irrigate their fields for producing crops, to drink when they are thirsty. For solving this, problems humans need to improve their calculations and they try to find a suitable solution for these situation. A first innovative and qualitative solution in math has been established in this period, in the field of the geometry (Deauna et al., 2000). Because of them the earliest branches of Mathematics. Beginnings of the geometry can be traced before 1700 B.C. or in early ancient Egypt. Due to necessity, every time the Nile River inundated and deposited fertile soil along the bank, the early Egyptian had to solve the problem of size and boundaries of land along the Nile River. Changes happened in the contour of the land had caused confusion among landowners. Therefore, a system of making boundaries, measuring lengths and areas had to be discovered (Deauna et al., 2000). From this circumstance, the name "Geometry" has evolved. The word "Geometry" originated from the word "Geo" means "earth" in Greek and "metros" means "to measure" (Deauna et al., 2000).

Stakeholder Involvement in Sustainable Watershed Management 133

Furthermore, the size and volume of the water are other important indicators of the water management. Maintaining proper water quality conditions is important to protect human, animal, and plant health, and is an on going concern in water resources (Giri et.al,. 2012). Meanwhile, anthropogenic activities such as direct industrial discharges and agricultural practices signicantly interfere with natural processes, which ultimately degrade water quality (Giri et.al,. 2012). Natural systems are mainly working on the logic of life cycle. A

Water quality depends on several physical combinations (Said et al., 2006). Sustainability of these physical components is important. Basically, physical sustainability is the combination of water quality, water quantity and ecological factors (Said et al., 2006). Evaluating the water quality situation within a watershed requires information on physical, chemical, and biological water quality indicators. Unfortunately, for many constituents historical measurements do not exist for most watersheds. In these cases, estimation of these constitutes is necessary from the available data on different, related constituents (Said et al., 2006). Trends of these constituents are very important for complete evaluation and mitigation of water quality problems and in the long-term decision-making processes. Using advanced techniques that construct relationships between water quality constituents makes

evaluation and mitigation of water quality problems more reliable (Said et al., 2006).

There are some international tools to protect and improve water quality. One of these tools is European water Framework. This framework is a proper way to combine countries for more sustainable management practices. There are many good examples of the plans that aim to achieve a better understanding of water bodies. To comply with the European Water Framework Directive (EWFD, 2000/60/EC), which requires a "Good Ecological Status" for all waterbodies in 2015, French policy adopted a Phyto-Pharmaceutic Products' or pesticide reduction plan (ECOPHYTO 2018 plan). This program aims at inciting farmers to halve the annual amount of pesticides used. Nevertheless, the question of pesticide transfer is not solved. Presently the "zero pesticide" solution is not achievable for technical and economical reasons. The sociological part of the study highlights the importance of a co-construction process between all involved stakeholders, even if it is time consuming. Theoretical solution should be adapted not only to hydrological aspects but also to the socio-economical context

Altering the landscape can influence the hydrologic integrity of a watershed. Changes in water quality and quantity that can occur from storm-water runoff include but are not




channelization, and more frequent and severe flood events,

change in a parameter can be effect all other parameters.

(Tournebize et al., 2011).

aquifer depletion,


shaded riparian buffers, and

limited to:

Many thinkers of the western World could not be stand indifferent to these rules of the nature. They were very proud to these knowledge and they have adopted these knowledge to their societies. These situation is very ironic because today many of the eastern countries are following western World. However, nowadays the source of the knowledge is not matter; every country and every nation in the World want to solve the water problems. Water is the most important source in the World, so water problem is now a global problem and it is a key issue for every individual in the World.

#### **1.2. Watershed**

A watershed is an area of land where all of the water that is under it or drains off it goes into the same place. John Wesley Powell, geographer and a scientist, put it best when he said that a watershed is: "that an area of land, a bounded hydrologic system, within which all living things are inextricably linked by their common water course and where, as humans settled, simple logic demanded that they become part of a community." (USEPA, 2012). The term "watershed" is commonly used to describe an area of the earth's surface from which water flows downhill to a single outflow point (Anonymous, 2009). Watersheds come in all shapes and size. The area encompassed may either be small, such as that which an ephemeral stream drains only during precipitation events, or be large. Watersheds cross county, state, and national boundaries (Anonymous, 2009). Because of them managing of the watersheds is very sensitive political issue between countries.

Health of the watershed has directly effect on the quality of the water, which drain in the watershed area. In this situation, quality of water is important (Giri et.al,. 2012). Furthermore, the size and volume of the water are other important indicators of the water management. Maintaining proper water quality conditions is important to protect human, animal, and plant health, and is an on going concern in water resources (Giri et.al,. 2012). Meanwhile, anthropogenic activities such as direct industrial discharges and agricultural practices signicantly interfere with natural processes, which ultimately degrade water quality (Giri et.al,. 2012). Natural systems are mainly working on the logic of life cycle. A change in a parameter can be effect all other parameters.

Water quality depends on several physical combinations (Said et al., 2006). Sustainability of these physical components is important. Basically, physical sustainability is the combination of water quality, water quantity and ecological factors (Said et al., 2006). Evaluating the water quality situation within a watershed requires information on physical, chemical, and biological water quality indicators. Unfortunately, for many constituents historical measurements do not exist for most watersheds. In these cases, estimation of these constitutes is necessary from the available data on different, related constituents (Said et al., 2006). Trends of these constituents are very important for complete evaluation and mitigation of water quality problems and in the long-term decision-making processes. Using advanced techniques that construct relationships between water quality constituents makes evaluation and mitigation of water quality problems more reliable (Said et al., 2006).

There are some international tools to protect and improve water quality. One of these tools is European water Framework. This framework is a proper way to combine countries for more sustainable management practices. There are many good examples of the plans that aim to achieve a better understanding of water bodies. To comply with the European Water Framework Directive (EWFD, 2000/60/EC), which requires a "Good Ecological Status" for all waterbodies in 2015, French policy adopted a Phyto-Pharmaceutic Products' or pesticide reduction plan (ECOPHYTO 2018 plan). This program aims at inciting farmers to halve the annual amount of pesticides used. Nevertheless, the question of pesticide transfer is not solved. Presently the "zero pesticide" solution is not achievable for technical and economical reasons. The sociological part of the study highlights the importance of a co-construction process between all involved stakeholders, even if it is time consuming. Theoretical solution should be adapted not only to hydrological aspects but also to the socio-economical context (Tournebize et al., 2011).

Altering the landscape can influence the hydrologic integrity of a watershed. Changes in water quality and quantity that can occur from storm-water runoff include but are not limited to:


132 Advances in Landscape Architecture

"metros" means "to measure" (Deauna et al., 2000).

and it is a key issue for every individual in the World.

the watersheds is very sensitive political issue between countries.

**1.2. Watershed** 

On the other hand, problems about the water should be necessarily solved and it is very important for human life. The main problem about water is permanent since the human history. In the right term humans are the main factor of the problems about water and rivers, they have been effected by these problems in the first hand, but in the same time humans are responsible about to solve these problems The most challenging activity about water is the shape and nature of the water. Water can break walls, buildings and cities. Besides this destructive nature of the water, humans need water for sustaining their lives too. They need it, to irrigate their fields for producing crops, to drink when they are thirsty. For solving this, problems humans need to improve their calculations and they try to find a suitable solution for these situation. A first innovative and qualitative solution in math has been established in this period, in the field of the geometry (Deauna et al., 2000). Because of them the earliest branches of Mathematics. Beginnings of the geometry can be traced before 1700 B.C. or in early ancient Egypt. Due to necessity, every time the Nile River inundated and deposited fertile soil along the bank, the early Egyptian had to solve the problem of size and boundaries of land along the Nile River. Changes happened in the contour of the land had caused confusion among landowners. Therefore, a system of making boundaries, measuring lengths and areas had to be discovered (Deauna et al., 2000). From this circumstance, the name "Geometry" has evolved. The word "Geometry" originated from the word "Geo" means "earth" in Greek and

Many thinkers of the western World could not be stand indifferent to these rules of the nature. They were very proud to these knowledge and they have adopted these knowledge to their societies. These situation is very ironic because today many of the eastern countries are following western World. However, nowadays the source of the knowledge is not matter; every country and every nation in the World want to solve the water problems. Water is the most important source in the World, so water problem is now a global problem

A watershed is an area of land where all of the water that is under it or drains off it goes into the same place. John Wesley Powell, geographer and a scientist, put it best when he said that a watershed is: "that an area of land, a bounded hydrologic system, within which all living things are inextricably linked by their common water course and where, as humans settled, simple logic demanded that they become part of a community." (USEPA, 2012). The term "watershed" is commonly used to describe an area of the earth's surface from which water flows downhill to a single outflow point (Anonymous, 2009). Watersheds come in all shapes and size. The area encompassed may either be small, such as that which an ephemeral stream drains only during precipitation events, or be large. Watersheds cross county, state, and national boundaries (Anonymous, 2009). Because of them managing of

Health of the watershed has directly effect on the quality of the water, which drain in the watershed area. In this situation, quality of water is important (Giri et.al,. 2012).



Stakeholder Involvement in Sustainable Watershed Management 135

were performed in the Clinch and Powell Valley, VA, Middle Snake River, ID, Waquoit Bay, MA, Big Darby Creek, OH, and the Middle [segment of the] Platte River, NE. All five selected sites had valued ecological resources, multiple stressors, an existing data set, and willing assessment participants. Using these assessments, many key aspects of the watershed ERA process, including challenges encountered and lessons learned,

Chess and Gibson (2001) stated that the attributes intrinsic to a watershed management are: scientic feasibility, social feasibility, and motivational feasibility. They considered that these feasibilities are not static attributes although they can be improved through additional efforts to deal with attributes that limit feasibility. Watershed management plans may not be implemented due to lack of support even if the planning process and proposed actions are faultless. However, watershed restoration and protection management are often a complex web of technical, legal, and economic issues involving numerous stakeholders. The ability to address these issues depends on the attributes intrinsic to the watershed and whether they provide sufcient, basis for this innovative approach to watershed management (Chess and

1. Scientic feasibility is tied to the nature of environmental problems and the scientic

3. Motivational feasibility includes issues related to values or economic consideration

Scientic feasibility concerns the nature of the environmental problems, the tools to track them, and the methods to improve them. Examples of scientic feasibility related issues are the engineering solutions to improve water quality or conserve water quantity, technological limitations, such as the inability to detect the source of pollution, the absence of obvious causal relationships, and the development of best management practices (Said et al., 2006). In some areas, scientic feasibility may be so limited that management of a given watershed becomes a lower priority than other watersheds in which watershed management is more likely to succeed. Research and strong leadership can increase scientic feasibility to overcome technological barriers (Said et al., 2006). In summary, environmental problems must be measurable and tractable over time in order to predict performance, achieve public awareness, indicate progress towards goals, locate hot spots, take actions when appropriate, and sustain watershed management (Said et al., 2006).

Social feasibility means getting stakeholders involved and utilizing their input in a meaningful process. The National Research Council noted the need for watershed management to ''get the participation right.'' There are many ways to improve stakeholder partnerships (Said et al., 2006). These include recruiting participants, encouraging leadership, education, civic engagement, and exploring various structural arrangements. Watershed management can be implemented through voluntary participation or facilitated by existing statutory infrastructure. Ideally, all watershed management activities would be driven by voluntary participation because of enlightened self-interest. However, statutory

Gibson 2001). These attributes are dened by Chess and Gibson (2001) as follows:

2. Social feasibility encompasses public communications and engagement.

documented.

capacity to solve them.

(Chess and Gibson 2001).

Mitigation of water quality problems requires a number of actions by stakeholders and regulatory agencies. In some cases, especially in locally impaired waters, stakeholders can identify and mitigate water quality problems directly. In the case of signicant local or regional pollution, watershed management plans and the total maximum daily loads, issued by USEPA of the Clean Water Act, enhance the water quality situation in impaired watersheds (USEPA, 1991). The total maximum daily load establishes a set of required reductions in target parameters consistent with an implementation policy to protect in stream water quality (Benham et al., 2002). If the water quality continues to worsen or goals can not be achieved under easing condition, it may be necessary to apply point source reductions or best management practices to improve the water quality as a whole. In summary, the water quality component in watershed management integrates scientic knowledge and stakeholder supplied information regarding the watershed-scale social, economic, and environmental processes affecting water quality.

## **1.3. Watershed management**

Watershed management is the integrated use of land, vegetation and water in a geographically discrete drainage area for the benefit of its residents, with the objective of protecting or conserving the hydrologic services that the watershed provides and of reducing or avoiding negative downstream or groundwater impacts (Darghouth et al., 2008).

Watershed management is dedicated to solving watershed problems on a sustainable basis. These problems can be classified into five categories: lack of water (quantity), deterioration in water quality, ecological affects, poor public participation, and low output economic value for the investment in water-related activities. The first three categories constitute physical or ''natural'' sustainability while the last two categories define social and economic sustainability. For successful implementation of solutions to the physical and economic issues, a broad, representative array of stakeholders should be involved (Grigg, 1998, Said et al., 2006).

Watersheds are a highly desirable unit for planning because they are physical features ubiquitous across the landscape serving as the geographic foundation for political states. As planning units, watersheds transcend political boundaries. However, prior to the 1970's, most watershed management focused on solving localized problems without taking into account the interrelationship between those problems and the biophysical, economic and social elements of the larger watershed system (Heathcote, 1998). Furthermore, during most of the mid- to late- 20th century, watershed management was, politically, a top-down planning process with national concern pre-empting local (National Research Council, 1999). In the mid-1990s, EPA's Risk Assessment Forum and Office of Water cosponsored the development of five-demonstration watershed ERAs to test application of the ERA Framework (USEPA, 1992) to Office of Water programs. The five watershed assessments were performed in the Clinch and Powell Valley, VA, Middle Snake River, ID, Waquoit Bay, MA, Big Darby Creek, OH, and the Middle [segment of the] Platte River, NE. All five selected sites had valued ecological resources, multiple stressors, an existing data set, and willing assessment participants. Using these assessments, many key aspects of the watershed ERA process, including challenges encountered and lessons learned, documented.

134 Advances in Landscape Architecture

(Tournebize et al., 2011).

**1.3. Watershed management** 

2008).

al., 2006).


Mitigation of water quality problems requires a number of actions by stakeholders and regulatory agencies. In some cases, especially in locally impaired waters, stakeholders can identify and mitigate water quality problems directly. In the case of signicant local or regional pollution, watershed management plans and the total maximum daily loads, issued by USEPA of the Clean Water Act, enhance the water quality situation in impaired watersheds (USEPA, 1991). The total maximum daily load establishes a set of required reductions in target parameters consistent with an implementation policy to protect in stream water quality (Benham et al., 2002). If the water quality continues to worsen or goals can not be achieved under easing condition, it may be necessary to apply point source reductions or best management practices to improve the water quality as a whole. In summary, the water quality component in watershed management integrates scientic knowledge and stakeholder supplied information regarding the watershed-scale social,

Watershed management is the integrated use of land, vegetation and water in a geographically discrete drainage area for the benefit of its residents, with the objective of protecting or conserving the hydrologic services that the watershed provides and of reducing or avoiding negative downstream or groundwater impacts (Darghouth et al.,

Watershed management is dedicated to solving watershed problems on a sustainable basis. These problems can be classified into five categories: lack of water (quantity), deterioration in water quality, ecological affects, poor public participation, and low output economic value for the investment in water-related activities. The first three categories constitute physical or ''natural'' sustainability while the last two categories define social and economic sustainability. For successful implementation of solutions to the physical and economic issues, a broad, representative array of stakeholders should be involved (Grigg, 1998, Said et

Watersheds are a highly desirable unit for planning because they are physical features ubiquitous across the landscape serving as the geographic foundation for political states. As planning units, watersheds transcend political boundaries. However, prior to the 1970's, most watershed management focused on solving localized problems without taking into account the interrelationship between those problems and the biophysical, economic and social elements of the larger watershed system (Heathcote, 1998). Furthermore, during most of the mid- to late- 20th century, watershed management was, politically, a top-down planning process with national concern pre-empting local (National Research Council, 1999). In the mid-1990s, EPA's Risk Assessment Forum and Office of Water cosponsored the development of five-demonstration watershed ERAs to test application of the ERA Framework (USEPA, 1992) to Office of Water programs. The five watershed assessments

economic, and environmental processes affecting water quality.

Chess and Gibson (2001) stated that the attributes intrinsic to a watershed management are: scientic feasibility, social feasibility, and motivational feasibility. They considered that these feasibilities are not static attributes although they can be improved through additional efforts to deal with attributes that limit feasibility. Watershed management plans may not be implemented due to lack of support even if the planning process and proposed actions are faultless. However, watershed restoration and protection management are often a complex web of technical, legal, and economic issues involving numerous stakeholders. The ability to address these issues depends on the attributes intrinsic to the watershed and whether they provide sufcient, basis for this innovative approach to watershed management (Chess and Gibson 2001). These attributes are dened by Chess and Gibson (2001) as follows:


Scientic feasibility concerns the nature of the environmental problems, the tools to track them, and the methods to improve them. Examples of scientic feasibility related issues are the engineering solutions to improve water quality or conserve water quantity, technological limitations, such as the inability to detect the source of pollution, the absence of obvious causal relationships, and the development of best management practices (Said et al., 2006). In some areas, scientic feasibility may be so limited that management of a given watershed becomes a lower priority than other watersheds in which watershed management is more likely to succeed. Research and strong leadership can increase scientic feasibility to overcome technological barriers (Said et al., 2006). In summary, environmental problems must be measurable and tractable over time in order to predict performance, achieve public awareness, indicate progress towards goals, locate hot spots, take actions when appropriate, and sustain watershed management (Said et al., 2006).

Social feasibility means getting stakeholders involved and utilizing their input in a meaningful process. The National Research Council noted the need for watershed management to ''get the participation right.'' There are many ways to improve stakeholder partnerships (Said et al., 2006). These include recruiting participants, encouraging leadership, education, civic engagement, and exploring various structural arrangements. Watershed management can be implemented through voluntary participation or facilitated by existing statutory infrastructure. Ideally, all watershed management activities would be driven by voluntary participation because of enlightened self-interest. However, statutory

authority is often important because of the authority it grants, the planning it may mandate, and the funding it may provide (Said et al., 2006). Collaborative approaches may not be appropriate for watersheds in which there is limited evidence of social feasibility. If there is lack of social feasibility within a watershed, Federal and state agencies need to recognize that signicant effort may be required to build social capacity to compensate for this intrinsic limitation. Agencies can build social feasibility by promoting civic efforts and by following best practices for development of collaborations (Said et al., 2006).

Stakeholder Involvement in Sustainable Watershed Management 137

1. the stakeholder's power to influence life on the watershed,

factor that the sustainability of the watershed management.

power (Wamalwa, 2009).

(Glicken, 2000).

2. the legitimacy of the stakeholder's relationship with the watershed region, and 3. the urgency of the stakeholder's claim on the watershed area (Wamalwa, 2009).

This theory produces a comprehensive typology of stakeholders based on the normative assumption that these variables define the field of stakeholders: those entities to whom managers should pay attention (Wamalwa, 2009). This attention is a very important key

According to Mitchell et al., (1997) stakeholders can be classified as "Latent" referring to those who are of low importance to the organization, because they posses only one of the three characteristics (urgency, power and legitimacy) or "Expectant", having a higher importance, than the latent by virtue of being in possession of two of the three qualities or "definitive" having the highest degree of importance to the organization, because they posses all the three features. The latent group of stakeholders can be further classified into three (Mitchell et. al. 1997). Dormant; involving those who have power but of no or little effect to the goal of integration, because they do not have legitimacy and urgency. Discretionary; including those who have legitimacy but have no urgency and power. Demanding; including those who may have the urgency but of low rating because they do not have legitimacy and power (Mitchell et. al. 1997). The expectant group can also be further subdivided into dominant, wielding both high influence and stake or, dependent with high stake and urgency but having low influence, or dangerous with urgency and

The planning phase for a watershed assessment is especially complex because a watershed typically overlaps multiple jurisdictions that are managed by organizations with divergent goals and responsibilities and inhabited by numerous stakeholders with varied interests. Depending on the perspectives of the stakeholders involved, a different set of goals and objectives may emerge. Stakeholder participation may become complex if there are numerous stakeholders or some of them are interested in only a limited range of issues

The inadvertent exclusion of a stakeholder group may influence a group's decision to accept or reject the outcome of the process. Excluded stakeholders could even take legal actions, such as filing a citizen lawsuit under the Clean Water Act to challenge the process outcomes. Therefore, stakeholder involvement needs to be balanced against the limited resources

Participants in the watershed management process should include all regulatory or resource agencies (state, federal, local) with responsibilities for protecting and managing the water body and any parties whose authority will be needed to implement a management plan (e.g., local and county officials with zoning oversight). Nongovernmental organizations (such as watershed associations or councils, river watch citizen groups, volunteer monitoring group, educational and research institutions, industries, and agricultural associations) all have a stake in watershed management. Besides organized groups, other stakeholders include landowners, those who use the watershed, and those whose

available for watershed assessment and management (USEPA, 2001).

Occurrences of ooding, drinking water contamination, or other threats may increase social feasibility. Motivational feasibility is needed when there is a lack of sufcient income or demographic composition and when tax and donation of funds and time are needed. Motives may fall into three distinct categories: rational (cost-benet assessment), normbased (efforts to conform to norms such as pollution remediation), and affective (emotional attachments that are difcult to quantify such as protection of endangered species and nonuse values) but are powerful in watershed management. Motivational feasibility is closely linked to social feasibility. For watershed management activities to occur there must be motivation to take action. Motivation can be induced by infusing funds (incentives for watershed projects), increasing values, and improving cost benet ratios (Said et.al, 2006).

There is some important plan at maintaining progress towards a sustainable watershed. The first one is organizational capacity for a long term. The second one is multi-disciplined, inclusive oversight group. The others are revitalization of existing planning efforts and programs as planning tools for a sustainable future; broadening the scale of future sustainability efforts in the region to include the entire Broad-head watershed; further review and analysis of the regulatory framework affecting sustainable watershed planning efforts, and continuation of an education and outreach effort through social marketing efforts.

## **1.4. Identifying and including stakeholders in watershed management**

Among the various ways of identifying stakeholders, as well as in the agency, behavioral, ecological, institutional, resource dependence, and transaction cost theories of the firm, there has been found no single attribute within a given theory that can guide people to a reliably on these issues. However, it was found that one can extract from these literatures the idea that just a few attributes can be used to identify different classes of stakeholders in an environment. Analysis with Freeman's definition of stakeholder is a good point. He stated that-"any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of the organization's objectives" (Freeman, 1984) and develop a theory of stakeholder identification drawn from these various theoretical literatures. From this point, there can be a broad definition can be explained, so that no stakeholders, potential or actual, are excluded from analysis arbitrarily or a priori (Wamalwa, 2009). Stakeholders are important in the planning of the natural environment where the human activities and natural processes are multilayered combined. And then, a propose that classes of stakeholders can be identified by their possession or attributed possession of one, two, or all three of the following attributes (Wamalwa, 2009):

1. the stakeholder's power to influence life on the watershed,

136 Advances in Landscape Architecture

(Wamalwa, 2009):

authority is often important because of the authority it grants, the planning it may mandate, and the funding it may provide (Said et al., 2006). Collaborative approaches may not be appropriate for watersheds in which there is limited evidence of social feasibility. If there is lack of social feasibility within a watershed, Federal and state agencies need to recognize that signicant effort may be required to build social capacity to compensate for this intrinsic limitation. Agencies can build social feasibility by promoting civic efforts and by

Occurrences of ooding, drinking water contamination, or other threats may increase social feasibility. Motivational feasibility is needed when there is a lack of sufcient income or demographic composition and when tax and donation of funds and time are needed. Motives may fall into three distinct categories: rational (cost-benet assessment), normbased (efforts to conform to norms such as pollution remediation), and affective (emotional attachments that are difcult to quantify such as protection of endangered species and nonuse values) but are powerful in watershed management. Motivational feasibility is closely linked to social feasibility. For watershed management activities to occur there must be motivation to take action. Motivation can be induced by infusing funds (incentives for watershed projects), increasing values, and improving cost benet ratios (Said et.al, 2006).

There is some important plan at maintaining progress towards a sustainable watershed. The first one is organizational capacity for a long term. The second one is multi-disciplined, inclusive oversight group. The others are revitalization of existing planning efforts and programs as planning tools for a sustainable future; broadening the scale of future sustainability efforts in the region to include the entire Broad-head watershed; further review and analysis of the regulatory framework affecting sustainable watershed planning efforts,

Among the various ways of identifying stakeholders, as well as in the agency, behavioral, ecological, institutional, resource dependence, and transaction cost theories of the firm, there has been found no single attribute within a given theory that can guide people to a reliably on these issues. However, it was found that one can extract from these literatures the idea that just a few attributes can be used to identify different classes of stakeholders in an environment. Analysis with Freeman's definition of stakeholder is a good point. He stated that-"any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of the organization's objectives" (Freeman, 1984) and develop a theory of stakeholder identification drawn from these various theoretical literatures. From this point, there can be a broad definition can be explained, so that no stakeholders, potential or actual, are excluded from analysis arbitrarily or a priori (Wamalwa, 2009). Stakeholders are important in the planning of the natural environment where the human activities and natural processes are multilayered combined. And then, a propose that classes of stakeholders can be identified by their possession or attributed possession of one, two, or all three of the following attributes

and continuation of an education and outreach effort through social marketing efforts.

**1.4. Identifying and including stakeholders in watershed management** 

following best practices for development of collaborations (Said et al., 2006).


This theory produces a comprehensive typology of stakeholders based on the normative assumption that these variables define the field of stakeholders: those entities to whom managers should pay attention (Wamalwa, 2009). This attention is a very important key factor that the sustainability of the watershed management.

According to Mitchell et al., (1997) stakeholders can be classified as "Latent" referring to those who are of low importance to the organization, because they posses only one of the three characteristics (urgency, power and legitimacy) or "Expectant", having a higher importance, than the latent by virtue of being in possession of two of the three qualities or "definitive" having the highest degree of importance to the organization, because they posses all the three features. The latent group of stakeholders can be further classified into three (Mitchell et. al. 1997). Dormant; involving those who have power but of no or little effect to the goal of integration, because they do not have legitimacy and urgency. Discretionary; including those who have legitimacy but have no urgency and power. Demanding; including those who may have the urgency but of low rating because they do not have legitimacy and power (Mitchell et. al. 1997). The expectant group can also be further subdivided into dominant, wielding both high influence and stake or, dependent with high stake and urgency but having low influence, or dangerous with urgency and power (Wamalwa, 2009).

The planning phase for a watershed assessment is especially complex because a watershed typically overlaps multiple jurisdictions that are managed by organizations with divergent goals and responsibilities and inhabited by numerous stakeholders with varied interests. Depending on the perspectives of the stakeholders involved, a different set of goals and objectives may emerge. Stakeholder participation may become complex if there are numerous stakeholders or some of them are interested in only a limited range of issues (Glicken, 2000).

The inadvertent exclusion of a stakeholder group may influence a group's decision to accept or reject the outcome of the process. Excluded stakeholders could even take legal actions, such as filing a citizen lawsuit under the Clean Water Act to challenge the process outcomes. Therefore, stakeholder involvement needs to be balanced against the limited resources available for watershed assessment and management (USEPA, 2001).

Participants in the watershed management process should include all regulatory or resource agencies (state, federal, local) with responsibilities for protecting and managing the water body and any parties whose authority will be needed to implement a management plan (e.g., local and county officials with zoning oversight). Nongovernmental organizations (such as watershed associations or councils, river watch citizen groups, volunteer monitoring group, educational and research institutions, industries, and agricultural associations) all have a stake in watershed management. Besides organized groups, other stakeholders include landowners, those who use the watershed, and those whose participation is essential to successful management. In some instances, stakeholders may be hundreds of miles away from the assessment (e.g., bird watchers concerned about migratory waterfowl). The nongovernmental and unaffiliated stakeholders may have objectives that are very different from those of the regulatory agencies (e.g., minimizing restrictions on land use, resource development, or waste disposal). Although such social, legal, and economic objectives may be in conflict with some environmental objectives, they are still relevant concerns that need to be considered (Stahl et al., 1999). To help assess these tradeoffs, it may be helpful to involve environmental economists.

Stakeholder Involvement in Sustainable Watershed Management 139

collaborative watershed management refers to shared decision-making and implementation by public and private sector partners who share the common goal of conserving or

The collaborative watershed approach is on the agenda of the federal government in the United States. President Clinton's 1998 Clean Water Action Plan explicitly promotes such an approach nation wide. The plan encourages states to work with watershed stakeholders, including interested citizens, to identify watersheds with critical water quality problems and

By collaborating with local entities, states can facilitate ongoing learning; devise systems for measuring, monitoring, and evaluating; and disseminate best practices or model policies. They can actively engage in propagating local experiments. States have instrumental roles to play in achieving Dorf and Sabel's (1998) ideal of democratic experimentalism, where the deliberations and performance of one jurisdiction are considered in like jurisdictions. Since problems are encountered face-to-face at the local level, a critical function of the states is to build local collaborative, managerial, nancial, and technical capacity (Cigler, 1998). Recognizing the political palatability of local collaborative management results in emphasizing grassroots strategies, such as community education, and local government

Embraces the idea that all aspects of the watershed human resources, economic development, environmental quality, infrastructure development and public safety must be considered in a holistic watershed management decision-making process. Holistic watershed management's fundament approach is in a facilitated process designed for the integration of organizations and individuals having environmental knowledge, skills and

Consider the following roles agencies could play in sustainable holistic watershed

1. Catalyst–incentives or regulation enforcement to improve watershed environment (Water Quality). Agency representative living in the watershed experiencing a problem. 2. Responsive/Supportive–provide technical resources as needed for sound holistic

3. Stand back and let local people control the holistic watershed management planning

Previous water management efforts that were sectoral, technological and centralized have proved inadequate, because they failed to recognize and appreciate the intricacies and interrelations of ecosystems (Pereira, 1973). Consequently, integrated watershed Management

resources in the water quality and comprehensive community planning.

to focus resources and implement strategies to solve these problems (Michaels, 2001).

enhancing hydrologic resources (Michaels, 2001).

tools, such as oodplain zoning (Blatt, 1993).

**2.2. Holistic watershed management** 

management decision-making:

process (UOEWQP, 2004).

**2.3. Integrated watershed management** 

watershed management decision–making.

Participants on a watershed assessment team contribute different resources that include socioeconomic information, historical data, scientific expertise, and assets to conduct the assessment. The Big Darby Creek assessment project is a good example of team studies in the watershed management. Team members of the Big Darby Creek assessment project included biologists, a city planner, and environmental scientists (Cormier et al., 2000). Team members performed literature reviews and frequently consulted or interviewed experts in other disciplines. The team interacted regularly with the Big Darby Partners, a group of state agencies, representatives from The Nature Conservancy, and farmers concerned about the future of the working landscape. Because of them partnership between stakeholders and planners are important factor. Integration between these two groups effect the plan and application.

## **2. Watershed management approaches**

## **2.1. Collaborative watershed management**

Collaborative watershed management has emerged in the last two decades as a promising approach to address non-point source pollution in waters. With such a wide variety of landuse patterns across watersheds, it is important that collaborative approaches to water resource management are tailored to local land-use planning efforts (Wang, 2001; Scott et. al., 2010). Urban and rural landscapes can have very different biological systems, leading watershed partnerships located in different areas to address different environmental issues. Moreover, collaborative management efforts in each setting can be impacted by different sets of variables, from the level of human capital (e.g., income, education) and social capital (e.g., trust, networks, norms of reciprocity) in watershed communities, to the financial, technical, and human resources made available by government agencies, NGO's, academic units, and local citizens (Hardy and Koontz, 2010).

Successful collaborative watershed management programs emphasize active stakeholder engagement, employ integrated solutions, recognize the authority of multiple agencies and jurisdictions, and build on expertise and resources across sectors. Out of bio-geophysical necessity, managing a watershed involves coordinated stewardship of the waterbody and the land area that the waterbody drains. Consequently, watershed conservation and rehabilitation is typically a function of an array of public and private programs. Representatives of local, state, and federal agencies; nonprot group; and for-prot businesses each must bring complementary resources to the task (Golden, 1998). Ideally, collaborative watershed management refers to shared decision-making and implementation by public and private sector partners who share the common goal of conserving or enhancing hydrologic resources (Michaels, 2001).

The collaborative watershed approach is on the agenda of the federal government in the United States. President Clinton's 1998 Clean Water Action Plan explicitly promotes such an approach nation wide. The plan encourages states to work with watershed stakeholders, including interested citizens, to identify watersheds with critical water quality problems and to focus resources and implement strategies to solve these problems (Michaels, 2001).

By collaborating with local entities, states can facilitate ongoing learning; devise systems for measuring, monitoring, and evaluating; and disseminate best practices or model policies. They can actively engage in propagating local experiments. States have instrumental roles to play in achieving Dorf and Sabel's (1998) ideal of democratic experimentalism, where the deliberations and performance of one jurisdiction are considered in like jurisdictions. Since problems are encountered face-to-face at the local level, a critical function of the states is to build local collaborative, managerial, nancial, and technical capacity (Cigler, 1998). Recognizing the political palatability of local collaborative management results in emphasizing grassroots strategies, such as community education, and local government tools, such as oodplain zoning (Blatt, 1993).

## **2.2. Holistic watershed management**

138 Advances in Landscape Architecture

application.

be helpful to involve environmental economists.

**2. Watershed management approaches** 

**2.1. Collaborative watershed management** 

units, and local citizens (Hardy and Koontz, 2010).

participation is essential to successful management. In some instances, stakeholders may be hundreds of miles away from the assessment (e.g., bird watchers concerned about migratory waterfowl). The nongovernmental and unaffiliated stakeholders may have objectives that are very different from those of the regulatory agencies (e.g., minimizing restrictions on land use, resource development, or waste disposal). Although such social, legal, and economic objectives may be in conflict with some environmental objectives, they are still relevant concerns that need to be considered (Stahl et al., 1999). To help assess these tradeoffs, it may

Participants on a watershed assessment team contribute different resources that include socioeconomic information, historical data, scientific expertise, and assets to conduct the assessment. The Big Darby Creek assessment project is a good example of team studies in the watershed management. Team members of the Big Darby Creek assessment project included biologists, a city planner, and environmental scientists (Cormier et al., 2000). Team members performed literature reviews and frequently consulted or interviewed experts in other disciplines. The team interacted regularly with the Big Darby Partners, a group of state agencies, representatives from The Nature Conservancy, and farmers concerned about the future of the working landscape. Because of them partnership between stakeholders and planners are important factor. Integration between these two groups effect the plan and

Collaborative watershed management has emerged in the last two decades as a promising approach to address non-point source pollution in waters. With such a wide variety of landuse patterns across watersheds, it is important that collaborative approaches to water resource management are tailored to local land-use planning efforts (Wang, 2001; Scott et. al., 2010). Urban and rural landscapes can have very different biological systems, leading watershed partnerships located in different areas to address different environmental issues. Moreover, collaborative management efforts in each setting can be impacted by different sets of variables, from the level of human capital (e.g., income, education) and social capital (e.g., trust, networks, norms of reciprocity) in watershed communities, to the financial, technical, and human resources made available by government agencies, NGO's, academic

Successful collaborative watershed management programs emphasize active stakeholder engagement, employ integrated solutions, recognize the authority of multiple agencies and jurisdictions, and build on expertise and resources across sectors. Out of bio-geophysical necessity, managing a watershed involves coordinated stewardship of the waterbody and the land area that the waterbody drains. Consequently, watershed conservation and rehabilitation is typically a function of an array of public and private programs. Representatives of local, state, and federal agencies; nonprot group; and for-prot businesses each must bring complementary resources to the task (Golden, 1998). Ideally, Embraces the idea that all aspects of the watershed human resources, economic development, environmental quality, infrastructure development and public safety must be considered in a holistic watershed management decision-making process. Holistic watershed management's fundament approach is in a facilitated process designed for the integration of organizations and individuals having environmental knowledge, skills and resources in the water quality and comprehensive community planning.

Consider the following roles agencies could play in sustainable holistic watershed management decision-making:


#### **2.3. Integrated watershed management**

Previous water management efforts that were sectoral, technological and centralized have proved inadequate, because they failed to recognize and appreciate the intricacies and interrelations of ecosystems (Pereira, 1973). Consequently, integrated watershed Management has been suggested as a solution and has been tried for decades in several countries in the world (Bowden, 1999; Mitchell, 1990; Bulkley, 1995; Lant, 1999; Pereira, 1973).

Stakeholder Involvement in Sustainable Watershed Management 141

level. This situation thread clear water resources and watersheds areas were under the pressure of human activities. So that, many of the international organizations have considered on this problem. In addition to this, they have produced many protection projects to solve water issues. In this study, we compile and evaluate the state of the art, with a special focus on material, which is produced by international organizations such as

Over the past seven years since the World Bank's Water Resource Strategy was created, the Bank's water lending commitments have increased significantly, the quality of the water portfolio was turned around, and the outcome project rating now even outperforms the Bank average. The 2010 mid-cycle implementation progress report, "Water for All in a Changing Climate", and "The Sustainable Infrastructure Action Plan" continue to guide the Bank's strategy for managing water resources. The World Bank increasingly works with partners from multilateral and bilateral agencies, but also agencies within civil society and the private sector at the global, regional, and country levels. It's partners are Global Water Partnership (GWP), International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), International Water Association (IWA), UN-WATER, Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council

The watershed management approach became prominent in developing countries in the 1970 in programs designed to improve upland natural resource management in order to protect downstream resources and infrastructure, when the problems of watershed

The origins of modern watershed management can be traced to several parallel and independent movements: the restoration of the Alps, the conservation movement in the United States in the 1930s; and the watershed rehabilitation activities of colonial governments in Africa (Dargouth et. al, 2008). National and regional programs were set up to address the damage to downstream infrastructure caused by degradation in the uplands. For instance, Indonesia created a National Watershed Development Program in 1976. From the mid-1970s, Brazil launched soil conservation programs that evolved by the mid-1980s into the Integrated Soil and Water Management Program in Microcatchments. India created the National Watershed Development Program for Rainfed Areas in 1990 (Dargouth et. al,

The watershed management projects in the 1970s and 1980s consisted on specific on-site and downstream physical outcomes, this works have been done only to protect resources by the engineer approaches. So investments were high cost and not always well justified, and the assets and benefits created often had a limited life (Dargouth et. al, 2008). And ecological dimension has never seen in these works. Because of these approaches, there is no chance to

the World Bank, IFAD, FAO, IWMI.

(WSSCC), World Water Council (WWC).

degradation first became apparent.

2008).

*3.1.1. Watershed management approach before the 2000* 

put a sustainable management approach in a holistic way.

**3.1. World bank** 

An "integrated watershed management" approach should strive to create settings for collaboration and innovation by facilitating dialogue among local stakeholders. The overriding charge under the piloting of this approach is fostering a framework for dialogue among stakeholders for problem solving examining interdisciplinary solutions that are inherently multi-objective. That is, solutions able to address more than one problem simultaneously while addressing the entire resource based on local circumstances. The Integrated Watershed Management Program proposes a framework for fostering interdisciplinary on-ground implementation activities. Interdisciplinary takes on a meaning of multiple dimensions and scales. In one instance vertical dimensions: encompassing both surface water and ground water quality at the watershed scale. In the other instance, the lateral dimension considering the varied land uses and land covers associated with agriculture, silviculture, mining, and hydrologic/habitat modification activities, as well as those associated with urbanization (e.g., land development, transportation, recreation, etc.). These land uses and activities give rise to varying degrees of non-point source pollution or polluted runoff, which is the major contributor to impaired waters (National Research Council, 1999).

Over the past two decades, there have been numerous applications of integrated watershed management worldwide. For example, integrated watershed management approaches have been recently used for combating drought in the Jhabua watershed in India (Singh et al., 2002), assessing and managing water resources in the upper Chao Phraya in Thailand (Padma et al., 2001), assessing and managing agricultural phosphorus pollution on the Chesapeake Bay (Sharpley, 2000), tackling the problem of land degradation in Australia (Ewing, 1999), and managing the Truckee River in Nevada (Cobourn, 1999). Also, in the United States, the USEPA has been quite instrumental in promoting the integrated watershed approach to management (National Research Council, 1999).

The lessons learned from these and other initiatives indicate that in order to succeed, integrated watershed management must be participatory, adaptive and experimental, integrating all the relevant scientific knowledge/data and user-supplied information regarding the social, economic and environmental processes affecting natural resources at the watershed level (Steiguer et al., 2003). This is due to poor integration and coordination, which is either fostered or hindered by a complex set of environmental and socio-economic and institutional factors at various spatial levels such as "(1) legislation and regulations, (2) policies and guidelines, (3) administrative structures, (4) economic and financial arrangements, (5) political structures and processes, (6) historical and traditional customs and values and (7) key participants or actors" (Mitchell, 1990).

## **3. Organizational approaches in watershed management**

With the increase in population water has became a key resources. The result of the development efforts of the countries, demand on the water has been become on maximum level. This situation thread clear water resources and watersheds areas were under the pressure of human activities. So that, many of the international organizations have considered on this problem. In addition to this, they have produced many protection projects to solve water issues. In this study, we compile and evaluate the state of the art, with a special focus on material, which is produced by international organizations such as the World Bank, IFAD, FAO, IWMI.

## **3.1. World bank**

140 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Council, 1999).

has been suggested as a solution and has been tried for decades in several countries in the

An "integrated watershed management" approach should strive to create settings for collaboration and innovation by facilitating dialogue among local stakeholders. The overriding charge under the piloting of this approach is fostering a framework for dialogue among stakeholders for problem solving examining interdisciplinary solutions that are inherently multi-objective. That is, solutions able to address more than one problem simultaneously while addressing the entire resource based on local circumstances. The Integrated Watershed Management Program proposes a framework for fostering interdisciplinary on-ground implementation activities. Interdisciplinary takes on a meaning of multiple dimensions and scales. In one instance vertical dimensions: encompassing both surface water and ground water quality at the watershed scale. In the other instance, the lateral dimension considering the varied land uses and land covers associated with agriculture, silviculture, mining, and hydrologic/habitat modification activities, as well as those associated with urbanization (e.g., land development, transportation, recreation, etc.). These land uses and activities give rise to varying degrees of non-point source pollution or polluted runoff, which is the major contributor to impaired waters (National Research

Over the past two decades, there have been numerous applications of integrated watershed management worldwide. For example, integrated watershed management approaches have been recently used for combating drought in the Jhabua watershed in India (Singh et al., 2002), assessing and managing water resources in the upper Chao Phraya in Thailand (Padma et al., 2001), assessing and managing agricultural phosphorus pollution on the Chesapeake Bay (Sharpley, 2000), tackling the problem of land degradation in Australia (Ewing, 1999), and managing the Truckee River in Nevada (Cobourn, 1999). Also, in the United States, the USEPA has been quite instrumental in promoting the integrated

The lessons learned from these and other initiatives indicate that in order to succeed, integrated watershed management must be participatory, adaptive and experimental, integrating all the relevant scientific knowledge/data and user-supplied information regarding the social, economic and environmental processes affecting natural resources at the watershed level (Steiguer et al., 2003). This is due to poor integration and coordination, which is either fostered or hindered by a complex set of environmental and socio-economic and institutional factors at various spatial levels such as "(1) legislation and regulations, (2) policies and guidelines, (3) administrative structures, (4) economic and financial arrangements, (5) political structures and processes, (6) historical and traditional customs

With the increase in population water has became a key resources. The result of the development efforts of the countries, demand on the water has been become on maximum

watershed approach to management (National Research Council, 1999).

and values and (7) key participants or actors" (Mitchell, 1990).

**3. Organizational approaches in watershed management** 

world (Bowden, 1999; Mitchell, 1990; Bulkley, 1995; Lant, 1999; Pereira, 1973).

Over the past seven years since the World Bank's Water Resource Strategy was created, the Bank's water lending commitments have increased significantly, the quality of the water portfolio was turned around, and the outcome project rating now even outperforms the Bank average. The 2010 mid-cycle implementation progress report, "Water for All in a Changing Climate", and "The Sustainable Infrastructure Action Plan" continue to guide the Bank's strategy for managing water resources. The World Bank increasingly works with partners from multilateral and bilateral agencies, but also agencies within civil society and the private sector at the global, regional, and country levels. It's partners are Global Water Partnership (GWP), International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), International Water Association (IWA), UN-WATER, Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC), World Water Council (WWC).

## *3.1.1. Watershed management approach before the 2000*

The watershed management approach became prominent in developing countries in the 1970 in programs designed to improve upland natural resource management in order to protect downstream resources and infrastructure, when the problems of watershed degradation first became apparent.

The origins of modern watershed management can be traced to several parallel and independent movements: the restoration of the Alps, the conservation movement in the United States in the 1930s; and the watershed rehabilitation activities of colonial governments in Africa (Dargouth et. al, 2008). National and regional programs were set up to address the damage to downstream infrastructure caused by degradation in the uplands. For instance, Indonesia created a National Watershed Development Program in 1976. From the mid-1970s, Brazil launched soil conservation programs that evolved by the mid-1980s into the Integrated Soil and Water Management Program in Microcatchments. India created the National Watershed Development Program for Rainfed Areas in 1990 (Dargouth et. al, 2008).

The watershed management projects in the 1970s and 1980s consisted on specific on-site and downstream physical outcomes, this works have been done only to protect resources by the engineer approaches. So investments were high cost and not always well justified, and the assets and benefits created often had a limited life (Dargouth et. al, 2008). And ecological dimension has never seen in these works. Because of these approaches, there is no chance to put a sustainable management approach in a holistic way.

First generation of watershed management projects in the 1970s and 1980s were to prevent rapid runoff of water, slow down siltation of reservoirs, and limit the incidence of potentially damaging flash flooding. Targets were fixed in relation to physical outputs rather than economic and natural resource outcomes and a top-down planning approach was generally adopted (Dargouth et. al, 2008). In pratical way local people could not adapted to this planning outputs. So, general result of this top-down planning approach was a total mass on side. Nowadays, local users empty these old infrastructure buildings, which have been built by this plan and authors and scholars try to remediate this areas.

Stakeholder Involvement in Sustainable Watershed Management 143

local people who lived there. People were hired as manual labor, and projects provided subsidies to stakeholders as incentives to participate (Dargouth et. al, 2008). There was little involvement of the communities in planning and implementation, which often resulted in weak commitment to the project. Benefits were expected to trickle down to the local population, although this generally happened only on a limited scale. It is given some information about water-sheet management studies belong to different years in the table 1.

A number of countries as diverse as India, Kenya, and Nigeria have seen environmental rehabilitation carried out almost spontaneously as population pressure increased or environmental degradation, particularly erosion, reached high levels. For example, Tiffen, Mortimore, and Gichuki (1994) explored the relationship between increasing population density, productivity, and environmental degradation through a case study in southeast Kenya. They showed that population increase combined with market opportunities stimulated local investment and innovation in dry land farming and environmental

There are many water management projects which were held by World Bank on the issue that the Participatory Watershed Management. In the same time they want to support local economies in the same time by the way, they want to protect natural sources. These projects may include financing critical economic infrastructure such as rural footpaths, sewerage,

The development objective of the proposed Participatory Watershed Management Project (PWMP) is to improve the productive potential of natural resources and increase incomes of the rural households in selected watersheds in Jammu & Kashmir using socially inclusive, institutionally and environmentally sustainable approaches. A secondary objective is to support policy and institutional development in in Jammu & Kashmir to harmonize watershed development projects and programs across the state in accordance with best

Most of the key lessons stem from the previous project, although they are hallmarks of other




successful watershed development projects in India (Darghouth et. al., 2008):

financed assets. Hand-outs and full subsidies are to be discouraged.

central places, have been used successfully in this respect.

recovery of heavily degraded land (Dargouth et. al, 2008).

*3.1.2. World bank projects* 

drainage, roads and water supply.

practices (Darghouth et. al., 2008).

cater to their unique needs.

The need to improve the livelihoods of the poor upland population was not completely ignored, but the technical improvements for agricultural production introduced usually focused on costly vegetative and mechanized technologies (Dargouth et. al, 2008). Watershed planning was based on land capability rather than on the capacities and needs of


**Table 1.** Timeline of watershed management practices (Dargouth et. al, 2008; Chambers et .al. 1989)

local people who lived there. People were hired as manual labor, and projects provided subsidies to stakeholders as incentives to participate (Dargouth et. al, 2008). There was little involvement of the communities in planning and implementation, which often resulted in weak commitment to the project. Benefits were expected to trickle down to the local population, although this generally happened only on a limited scale. It is given some information about water-sheet management studies belong to different years in the table 1.

A number of countries as diverse as India, Kenya, and Nigeria have seen environmental rehabilitation carried out almost spontaneously as population pressure increased or environmental degradation, particularly erosion, reached high levels. For example, Tiffen, Mortimore, and Gichuki (1994) explored the relationship between increasing population density, productivity, and environmental degradation through a case study in southeast Kenya. They showed that population increase combined with market opportunities stimulated local investment and innovation in dry land farming and environmental recovery of heavily degraded land (Dargouth et. al, 2008).

## *3.1.2. World bank projects*

142 Advances in Landscape Architecture

1970s -To protect onsite and downstream resources and infrastructure of

site

1980s -Beyond the engineering approaches acceptance of large scale collaboration between national

and

international organizations

**1990s** -To resource, use productivity, livelihood improvements, and poverty reduction objectives in addition to resource conservation.

First generation of watershed management projects in the 1970s and 1980s were to prevent rapid runoff of water, slow down siltation of reservoirs, and limit the incidence of potentially damaging flash flooding. Targets were fixed in relation to physical outputs rather than economic and natural resource outcomes and a top-down planning approach was generally adopted (Dargouth et. al, 2008). In pratical way local people could not adapted to this planning outputs. So, general result of this top-down planning approach was a total mass on side. Nowadays, local users empty these old infrastructure buildings, which have been built by this plan and authors and scholars try to remediate this areas.

The need to improve the livelihoods of the poor upland population was not completely ignored, but the technical improvements for agricultural production introduced usually focused on costly vegetative and mechanized technologies (Dargouth et. al, 2008). Watershed planning was based on land capability rather than on the capacities and needs of

> High government staff turnover and poor supervision resulted in inconsistent project management and unaccountable

implementation arrangements. Projects often ignored crucial intersectoral linkages, resulting in lack of collaboration and communication



and to support planning and implementation by community institutions the promotion of low-cost vegetative techniques for erosion control replaced or complemented the previous "mechanical" techniques that had relied on heavy construction and had proved expensive to build and difficult to

maintain


across sectors.

**Main Purpose Applications Results**






and forest management -To adopt a participatory and demand-driven development approach, which was influenced by emerging theories of "farmer

**Table 1.** Timeline of watershed management practices (Dargouth et. al, 2008; Chambers et .al. 1989)

first"

management

There are many water management projects which were held by World Bank on the issue that the Participatory Watershed Management. In the same time they want to support local economies in the same time by the way, they want to protect natural sources. These projects may include financing critical economic infrastructure such as rural footpaths, sewerage, drainage, roads and water supply.

The development objective of the proposed Participatory Watershed Management Project (PWMP) is to improve the productive potential of natural resources and increase incomes of the rural households in selected watersheds in Jammu & Kashmir using socially inclusive, institutionally and environmentally sustainable approaches. A secondary objective is to support policy and institutional development in in Jammu & Kashmir to harmonize watershed development projects and programs across the state in accordance with best practices (Darghouth et. al., 2008).

Most of the key lessons stem from the previous project, although they are hallmarks of other successful watershed development projects in India (Darghouth et. al., 2008):



Stakeholder Involvement in Sustainable Watershed Management 145

Dams influence both water quality and the very functionality of rivers, of planetary life cycle processes harming people, culture and nature, collectively. Roughly two-thirds of the world's rivers have suffered harm from the ten thousands of dams that have been built over the past century. Many of the world's great rivers such as the Indus, the Colorado, and the Yellow Rivers, no longer reach the ocean, turning once-productive deltas into biological deserts. More than tropical rainforests, marine environments, or coastal wetlands, freshwater ecosystems are experiencing the greatest loss of biodiversity, in large measure due to dams. Over the past 40 years, freshwater ecosystems have lost 50% of their populations and over a third of remaining freshwater fish species are threatened with extinction. Presently, the great river basins of the world are experiencing a new wave of damming: The Amazon, the Mesopotamia, the Congo, the Mekong are each superlative in their contributions to planetary cycles, biodiversity and cultural evolution of human civilization. Each of these basins is threatened with audacious and narrow-sighted schemes that will irreversibly disconnect rivers and cost the planet billions in lost ecosystem services. The main reason underpinning this new wave is that dams are misinterpreted as "renewable energy"and promoted as solution to climate change. Yet, as proven different parts of the world, such as Amazonia and Mesopotamia, dams do not generate renewable energy, but irreversible natural and cultural destruction. Also scientific studies indicate that dams and reservoirs are globally significant sources of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide

Dams have significant adverse effects on heritage through the loss of local cultural and archaeological sites and resources. For instance, Ilisu Dam will destroy more than 300 archaeological sites, including the 11,000 year-old historic town of Hasankeyf that is the only place in the world that meets nine out of 10 criteria for UNESCO World Heritage Site status

Dams also cause loss or damage of cultural heritage through land reclamation and irrigation projects and the construction of power lines, roads, railways and workers towns. In most cases, no measures have been taken to minimize or mitigate the loss of cultural and

**Figure 1.** Hasankeyf, a demonstration against the construction of the Ilisu Dam, held by Turkish Nature

Organization and general view of the area (Anonymous, 2012e and Anonymous, 2012f).

and, in particular, methane (Anonymous, 2012d).

archaeological resources (Anonymous, 2012d).

(Anonymous, 2012d).

National policies on watershed management have generally been driven by program experience rather than vice versa.

Initially watershed management programs were adopted in the 1970s and 1980s by governments as pragmatic responses to natural resource degradation and the related social and economic costs. These programs developed in an iterative fashion, with early setbacks over approaches dominated by engineering being succeeded by tests of community-based approaches targeting sustainable changes in land use practices. Now, in several countries success in testing community-based approaches has led to adoption of broader policies for community-based watershed management (Darghouth et. al., 2008).

Turkey has built on local and regional experience to formulate policies for community based watershed management in poor upland areas. The Turkish rural economy has been characterized by a high incidence of poverty, particularly in upland areas. The consequent growing pressures on forests and pasture have reduced vegetative cover and diminished soil fertility and the carrying capacity of rangeland. This has contributed to reductions in infiltration rates and to increases in peak river flows, flooding, and sedimentation problems (Darghouth et. al., 2008).

Beginning in the late 1980s, Turkey tested an integrated and participatory approach to watershed management in a number of micro-watersheds, and from 2004 expanded the approach to three major river basins. Policy is now based on a community-driven approach to natural resource management, integrating forestry, soil and water conservation, and crop and livestock production. The government shares the cost of a mutually reinforcing package of resource use productivity enhancing and conservation measures. This policy has driven institutional change, particularly the coordination and integration of the activities of different government departments at the microwatershed level and the development of watershed-based forest resource management plans (Darghouth et. al. 2008).

There are some projects which has been held by World Bank in Turkey where the two continent are joined. One example of this projects is Eastern Anatolia Watershed Project. This subproject would seek to identify and establish in-situ conservation areas in Turkey, for the protection of genetic resources and wild relatives of important crops and forest tree species that originated in Turkey. It will provide for sustainable in-situ conservation of genetic resources in cereals, horticultural crops, medicinal plants, forest trees, and pasture grasses and legumes through an integrated ecosystem approach. It will also contribute to the broader objective of conserving sustainable farming and forest systems that is a key element of the Watershed Rehabilitation project. The project has been developed the institutional capacity in Turkey for preparing and implementing a national strategy for insitu conservation which could include landraces in a second phase Project. The aim was to test and develop a new approach to conservation of genetic diversity which has not been tried on a large scale anywhere in the world (Anonymous, 2012c).

Dams influence both water quality and the very functionality of rivers, of planetary life cycle processes harming people, culture and nature, collectively. Roughly two-thirds of the world's rivers have suffered harm from the ten thousands of dams that have been built over the past century. Many of the world's great rivers such as the Indus, the Colorado, and the Yellow Rivers, no longer reach the ocean, turning once-productive deltas into biological deserts. More than tropical rainforests, marine environments, or coastal wetlands, freshwater ecosystems are experiencing the greatest loss of biodiversity, in large measure due to dams. Over the past 40 years, freshwater ecosystems have lost 50% of their populations and over a third of remaining freshwater fish species are threatened with extinction. Presently, the great river basins of the world are experiencing a new wave of damming: The Amazon, the Mesopotamia, the Congo, the Mekong are each superlative in their contributions to planetary cycles, biodiversity and cultural evolution of human civilization. Each of these basins is threatened with audacious and narrow-sighted schemes that will irreversibly disconnect rivers and cost the planet billions in lost ecosystem services. The main reason underpinning this new wave is that dams are misinterpreted as "renewable energy"and promoted as solution to climate change. Yet, as proven different parts of the world, such as Amazonia and Mesopotamia, dams do not generate renewable energy, but irreversible natural and cultural destruction. Also scientific studies indicate that dams and reservoirs are globally significant sources of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and, in particular, methane (Anonymous, 2012d).

144 Advances in Landscape Architecture

(Darghouth et. al., 2008).

experience rather than vice versa.

yield wider benefits (Darghouth et. al., 2008).

community-based watershed management (Darghouth et. al., 2008).


National policies on watershed management have generally been driven by program

Initially watershed management programs were adopted in the 1970s and 1980s by governments as pragmatic responses to natural resource degradation and the related social and economic costs. These programs developed in an iterative fashion, with early setbacks over approaches dominated by engineering being succeeded by tests of community-based approaches targeting sustainable changes in land use practices. Now, in several countries success in testing community-based approaches has led to adoption of broader policies for

Turkey has built on local and regional experience to formulate policies for community based watershed management in poor upland areas. The Turkish rural economy has been characterized by a high incidence of poverty, particularly in upland areas. The consequent growing pressures on forests and pasture have reduced vegetative cover and diminished soil fertility and the carrying capacity of rangeland. This has contributed to reductions in infiltration rates and to increases in peak river flows, flooding, and sedimentation problems

Beginning in the late 1980s, Turkey tested an integrated and participatory approach to watershed management in a number of micro-watersheds, and from 2004 expanded the approach to three major river basins. Policy is now based on a community-driven approach to natural resource management, integrating forestry, soil and water conservation, and crop and livestock production. The government shares the cost of a mutually reinforcing package of resource use productivity enhancing and conservation measures. This policy has driven institutional change, particularly the coordination and integration of the activities of different government departments at the microwatershed level and the development of

There are some projects which has been held by World Bank in Turkey where the two continent are joined. One example of this projects is Eastern Anatolia Watershed Project. This subproject would seek to identify and establish in-situ conservation areas in Turkey, for the protection of genetic resources and wild relatives of important crops and forest tree species that originated in Turkey. It will provide for sustainable in-situ conservation of genetic resources in cereals, horticultural crops, medicinal plants, forest trees, and pasture grasses and legumes through an integrated ecosystem approach. It will also contribute to the broader objective of conserving sustainable farming and forest systems that is a key element of the Watershed Rehabilitation project. The project has been developed the institutional capacity in Turkey for preparing and implementing a national strategy for insitu conservation which could include landraces in a second phase Project. The aim was to test and develop a new approach to conservation of genetic diversity which has not been

watershed-based forest resource management plans (Darghouth et. al. 2008).

tried on a large scale anywhere in the world (Anonymous, 2012c).

Dams have significant adverse effects on heritage through the loss of local cultural and archaeological sites and resources. For instance, Ilisu Dam will destroy more than 300 archaeological sites, including the 11,000 year-old historic town of Hasankeyf that is the only place in the world that meets nine out of 10 criteria for UNESCO World Heritage Site status (Anonymous, 2012d).

Dams also cause loss or damage of cultural heritage through land reclamation and irrigation projects and the construction of power lines, roads, railways and workers towns. In most cases, no measures have been taken to minimize or mitigate the loss of cultural and archaeological resources (Anonymous, 2012d).

**Figure 1.** Hasankeyf, a demonstration against the construction of the Ilisu Dam, held by Turkish Nature Organization and general view of the area (Anonymous, 2012e and Anonymous, 2012f).

## **3.2. International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)**

International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), a specialized agency of the United Nations, was established as an international financial institution in 1977 as one of the major outcomes of the 1974 World Food Conference. IFAD is dedicated to eradicating rural poverty in developing countries (Anonymous, 2012g).

Stakeholder Involvement in Sustainable Watershed Management 147

the reverse is also true. This in turn leads to access to credit and investment in their farms, which can improve their livelihoods, and improve agricultural water use efficiency

At local level, land and water governance structures already exist in some form, but these are not systematically recognized at higher institutional levels. If reforms are to improve the livelihoods of rural poor people, their voices and concerns need to be heard and

Indigenous knowledge and practices need to be recognized as a strong basis for building

The role of women in land and water management and use must be recognized as part of

The capacity of individuals, communities and NGOs must be developed so they can take on the responsibilities associated with reforms. Building trust in communities and among partners is an essential part of capacity development, so that they can act collectively for mutual benefit. Sufficient time must be allowed for enlisting broad support for reform. NGOs can be a useful vehicle to support the reform process, which does not always fit with time and budget constraints of development projects. External support is important. Financial support, combined with policy dialogue, can be a catalyst for NGOs, communities and governments to pursue change. International agencies also provide small communities and local and national organizations with a valuable sense of international recognition,

Documenting land and water governance experiences in a country promotes better understanding of stakeholders' and IFAD partners' views. This creates opportunities for effective pro-poor advocacy and policy dialogue at all levels aimed at improved access to

As a knowledge organization, FAO creates and shares critical information about food, agriculture and natural resources in the form of global public goods. However, this is not a one-way flow. FAO plays a connector role, through identifying and working with different partners with established expertise, and facilitating a dialogue between those who have the knowledge and those who need it. By turning knowledge into action, FAO links the field to national, regional and global initiatives in a mutually reinforcing cycle (Anonymous, 2012h). In assessing the anticipated impacts of climate change on agriculture and agricultural water management, it is clear that water availability (from rainfall, watercourses and aquifers) will be a critical factor. Substantial adaptation will be needed to ensure adequate supply and efficient utilization of what will, in many instances, be a declining resource (Anonymous, 2012h). By the definitions of the FAO; the world's food production depends on the availability of water, a precious but finite resource and nearly half of the world's population is affected in various ways by mountain ecology and the degradation of watershed areas.

(Anonymous, 2012g).

the reform process.

acknowledged as part of the reform process.

credit and encouragement (Anonymous, 2012g).

lasting change in land and water governance (Anonymous, 2012g).

productive natural resources and technology (Anonymous, 2012g).

**3.3. Food And Agriculture Organization of The United Nations (FAO)** 

In recent decades, IFAD has supported changes in land and water governance as a way to improve rural poor people's access to these natural resources, and to ensure poverty reduction, increased food security and better livelihoods. This involves working through community-based and civil society organizations and NGOs to better identify the changes that are needed, and with national and local governments to change policies and legislation. The aim is to empower rural poor people to participate in managing the common property resources on which they depend.

Paid environmental or watershed services are increasingly recognized as a potential source of additional income for poor rural people. IFAD's Environmental and Social Assessment Procedures, which include operational statements, for example on irrigation, range resources, inland fisheries and wetlands, regulate exploitation of water resources and the environment.

The State of the World's Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture (SOLAW) analyses a variety of options for overcoming constraints and improving resource management in these areas of heightened risk. In each location, a mix of changes in institutional and policy measures will have to be combined with greater access to technologies for better management of land and water resources. Increased investments; access to novel financing mechanisms; and international cooperation and development assistance will also help overcome these constraints (Anonymous, 2012g).

This first issue of SOLAW, which complements other "State of the world" reports published regularly by FAO, is intended to inform public debate and policy-making at national and international levels. IWMI is one of 15 international research centers supported by the network of 60 governments, private foundations and international and regional organizations collectively known as the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). IWMI's Mission is to improve the management of land and water resources for food, livelihoods and the environment. IWMI targets water and land management challenges faced by poor communities in the developing world/or in developing countries and through this contributes towards the achievement of the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of reducing poverty, hunger and maintaining a sustainable environment. These are also the goals of the CGIAR (Anonymous, 2012g).

In most developing countries, agriculture accounts for more than 80 per cent of water use. An increased focus on this sector is needed to address the water crisis. For poor smallholder farmers, water and land cannot be treated as separate issues. Government and development actions targeting only land or only water governance changes are unlikely to achieve sustainable impact. For poor farmers, secure land access can lead to secure water access, and the reverse is also true. This in turn leads to access to credit and investment in their farms, which can improve their livelihoods, and improve agricultural water use efficiency (Anonymous, 2012g).

146 Advances in Landscape Architecture

resources on which they depend.

goals of the CGIAR (Anonymous, 2012g).

environment.

**3.2. International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)** 

poverty in developing countries (Anonymous, 2012g).

International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), a specialized agency of the United Nations, was established as an international financial institution in 1977 as one of the major outcomes of the 1974 World Food Conference. IFAD is dedicated to eradicating rural

In recent decades, IFAD has supported changes in land and water governance as a way to improve rural poor people's access to these natural resources, and to ensure poverty reduction, increased food security and better livelihoods. This involves working through community-based and civil society organizations and NGOs to better identify the changes that are needed, and with national and local governments to change policies and legislation. The aim is to empower rural poor people to participate in managing the common property

Paid environmental or watershed services are increasingly recognized as a potential source of additional income for poor rural people. IFAD's Environmental and Social Assessment Procedures, which include operational statements, for example on irrigation, range resources, inland fisheries and wetlands, regulate exploitation of water resources and the

The State of the World's Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture (SOLAW) analyses a variety of options for overcoming constraints and improving resource management in these areas of heightened risk. In each location, a mix of changes in institutional and policy measures will have to be combined with greater access to technologies for better management of land and water resources. Increased investments; access to novel financing mechanisms; and international cooperation and development

This first issue of SOLAW, which complements other "State of the world" reports published regularly by FAO, is intended to inform public debate and policy-making at national and international levels. IWMI is one of 15 international research centers supported by the network of 60 governments, private foundations and international and regional organizations collectively known as the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). IWMI's Mission is to improve the management of land and water resources for food, livelihoods and the environment. IWMI targets water and land management challenges faced by poor communities in the developing world/or in developing countries and through this contributes towards the achievement of the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of reducing poverty, hunger and maintaining a sustainable environment. These are also the

In most developing countries, agriculture accounts for more than 80 per cent of water use. An increased focus on this sector is needed to address the water crisis. For poor smallholder farmers, water and land cannot be treated as separate issues. Government and development actions targeting only land or only water governance changes are unlikely to achieve sustainable impact. For poor farmers, secure land access can lead to secure water access, and

assistance will also help overcome these constraints (Anonymous, 2012g).

At local level, land and water governance structures already exist in some form, but these are not systematically recognized at higher institutional levels. If reforms are to improve the livelihoods of rural poor people, their voices and concerns need to be heard and acknowledged as part of the reform process.

Indigenous knowledge and practices need to be recognized as a strong basis for building lasting change in land and water governance (Anonymous, 2012g).

The role of women in land and water management and use must be recognized as part of the reform process.

The capacity of individuals, communities and NGOs must be developed so they can take on the responsibilities associated with reforms. Building trust in communities and among partners is an essential part of capacity development, so that they can act collectively for mutual benefit. Sufficient time must be allowed for enlisting broad support for reform. NGOs can be a useful vehicle to support the reform process, which does not always fit with time and budget constraints of development projects. External support is important. Financial support, combined with policy dialogue, can be a catalyst for NGOs, communities and governments to pursue change. International agencies also provide small communities and local and national organizations with a valuable sense of international recognition, credit and encouragement (Anonymous, 2012g).

Documenting land and water governance experiences in a country promotes better understanding of stakeholders' and IFAD partners' views. This creates opportunities for effective pro-poor advocacy and policy dialogue at all levels aimed at improved access to productive natural resources and technology (Anonymous, 2012g).

## **3.3. Food And Agriculture Organization of The United Nations (FAO)**

As a knowledge organization, FAO creates and shares critical information about food, agriculture and natural resources in the form of global public goods. However, this is not a one-way flow. FAO plays a connector role, through identifying and working with different partners with established expertise, and facilitating a dialogue between those who have the knowledge and those who need it. By turning knowledge into action, FAO links the field to national, regional and global initiatives in a mutually reinforcing cycle (Anonymous, 2012h).

In assessing the anticipated impacts of climate change on agriculture and agricultural water management, it is clear that water availability (from rainfall, watercourses and aquifers) will be a critical factor. Substantial adaptation will be needed to ensure adequate supply and efficient utilization of what will, in many instances, be a declining resource (Anonymous, 2012h). By the definitions of the FAO; the world's food production depends on the availability of water, a precious but finite resource and nearly half of the world's population is affected in various ways by mountain ecology and the degradation of watershed areas.

## **3.4. International Water Management Institute (IWMI)**

IWMI is one of 15 international research centers supported by the network of 60 governments, private foundations and international and regional organizations collectively known as the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). It is a non-profit organization with a staff of 350 and offices in over 10 countries across Asia and Africa and Headquarters in Colombo, Sri Lanka (Anonymous, 2012).

Stakeholder Involvement in Sustainable Watershed Management 149

integrating all sources of water in the basin, from rain, in the soil, in aquifers and as surface water. Water is then no longer supplied to crops, trees, livestock, or fish, but to multifunctional agroecosystem linked and managed together at the river basin or landscape level. In this way, synergies can be exploited and productivity can be improved, while obtaining benefit from improved carbon storage, erosion control, water retention, waste treatment, and cultural and recreational values including tourism. Notably, most of these added services do not conflict with agricultural production but in many cases improve both

The recommendations are based on the findings on the various types of ecosystems and integrated ways to enhance water management for food security. In addition, principles of sustainable water management for agriculture in ecoagriculture have been incorporated (Molden et. al. 2007). As a result, the specific recommendations concerning water are only part of the larger message on how to manage natural resources sustainably and make the

These guiding principles have been combined from various sources and would increase ecosystem services and sustainability while using the same resources, hence be more productive (Swift et al., 2004; Molden et al., 2007; Van der Zijpp et al., 2007; Bossio and Geheb 2008; Hajjar et al., 2008; Swallow and Meinzen-Dick 2009; World Bank 2009; Zomer et

Promote diversity within the production systems: Optimizing the diversity of the above and below ground biotic components within the production system (crop biodiversity, animal diversity, soil biodiversity, and pollinators) can increase the adaptive capacity of the cropping system to buffer against fluctuations in water availability, temperatures, pests and diseases, thereby enhancing the resilience of rural livelihoods. Synergies with livestock and aquaculture can be explored to increase resource recovery and productivity, for instance in crop livestock systems, rice-fish culture, tree-crop systems, aquaculture in reservoirs, forestpastures, or wastewater-fed aquaculture. Integration of trees can help fix nitrogen, tighten nutrient, water, and carbon cycles, and produce additional goods, such as year-round

Promote diversity in landscapes: Landscapes with high levels of biodiversity are more resilient and better able to mitigate environmental impacts. Large mono-cropped areas can be developed into landscapes with higher levels of biodiversity by identifying and linking natural habitat patches, including aquatic ecosystems. Habitat integrity and connectivity can be maintained by incorporating hedgerows, multipurpose trees, and corridors of natural vegetation interconnecting parcels of agricultural land and natural ecosystems (such as wetlands and forests – these may need to be specifically developed where they are too far away). In large irrigated areas, canals and roads can be lined with perennial vegetation such as trees, thereby also serving as important passages and habitats for animals. Canals and other waterways can connect aquatic ecosystems and thereby maintain the connectivity of migratory routes, providing the variety in habitats required for subsequent life cycle stages such as spawning. Landscape-scale planning of strategic tree cover interventions can reduce

transition from production systems to multipurpose agroecosystems.

availability of fodder and biomass for use as organic fertilizer and fuel.

al., 2009; Garrity et al., 2010; McCartney and Smakhtin 2010):

its productivity and sustainability.

IWMI's Mission is to improve the management of land and water resources for food, livelihoods and the environment. IWMI's Vision**,** reflected in the Strategic Plan is water for a food-secure world. IWMI targets water and land management challenges faced by poor communities in the developing world/or in developing countries and through this contributes towards the achievement of the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of reducing poverty, hunger and maintaining a sustainable environment. These are also the goals of the CGIAR (Anonymous, 2012).

Research is the core activity of IWMI. The research agenda is organized around four priority Themes including Water Availability and Access; Productive Water Use; Water Quality, Health and Environment; and Water and Society. Cross cutting activities in all themes include, assessment of land and water productivity and their relationship to poverty, identification of interventions that improve productivity as well as access to and sustainability of natural resources, assessment of the impacts of interventions on productivity, livelihoods, health and environmental sustainability.

IWMI works through collaborative research with many partners in the North and South and targets policy makers, development agencies, individual farmers and private sector organizations. IWMI's new triple approach to uptake is being implemented (Anonymous, 2012). This involves:


IWMI supported to some project about ecosystems for water and food security. The result of water management in agroecological landscapes is remarkable.

## *3.4.1. Water management in agroecological landscapes*

Managing agricultural land to deliver multiple services considerably improves values derived. This is best done at the landscape level, linking ecosystems and managing natural resources such as water and land specifically to enhance ecosystem services, thereby integrating all sources of water in the basin, from rain, in the soil, in aquifers and as surface water. Water is then no longer supplied to crops, trees, livestock, or fish, but to multifunctional agroecosystem linked and managed together at the river basin or landscape level. In this way, synergies can be exploited and productivity can be improved, while obtaining benefit from improved carbon storage, erosion control, water retention, waste treatment, and cultural and recreational values including tourism. Notably, most of these added services do not conflict with agricultural production but in many cases improve both its productivity and sustainability.

148 Advances in Landscape Architecture

goals of the CGIAR (Anonymous, 2012).

2012). This involves:

synthesized messages.

(Anonymous, 2012).

**3.4. International Water Management Institute (IWMI)** 

Africa and Headquarters in Colombo, Sri Lanka (Anonymous, 2012).

productivity, livelihoods, health and environmental sustainability.

water management in agroecological landscapes is remarkable.

*3.4.1. Water management in agroecological landscapes* 

IWMI is one of 15 international research centers supported by the network of 60 governments, private foundations and international and regional organizations collectively known as the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). It is a non-profit organization with a staff of 350 and offices in over 10 countries across Asia and

IWMI's Mission is to improve the management of land and water resources for food, livelihoods and the environment. IWMI's Vision**,** reflected in the Strategic Plan is water for a food-secure world. IWMI targets water and land management challenges faced by poor communities in the developing world/or in developing countries and through this contributes towards the achievement of the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of reducing poverty, hunger and maintaining a sustainable environment. These are also the

Research is the core activity of IWMI. The research agenda is organized around four priority Themes including Water Availability and Access; Productive Water Use; Water Quality, Health and Environment; and Water and Society. Cross cutting activities in all themes include, assessment of land and water productivity and their relationship to poverty, identification of interventions that improve productivity as well as access to and sustainability of natural resources, assessment of the impacts of interventions on

IWMI works through collaborative research with many partners in the North and South and targets policy makers, development agencies, individual farmers and private sector organizations. IWMI's new triple approach to uptake is being implemented (Anonymous,

1. **Project uptake strategies:** These are targeted strategies built into projects at the beginning. They are focused on the project results and the potential users of the results. 2. **Regional uptake strategies:** These are particularly important to keep the momentum going when projects are completed, and to build linkages across projects to provide

3. **Macro uptake strategies:** This involves making all information and knowledge available as broadly as possible, making it easily accessible and promoted widely

IWMI supported to some project about ecosystems for water and food security. The result of

Managing agricultural land to deliver multiple services considerably improves values derived. This is best done at the landscape level, linking ecosystems and managing natural resources such as water and land specifically to enhance ecosystem services, thereby The recommendations are based on the findings on the various types of ecosystems and integrated ways to enhance water management for food security. In addition, principles of sustainable water management for agriculture in ecoagriculture have been incorporated (Molden et. al. 2007). As a result, the specific recommendations concerning water are only part of the larger message on how to manage natural resources sustainably and make the transition from production systems to multipurpose agroecosystems.

These guiding principles have been combined from various sources and would increase ecosystem services and sustainability while using the same resources, hence be more productive (Swift et al., 2004; Molden et al., 2007; Van der Zijpp et al., 2007; Bossio and Geheb 2008; Hajjar et al., 2008; Swallow and Meinzen-Dick 2009; World Bank 2009; Zomer et al., 2009; Garrity et al., 2010; McCartney and Smakhtin 2010):

Promote diversity within the production systems: Optimizing the diversity of the above and below ground biotic components within the production system (crop biodiversity, animal diversity, soil biodiversity, and pollinators) can increase the adaptive capacity of the cropping system to buffer against fluctuations in water availability, temperatures, pests and diseases, thereby enhancing the resilience of rural livelihoods. Synergies with livestock and aquaculture can be explored to increase resource recovery and productivity, for instance in crop livestock systems, rice-fish culture, tree-crop systems, aquaculture in reservoirs, forestpastures, or wastewater-fed aquaculture. Integration of trees can help fix nitrogen, tighten nutrient, water, and carbon cycles, and produce additional goods, such as year-round availability of fodder and biomass for use as organic fertilizer and fuel.

Promote diversity in landscapes: Landscapes with high levels of biodiversity are more resilient and better able to mitigate environmental impacts. Large mono-cropped areas can be developed into landscapes with higher levels of biodiversity by identifying and linking natural habitat patches, including aquatic ecosystems. Habitat integrity and connectivity can be maintained by incorporating hedgerows, multipurpose trees, and corridors of natural vegetation interconnecting parcels of agricultural land and natural ecosystems (such as wetlands and forests – these may need to be specifically developed where they are too far away). In large irrigated areas, canals and roads can be lined with perennial vegetation such as trees, thereby also serving as important passages and habitats for animals. Canals and other waterways can connect aquatic ecosystems and thereby maintain the connectivity of migratory routes, providing the variety in habitats required for subsequent life cycle stages such as spawning. Landscape-scale planning of strategic tree cover interventions can reduce

flow accumulation by providing sites for water infiltration and penetration. By incorporating both fodder production and grazing land, livestock can be managed at the landscape level too, thereby enabling animals to reach otherwise inaccessible feed sources and avoiding overgrazing and trampling of vulnerable areas.

Stakeholder Involvement in Sustainable Watershed Management 151

to decrease dependence on food aid through improved management of 'green' water. Whiletop-down approaches require precise and centrally available knowledge to deal with the uncertainty in engineering design of watershed management projects, bottom-up approaches can succeed without such information by making extensive use of stakeholder knowledge. This approach works best in conjunction with the development of leadership condence within local communities. These communities typically face a number of problems, most notably poverty, that prevent them from fully investing in the protection of their natural resources, so an integrated management system is needed to suitably address the interrelated problems. Many different implementing agencies were brought together in the two study watersheds to address water scarcity, crop production, and soil erosion, but the corner stone was enabling local potential through the creation and strengthening of community watershed management organizations. Leadership training and the reinforcement of stakeholder feedback as a fundamental activity led to increased ownership and willingness to take on new responsibilities. A series of small short term successes ranging from micro-enterprise cooperatives to gully rehabilitation have resulted in the pilot communities becoming condent of their own capabilities and proud to share their successes and knowledge with other communities struggling with natural resource

Specically it has learned that (1) communities have high interest in development initiatives, including sustaining natural resources; (2) only when people make real contributions of their own resources will they strive to ensure the implementation of the planned activities; (3) emphasis must be given to effective organization of communities rather than only focusing on technology development; (4) including non-technical leaders in the information loop provides great benets at the community level. Introduced ideas, such as the fair representation of women and poor in the management process, women's micro-enterprise groups, and closing off areas to livestock, faced strong cultural opposition at the beginning but have proven very successful thanks to trial tests and continue collaboration efforts by farmers, non-technical leaders, and project personnel. It has also found that communities

Partnerships and co-operative environmental management are increasing world wide as is the call for scientic input in the public process of ecosystem management. In Hawaii, private land owners, non-governmental organizations, and state and federal agencies have formed watershed partnerships to conserve and better manage upland forested watersheds. In this paper, ndings of an international workshop convened in Hawaii to explore the strength of approaches used to assess take holder values of environmental resources and foster consensus in the public process of ecosystem management are presented. Authors draw upon eld experience in projects throughout Hawaii, Southeast Asia, Africa and the US main land to derive a set of lessons learned that can be applied to Hawaiian and other watershed partnerships in an effort to promote consensus and sustainable ecosystem management. Interdisciplinary science-based models can serve as effective tools to identify areas of potential consensus in the process of ecosystem management. Effective integration of scientic input in co-operative ecosystem management depends on the role of science, the

most at risk were also the most open to new ideas (Liu et al., 2008).

degradation (Liu et al., 2008).

## **4. Watershed management studies in developing country**

For several decades, Integrated Watershed Management has been suggested and tried in several countries in the world, as an effective way to address complex water resource challenges. However its implementation has not been successful in most cases, due to various barriers. In Kenya, this approach is new and requires appropriate strategies to overcome these barriers and stimulate effective integrated watershed management. To design suitable and effective strategies, there is need to understand institutional features at various spatial levels, which promote or hinder integration and coordination. Wamalma's paper therefore explores the prospects and barriers of integrated watershed management of Mara, by examining the existing complex set of biophysical and socio-economic conditions, stakeholders attitudes and perceptions, arrangements for participation of stakeholders, available institutional structures and financial plans, and recent policy reforms in water and forestry sectors. Empirical information was gathered from official documents, direct observations, semi-structured interviews with managers, administrators, politicians and households of Mara watershed. Results indicates that, integrated watershed management of Mara is likely to be fostered by the critical biophysical and socioeconomic conditions, suitable institutional structures that are being established, water and forestry reforms, recognition of stakeholder participation and enhanced education of stakeholders, and leverage of resources from NGOs. However this efforts are likely to be hampered by disparity of views and perspectives, egoistic tendencies of influential leaders, inadequate financial plans, lack of effective coordination mechanisms, ineffective multi-stakeholder process, unwillingness of the local community and the politicians if there interests are not addressed, and lack of legitimacy for the institutional structures that are being created. This study therefore suggests adoption of multi-stakeholder forums for building understanding and bridging the disparity of views, the need to address the legitimate interests of the local community and politicians, and enhanced level of understanding among stakeholders on the interactions and interdependencies among the variables of the ecosystem. Finally the study recommends the need for a more effective coordination arrangement such as elevation of the CAAC (Catchment Area Advisory Committee) to the level of a coordinating agency instead of relying on a single government agency like WRMA (Water Resources Management Authority) as provided for by the water act 2002 at the catchment level. In conclusion as much as the new water sector reforms provide legitimacy, impetus and a framework for integrated watershed management in Mara and other water catchments in Kenya, implementation may still remain a challenge if barriers are not identified and addressed.

Liu et al.'s study highlights two highly degraded watersheds in the semi-arid Amhara region of Ethiopia where integrated water resource management activities were carried out to decrease dependence on food aid through improved management of 'green' water. Whiletop-down approaches require precise and centrally available knowledge to deal with the uncertainty in engineering design of watershed management projects, bottom-up approaches can succeed without such information by making extensive use of stakeholder knowledge. This approach works best in conjunction with the development of leadership condence within local communities. These communities typically face a number of problems, most notably poverty, that prevent them from fully investing in the protection of their natural resources, so an integrated management system is needed to suitably address the interrelated problems. Many different implementing agencies were brought together in the two study watersheds to address water scarcity, crop production, and soil erosion, but the corner stone was enabling local potential through the creation and strengthening of community watershed management organizations. Leadership training and the reinforcement of stakeholder feedback as a fundamental activity led to increased ownership and willingness to take on new responsibilities. A series of small short term successes ranging from micro-enterprise cooperatives to gully rehabilitation have resulted in the pilot communities becoming condent of their own capabilities and proud to share their successes and knowledge with other communities struggling with natural resource degradation (Liu et al., 2008).

150 Advances in Landscape Architecture

addressed.

flow accumulation by providing sites for water infiltration and penetration. By incorporating both fodder production and grazing land, livestock can be managed at the landscape level too, thereby enabling animals to reach otherwise inaccessible feed sources

For several decades, Integrated Watershed Management has been suggested and tried in several countries in the world, as an effective way to address complex water resource challenges. However its implementation has not been successful in most cases, due to various barriers. In Kenya, this approach is new and requires appropriate strategies to overcome these barriers and stimulate effective integrated watershed management. To design suitable and effective strategies, there is need to understand institutional features at various spatial levels, which promote or hinder integration and coordination. Wamalma's paper therefore explores the prospects and barriers of integrated watershed management of Mara, by examining the existing complex set of biophysical and socio-economic conditions, stakeholders attitudes and perceptions, arrangements for participation of stakeholders, available institutional structures and financial plans, and recent policy reforms in water and forestry sectors. Empirical information was gathered from official documents, direct observations, semi-structured interviews with managers, administrators, politicians and households of Mara watershed. Results indicates that, integrated watershed management of Mara is likely to be fostered by the critical biophysical and socioeconomic conditions, suitable institutional structures that are being established, water and forestry reforms, recognition of stakeholder participation and enhanced education of stakeholders, and leverage of resources from NGOs. However this efforts are likely to be hampered by disparity of views and perspectives, egoistic tendencies of influential leaders, inadequate financial plans, lack of effective coordination mechanisms, ineffective multi-stakeholder process, unwillingness of the local community and the politicians if there interests are not addressed, and lack of legitimacy for the institutional structures that are being created. This study therefore suggests adoption of multi-stakeholder forums for building understanding and bridging the disparity of views, the need to address the legitimate interests of the local community and politicians, and enhanced level of understanding among stakeholders on the interactions and interdependencies among the variables of the ecosystem. Finally the study recommends the need for a more effective coordination arrangement such as elevation of the CAAC (Catchment Area Advisory Committee) to the level of a coordinating agency instead of relying on a single government agency like WRMA (Water Resources Management Authority) as provided for by the water act 2002 at the catchment level. In conclusion as much as the new water sector reforms provide legitimacy, impetus and a framework for integrated watershed management in Mara and other water catchments in Kenya, implementation may still remain a challenge if barriers are not identified and

Liu et al.'s study highlights two highly degraded watersheds in the semi-arid Amhara region of Ethiopia where integrated water resource management activities were carried out

and avoiding overgrazing and trampling of vulnerable areas.

**4. Watershed management studies in developing country** 

Specically it has learned that (1) communities have high interest in development initiatives, including sustaining natural resources; (2) only when people make real contributions of their own resources will they strive to ensure the implementation of the planned activities; (3) emphasis must be given to effective organization of communities rather than only focusing on technology development; (4) including non-technical leaders in the information loop provides great benets at the community level. Introduced ideas, such as the fair representation of women and poor in the management process, women's micro-enterprise groups, and closing off areas to livestock, faced strong cultural opposition at the beginning but have proven very successful thanks to trial tests and continue collaboration efforts by farmers, non-technical leaders, and project personnel. It has also found that communities most at risk were also the most open to new ideas (Liu et al., 2008).

Partnerships and co-operative environmental management are increasing world wide as is the call for scientic input in the public process of ecosystem management. In Hawaii, private land owners, non-governmental organizations, and state and federal agencies have formed watershed partnerships to conserve and better manage upland forested watersheds. In this paper, ndings of an international workshop convened in Hawaii to explore the strength of approaches used to assess take holder values of environmental resources and foster consensus in the public process of ecosystem management are presented. Authors draw upon eld experience in projects throughout Hawaii, Southeast Asia, Africa and the US main land to derive a set of lessons learned that can be applied to Hawaiian and other watershed partnerships in an effort to promote consensus and sustainable ecosystem management. Interdisciplinary science-based models can serve as effective tools to identify areas of potential consensus in the process of ecosystem management. Effective integration of scientic input in co-operative ecosystem management depends on the role of science, the

stakeholders and decision-makers involved, and the common language utilized to compare tradeoffs. Trust is essential to consensus building and the integration of scientic input must be transparent and inclusive of public feedback. Consideration of all relevant stakeholders and the actual benets and costs of management activities to each stakeholder is essential. Perceptions and intuitive responses of people can be as inuential as analytical processes in decision-making and must be addressed. Deliberative, dynamic and iterative decisionmaking processes all inuence the level of stakeholder achievement of consensus. In Hawaii, application of lessons learned can promote more informed and democratic decision processes, quality scientic analysis that is relevant, and legitimacy and public acceptance of ecosystem management (Gutrich et. al. 2005).

Stakeholder Involvement in Sustainable Watershed Management 153

This watershed restoration project is now being replicated across China, with continued

Based on this, programs can be clear from the beginning about the proposed scale of interventions and the socioeconomic, environmental, and technical criteria for defining the micro-catchment and for selecting which micro-catchments to target. The micro-watershed approach also raises some difficulties when it comes to scaling up. Working at the microwatershed scale does not necessarily aggregate or capture upstream-downstream interactions. A patchwork of upstream interventions would only have a significant impact downstream if prioritized and planned within the larger watershed context and with understanding of the spatial and hydrological links between the perceived externalities and their causal factors (for example, land and water use). The lesson is that integration of watershed management activities beyond the micro-watershed requires higher level technical planning. In best-practice approaches, planning includes an institutional mechanism where stakeholders have a voice and are able to agree on measures from the micro-watershed scale upwards that can achieve both local and larger-scale objectives. The approach also needs to deal with institutional challenges of interagency collaboration and

Groetschel's (2000) study has investigated the problem situation in selected villages in Kachchh and Dahod district and looked into the institutional framework of watershed development in Gujarat. Field surveys for the target area analysis were carried out in six villages. In the five priority districts for watershed development activities, 15 NGOs and a number of Government institutions were met and assessed. The study is part of the planning process for the Indo-German Watershed Development Program (IGWDP) in Gujarat. It is geared towards providing a qualitative description of important issues for a region specific watershed development approach and gives recommendations for possible adaptations of the watershed development approach. In answer to the problem of natural resource degradation, more than 1200 watershed development projects have been implemented under different programs by the Rural Development Department in Gujarat since 1995. More than 70 percent of these are operated by NGOs. All government funded watershed development projects in Gujarat follow common guidelines, which determine implementation strategies, program content and components, principles of project management, capacity building, financial aspects and monitoring and evaluation. Major aspects of the approach include sustainability, participation, empowerment and

In general, the spirit of the common guidelines must be considered to be appropriate. However, as nation wide guidelines, they lack considerations of regional characteristics and problems. More flexibility would be required in many aspects to ensure appropriate handling of local problems. As an integrated, but, basically land based approach, watershed development needs careful consideration of equity concerns. Soil and water conservation measures alone might otherwise further benefit the rich instead of fostering social and economic cohesion. Implementation problems also arise from cooperation difficulties among different GOs and NGOs. The treatment of forest lands and common property resources, as

success (World Bank, 2003).

local-regional–level coordination.

decentralization.

Maintaining base-flows in the Pocono Creek is a particular concern. Knowing that the demand for water increases as competition for existing water resources grows with a growing number of users, concerns about sustaining the exceptional water quality and supply for future generations were raised throughout the 2003 Pocono Creek Pilot Project for Goal-based Watershed Planning (Pilot), which was funded by a PA Growing Greener grant. Local resource managers and citizens emphasized this issue during both the Pilot's goal setting (2000) and project evaluation stages (2003). The Environmental Protection Agency's Region 3 Office (EPA-3) organized and funded the current project, known as the Framework for Sustainable Watershed Management (Combe et. al. 2009).

The purpose of the Framework is to introduce a program that balances growth with natural resource protection, so that future generations can enjoy the highly valued natural resources of the region, while enjoying economic prosperity. This program is accomplished in three stages; technical, planning and watershed community outreach. The technical stage identifies the impacts of rapid growth on a watershed's water resources. The planning stage develops management strategies that balance regional growth needs with natural resource protection. The planning and watershed community outreach effort introduces an innovative approach to protecting the region's water resources through a community-wide public art event that receives extensive media coverage, has high visibility and generates enthusiastic community participation (Combe et. al. 2009).

The micro-watershed has proved a flexible and practical unit for project implementation and has reduced costs. However, the definition of a micro-watershed needs to be adapted to the social, administrative, and physical context. Best practice is that choice of scale should be driven by a participatory analysis of problems throughout the watershed, preferably within a broader watershed planning framework, as was done in the Loess II Project in China. In 1994 the World Bank funded one of the most successful conservation projects in the world, which improved the local environment, but also boosted the livelihoods of more than 1 million farmers. The number of people living in poverty in the region dropped from 59 percent in 1993 to 27 percent in 2001 and almost 3,000 square kilometers of eroded land was terraced (World Bank, 2003).

The restoration project worked closely with local farmers to build terraces, plant shrubs and trees, install irrigation and sediment control dams, and provide training and education on erosion control.

This watershed restoration project is now being replicated across China, with continued success (World Bank, 2003).

152 Advances in Landscape Architecture

ecosystem management (Gutrich et. al. 2005).

stakeholders and decision-makers involved, and the common language utilized to compare tradeoffs. Trust is essential to consensus building and the integration of scientic input must be transparent and inclusive of public feedback. Consideration of all relevant stakeholders and the actual benets and costs of management activities to each stakeholder is essential. Perceptions and intuitive responses of people can be as inuential as analytical processes in decision-making and must be addressed. Deliberative, dynamic and iterative decisionmaking processes all inuence the level of stakeholder achievement of consensus. In Hawaii, application of lessons learned can promote more informed and democratic decision processes, quality scientic analysis that is relevant, and legitimacy and public acceptance of

Maintaining base-flows in the Pocono Creek is a particular concern. Knowing that the demand for water increases as competition for existing water resources grows with a growing number of users, concerns about sustaining the exceptional water quality and supply for future generations were raised throughout the 2003 Pocono Creek Pilot Project for Goal-based Watershed Planning (Pilot), which was funded by a PA Growing Greener grant. Local resource managers and citizens emphasized this issue during both the Pilot's goal setting (2000) and project evaluation stages (2003). The Environmental Protection Agency's Region 3 Office (EPA-3) organized and funded the current project, known as the

The purpose of the Framework is to introduce a program that balances growth with natural resource protection, so that future generations can enjoy the highly valued natural resources of the region, while enjoying economic prosperity. This program is accomplished in three stages; technical, planning and watershed community outreach. The technical stage identifies the impacts of rapid growth on a watershed's water resources. The planning stage develops management strategies that balance regional growth needs with natural resource protection. The planning and watershed community outreach effort introduces an innovative approach to protecting the region's water resources through a community-wide public art event that receives extensive media coverage, has high visibility and generates

The micro-watershed has proved a flexible and practical unit for project implementation and has reduced costs. However, the definition of a micro-watershed needs to be adapted to the social, administrative, and physical context. Best practice is that choice of scale should be driven by a participatory analysis of problems throughout the watershed, preferably within a broader watershed planning framework, as was done in the Loess II Project in China. In 1994 the World Bank funded one of the most successful conservation projects in the world, which improved the local environment, but also boosted the livelihoods of more than 1 million farmers. The number of people living in poverty in the region dropped from 59 percent in 1993 to 27 percent in 2001 and almost 3,000 square kilometers of eroded land was

The restoration project worked closely with local farmers to build terraces, plant shrubs and trees, install irrigation and sediment control dams, and provide training and education on

Framework for Sustainable Watershed Management (Combe et. al. 2009).

enthusiastic community participation (Combe et. al. 2009).

terraced (World Bank, 2003).

erosion control.

Based on this, programs can be clear from the beginning about the proposed scale of interventions and the socioeconomic, environmental, and technical criteria for defining the micro-catchment and for selecting which micro-catchments to target. The micro-watershed approach also raises some difficulties when it comes to scaling up. Working at the microwatershed scale does not necessarily aggregate or capture upstream-downstream interactions. A patchwork of upstream interventions would only have a significant impact downstream if prioritized and planned within the larger watershed context and with understanding of the spatial and hydrological links between the perceived externalities and their causal factors (for example, land and water use). The lesson is that integration of watershed management activities beyond the micro-watershed requires higher level technical planning. In best-practice approaches, planning includes an institutional mechanism where stakeholders have a voice and are able to agree on measures from the micro-watershed scale upwards that can achieve both local and larger-scale objectives. The approach also needs to deal with institutional challenges of interagency collaboration and local-regional–level coordination.

Groetschel's (2000) study has investigated the problem situation in selected villages in Kachchh and Dahod district and looked into the institutional framework of watershed development in Gujarat. Field surveys for the target area analysis were carried out in six villages. In the five priority districts for watershed development activities, 15 NGOs and a number of Government institutions were met and assessed. The study is part of the planning process for the Indo-German Watershed Development Program (IGWDP) in Gujarat. It is geared towards providing a qualitative description of important issues for a region specific watershed development approach and gives recommendations for possible adaptations of the watershed development approach. In answer to the problem of natural resource degradation, more than 1200 watershed development projects have been implemented under different programs by the Rural Development Department in Gujarat since 1995. More than 70 percent of these are operated by NGOs. All government funded watershed development projects in Gujarat follow common guidelines, which determine implementation strategies, program content and components, principles of project management, capacity building, financial aspects and monitoring and evaluation. Major aspects of the approach include sustainability, participation, empowerment and decentralization.

In general, the spirit of the common guidelines must be considered to be appropriate. However, as nation wide guidelines, they lack considerations of regional characteristics and problems. More flexibility would be required in many aspects to ensure appropriate handling of local problems. As an integrated, but, basically land based approach, watershed development needs careful consideration of equity concerns. Soil and water conservation measures alone might otherwise further benefit the rich instead of fostering social and economic cohesion. Implementation problems also arise from cooperation difficulties among different GOs and NGOs. The treatment of forest lands and common property resources, as

required in most cases when following the ridge to valley approach, faces many difficulties. For the last years, the emerging Joint Forest Management Program (JFM) has been trying to mitigate some of those problems. Meanwhile it is the largest program of the Forestry Department. In addition to JFM, there are other government programs, which are supplementary to and supportive of watershed development efforts. The status of NGOs in Gujarat is very strong. Many of them have been involved in watershed development related activities for a number of years already. They actively participate in policy dialogues with the Government and are a driving force in pursuing adaptation of the watershed development approach. Many of the NGOs have developed special implementation strategies, often depending on their specific field of interest or the background of their organization and staff.

Stakeholder Involvement in Sustainable Watershed Management 155

land in the Big Lost watershed are forest and grass land, agriculture, animal raising, and residential development make signicant contributions to the water quality and quantity

To achieve the goals of both the stakeholders and the management decision-makers under

1. The existing characteristics of the Big Lost River watershed should be assessed. This will (a) include determining problems that can hinder the watershed management effort, (b) classifying these problems into groups (scientic, social, or motivational), and

a. developing useful relationships among selected water quality parameters to make evaluation of the water quality situations easier by using a small number of

b. improving integrated management of surface and ground waters by estimating

d. determining the impact of water quality deterioration and the increase in water

3. These solutions should be evaluated by examining the sustainability. This approach seeks to introduce a pertinent watershed management framework that can be used to bring Together major stakeholders in a watershed in an-unified effort to protect and improve the quality and quantity of their watershed. The approach can be shared among decision-makers and stakeholders and the results can be used to evaluate and achieve water quality improvements and water quantity conservation. The study tackles watershed problems using a robust technique based on watershed management feasibilities. While this technique has scientic tools to solve watershed problems, it also uses sustainability and public participation as great issues of socio-economic values. The examination of water quality effects, especially erosion of lands and increasing sedimentation as well as increases in water demand due to population or land use changes, on the physical sustainability of water use in a watershed will be a signicant benet and can be applied for other watersheds. The proposed actions related to improving water quality and conserving water quantity, will lead to successful watershed management and encourage stakeholders to participate in the decision-

sustainability conditions, it is necessary to implement the following steps:

2. Suitable solutions to solve these problems should then be proposed such as:

c. exploring interactive methods for effective public participation, and

(c) determining the priorities in solving these problems.

demand on water-use physical sustainability.

uncertainty in the water budgets,

making processes (Said et. al. 2006).

**5.1. Watershed in Turkey** 

**5. Current situation of watershed management in Turkey** 

Turkey has been separated into 25 different hydrologic watershed area (Table 2. Figure 2) and annual flow of these areas are nearly 186 billion cubic meters. One of third of these flow has been calculated in the Tigris watershed area which is situated in the eastern part of the

problems.

parameters,

Other NGOs are implementing regionally adapted solutions based, for example, on the problem of salinity in coastal areas. In 1999, the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) joined the watershed development efforts by establishing its Watershed Development Fund. The fund aims at further strengthening participatory watershed development initiatives. The selection criteria for watersheds are a significant proportion of Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes (SC/ST) population, high extent of rainfed farming and a high potential for watershed development. The regional watershed management cell of NABARD, which took up work in August 1999, is planning to undertake 19 projects at the first stage. Number and staff composition will have to widen, when the program expands.

Successful project implementation demands a range of skills and attitudes at village, NGO and program management level, which are not always or not sufficiently developed. Capacity building, therefore, plays a central role. Requirements at village level include raising awareness for environmental problems and resource management. Additional training will be required in order to make best sustainable use of conserved resources. Many NGOs in Gujarat have been successfully involved in watershed development projects. They have gained ample experience with this approach. What is still needed in some cases is to balance any existing bias in their work, which in many cases is either on the social or on the technical side. However, capacity building for the proposed IGWDP in these respects will probably not require the establishment of a separate institution. There are well established networks, which take care also of capacity building requirements. Requirements at the management level will mainly comprise comprehensive supervisory and monitoring functions.

An important goal of watershed management is to ensure the sustainable development of water resources. However, since integrated watershed management is much easier said than done, this approach is going to illustrate a real watershed, the Big Lost River watershed located in south-eastern Idaho, that has suffered from practical problems and examine this watershed in terms of sustainability just before and after the implementation of this approach. The Big Lost River watershed is about 3730 km2 and drains into the Big Lost River and its tributaries, which in turn drain to the Eastern Snake River Plain. The Big Lost River is one of the largest tributaries to the Eastern Snake River Plain. Although the majority of the land in the Big Lost watershed are forest and grass land, agriculture, animal raising, and residential development make signicant contributions to the water quality and quantity problems.

To achieve the goals of both the stakeholders and the management decision-makers under sustainability conditions, it is necessary to implement the following steps:

	- a. developing useful relationships among selected water quality parameters to make evaluation of the water quality situations easier by using a small number of parameters,
	- b. improving integrated management of surface and ground waters by estimating uncertainty in the water budgets,
	- c. exploring interactive methods for effective public participation, and
	- d. determining the impact of water quality deterioration and the increase in water demand on water-use physical sustainability.

## **5. Current situation of watershed management in Turkey**

#### **5.1. Watershed in Turkey**

154 Advances in Landscape Architecture

organization and staff.

when the program expands.

functions.

required in most cases when following the ridge to valley approach, faces many difficulties. For the last years, the emerging Joint Forest Management Program (JFM) has been trying to mitigate some of those problems. Meanwhile it is the largest program of the Forestry Department. In addition to JFM, there are other government programs, which are supplementary to and supportive of watershed development efforts. The status of NGOs in Gujarat is very strong. Many of them have been involved in watershed development related activities for a number of years already. They actively participate in policy dialogues with the Government and are a driving force in pursuing adaptation of the watershed development approach. Many of the NGOs have developed special implementation strategies, often depending on their specific field of interest or the background of their

Other NGOs are implementing regionally adapted solutions based, for example, on the problem of salinity in coastal areas. In 1999, the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) joined the watershed development efforts by establishing its Watershed Development Fund. The fund aims at further strengthening participatory watershed development initiatives. The selection criteria for watersheds are a significant proportion of Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes (SC/ST) population, high extent of rainfed farming and a high potential for watershed development. The regional watershed management cell of NABARD, which took up work in August 1999, is planning to undertake 19 projects at the first stage. Number and staff composition will have to widen,

Successful project implementation demands a range of skills and attitudes at village, NGO and program management level, which are not always or not sufficiently developed. Capacity building, therefore, plays a central role. Requirements at village level include raising awareness for environmental problems and resource management. Additional training will be required in order to make best sustainable use of conserved resources. Many NGOs in Gujarat have been successfully involved in watershed development projects. They have gained ample experience with this approach. What is still needed in some cases is to balance any existing bias in their work, which in many cases is either on the social or on the technical side. However, capacity building for the proposed IGWDP in these respects will probably not require the establishment of a separate institution. There are well established networks, which take care also of capacity building requirements. Requirements at the management level will mainly comprise comprehensive supervisory and monitoring

An important goal of watershed management is to ensure the sustainable development of water resources. However, since integrated watershed management is much easier said than done, this approach is going to illustrate a real watershed, the Big Lost River watershed located in south-eastern Idaho, that has suffered from practical problems and examine this watershed in terms of sustainability just before and after the implementation of this approach. The Big Lost River watershed is about 3730 km2 and drains into the Big Lost River and its tributaries, which in turn drain to the Eastern Snake River Plain. The Big Lost River is one of the largest tributaries to the Eastern Snake River Plain. Although the majority of the

Turkey has been separated into 25 different hydrologic watershed area (Table 2. Figure 2) and annual flow of these areas are nearly 186 billion cubic meters. One of third of these flow has been calculated in the Tigris watershed area which is situated in the eastern part of the

Turkey. In the spatial terms volume of these watershed has been followed by Kizilirmak and Sakarya watershed and in the term of the rain regime these watershed has been followed by the East Blacksea, East Mediterranean and Antalya Regions (Anonymous, 2013).

Stakeholder Involvement in Sustainable Watershed Management 157

flow

(km²) % (km³) (%) (l/s/km²)

Avarage annual productivity

Rainfall area Avarage annual

 (12) Sakarya Watershed 58,160 7.5 6.40 3.4 3.6 (13) West Blacksea Watershed 29,598 3.8 9.93 5.3 10.6 (14) Yesilrmak Watershed 36,114 4.6 5.80 3.1 5.1 (15) Kizlrmak Watershed 78,180 10.0 6.48 3.5 2.6 (16) Konya Watershed 53,850 6.9 4.52 2.4 2.5 (17) East Mediterranean Watershed 22,048 2.8 11.07 6.0 15.6 (18) Seyhan Watershed 20,450 2.6 8.01 4.3 12.3 (19) Asi Watershed 7,796 1.0 1.17 0.6 3.4 (20) Ceyhan Watershed 21,982 2.8 7.18 3.9 10.7 (21) Frat-Dicle Watershed 184,918 23.7 52.94 28.5 8.3 (22) East Blacksea Watershed 24,077 3.1 14.90 8.0 19.5 (23) Coruh Watershed 19,872 2.6 6.30 3.4 10.1 (24) Aras Watershed 27,548 3.5 4.63 2.5 5.3 (25) Van Lake Watershed 19,405 2.5 2.39 1.3 5.0 **Total 779,452 100.0 186.05 100.0**

Watershed name

**Table 2.** The Watershed of Turkey (Anonymous, 2013)

**Figure 2.** Watershed areas in Turkey (Anonymous, 2013)

2013);

**5.2. Stakeholders about watershed management in Turkey** 

Watershed management practices in Turkey were held mainly by the governmental organizations such as ministry departments and governmental agencies. Briefly these agencies can be classified by the ministries occupation. These are include (Anonymous,

Social and demographic conditions and resource usage of the watershed has been changed by the aspect of the vertical and horizontal conditions of the area and it has been showed differences by the local conditions. Upper parts of the watershed and in the east regions of the country, the general population levels are commonly low levels. Rural poverty and necessities to use of natural resources to sustain life is more common in the upper part of the watershed and eastern part of the country rather than the western parts. Upper parts of the watershed main economic activities are livestock, small agricultural production and forestry. In the contrast of these situation downstream areas are widely used for agricultural products (Anonymous, 2013).

The amount of the total water resource is 112 billion cubic meter and %36 of these water is proper for use and 32 billion cubic meters are used for irrigation, 7 billion cubic meters are used for drinking water and 5 billion cubic meters are used for industrial proposes (Anonymous, 2013).

In the last decades, with the participation of the non-governmental organizations and universities, there is a great awareness in the public about the sustainable use of natural resources and its benefits (Such as soil protection, water volume and quality, carbon emission, protection of the biological diversity etc.). With the parallel these situation, there is an increase of the projects about rehabilitation works, soil protection barriers and action plans to protect natural biological diversity (Anonymous, 2013).


Stakeholder Involvement in Sustainable Watershed Management 157


**Table 2.** The Watershed of Turkey (Anonymous, 2013)

156 Advances in Landscape Architecture

products (Anonymous, 2013).

(Anonymous, 2013).

Turkey. In the spatial terms volume of these watershed has been followed by Kizilirmak and Sakarya watershed and in the term of the rain regime these watershed has been followed by

Social and demographic conditions and resource usage of the watershed has been changed by the aspect of the vertical and horizontal conditions of the area and it has been showed differences by the local conditions. Upper parts of the watershed and in the east regions of the country, the general population levels are commonly low levels. Rural poverty and necessities to use of natural resources to sustain life is more common in the upper part of the watershed and eastern part of the country rather than the western parts. Upper parts of the watershed main economic activities are livestock, small agricultural production and forestry. In the contrast of these situation downstream areas are widely used for agricultural

The amount of the total water resource is 112 billion cubic meter and %36 of these water is proper for use and 32 billion cubic meters are used for irrigation, 7 billion cubic meters are used for drinking water and 5 billion cubic meters are used for industrial proposes

In the last decades, with the participation of the non-governmental organizations and universities, there is a great awareness in the public about the sustainable use of natural resources and its benefits (Such as soil protection, water volume and quality, carbon emission, protection of the biological diversity etc.). With the parallel these situation, there is an increase of the projects about rehabilitation works, soil protection barriers and action

 (01) Meric-Ergene Watershed 14,560 1.9 1.33 0.7 2.9 (02) Marmara Watershed 24,100 3.1 8.33 4.5 11.0 (03) Susurluk Watershed 22,399 2.9 5.43 2.9 7.2 (04) North Aegean Watershed 10,003 1.3 2.09 1.1 7.4 (05) Gediz Watershed 18,000 2.3 1.95 1.1 3.6 (06) Kucuk Menderes Watershed 6,907 0.9 1.19 0.6 5.3 (07) Buyuk Menderes Watershed 24,976 3.2 3.03 1.6 3.9 (08) West Mediterranean Watershed 20,953 2.7 8.93 4.8 12.4 (09) Antalya Watershed 19,577 2.5 11.06 5.9 24.2 (10) Burdur Lake Watershed 6,374 0.8 0.50 0.3 1.8 (11) Akarcay Watershed 7,605 1.0 0.49 0.3 1.9

Rainfall area Avarage annual

flow

(km²) % (km³) (%) (l/s/km²)

Avarage annual productivity

plans to protect natural biological diversity (Anonymous, 2013).

Watershed name

the East Blacksea, East Mediterranean and Antalya Regions (Anonymous, 2013).

**Figure 2.** Watershed areas in Turkey (Anonymous, 2013)

## **5.2. Stakeholders about watershed management in Turkey**

Watershed management practices in Turkey were held mainly by the governmental organizations such as ministry departments and governmental agencies. Briefly these agencies can be classified by the ministries occupation. These are include (Anonymous, 2013);

**Agencies in the Ministry of Forestry and Hydraulic Works:** General Directorate of Combating Desertification and Erosion, General Directorate Of Forestry, General Directorate for State Hydraulic Works, General Directorate of Water Management, Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks, Directorate of Meteorological Services, Presidency of Strategy Development, Turkish Institute of Water, Presidency of Information (Anonymous, 2013).

Stakeholder Involvement in Sustainable Watershed Management 159

Inadequacies in the terms of the watershed management politics and strategies in addition to these problems about coordination between

Coordination, legality, policy problems between

Inadequacies in the term of the participation of the non-governmental organizations and local

Problems about the sharing information between agencies about development plans

Inadequacies conditions about monitoring system which is caused by the lack of the

Lack of national watershed monitoring data set

Inadequacies to set priorities about watershed

Deficiencies to set rules of the watershed plans

Deficiencies in the lack about to monitoring of

Deficiencies in the calculation of the cost benefit analysis about the stakeholder who effected both

Lack of the sharing information and dialog between researches and applications Lack of the stuff who should work for

for coordinating management actions

ecological and socio-cultural data's

modern investigation systems

projects and actions

positive and negative

management agencies

sectorial investments

governmental agencies

people

natural landscape, eco-tourism, game sports, protection of the local cultural motivations of

There is a strong need to swot analysis for figuring out about the future goals and aims of

**SWOT ANALYSIS Strengths Weaknesses**

the watershed, national income, surplus to liberal economy) (Anonymous, 2013).

**5.3. SWOT analysis of the watershed management** 

the watershed management (Figure 3).

Organizations have gained their experience about the watershed management and therefore they can attempt to management in a more

Increase in the watershed protection and monitoring action plan and river region

Increase about governmental investments for the

Increase in the terms of the soil protection and

Increase in the knowledge share between governmental and non-governmental

Increase in the term of the protection area

Biological diversity monitoring department has been established a data matrix to inventory of

holistic way

management plans

watershed organizations

watershed rehabilitation

the biological resources

organizations

volume

**Agencies in the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock:** General Directorate of Agricultural Improvement, General Directorate of Vegetative Production, General Directorate of Agricultural Researches and Politics, General Directorate of Fishery and Water productions, Department of GIS (Anonymous, 2013).

**Agencies in the Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning:** General Directorate of Spatial Planning, General Directorate of Control about Environmental Impact Assessment, General Directorate of Environment Management, General Directorate of Protection about Natural Heritage, General Directorate of City Bank, General Directorate of Infrastructural Works (Anonymous, 2013).

**Agencies in the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources:** General Directorate of Quarry Companies (Anonymous, 2013).

Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Ministry of National Education, Ministry of Health.

**Agencies in Prime Ministry:** Under secretariat of Treasury, Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency

Agencies in the Ministry of Interior: General Directorate of Local Administration

Local Administrations; governorship (Anonymous, 2013).

#### **Other Civil Stakeholders:**

Non-governmental Organizations: (Organizations, groups, activists about the issues like Soil and Water Resources, Biological Diversity and Rural Development)

Profession Chambers

Watershed Groups

Rural Societies who lives in Watershed Region

Science and Education Organizations (Universities, The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey, Research Institutes)

Stakeholders from Private Sector (Anonymous, 2013).

Stakeholders of Watersheds have different views and importance about economic, ecological, social and cultural by the results product (energy management, clear water resources, irrigation water, water for industrial needs, income and productivity, conservation of the biological diversity, protection of the air cleanness, recreation needs, natural landscape, eco-tourism, game sports, protection of the local cultural motivations of the watershed, national income, surplus to liberal economy) (Anonymous, 2013).

## **5.3. SWOT analysis of the watershed management**

158 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Works (Anonymous, 2013).

Management Presidency

**Other Civil Stakeholders:** 

Profession Chambers

Watershed Groups

Companies (Anonymous, 2013).

2013).

**Agencies in the Ministry of Forestry and Hydraulic Works:** General Directorate of Combating Desertification and Erosion, General Directorate Of Forestry, General Directorate for State Hydraulic Works, General Directorate of Water Management, Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks, Directorate of Meteorological Services, Presidency of Strategy Development, Turkish Institute of Water, Presidency of Information (Anonymous,

**Agencies in the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock:** General Directorate of Agricultural Improvement, General Directorate of Vegetative Production, General Directorate of Agricultural Researches and Politics, General Directorate of Fishery and

**Agencies in the Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning:** General Directorate of Spatial Planning, General Directorate of Control about Environmental Impact Assessment, General Directorate of Environment Management, General Directorate of Protection about Natural Heritage, General Directorate of City Bank, General Directorate of Infrastructural

**Agencies in the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources:** General Directorate of Quarry

**Agencies in Prime Ministry:** Under secretariat of Treasury, Disaster and Emergency

Non-governmental Organizations: (Organizations, groups, activists about the issues like Soil

Science and Education Organizations (Universities, The Scientific and Technological

Stakeholders of Watersheds have different views and importance about economic, ecological, social and cultural by the results product (energy management, clear water resources, irrigation water, water for industrial needs, income and productivity, conservation of the biological diversity, protection of the air cleanness, recreation needs,

Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Ministry of National Education, Ministry of Health.

Agencies in the Ministry of Interior: General Directorate of Local Administration

Water productions, Department of GIS (Anonymous, 2013).

Local Administrations; governorship (Anonymous, 2013).

Rural Societies who lives in Watershed Region

Research Council of Turkey, Research Institutes)

Stakeholders from Private Sector (Anonymous, 2013).

and Water Resources, Biological Diversity and Rural Development)

There is a strong need to swot analysis for figuring out about the future goals and aims of the watershed management (Figure 3).



#### **SWOT ANALYSIS**

Stakeholder Involvement in Sustainable Watershed Management 161

that has got huge reservation of the population has been become big problem for clean water resources and sustainability of this resources can not be produced by the managers and governments. However, watershed management should be collaborative. Collaborative watershed partnerships consist with different land use patterns: one in an urban environment, and the other rural. A good practice of healthy and sustainable watershed management is based on a good understanding of these two distinct territories that have

Researchers have paid particular attention to the effect of land use on water quality (Lenat and Crawford, 1994; Hall *et al*., 1994, Wang and Yin, 1997), a water-quality component often is missing in land-use plans and land-use planning is rarely used in water-quality management. This could be because water-quality management and land use planning often are administrated by different agencies that do not coordinate constantly. Both of planning agencies and local authorities are not use feedback datas for developing plans to monitor of extensive land use and water-quality chances. Water-quality management agencies traditionally address existing water-quality problems rather than to prevent to cause a problem in the main sources. Planners and decision-makers should pay proper attention to water-quality issues in evaluating plans and facilitating collaborations. They should pay enough attention to significancy of land and water collaboration (Wang and Yin, 1997),.

Governments and development organizations worldwide are searching for new ideas on how to bring more participation that is public into environmental policy decision processes. Some social and political movements, too, are expanding their participatory outreach and organizing techniques (CIELAP, 2004). Many of the nongovernmental organizations and green activities seek to focus public opinion globally on the importance of water rights (Council of Canadians, 2006). In addition, as mentioned above, the European Water Framework Directive is pushing jurisdictions and cross-jurisdictional water basin committees to implement new participatory processes. Researchers, consultants and activists are generating practices, which can be widely discussed and shared. However, in the end, while many insights can come from hearing what worked and what did not in other places/situations, there is no substitute for locally designed and locally appropriate

public participation processes, both within and outside of government (David, 2005).

As the conclusion of the European Water Framework Directive Guidance Document on Public Participation states, ''The preamble of the Water Framework Directive includes a very clear statement: active public involvement is most likely the key to success with regard to achieving the desired water quality objectives." In other view, the water users and water polluters need to be turned into part of the solution, not kept outside the considerations as part of the problem. Active involvement is important, however, to take into account that no blueprint solution can be provided. Each River Basin District has to nd its own way to handle this, taking into account the prevailing cultural, socio-economic, democratic and administrative traditions. Careful planning, stakeholder analysis is a particular recommendation, but each competent authority has to accept that a dynamic and learning

different organic and fabric organization schema.

**Figure 3.** SWOT Analysis for Watershed Management in Turkey (Anonymous, 2013).

#### **6. Discussions and conclusion**

All the organizations is interested with poor people and dedicated to eradicating rural poverty in developing countries.

Main problem about this issue is rapid demographic chance in both rural and urban areas in developing countries. Rural areas have been emptied by the migration progress that is caused by unemployment and poverty in rural areas. Beside this situation, huge urban sprawl has been seen on many cities in developing countries. Water demand on the cities that has got huge reservation of the population has been become big problem for clean water resources and sustainability of this resources can not be produced by the managers and governments. However, watershed management should be collaborative. Collaborative watershed partnerships consist with different land use patterns: one in an urban environment, and the other rural. A good practice of healthy and sustainable watershed management is based on a good understanding of these two distinct territories that have different organic and fabric organization schema.

160 Advances in Landscape Architecture

technology

approaches

the world.

Decrease of pressure on the upper watershed by

Access to data and possibilities of utilization of

Diversity and potentials of Watershed that are caused by natural resources and living creature's

Increase of awareness on the society to natural resources and environmental protection

Development of institutional participatory

Increase of job opportunities to local community to work in several remediation processes

Improvements in legality and policy which was started with the EU adaptation processes

Developments in the watershed management in

**6. Discussions and conclusion** 

poverty in developing countries.

stakeholders because of the mitigation

**SWOT ANALYSIS Opportunities Threats**

Increase of NGO's effects and contributions Because of migration to urban, decrease of

Increase of political attention and support Inadequacies of sensitivity and education of the

Increase of scientific research capacities. Inadequacies in the terms of the legal sanction

All the organizations is interested with poor people and dedicated to eradicating rural

Main problem about this issue is rapid demographic chance in both rural and urban areas in developing countries. Rural areas have been emptied by the migration progress that is caused by unemployment and poverty in rural areas. Beside this situation, huge urban sprawl has been seen on many cities in developing countries. Water demand on the cities

**Figure 3.** SWOT Analysis for Watershed Management in Turkey (Anonymous, 2013).

The deterioration and extinction process on

the downstream and upper watershed

The deterioration of population balance among

Because of increasing of the population, increase of demand and requirement from watershed

young population in the term of work force in

Problems of ownership and right of usage

Increase of using chemical pesticides and

about problematic application processes

Negative effects on watershed which is caused

Increase of industry at the watershed areas Increase of mining at the watershed areas

limited natural resources

areas' products and services.

watershed resources value

Increase of industrial pollution

Threats on the biological diversity

by climate change process

Rural poverty

rural area

fertilizers

Researchers have paid particular attention to the effect of land use on water quality (Lenat and Crawford, 1994; Hall *et al*., 1994, Wang and Yin, 1997), a water-quality component often is missing in land-use plans and land-use planning is rarely used in water-quality management. This could be because water-quality management and land use planning often are administrated by different agencies that do not coordinate constantly. Both of planning agencies and local authorities are not use feedback datas for developing plans to monitor of extensive land use and water-quality chances. Water-quality management agencies traditionally address existing water-quality problems rather than to prevent to cause a problem in the main sources. Planners and decision-makers should pay proper attention to water-quality issues in evaluating plans and facilitating collaborations. They should pay enough attention to significancy of land and water collaboration (Wang and Yin, 1997),.

Governments and development organizations worldwide are searching for new ideas on how to bring more participation that is public into environmental policy decision processes. Some social and political movements, too, are expanding their participatory outreach and organizing techniques (CIELAP, 2004). Many of the nongovernmental organizations and green activities seek to focus public opinion globally on the importance of water rights (Council of Canadians, 2006). In addition, as mentioned above, the European Water Framework Directive is pushing jurisdictions and cross-jurisdictional water basin committees to implement new participatory processes. Researchers, consultants and activists are generating practices, which can be widely discussed and shared. However, in the end, while many insights can come from hearing what worked and what did not in other places/situations, there is no substitute for locally designed and locally appropriate public participation processes, both within and outside of government (David, 2005).

As the conclusion of the European Water Framework Directive Guidance Document on Public Participation states, ''The preamble of the Water Framework Directive includes a very clear statement: active public involvement is most likely the key to success with regard to achieving the desired water quality objectives." In other view, the water users and water polluters need to be turned into part of the solution, not kept outside the considerations as part of the problem. Active involvement is important, however, to take into account that no blueprint solution can be provided. Each River Basin District has to nd its own way to handle this, taking into account the prevailing cultural, socio-economic, democratic and administrative traditions. Careful planning, stakeholder analysis is a particular recommendation, but each competent authority has to accept that a dynamic and learning process based on ''trial and error" is the challenge to embark on. Experiences showed that given sufcient time it would pay off in the long run (EC,). According to Perkins (2011), government initiatives in a very positive light and ignores issues such as in what sense water users who are unserved by infrastructure or too poor to pay for water are really ''stakeholders," how the ''payoff" of a public learning process might be measured, and to whom this payoff accrues (Perkins, 2011).

Stakeholder Involvement in Sustainable Watershed Management 163

*Akdeniz University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Landscape Architecture, Antalya, Turkey* 

[1] Anonymous, 2009. White Paper Holistic Water Resources Management: A Professional Education Plan, H2C1 Team Mississippi State University http://www.gri.msstate.edu/ publications / docs /2009 /09 /6310 WatershedCourseWP2 Sep09.pdf, Date Accessed:

[2] Anonymous, 2012a. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales Date Accessed: 21.07.2012 [3] Anonymous, 2012b. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclitus Date Accessed: 21.07.2012 [4] Anonymous, 2012c. http://www.worldbank.org/projects/P009023/eastern-anatolia-

[5] Anonymous, 2012d. http://damocracy.org/?page\_id=417. Date Accessed: 21.07.2012

content/uploads/2012/04/hasankeyf\_hasankeyfesadakat2.jpg, Date Accessed: 21.12.2012 [7] Anonymous, 2012f. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hasankeyf.JPG, Date Accessed:

[8] Anonymous, 2012g. http://www.ifad.org/governance/index.htm, Date Accessed:

[10] Anonymous, 2012. http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/About\_IWMI/Overview.aspx Date

19/Ulusal\_Havza\_Y%C3%B6netim\_Stratejisi\_Tasla%C4%9F%C4%B1.aspx?sflang=tr [12] Benham B., Brannan K., Dillaha T., Mostaghimi S., Yagow G., 2002. TMDLs (total maximum daily loads)—terms and denitions, Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Tech. [13] Blatt J. R., 1993. The anti-environmental backlash: The wise use movement's inuence on river protection in New England. Unpublished master's thesis. Tufts University,

[14] Bossio D., Geheb K., 2008. Conserving land, protecting water. Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture Series 6. Wallingford, UK: CAB International; Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI);

http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/CABI\_Publications/CA\_CABI\_Series/Conservi

Ministry of Forestry and Hydraulic Works, 2012. Strategy of National Watershed

[9] Anonymous, 2012h. http://www.fao.org/about/en/ Date Accessed: 11.08.2012

http://www.ormansu.gov.tr/osb/haberduyuru/duyurular/12-04-

Colombo, Sri Lanka: CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food.

ng\_Land\_Protecting\_Water/protected/9781845933876.pdf

watershed-project?lang=en, Date Accessed: 21.07.2012

[6] Anonymous, 2012e. http://damocracy.org/wp-

Management Report. Date Accesses: 10.04.2013.

**Author details** 

Reyhan Erdogan

**7. References** 

21.07.2012

28.12.2012

11.08.2012

Accessed: 11.08.2012 [11] Anonymous, 2013.

Medford, Massachusetts.

Watershed Watershed management project results which are successful in the term of both theory and application, the role of class and gender, among other differences, as determinants of everyone's standpoint and possibilities for participation must be acknowledged. Liberal individualism is certainly not the only thing going on in any participatory process. The truly radical nature of participation only appears as and when it leads to economic redistribution – not just policy-making within existing structures of distribution. Under capitalism and due particularly to its second, ecological, contradiction ( O'Connor, 1994), the pressing need for local environmental knowledge and the contributions of diverse constituencies (Fischer, 1993; McKinney, 2002) in order to address ecological constraints has arguably loosened the controls which the state has traditionally placed on democracy. The type of policy analysis that is ''antagonistic to authentic democratic participation" (Fischer, 1993) is now giving way in some instances to more democratic policy-generating processes as a means of addressing intractable environmental problems. However, the inherent open questions of gender, ''race," ethnicity and class inequities remain. To address both the ''top-down" and the ''bottom-up" challenges to broadening public involvement in watershed decision processes as cited above, a creative combination of grassroots environmental education and community organizing is needed. Community-based environmental education initiatives, which are relevant and they are interesting for local residents and increase their knowledge of watershed issues (Fischer, 1993).

Watershed affect the daily lives of every one of many countries 's citizens and provide a powerful wall of protection for countries 's economic development. Data are scarce, but subjective understanding is clear: throughout much of the developing world watersheds are vital to the livelihoods of many millions of people.

Today issues about the water management should be appropriate to the nature as Thales had been said "water is not a just a common material besides it is a spiritual basin". Because of them water management should not be just an engineering work besides it should be a social work which should consider on the both social and cultural work too. So that, common problems can be solved easily and outputs of the projects will be more productive. Rivers are not just a natural sources for transportation, fresh water, energy or irrigation, none or the less they are the basic ground for human culture of the nearby areas. All the ancient great civilizations have been settled near the great rivers, and most of the modern civilization have a peace with their rivers. Because of them combining links between nature and society is the most important issue for sustainability.

## **Author details**

162 Advances in Landscape Architecture

1993).

whom this payoff accrues (Perkins, 2011).

vital to the livelihoods of many millions of people.

and society is the most important issue for sustainability.

process based on ''trial and error" is the challenge to embark on. Experiences showed that given sufcient time it would pay off in the long run (EC,). According to Perkins (2011), government initiatives in a very positive light and ignores issues such as in what sense water users who are unserved by infrastructure or too poor to pay for water are really ''stakeholders," how the ''payoff" of a public learning process might be measured, and to

Watershed Watershed management project results which are successful in the term of both theory and application, the role of class and gender, among other differences, as determinants of everyone's standpoint and possibilities for participation must be acknowledged. Liberal individualism is certainly not the only thing going on in any participatory process. The truly radical nature of participation only appears as and when it leads to economic redistribution – not just policy-making within existing structures of distribution. Under capitalism and due particularly to its second, ecological, contradiction ( O'Connor, 1994), the pressing need for local environmental knowledge and the contributions of diverse constituencies (Fischer, 1993; McKinney, 2002) in order to address ecological constraints has arguably loosened the controls which the state has traditionally placed on democracy. The type of policy analysis that is ''antagonistic to authentic democratic participation" (Fischer, 1993) is now giving way in some instances to more democratic policy-generating processes as a means of addressing intractable environmental problems. However, the inherent open questions of gender, ''race," ethnicity and class inequities remain. To address both the ''top-down" and the ''bottom-up" challenges to broadening public involvement in watershed decision processes as cited above, a creative combination of grassroots environmental education and community organizing is needed. Community-based environmental education initiatives, which are relevant and they are interesting for local residents and increase their knowledge of watershed issues (Fischer,

Watershed affect the daily lives of every one of many countries 's citizens and provide a powerful wall of protection for countries 's economic development. Data are scarce, but subjective understanding is clear: throughout much of the developing world watersheds are

Today issues about the water management should be appropriate to the nature as Thales had been said "water is not a just a common material besides it is a spiritual basin". Because of them water management should not be just an engineering work besides it should be a social work which should consider on the both social and cultural work too. So that, common problems can be solved easily and outputs of the projects will be more productive. Rivers are not just a natural sources for transportation, fresh water, energy or irrigation, none or the less they are the basic ground for human culture of the nearby areas. All the ancient great civilizations have been settled near the great rivers, and most of the modern civilization have a peace with their rivers. Because of them combining links between nature

## Reyhan Erdogan

*Akdeniz University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Landscape Architecture, Antalya, Turkey* 

## **7. References**


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**Chapter 7** 

© 2013 Timur, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*"Cities seek a waterfront that is a place of public enjoyment. They want a waterfront where there is ample visual and physical public access – all day, all year - to both the water and the land. Cities also want a waterfront that serves more than one purpose :they want it to be a place to work and to live, as well as a place to play. In other words, they want a place that contributes to* 

Water is an indispensible natural resource that is a renewable, but limited. It uses the aims of agricultural, industrial, energy generation, household, transportation, recreational and environmental. Klç (2001) as cited in Hamamcoğlu (2005), water resources which have played an important role in most parts of the world throughout history in the establishment and formation of the settlements and through their getting their own identities (Pekin, 2008). Sairinen & Kumpulainen (2006), waterfront identifies the water's edge in cities and towns. Moretti (2007), in pre-industrial cities, waterfront areas were intensely used and thriving with people and activities. Also, during this period, a close relationship was between waterfront and cities. With industrial era, this relationship was interrupted due to some uses, such as huge ports, commercial, industry, warehouses and transportation (Pekin, 2008). Through the evolution of containerization technology, port activities moved to outside the city. Accordingly, industrial plants were abandoned and forms of transportation changed (Wrenn *et al*., 1983). Also with the increasing environmental awareness and as a consequence of the pressure for upgrade in a urban areas, waterfronts were rediscovered in the city. So, phenomenon of waterfront regeneration emerged. Urban waterfront regeneration projects has become an effective tool for urban planning and politics an international dimension since 1980's (Sairinen & Kumpulainen, 2006;

*Remaking the Urban Waterfront, the Urban Land Institute (Seattle Department of Planning and Design, 2012)* 

*the quality of life in all of its aspects – economic, social, andcultural".* 

**Urban Waterfront Regenerations** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Umut Pekin Timur

**1. Introduction** 

Goddard, 2002).

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55759


## **Chapter 7**

## **Urban Waterfront Regenerations**

## Umut Pekin Timur

168 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Sweden p.51

No: 25701 http://www-wds.worldbank.org

watershed context. J. Environ. Manage. 61 (1), 25–36.

publications/PDFs/WP16263.PDF

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[77] Wang, X. and Yin, Z.-Y. 1997. Using GIS to assess the relationship between land use on

[78] Wang, X., 2001. Integrating water-quality management and land-use planning in a

[79] Zomer, R.J.; Trabucco, A.; Coe, R.; Place, F. 2009. Trees on farm: analysis of global extent and geographical patterns of agroforestry. ICRAF Working Paper no. 89. Nairobi: World Agroforestry Centre. http:// www. worldagroforestrycentre.org/ downloads/

water quality at a watershed level. Environment International 23, 103–114.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55759

## **1. Introduction**

*"Cities seek a waterfront that is a place of public enjoyment. They want a waterfront where there is ample visual and physical public access – all day, all year - to both the water and the land. Cities also want a waterfront that serves more than one purpose :they want it to be a place to work and to live, as well as a place to play. In other words, they want a place that contributes to the quality of life in all of its aspects – economic, social, andcultural".* 

> *Remaking the Urban Waterfront, the Urban Land Institute (Seattle Department of Planning and Design, 2012)*

Water is an indispensible natural resource that is a renewable, but limited. It uses the aims of agricultural, industrial, energy generation, household, transportation, recreational and environmental. Klç (2001) as cited in Hamamcoğlu (2005), water resources which have played an important role in most parts of the world throughout history in the establishment and formation of the settlements and through their getting their own identities (Pekin, 2008). Sairinen & Kumpulainen (2006), waterfront identifies the water's edge in cities and towns. Moretti (2007), in pre-industrial cities, waterfront areas were intensely used and thriving with people and activities. Also, during this period, a close relationship was between waterfront and cities. With industrial era, this relationship was interrupted due to some uses, such as huge ports, commercial, industry, warehouses and transportation (Pekin, 2008). Through the evolution of containerization technology, port activities moved to outside the city. Accordingly, industrial plants were abandoned and forms of transportation changed (Wrenn *et al*., 1983). Also with the increasing environmental awareness and as a consequence of the pressure for upgrade in a urban areas, waterfronts were rediscovered in the city. So, phenomenon of waterfront regeneration emerged. Urban waterfront regeneration projects has become an effective tool for urban planning and politics an international dimension since 1980's (Sairinen & Kumpulainen, 2006; Goddard, 2002).

© 2013 Timur, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

This chapter discusses waterfront, urban waterfront, its development phases, typologies of urban waterfront regenerations, advantages and disadvantage of urban waterfront regenerations, principle of sustainable and successful development for waterfront and also case studies in the world.

Urban Waterfront Regenerations 171

or a space. Beside deepness effect of water gives more widening feeling of in living area.

Also, the various light games is formed on this surface (Hattapoğlu, 2004).

**Figure 1.** Adapted from Önen (2007), the effects of water as a planning element in urban area

**Figure 2.** (a) The mirror effect of water, (b) The vibrancy effect of moving water (Önen, 2007).

reach the religious serenity for many belief systems (Hattapoğlu, 2004).

music effect (Önen, 2007).

Aksulu (2001), the sound of water as an audial, a symbol is in a state which exhibits continuity of life whereas it gives vibrancy and joy (Hattapoğlu, 2004). Stagnant water as an audial creates a serenity sense while moving water adds vibrancy to a space and also creates

For the tactual effects of water in planning varies from rain dropping to our face, getting wet with splashing water of waterfall to being completely submerged in pool, lake or the sea. Diving in to the water is a kind of escape from the world. Touch with water is a symbol that

## **2. Waterfronts and urban waterfronts definitions**

The word meaning of waterfront get through as "*the part of a town or city adjoining a river, lake, harbour, etc*." in the Oxford American Dictionary of Current English in English Dictionaries and Thesauruses (Dong, 2004).

Moretti (2008), the word "waterfront" means "*the urban area in direct contact with water"*. According to the author, waterfront areas usually is occupied by port infrastructures and port activities. Yasin *et al.* (2010) indicated that waterfront is defined generally as the area of interaction between urban development and the water. Hou (2009), described the waterfront area as the conflux area of water and land.

Although the vocable of waterfront is clear, also it has been met using some different words instead of the term waterfront in the literature. Hoyle (2002), Hussein (2006); Mann (1973), Tunbridge and Ashworh, (1992), Vallentine (1991) and Watson (1986), these words are a city port, harbourfront, riverside, river edge, water edge and riverfront (Dong, 2004; Yassin *et al.,*  2012).

Breen and Rigby (1994), Sairinen and Kumpulainen (2006) and Morena (2012) imply the same thing with waterfront and urban waterfront. According to these, waterfront identifies the water's edge in cities and towns or urban area of all sizes. The water body may be "*a river, lake, ocean, bay, creek or canal*" or (e.g. in Shaziman *et al.*, 2010) artificial.

## **3. The effects of water as a planning element in urban area**

The balance is established between nature and social life for a sustainable development of cities. Urban natural water elements play an important role in the establisment of this balance. Water is the most important planning element which is comfort of human physical and psychological. In addition, it brings existing environment in a number of features in term of aesthetic and functional (Figure 1) (Önen, 2007).

One reason for the importance of natural water source in urban area is aesthetic effects whose creates on human. This effects are visual, auidal, tactual and psychological effects.

The primarily power of attracted people on waterfronts is visual landscape effects of water on relaxation. Throughout, designs related to water takes over motion and serenity factors. Moving water (Figure 2a) (waterfall, cascade rivers and etc.) adds vibrancy and excitement to a space. Stagnant water (Figure 2b) creates the mirror effect in its space as a visual (Önen, 2007).

Aksulu (2001), water is used commonly as reflection element by means of the optical properties. Wide and quiet water surfaces bring in serenity and deepness to its surronding or a space. Beside deepness effect of water gives more widening feeling of in living area. Also, the various light games is formed on this surface (Hattapoğlu, 2004).

170 Advances in Landscape Architecture

case studies in the world.

2012).

This chapter discusses waterfront, urban waterfront, its development phases, typologies of urban waterfront regenerations, advantages and disadvantage of urban waterfront regenerations, principle of sustainable and successful development for waterfront and also

The word meaning of waterfront get through as "*the part of a town or city adjoining a river, lake, harbour, etc*." in the Oxford American Dictionary of Current English in English

Moretti (2008), the word "waterfront" means "*the urban area in direct contact with water"*. According to the author, waterfront areas usually is occupied by port infrastructures and port activities. Yasin *et al.* (2010) indicated that waterfront is defined generally as the area of interaction between urban development and the water. Hou (2009), described the waterfront

Although the vocable of waterfront is clear, also it has been met using some different words instead of the term waterfront in the literature. Hoyle (2002), Hussein (2006); Mann (1973), Tunbridge and Ashworh, (1992), Vallentine (1991) and Watson (1986), these words are a city port, harbourfront, riverside, river edge, water edge and riverfront (Dong, 2004; Yassin *et al.,* 

Breen and Rigby (1994), Sairinen and Kumpulainen (2006) and Morena (2012) imply the same thing with waterfront and urban waterfront. According to these, waterfront identifies the water's edge in cities and towns or urban area of all sizes. The water body may be "*a* 

The balance is established between nature and social life for a sustainable development of cities. Urban natural water elements play an important role in the establisment of this balance. Water is the most important planning element which is comfort of human physical and psychological. In addition, it brings existing environment in a number of features in

One reason for the importance of natural water source in urban area is aesthetic effects whose creates on human. This effects are visual, auidal, tactual and psychological effects.

The primarily power of attracted people on waterfronts is visual landscape effects of water on relaxation. Throughout, designs related to water takes over motion and serenity factors. Moving water (Figure 2a) (waterfall, cascade rivers and etc.) adds vibrancy and excitement to a space. Stagnant water (Figure 2b) creates the mirror effect in its space as a visual (Önen, 2007). Aksulu (2001), water is used commonly as reflection element by means of the optical properties. Wide and quiet water surfaces bring in serenity and deepness to its surronding

*river, lake, ocean, bay, creek or canal*" or (e.g. in Shaziman *et al.*, 2010) artificial.

**3. The effects of water as a planning element in urban area** 

term of aesthetic and functional (Figure 1) (Önen, 2007).

**2. Waterfronts and urban waterfronts definitions** 

Dictionaries and Thesauruses (Dong, 2004).

area as the conflux area of water and land.

**Figure 1.** Adapted from Önen (2007), the effects of water as a planning element in urban area

**Figure 2.** (a) The mirror effect of water, (b) The vibrancy effect of moving water (Önen, 2007).

Aksulu (2001), the sound of water as an audial, a symbol is in a state which exhibits continuity of life whereas it gives vibrancy and joy (Hattapoğlu, 2004). Stagnant water as an audial creates a serenity sense while moving water adds vibrancy to a space and also creates music effect (Önen, 2007).

For the tactual effects of water in planning varies from rain dropping to our face, getting wet with splashing water of waterfall to being completely submerged in pool, lake or the sea. Diving in to the water is a kind of escape from the world. Touch with water is a symbol that reach the religious serenity for many belief systems (Hattapoğlu, 2004).

It is possible that an important effects of the aesthetic effects are psychological ones. In fact, these effects are the emotional result which is perceived with senses. In addition, there is also psychological reactions towards water which comes from people's sprits. Human being trends psychologically to water as an element which provides the continuity of life. Sound and freshness of water relax people (Önen, 2007).

Urban Waterfront Regenerations 173

**Figure 4.** Recreational uses (a) (http://www.aerialarts.com/db\_B\_ton\_Pier\_Night1.jpg), Brighton Pier,

According to Wrenn *et al.* (1983), urban waterfronts have been distinguished five categories to location with water. Explained below the first two line symbolize coastal cities and the

Wrenn *et al.* (1983), regardless of that separation, the shoreline shape is a major influence on how the location of the city in reference to the water impacts the city-water links. Cities which are located on peninsulas, headlands or small islands benefit from longer waterfronts at a short distance from the city centre. The same could be said of cities located on the banks of intersecting rivers, estuaries and deltas. They have many long waterfronts, which increases the chance of public spaces located on the waterfront and also of these being

Akköse (2007), three factors are more important in forming the cities. The first of these is the natural structure of the city, the second of these is physical structure of the city, and the other one is social structure of the city. These three factors constitude system of the city in interaction with each other. In the natural structure of the city, the water element of presence or absence influences the process and the image of the city. Water resources such as sea, river or lake are added value in different ways. According to Dong (2004), Yassin *et al.* (2010) and Seattle Department of Planning and Design (2012), certain features of

(b) (www.thelances.co.uk/SA/CT12.jpg) The Victoria and Alfred Waterfront (Andini, 2011)

**4. Urban waterfronts categories** 

a. Urban area located on peninsula, b. Urban area located on a bay,

**5. Urban waterfronts features** 

waterfront is represented to below:

c. Urban area located on banks of a river,

latter three line symbolize inland ones (Al Ansari, 2009).

d. Urban area located on banks of intersecting rivers, e. Urban area located on a large body of water.

connected to other hinterland public spaces (Al Ansari 2009).

Water in urban areas is aesthetic effects as well as functional effects. These are climatic comfort, noise control, circulation effects and recreational aims.

Water surfaces cool air by means of increasing the amount of moisture in an environment. Especially with continental climate, that is a great importance. Also, water is used to freshen up the outdoor's air. Wide water surfaces in regional-scale regulate air's temperature surrounding areas (Önen, 2007). Water element is an important in urban areas where is in this regions, because of its visual and climatic effects (Gençtürk 2006).

In addition, water areas in urban spaces are composed of a barrier to artificial sounds with its creating the natural sounds (Önen, 2007).

Eckbo (1950), water is in the organization of space as a limiting and concealer element. Because person has to walk around in suitable direction (Gençtürk 2006). It is possible to see mostly this effect at the riverfronts.

**Figure 3.** Moore, Lidz (1994), urban schema of Manhattan, Philadelphia, Pittsburg and Pekin (Hattapoğlu, 2004)

Rivers taked on a spine task which is established cities and in the formation of streets, parks and other urban spaces have become a major factors. For example, (Figure 3) in Manhattan, Pittsburg, Philadelphia and Pekin (Hattapoğlu, 2004).

Recreational use of water element is too varied. Natural and artificial water surfaces and its surrounding can be serve many recreational uses (Figure 4), such as swimming, fishing, boat tour, entertaiment, walking etc.

**Figure 4.** Recreational uses (a) (http://www.aerialarts.com/db\_B\_ton\_Pier\_Night1.jpg), Brighton Pier, (b) (www.thelances.co.uk/SA/CT12.jpg) The Victoria and Alfred Waterfront (Andini, 2011)

## **4. Urban waterfronts categories**

172 Advances in Landscape Architecture

and freshness of water relax people (Önen, 2007).

its creating the natural sounds (Önen, 2007).

mostly this effect at the riverfronts.

(Hattapoğlu, 2004)

tour, entertaiment, walking etc.

comfort, noise control, circulation effects and recreational aims.

this regions, because of its visual and climatic effects (Gençtürk 2006).

It is possible that an important effects of the aesthetic effects are psychological ones. In fact, these effects are the emotional result which is perceived with senses. In addition, there is also psychological reactions towards water which comes from people's sprits. Human being trends psychologically to water as an element which provides the continuity of life. Sound

Water in urban areas is aesthetic effects as well as functional effects. These are climatic

Water surfaces cool air by means of increasing the amount of moisture in an environment. Especially with continental climate, that is a great importance. Also, water is used to freshen up the outdoor's air. Wide water surfaces in regional-scale regulate air's temperature surrounding areas (Önen, 2007). Water element is an important in urban areas where is in

In addition, water areas in urban spaces are composed of a barrier to artificial sounds with

Eckbo (1950), water is in the organization of space as a limiting and concealer element. Because person has to walk around in suitable direction (Gençtürk 2006). It is possible to see

**Figure 3.** Moore, Lidz (1994), urban schema of Manhattan, Philadelphia, Pittsburg and Pekin

Pittsburg, Philadelphia and Pekin (Hattapoğlu, 2004).

Rivers taked on a spine task which is established cities and in the formation of streets, parks and other urban spaces have become a major factors. For example, (Figure 3) in Manhattan,

Recreational use of water element is too varied. Natural and artificial water surfaces and its surrounding can be serve many recreational uses (Figure 4), such as swimming, fishing, boat According to Wrenn *et al.* (1983), urban waterfronts have been distinguished five categories to location with water. Explained below the first two line symbolize coastal cities and the latter three line symbolize inland ones (Al Ansari, 2009).


Wrenn *et al.* (1983), regardless of that separation, the shoreline shape is a major influence on how the location of the city in reference to the water impacts the city-water links. Cities which are located on peninsulas, headlands or small islands benefit from longer waterfronts at a short distance from the city centre. The same could be said of cities located on the banks of intersecting rivers, estuaries and deltas. They have many long waterfronts, which increases the chance of public spaces located on the waterfront and also of these being connected to other hinterland public spaces (Al Ansari 2009).

## **5. Urban waterfronts features**

Akköse (2007), three factors are more important in forming the cities. The first of these is the natural structure of the city, the second of these is physical structure of the city, and the other one is social structure of the city. These three factors constitude system of the city in interaction with each other. In the natural structure of the city, the water element of presence or absence influences the process and the image of the city. Water resources such as sea, river or lake are added value in different ways. According to Dong (2004), Yassin *et al.* (2010) and Seattle Department of Planning and Design (2012), certain features of waterfront is represented to below:


are established water's edge from the history of civilization to until today. Uruk, Erudu, Ur and Babylon are an examples for early settlement about 6000 years ago (Hamamcoğlu, 2005; Morena 2011). In case nowadays, the many cities or towns in China, England, Italy and

Urban waterfronts have historically been the hub of transportation, trade and commerce (Letourneur, 1993). Rafferty and Holst (2004), they are always connected with close by means of reflecting immediately any change in social, economic, industrial environmental. Historically, waterfronts aren't planed carefully and consistently. Growth had been inceasing and disconnected as a result, synthezis of numerous enterprise, activities and decisions of political authority. Thus, every urban waterfront has its special history (Akköse,

America can be given as an examples of waterfront settlement (Zhang, 2002).

**Figure 5.** Adapted from Wrenn *et al.* (1983), typical pattern of waterfront development phases

predictable environment (Zhang, 2002; Akköse, 2007; Yassin *et al.*, 2010).

with the waterfront a shoreline road (Akköse, 2007; Wrenn *et al.*, 1983).

5). These are explained briefly as follows:

a. Emergence of Waterfront Cities

Wrenn *et al.* (1983), indicated the historical evolution of waterfront into four periods (Figure

The early American settlements, the waterfront and the city was directly contact. Waters plays an essential role for trade activity and water tranportation. Settlements were established and European immigrant colonies arrived. The movement of production and people is provided between the two continent by sea route. A settlement's waterfront served to link the necessities of Europe with a familiar and

These settlements were established around a port with safe harbor suitable for cargo and passenger ships (Figure 6). At this time, the waterfront has only a few trails converging at a jetty. After, a street pattern was slowly installed. In this period, a larger wood pier was usually established for ship. Also, buildings began to develop on the street pattern. Though the rapid growth and development, the settlement still connect

2007).


## **6. Waterfront development**

Dong (2004), indicated that the meaning of the waterfornt development has differents in terms of understandings. Also he/she emphasized that the content of waterfront development varies greatly with respect to the characteristics of sites and cities. For example, in Japan urban waterfront development is one of the interrelated three waterrelated development concepts. Its location is between waterside and coastal development. Also, these development levels are comen up different field. In here, waterfront development is evaluated urban planning field.

According to Morena (2011), "*the urban waterfront development is widely regarded as a frontier on contemporary urban development, attracting investment and publicity. Sydney, London, Amsterdam, Hong Kong, Tokyo, Toronto, Osaka, Kobe and Dublin are examples of cities developed through the waterfront development process* ".

Yassin et al. (2012), defined ideally as "*a development directly fronting on water for any purposes and the water components can include river delta, coastal plains, wetlands, beached and dunes, lagoon, and other water features*". Beside, the boundary of where the water and land meet is difficult to determine and this boundary usually differ the laws and the administration of the countrys.

Wrenn (1983), the waterfront development stimulated modern development in the cities. Therefore, understanding the historical milestone of waterfront development is important (Yassin *et al.,* 2010). This subject has been explained in the following topic.

## **7. Typical pattern of waterfront development**

Throughout history, waterfronts are the most ideal living area for human being to be able to provide food, settling, reproduction, defence and learning etc. So, the many cities or towns are established water's edge from the history of civilization to until today. Uruk, Erudu, Ur and Babylon are an examples for early settlement about 6000 years ago (Hamamcoğlu, 2005; Morena 2011). In case nowadays, the many cities or towns in China, England, Italy and America can be given as an examples of waterfront settlement (Zhang, 2002).

Urban waterfronts have historically been the hub of transportation, trade and commerce (Letourneur, 1993). Rafferty and Holst (2004), they are always connected with close by means of reflecting immediately any change in social, economic, industrial environmental. Historically, waterfronts aren't planed carefully and consistently. Growth had been inceasing and disconnected as a result, synthezis of numerous enterprise, activities and decisions of political authority. Thus, every urban waterfront has its special history (Akköse, 2007).

**Figure 5.** Adapted from Wrenn *et al.* (1983), typical pattern of waterfront development phases

Wrenn *et al.* (1983), indicated the historical evolution of waterfront into four periods (Figure 5). These are explained briefly as follows:

a. Emergence of Waterfront Cities

174 Advances in Landscape Architecture

terrestial features,

geological charachter,

**6. Waterfront development** 

water,

water,

the countrys.

It is become an urbanized area, a important land,

The "water" may be a river, lake or sea,

The waterfront area is a pollution moderator.

development is evaluated urban planning field.

*through the waterfront development process* ".

Water and land are the two essential elements of waterfront, so this area an aquatic and

 It has uncertain spatial boundaries and dimensions which change from place to place, The waterfront area may be a historical port area or urban area for other usages close to

 An essential structure of mixed land uses characterizes this essential area of the city, It supplies oppurtunity for interaction between human settlement and nature and

It is a special area because of being productive and biologically diverse ecosystems,

It is a natural defense area for flooding, erosion with plant cover,

As an edge environment, it is a dynamic place which changes biological, chemical and

Dong (2004), indicated that the meaning of the waterfornt development has differents in terms of understandings. Also he/she emphasized that the content of waterfront development varies greatly with respect to the characteristics of sites and cities. For example, in Japan urban waterfront development is one of the interrelated three waterrelated development concepts. Its location is between waterside and coastal development. Also, these development levels are comen up different field. In here, waterfront

According to Morena (2011), "*the urban waterfront development is widely regarded as a frontier on contemporary urban development, attracting investment and publicity. Sydney, London, Amsterdam, Hong Kong, Tokyo, Toronto, Osaka, Kobe and Dublin are examples of cities developed* 

Yassin et al. (2012), defined ideally as "*a development directly fronting on water for any purposes and the water components can include river delta, coastal plains, wetlands, beached and dunes, lagoon, and other water features*". Beside, the boundary of where the water and land meet is difficult to determine and this boundary usually differ the laws and the administration of

Wrenn (1983), the waterfront development stimulated modern development in the cities. Therefore, understanding the historical milestone of waterfront development is important

Throughout history, waterfronts are the most ideal living area for human being to be able to provide food, settling, reproduction, defence and learning etc. So, the many cities or towns

(Yassin *et al.,* 2010). This subject has been explained in the following topic.

**7. Typical pattern of waterfront development** 

The early American settlements, the waterfront and the city was directly contact. Waters plays an essential role for trade activity and water tranportation. Settlements were established and European immigrant colonies arrived. The movement of production and people is provided between the two continent by sea route. A settlement's waterfront served to link the necessities of Europe with a familiar and predictable environment (Zhang, 2002; Akköse, 2007; Yassin *et al.*, 2010).

These settlements were established around a port with safe harbor suitable for cargo and passenger ships (Figure 6). At this time, the waterfront has only a few trails converging at a jetty. After, a street pattern was slowly installed. In this period, a larger wood pier was usually established for ship. Also, buildings began to develop on the street pattern. Though the rapid growth and development, the settlement still connect with the waterfront a shoreline road (Akköse, 2007; Wrenn *et al.*, 1983).

At this time, transportation and industry become the only use of the waterfront. Beside, in the previous period contact directly with water is lost as construction of warehouses, railway and highway create a barrier to public access. In the meantime, the waterfront environment deteriorated because of the industrial pollution. The water became dirty and the waterfront began to lose its natural attraction to many urban residents. (Wrenn

Rafferty and Holst (2004), until World War II, the loading-offloading activities of ship was carried out in along time in a port areas (Figure 8). After the War, the amount of load and speed of the loading-offloading increased with the development of

**Figure 8.** Typical pattern of waterfront development (Phase three) (Seattle Department of Planning and

railroad, the waterfront became even deteriorated (Zhang, 2002).

(Zhang, 2002; Wrenn *et al.*, 1983).

Zhang (2002), the old port areas were too constricted for modern container ships and equipment to maneuver easily, also Rafferty and Holst (2004), as cited in Akköse (2007) water depth was not enough for approaching the ships. Millspaugh (2001), after World War II, as a result of developments in maritime industry, thereby growing port actitivies started to need new areas (Akköse, 2007). Thus, port activities moved to outside the city. So, the old ports lost the role as the transportation and industry center. With the construction of highways largely changed the transportation patterns and this contributed to be abandoned the waterfronts areas. Also, people preferred the highways to railroads because of their freedom of choice. Due to fewer people chose

Beside these changes, increasing public interest over pollution contributed to the waterfronts demise. With the introduction of stricter air and water pollution controls, manufacturers began to leave the city. As a result, many ports fell into disuse. Also, the railroads suffered because of decline of manufacturing plants and disinvestment. Railroad yards on the waterfront were neglected. The waterfront virtually became a deserted, inaccessible and unsafe area, further separating the urban core from the water

*et al.*, 1983; Letourneur, 1993). c. Deterioration of Waterfronts

Design, 2012)

containerization technology (Akköse, 2007).

**Figure 6.** Typical pattern of waterfront development (Phase 1) (Seattle Department of Planning and Design, 2012)

b. Growth of Waterfronts

The first period of ports has converted contain of many functions ports with increase of economic activities. At this time, the settlement became a city and maritime trade stimulated urban development (Figure 7). The shoreline road turned into a busy street providing services, supplies, and officespace for commercial activities. The waterfronts became more important state and commerce escalated with the use of steamships. Warehouses were constructed along the waterfront and these rows of warehouses blocked the water's edge from the street. Also, in the former period used of wooden piers replace by bigger docks made of stone and fill material. By filling out into the water to expand docking and storage facilities. The rapid development waterfronts as a port facility caused the formation of a port authority for managing the port activities (Akköse, 2007; Wrenn *et al.*, 1983).

At this period, railroad was introduced as a new mode of transportation. This required some space from waterfront to service docks and install tracks. As a result of this change, effectively severed the central city from the waterfront. Also, the waterfront became increasingly congested. Since 1930's, elevated highways and interstate freeways was built the shoreline to decrease this congestion. Offices and stores along the old shoreline road were converted to warehouses (Wrenn *et al.*, 1983; Zhang, 2002).

**Figure 7.** Typical pattern of waterfront development (Phase two) (Seattle Department of Planning and Design, 2012)

At this time, transportation and industry become the only use of the waterfront. Beside, in the previous period contact directly with water is lost as construction of warehouses, railway and highway create a barrier to public access. In the meantime, the waterfront environment deteriorated because of the industrial pollution. The water became dirty and the waterfront began to lose its natural attraction to many urban residents. (Wrenn *et al.*, 1983; Letourneur, 1993).

c. Deterioration of Waterfronts

176 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Design, 2012)

Design, 2012)

b. Growth of Waterfronts

(Akköse, 2007; Wrenn *et al.*, 1983).

**Figure 6.** Typical pattern of waterfront development (Phase 1) (Seattle Department of Planning and

The first period of ports has converted contain of many functions ports with increase of economic activities. At this time, the settlement became a city and maritime trade stimulated urban development (Figure 7). The shoreline road turned into a busy street providing services, supplies, and officespace for commercial activities. The waterfronts became more important state and commerce escalated with the use of steamships. Warehouses were constructed along the waterfront and these rows of warehouses blocked the water's edge from the street. Also, in the former period used of wooden piers replace by bigger docks made of stone and fill material. By filling out into the water to expand docking and storage facilities. The rapid development waterfronts as a port facility caused the formation of a port authority for managing the port activities

At this period, railroad was introduced as a new mode of transportation. This required some space from waterfront to service docks and install tracks. As a result of this change, effectively severed the central city from the waterfront. Also, the waterfront became increasingly congested. Since 1930's, elevated highways and interstate freeways was built the shoreline to decrease this congestion. Offices and stores along the old

shoreline road were converted to warehouses (Wrenn *et al.*, 1983; Zhang, 2002).

**Figure 7.** Typical pattern of waterfront development (Phase two) (Seattle Department of Planning and

Rafferty and Holst (2004), until World War II, the loading-offloading activities of ship was carried out in along time in a port areas (Figure 8). After the War, the amount of load and speed of the loading-offloading increased with the development of containerization technology (Akköse, 2007).

**Figure 8.** Typical pattern of waterfront development (Phase three) (Seattle Department of Planning and Design, 2012)

Zhang (2002), the old port areas were too constricted for modern container ships and equipment to maneuver easily, also Rafferty and Holst (2004), as cited in Akköse (2007) water depth was not enough for approaching the ships. Millspaugh (2001), after World War II, as a result of developments in maritime industry, thereby growing port actitivies started to need new areas (Akköse, 2007). Thus, port activities moved to outside the city. So, the old ports lost the role as the transportation and industry center. With the construction of highways largely changed the transportation patterns and this contributed to be abandoned the waterfronts areas. Also, people preferred the highways to railroads because of their freedom of choice. Due to fewer people chose railroad, the waterfront became even deteriorated (Zhang, 2002).

Beside these changes, increasing public interest over pollution contributed to the waterfronts demise. With the introduction of stricter air and water pollution controls, manufacturers began to leave the city. As a result, many ports fell into disuse. Also, the railroads suffered because of decline of manufacturing plants and disinvestment. Railroad yards on the waterfront were neglected. The waterfront virtually became a deserted, inaccessible and unsafe area, further separating the urban core from the water (Zhang, 2002; Wrenn *et al.*, 1983).

#### d. Rediscovery of waterfronts

In the waterfront areas of abandoned old ports was available several problems. The first of these was caused pollution by the port and industrial activities. Second problem should be obsolete infrastructure of the industrial areas which is surrounded by abandoned warehouses and other port structures. In addition, the railroad and the highway broke off the link between urban center and waterfront area and also prevented interaction eachother (Akköse, 2007). Also, in the 1960's, people became more concerned about environmental-city health and the misuse of natural resources. Locals wanted to recover the aesthetic scenery of the waterfront which had been neglected for years. As a result, the port's commercial failure caused reevolution of waterfronts by private developers and city governments (Zhang, 2002). So, U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA and OCZM (1980), it was at this time that an opportunity exists for the public use and a mix of recreational, residential, and commercial uses were developed (Figure 9). The lost intimate connection was provided again between the city and its waterfront. In the meantime, a new port to respond to new technology was established outside the city where space was plentiful (Wrenn et *al.*, 1983; Letourneur, 1993).

Urban Waterfront Regenerations 179

As most of the waterfront development projects arise in the larger context of urban renewal, for these projects a number of other expressions are used similar to this phrase. But most of these projects concentrate on the regenerating function. Such expression include *"waterfront regeneration"* (e.g. in Wood and Handley, 1999; McCarthy 1996), "*waterfront revitalization*" (e.g. in Goodwin, 1999; Hoyle, 2001), "*waterfront rehabilitation*" (e.g. in Hoyle & Pinder, 1981: 83), and "*waterfront redevelopment*" (e.g. in Gospodini, 2001; Gordon 1999) (Dong, 2004). Also, the terms which is used in their development may vary according to study's border

The interest of waterfront regeneration phenomenon emerged from North America in the mid 1960's, with a rehabilitate of Baltimore's Inner Harbour (Figure 10), a project that transformed the degraded harbor zone to an urban leisure centre (Papatheochari, 2011; Al Ansari, 2009; Goddard, 2002; Tastsoglou & Dimitra, 2012). Breen & Rigby (1996), Hoyle (2001a), Shaw (2001), this phenomenon is characterized as a Baltimore Syndrome, is still in

Many factors are considered more as the sources of the phenomenon, except those mentioned previously. But the two most essential are Connors (1986), Meyer (1999), Norcliffe *et al*. (1996), Tunbridge (1988), the economic transition from industrial to postindustrial service base and Clrake (1972), Cohen *et al.* (1997), Pinder and Witherick (1993), Vitousek *et al.* (1997), the high concentration of population at waterside (on the riverine,

Tunbridge (1988), remarked that prompted a general revitalisation of US port-cities based on several factors among which are changing demography, availability of cheap, residential property, increasing heritage awareness, increasing quality of life awareness, the desire to

Also Jones (1998), indicated that the movement of waterfront in US is attributed to a few of

The need to conserve historical and architectural heritage, because of being found old

According to Breen & Rigby (1998), US Federal Government support by means of urban

According to Shaw (2001) the regarding theoretical work has always followed the practical part of the process. Hoyle & Pinder (1992), Hoyle *et al.* (1988b), explained that the main bulk of the regarding research started to accrue in North America in the 1970's and in Europe in

"*Tunbridge (1988), and Malone (1996), pointed out that the movement provides a parallel thread to the overall urban regeneration process. Also, Wood (1965) suggested that waterfronts are naturally prone to renewal and regeneration because they are usually in the oldest parts of* 

live closer to work and the increasing importance of urban tourism (Jones, 1998).

The inreasing amount of leisure time and the need for more recreational area,

regeneration action grants and other development tax incentives.

lacustrine, estuarine, and costal zones) locations (Al Ansari, 2009).

and as a regional domain (Koca, 2011).

factors which have involved the following:

*the city*" (Al Ansari, 2009).

the 1980's (Al Ansari, 2009).

dockland areas of the first American ports,

full swing (Al Ansari, 2009).

**Figure 9.** Typical pattern of waterfront development (Phase four) (Seattle Department of Planning and Design, 2012)

Waterfronts vary depending on many interrelated factors. These are a city's history and size, its location, land structure and climate, the diversity of water-related uses and city's management status. For this reasons, each waterfronts may be some variance in the typical waterfront evolution pattern. But, one fact is common, urban waterfronts dramatically changed because of the influence of social and technology factors. Finally, much more area has been regained public use and access (Wrenn *et al.*, 1983; Zhang, 2002).

## **8. Urban waterfront regeneration**

With the rediscovery of the urban waterfronts, Sairinen and Kumpulainen (2006), as cited in Pekin (2008) new laws were enacted to govern the structural changes in there and for this goal, new planning methods were developed.

As most of the waterfront development projects arise in the larger context of urban renewal, for these projects a number of other expressions are used similar to this phrase. But most of these projects concentrate on the regenerating function. Such expression include *"waterfront regeneration"* (e.g. in Wood and Handley, 1999; McCarthy 1996), "*waterfront revitalization*" (e.g. in Goodwin, 1999; Hoyle, 2001), "*waterfront rehabilitation*" (e.g. in Hoyle & Pinder, 1981: 83), and "*waterfront redevelopment*" (e.g. in Gospodini, 2001; Gordon 1999) (Dong, 2004). Also, the terms which is used in their development may vary according to study's border and as a regional domain (Koca, 2011).

178 Advances in Landscape Architecture

d. Rediscovery of waterfronts

*al.*, 1983; Letourneur, 1993).

**8. Urban waterfront regeneration** 

goal, new planning methods were developed.

Design, 2012)

In the waterfront areas of abandoned old ports was available several problems. The first of these was caused pollution by the port and industrial activities. Second problem should be obsolete infrastructure of the industrial areas which is surrounded by abandoned warehouses and other port structures. In addition, the railroad and the highway broke off the link between urban center and waterfront area and also prevented interaction eachother (Akköse, 2007). Also, in the 1960's, people became more concerned about environmental-city health and the misuse of natural resources. Locals wanted to recover the aesthetic scenery of the waterfront which had been neglected for years. As a result, the port's commercial failure caused reevolution of waterfronts by private developers and city governments (Zhang, 2002). So, U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA and OCZM (1980), it was at this time that an opportunity exists for the public use and a mix of recreational, residential, and commercial uses were developed (Figure 9). The lost intimate connection was provided again between the city and its waterfront. In the meantime, a new port to respond to new technology was established outside the city where space was plentiful (Wrenn et

**Figure 9.** Typical pattern of waterfront development (Phase four) (Seattle Department of Planning and

Waterfronts vary depending on many interrelated factors. These are a city's history and size, its location, land structure and climate, the diversity of water-related uses and city's management status. For this reasons, each waterfronts may be some variance in the typical waterfront evolution pattern. But, one fact is common, urban waterfronts dramatically changed because of the influence of social and technology factors. Finally, much more area

With the rediscovery of the urban waterfronts, Sairinen and Kumpulainen (2006), as cited in Pekin (2008) new laws were enacted to govern the structural changes in there and for this

has been regained public use and access (Wrenn *et al.*, 1983; Zhang, 2002).

The interest of waterfront regeneration phenomenon emerged from North America in the mid 1960's, with a rehabilitate of Baltimore's Inner Harbour (Figure 10), a project that transformed the degraded harbor zone to an urban leisure centre (Papatheochari, 2011; Al Ansari, 2009; Goddard, 2002; Tastsoglou & Dimitra, 2012). Breen & Rigby (1996), Hoyle (2001a), Shaw (2001), this phenomenon is characterized as a Baltimore Syndrome, is still in full swing (Al Ansari, 2009).

Many factors are considered more as the sources of the phenomenon, except those mentioned previously. But the two most essential are Connors (1986), Meyer (1999), Norcliffe *et al*. (1996), Tunbridge (1988), the economic transition from industrial to postindustrial service base and Clrake (1972), Cohen *et al.* (1997), Pinder and Witherick (1993), Vitousek *et al.* (1997), the high concentration of population at waterside (on the riverine, lacustrine, estuarine, and costal zones) locations (Al Ansari, 2009).

Tunbridge (1988), remarked that prompted a general revitalisation of US port-cities based on several factors among which are changing demography, availability of cheap, residential property, increasing heritage awareness, increasing quality of life awareness, the desire to live closer to work and the increasing importance of urban tourism (Jones, 1998).

Also Jones (1998), indicated that the movement of waterfront in US is attributed to a few of factors which have involved the following:


"*Tunbridge (1988), and Malone (1996), pointed out that the movement provides a parallel thread to the overall urban regeneration process. Also, Wood (1965) suggested that waterfronts are naturally prone to renewal and regeneration because they are usually in the oldest parts of the city*" (Al Ansari, 2009).

According to Shaw (2001) the regarding theoretical work has always followed the practical part of the process. Hoyle & Pinder (1992), Hoyle *et al.* (1988b), explained that the main bulk of the regarding research started to accrue in North America in the 1970's and in Europe in the 1980's (Al Ansari, 2009).

on Water - Venice (1989). Aim of these enhance scientific studies and research about the planning and design stages necessary for an effective development of waterfront area. According to Waterfront Expo (2004) it is guessed that £55 billion is going to be spent on waterfront projects between 2004 and 2009 (Al Ansari, 2009; Giovinazzi & Giovinazzi, 2008). As a result, this phenomenon which began about fifty years ago, has been applied vigorously

The intensification of waterfront regeneration is really remarkable during the last decades as waterfront cities began to develop postindustrial urban development strategies throughout

Hoyle (2000), urban waterfront regenerations are'nt just met a phenomenon which is in post-industrial port cities. They are possible to see all kinds of waterside settlements which includes waterfronts created on reclaimed wet or foreshore lands (Al Ansari, 2009). With respect to aims of their classification is very difficult. Because, one regeneration has a few aims at the same time. Moretti (2008) indicate different typologies of waterfront

a. New Urban Expansion: This typology contains the waterfront areas which is built all over again in available areas; and reclaimed old industrial or port areas. Some examples of it can be given a Hafen City in Hamburg, and (Figure 11) on Lake Spandau and the

Bay of Rummelsburg, in Berlin (Moretti, 2008a; Giovinazzi & Giovinazzi, 2008).

in recent years on many waterfronts around the world (Tastsoglou & Dimitra, 2012).

**9. Different typologies of urban waterfront regenerations** 

the 1970's, 1980's, and 1990's (Λουκαδάκη, 2011).

**Figure 11.** A view of Lake Spandau in Berlin (Hellweg, 2013)

regenerations as follow:

**Figure 10.** (a) 1960's in Baltimore Inner Harbour (Kilduffs Baltimore's Harbor, 2013), (b) Present day (Anonymous, 2013a)

The first examples of waterfront regeneration came in the 1970's from cities in the North America (Papatheochari, 2011). In case its applications became widespread in the 1980's in there (Jones, 1998; Goddard, 2002). Generally, the waterfront regeneration varied to urban interventions and politics of countries. For example, in North America Hoyle (2000), the waterfront is considered to be part of the urban renewal process in North America, whereas Hoyle (2000), (2001a), Tunbridge (1988) in Europe, it is regarded as a mere side-effect of the changes in maritime transportation, however, in the UK, it is a component part of postindustrial urban regeneration.

The American waterfront regeneration is consist of mixed uses including residential, recreational, commercial, retail, service and tourist facilities. Mainly residential, recreational and tourist-related uses were often the predominant than the others in this model. Also this largely became the typical development model within the US. and this model was widely accepted by other countries. The experience of Amerikan waterfront regeneration, especially Baltimore's Inner Harbour regeneration, influenced many in Europe (from Scandinavia, UK and the Netherlands to Spain and all southern Europe) and worldwide (Australia, Japan, Latin America, the Middle East and South Africa (Papatheochari, 2011; Jones, 1998).

English Tourist Board (1988), Hoyle *et al.* (1988), indicated that the most influential examples of the US waterfront regeneration projects in worldwide are The Inner Harbour Baltimore, Quincy Market Boston, The Pierhead Building New York, San Diego's waterfront village, Giradelli Square and Pier 63 San Francisco (Jones, 1998).

To Jones (1998), "*since the mid 1980's the vocabulary of urban waterfront regeneration has been clearly established in the minds of developers, local authorities and national government departments*".

Beside, waterfront regeneration is viewed as a standart catalyst of inner area regeneration for any city or town in the mid 1980-1990's (Goddard, 2002).

The widespread recognition of the phenomenon and its importance brought about the establishment of research centres, such as The Waterfront Centre - Washington D.C. (1981), Association Internationale Villes & Ports - Le Havre (1988), The International Centre Cities on Water - Venice (1989). Aim of these enhance scientific studies and research about the planning and design stages necessary for an effective development of waterfront area. According to Waterfront Expo (2004) it is guessed that £55 billion is going to be spent on waterfront projects between 2004 and 2009 (Al Ansari, 2009; Giovinazzi & Giovinazzi, 2008).

As a result, this phenomenon which began about fifty years ago, has been applied vigorously in recent years on many waterfronts around the world (Tastsoglou & Dimitra, 2012).

The intensification of waterfront regeneration is really remarkable during the last decades as waterfront cities began to develop postindustrial urban development strategies throughout the 1970's, 1980's, and 1990's (Λουκαδάκη, 2011).

## **9. Different typologies of urban waterfront regenerations**

180 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Present day (Anonymous, 2013a)

industrial urban regeneration.

**Figure 10.** (a) 1960's in Baltimore Inner Harbour (Kilduffs Baltimore's Harbor, 2013), (b)

The first examples of waterfront regeneration came in the 1970's from cities in the North America (Papatheochari, 2011). In case its applications became widespread in the 1980's in there (Jones, 1998; Goddard, 2002). Generally, the waterfront regeneration varied to urban interventions and politics of countries. For example, in North America Hoyle (2000), the waterfront is considered to be part of the urban renewal process in North America, whereas Hoyle (2000), (2001a), Tunbridge (1988) in Europe, it is regarded as a mere side-effect of the changes in maritime transportation, however, in the UK, it is a component part of post-

The American waterfront regeneration is consist of mixed uses including residential, recreational, commercial, retail, service and tourist facilities. Mainly residential, recreational and tourist-related uses were often the predominant than the others in this model. Also this largely became the typical development model within the US. and this model was widely accepted by other countries. The experience of Amerikan waterfront regeneration, especially Baltimore's Inner Harbour regeneration, influenced many in Europe (from Scandinavia, UK and the Netherlands to Spain and all southern Europe) and worldwide (Australia, Japan,

English Tourist Board (1988), Hoyle *et al.* (1988), indicated that the most influential examples of the US waterfront regeneration projects in worldwide are The Inner Harbour Baltimore, Quincy Market Boston, The Pierhead Building New York, San Diego's waterfront village,

To Jones (1998), "*since the mid 1980's the vocabulary of urban waterfront regeneration has been clearly* 

Beside, waterfront regeneration is viewed as a standart catalyst of inner area regeneration

The widespread recognition of the phenomenon and its importance brought about the establishment of research centres, such as The Waterfront Centre - Washington D.C. (1981), Association Internationale Villes & Ports - Le Havre (1988), The International Centre Cities

*established in the minds of developers, local authorities and national government departments*".

Latin America, the Middle East and South Africa (Papatheochari, 2011; Jones, 1998).

Giradelli Square and Pier 63 San Francisco (Jones, 1998).

for any city or town in the mid 1980-1990's (Goddard, 2002).

Hoyle (2000), urban waterfront regenerations are'nt just met a phenomenon which is in post-industrial port cities. They are possible to see all kinds of waterside settlements which includes waterfronts created on reclaimed wet or foreshore lands (Al Ansari, 2009). With respect to aims of their classification is very difficult. Because, one regeneration has a few aims at the same time. Moretti (2008) indicate different typologies of waterfront regenerations as follow:

a. New Urban Expansion: This typology contains the waterfront areas which is built all over again in available areas; and reclaimed old industrial or port areas. Some examples of it can be given a Hafen City in Hamburg, and (Figure 11) on Lake Spandau and the Bay of Rummelsburg, in Berlin (Moretti, 2008a; Giovinazzi & Giovinazzi, 2008).

**Figure 11.** A view of Lake Spandau in Berlin (Hellweg, 2013)

b. Waterfronts and Great Events: In this one is establihed as a consequence of important temporary events in the waterfront area such as the *Expos* (Figure 12): in Seville (1992), Barcelona (1992, 2004), Genoa (1992 and 2004), Lisbon (1998), London (2000), Zaragoza (2008). Afterward, new urban areas are developed around these areas like residental and production area (Moretti, 2010).

Urban Waterfront Regenerations 183

recreational uses like an open air festival and sport activities etc. The Donauinsel (Danube Island) in Vienna (Figure 16a), as a created barrier island (Moretti 2008a). For over 20 years at the end of June a couple million people gather at the Donauinsel for to visit the biggest open air festival in Europe, the Donauinselfest (Anonim, 2013c). The others are Guadalupe River (Figure 16b) in San José, California, USA and Porsuk

**(b)**

**Figure 13.** (a) View from above Barcelonetta Beach in Spain (Anonymous, 2013), (b)

**Figure 14.** Thames River Bank provides public access to the river and cultural sites (Donofrio, 2007)

(www.leatherdevil.com) public uses in the beach (Aksoy, 2006)

Stream in Eskişehir, Turkey.

**(a)**

**Figure 12.** Example visions of Expos (Moretti, 2008b)


recreational uses like an open air festival and sport activities etc. The Donauinsel (Danube Island) in Vienna (Figure 16a), as a created barrier island (Moretti 2008a). For over 20 years at the end of June a couple million people gather at the Donauinsel for to visit the biggest open air festival in Europe, the Donauinselfest (Anonim, 2013c). The others are Guadalupe River (Figure 16b) in San José, California, USA and Porsuk Stream in Eskişehir, Turkey.

182 Advances in Landscape Architecture

and production area (Moretti, 2010).

**Figure 12.** Example visions of Expos (Moretti, 2008b)

b. Waterfronts and Great Events: In this one is establihed as a consequence of important temporary events in the waterfront area such as the *Expos* (Figure 12): in Seville (1992), Barcelona (1992, 2004), Genoa (1992 and 2004), Lisbon (1998), London (2000), Zaragoza (2008). Afterward, new urban areas are developed around these areas like residental

c. New Urban Waterfront Itineraries: The waterfront regeneration implies innovative consequences along the banks and in the surrounding areas. It provides public uses along pedestrian paths. For example, Barcelonetta Beach and its environs (Figure 13) which connects the port areas and river bank along the Thames in London (Figure 14) with public uses like a jogging, walking and cycling etc. (Aksoy, 2006; Moretti, 2008a). d. These settlements were established around a port with safe harbor suitable for cargo and passenger ships (Figure 6). At this time, the waterfront has only a few trails converging at a jetty. After, a street pattern was slowly installed. In this period, a larger wood pier was usually established for ship. Also, buildings began to develop on the street pattern. Though the rapid growth and development, the settlement still connect

e. Reuse of Port Areas: This typology includes waterfront areas which is regenerated former port areas. With re-use of these areas, the water is regained the heart of cities.

f. Flood Defence: Some structures which is established for river flood defence can represent a new opportunity for city expansion and for the establishment of new urban uses. Three examples of this can be given. The first one is with green areas and

with the waterfront a shoreline road (Akköse, 2007; Wrenn *et al.*, 1983).

For instance, (Figure 15) Rotterdam (Moretti, 2008a).

**Figure 13.** (a) View from above Barcelonetta Beach in Spain (Anonymous, 2013), (b) (www.leatherdevil.com) public uses in the beach (Aksoy, 2006)

**Figure 14.** Thames River Bank provides public access to the river and cultural sites (Donofrio, 2007)

**Figure 17.** (a) Strand Paulion the banks of the Elbe River in Hamburg (Anonymous, 2013f), (b) The Badeschiff on the Spree River, in Berlin (Anonymous, 2013g), (c) Porsuk Plage in Eskişehir (Original,

Urban Riverfront Regeneration: *s the intersection between different aspects of urban life, the river represents a community heritage and its riverfront demonstrates a great potential for becoming a central axis in a new and articulated public space*." Some examples of it can be the Cheong Gye Cheon canal in Seoul, Houtan Park Shanghai in China (Figure 18), Brda River in Poland (Figure 19a), Dark River Irwell in Manchester (Figure 19b), Hudson River Park in New York

2010) Street beachs, (a) Paris Plage (Anonymous, 2011)

(Figure 20a), Emscher Landschaftspark in Germany (Figure 20b).

**Figure 18.** Houtan Park, Shanghai (Landscape Architecture Foundation, 2013)

**Figure 15.** Reuse of port areas such as Rotterdam in Holland (Moretti, 2008a)

**Figure 16.** (a) The Donauinselfest in Vienna (Anonymous, 2013d), (b) Guadalupe River in San José, California, USA (Önen, 2007)

g. Urban Beaches: Urban beaches are described by urban planners as an artificially created environment in an urban areas. They show a distinctive and alternative mode of reusing of waterfronts. Urban beaches are relatively unfixed due to temporary and mobile. Their locations and uses may be change. They may be a seasonal (especially the warmer months) installation over a roadway or a parking lot or a public park or a site cleared by demolition. Urban beaches have a view of urban waterfronts, also in this areas sometimes can be possible access to the water. These areas are compared with to natural beach environments by using thematic objects such as a large volume of sand, beach umbrellas, setting elements, palm trees and thatched huts. The first urban beach in contemprorary was created in France. Use of urban beaches spread rapidly to major city centres throughout Europe and in North America and Australia (Anonymous, 2013e; Stevens, 2011). Urban beaches not only provide a lot of recreational and sport activities but also represent social activities as a sort of 'piazza' (Moretti 2008). For example, Strand Pauli in Hamburg, The Badeschiff on the Spree River in Berlin, Porsuk Plage in Eskişehir, Paris Plage in Paris etc.

184 Advances in Landscape Architecture

California, USA (Önen, 2007)

Plage in Eskişehir, Paris Plage in Paris etc.

**Figure 15.** Reuse of port areas such as Rotterdam in Holland (Moretti, 2008a)

**Figure 16.** (a) The Donauinselfest in Vienna (Anonymous, 2013d), (b) Guadalupe River in San José,

g. Urban Beaches: Urban beaches are described by urban planners as an artificially created environment in an urban areas. They show a distinctive and alternative mode of reusing of waterfronts. Urban beaches are relatively unfixed due to temporary and mobile. Their locations and uses may be change. They may be a seasonal (especially the warmer months) installation over a roadway or a parking lot or a public park or a site cleared by demolition. Urban beaches have a view of urban waterfronts, also in this areas sometimes can be possible access to the water. These areas are compared with to natural beach environments by using thematic objects such as a large volume of sand, beach umbrellas, setting elements, palm trees and thatched huts. The first urban beach in contemprorary was created in France. Use of urban beaches spread rapidly to major city centres throughout Europe and in North America and Australia (Anonymous, 2013e; Stevens, 2011). Urban beaches not only provide a lot of recreational and sport activities but also represent social activities as a sort of 'piazza' (Moretti 2008). For example, Strand Pauli in Hamburg, The Badeschiff on the Spree River in Berlin, Porsuk

**Figure 17.** (a) Strand Paulion the banks of the Elbe River in Hamburg (Anonymous, 2013f), (b) The Badeschiff on the Spree River, in Berlin (Anonymous, 2013g), (c) Porsuk Plage in Eskişehir (Original, 2010) Street beachs, (a) Paris Plage (Anonymous, 2011)

Urban Riverfront Regeneration: *s the intersection between different aspects of urban life, the river represents a community heritage and its riverfront demonstrates a great potential for becoming a central axis in a new and articulated public space*." Some examples of it can be the Cheong Gye Cheon canal in Seoul, Houtan Park Shanghai in China (Figure 18), Brda River in Poland (Figure 19a), Dark River Irwell in Manchester (Figure 19b), Hudson River Park in New York (Figure 20a), Emscher Landschaftspark in Germany (Figure 20b).

**Figure 18.** Houtan Park, Shanghai (Landscape Architecture Foundation, 2013)

The advancement of better services of transport and social service,

*is partly neglected in favour of property interests*" (Morena, 2011).

use as an extra commercial-tourist (Morena, 2011).

*Principles for successful development of urban waterfront areas* 

rather than the quest for a high quality (Moretti, 2008a).

(Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010).

a few categories (Morena, 2011).

Figure 21.

With the improvement of the city's image which causes right marketing strategies.

Urban waterfront regeneration may also have some of the risks and the negative effects as well as mentioned these benefits. The risks and negative effects of waterfront regeneration

 **Standardization of the invertensions**; When a regeneration invertension is a planned, one of the greatest risks is to select. In short, models can be unconnected with area under evaluation. The result often leads to a kind of disorientation where the identity of

 **Little room to real estate logics**; "*Sometimes, the final outcome does not correspond to the project's initial objectives, and the the 'common good' in terms of spaces, enjoyment and access,* 

 **An excessively commercial-tourist functions**; Domination of these functions over residential and productive ones are an important risk. Because, these areas are usually used a few hours a day and in the weekends. While about the project area is done planing, in order to provide long term use of this area should be also added residential

The surronding of residental areas should be mixed both functionally and socially

**Aim of high profit level**; The achievement of high profit level is considered important

 **Free access to the waterfront**; The aim in this project is provided relationship between people and waterfront. So access of this areas should be free and indiscriminate. Recently, such transformation have produced new bans and new areas reserved for just

Waterfront plans are of vital importance to waterfront developments. According to Acosta (1990) while the plan makes, three elements are considered: public access, walkways and open spaces; urban design and landscaping; and land uses along the river's edge (Dong, 2004).

The base of waterfront regeneration are integrated with water and city. So, public access and

Accesibility of the water can be evaluated three formats: City-waterfront connectivity, interwaterfront zone continuity and waterfront-water connectivity. These were presented in

Acosta (1990), urban design guidelines can protect the public interest by spelling out basic standards for private development. In addition, criteria that are given out for urban design guidelines should be simple and clearly stated; fully illustrated; remain consistent over time. Adair *et al.*, (2000) maintained that a master plan approach is essential so that investors can

open spaces more important for successful development of urban waterfront areas.

realize the long-term commitment to a particular scheme (Dong, 2004).

 Providing of relationship between water and the city, Encouring of economic investment on degraded areas,

explain as follow according to Morena (2011).

the place is lost.

**Figure 19.** (a) Brda River in Bydgoszcz in Poland (Original, 2012), (b) Dark River Irwell in Manchester (APEM and Environment Agency, 2010)

**Figure 20.** (a) Hudson River Park, New York (Anonymous, 2013h), (b) Emscher Landschaftspark in Germany (Anonymous, 2013; Cabe, 2010)

## **10. Benefits and risks of urban waterfront regeneration**

Urban waterfront regeneration, which is phenomenon in global dimension, have a social, economic and environmental benefits to the community. According to Papatheochari (2011), Jones (2007) and Goddard (2002), the most pronounced benefits urban waterfront regenerations are:


(APEM and Environment Agency, 2010)

Germany (Anonymous, 2013; Cabe, 2010)

The increase in real estate property values,

Providing of opportunities for new uses and activities,

The improvement of the environmental conditions,

management processes,

Providing new jobs,

The provision of many new homes,

regenerations are:

**Figure 19.** (a) Brda River in Bydgoszcz in Poland (Original, 2012), (b) Dark River Irwell in Manchester

**Figure 20.** (a) Hudson River Park, New York (Anonymous, 2013h), (b) Emscher Landschaftspark in

Urban waterfront regeneration, which is phenomenon in global dimension, have a social, economic and environmental benefits to the community. According to Papatheochari (2011), Jones (2007) and Goddard (2002), the most pronounced benefits urban waterfront

The improvement of water quality and water ecology by means of the advanced

 Representing of new economic regeneration opportunites for declining inner city areas, Attracting tourists not only at the regional level, but also nationally and internationally,

The preservation historical and local heritage also re-use of historic building,

**10. Benefits and risks of urban waterfront regeneration** 


Urban waterfront regeneration may also have some of the risks and the negative effects as well as mentioned these benefits. The risks and negative effects of waterfront regeneration explain as follow according to Morena (2011).

	- The surronding of residental areas should be mixed both functionally and socially (Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010).

#### *Principles for successful development of urban waterfront areas*

Waterfront plans are of vital importance to waterfront developments. According to Acosta (1990) while the plan makes, three elements are considered: public access, walkways and open spaces; urban design and landscaping; and land uses along the river's edge (Dong, 2004).

The base of waterfront regeneration are integrated with water and city. So, public access and open spaces more important for successful development of urban waterfront areas.

Accesibility of the water can be evaluated three formats: City-waterfront connectivity, interwaterfront zone continuity and waterfront-water connectivity. These were presented in Figure 21.

Acosta (1990), urban design guidelines can protect the public interest by spelling out basic standards for private development. In addition, criteria that are given out for urban design guidelines should be simple and clearly stated; fully illustrated; remain consistent over time. Adair *et al.*, (2000) maintained that a master plan approach is essential so that investors can realize the long-term commitment to a particular scheme (Dong, 2004).

i. Waterfront should be define and the future role of waterfront in the city should be

ii. The master plan should be make, the participation of the communities and developers

v. The master plan shoul be reviewed in order to to respond the market change and to

**Figure 22.** Figure 21. Torre (1989), elements for successful waterfront development (Yassin *et al.*, 2012)

In the present day, to Thomas (2003), 2.8 billion people worldwide live in urban areas. They are great magnets to most humans with offered social and economic opportunities as well as facing several problems such as air, water and noise pollution, lack of open and green areas and inadequate transportation. It is predicted that by the end of the 21st century threequarters of the world's population will be urban. There is no doubt that this demographic trend will increase more the existing negative effects on urban environment. These urban

Water is basic source of life for the living. At the same time, it is an ecological, economic and

Areas which is seen these benefits are waterfronts. To be benefited from those should be

Sustainability is evaluated three dimensions: economic, environmental and social. These

issues are handled within the framework of sustainability (Vasconcelos Silva, 2006).

three dimensions must be combined at all levels (Vasconcelos Silva, 2006).

*Principles for a sustainable development of urban waterfront areas* 

provided a sustainable developments in these areas.

iii. Physical and economic conditions should be fostered for the waterfront regeneration, iv. Public authorities, private organisations and community groups should be worked

think,

together,

in the earliest stage,

reduce the financial risk.

social benefits for the cities.

**Figure 21.** Figure 20. Accessibility of the Waterfront (Al Ansari, 2009)

Furthermore, aesthetic and functional effects of water should be gotten rich with plantal and structural designs in urban waterfront regeneration plans.

Lynch, Spence, and Pearson (1976), land uses in urban waterfront areas should be categorized by degree of integration with water (Dong, 2004). In this context water dependcy is also important. Sairinen & Kumpulainen (2006) and Erdoğan (2006), indicated that a threefold classification of it is dependency is possible:


Torre (1989) identified that the success of a waterfront development is only achieved once it can function on all levels and benefit all stakeholders. Also, he/she point outed that 10 elements recommended to be taken into consideration while planning a waterfront development to achieve the specific aims of a successful waterfront development (Yassin, Bond and McDonagh, 2012). These were presented in Figure 22.

In addition, Bertsch (2008) recommended several principles that must be included while developing plans for waterfront areas: (i) accessibility, (ii) integrated, (iii) sharing benefits, (iv) stakeholder participation, (v) construction phase (Yassin *et al.*, 2012).

Also Wang (2008), have examined samples of waterfront regeneration in USA, UK and Europe. According to this, he/she suggested that the waterfront regeneration will be succeeded if the following aspects have been followed:

i. Waterfront should be define and the future role of waterfront in the city should be think,

188 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 21.** Figure 20. Accessibility of the Waterfront (Al Ansari, 2009)

structural designs in urban waterfront regeneration plans.

that a threefold classification of it is dependency is possible:

Bond and McDonagh, 2012). These were presented in Figure 22.

succeeded if the following aspects have been followed:

(iv) stakeholder participation, (v) construction phase (Yassin *et al.*, 2012).

given examples to this group.

public spaces.

Furthermore, aesthetic and functional effects of water should be gotten rich with plantal and

Lynch, Spence, and Pearson (1976), land uses in urban waterfront areas should be categorized by degree of integration with water (Dong, 2004). In this context water dependcy is also important. Sairinen & Kumpulainen (2006) and Erdoğan (2006), indicated

1. Water-dependent uses: Waterfront location is indispensable. Like a field of ferryboat, marine terminals, ship repair and construction works, commercial huntings can be

2. Water-related uses: Because of in waterfront areas are uses that are in the condition of advantageous. For example, industrial production fields, some storage facilities and

3. Water-independent uses: This group uses are neither dependent nor related to waterfront. For instance, public parks, some commercial and service complexs.

Torre (1989) identified that the success of a waterfront development is only achieved once it can function on all levels and benefit all stakeholders. Also, he/she point outed that 10 elements recommended to be taken into consideration while planning a waterfront development to achieve the specific aims of a successful waterfront development (Yassin,

In addition, Bertsch (2008) recommended several principles that must be included while developing plans for waterfront areas: (i) accessibility, (ii) integrated, (iii) sharing benefits,

Also Wang (2008), have examined samples of waterfront regeneration in USA, UK and Europe. According to this, he/she suggested that the waterfront regeneration will be


**Figure 22.** Figure 21. Torre (1989), elements for successful waterfront development (Yassin *et al.*, 2012)

#### *Principles for a sustainable development of urban waterfront areas*

In the present day, to Thomas (2003), 2.8 billion people worldwide live in urban areas. They are great magnets to most humans with offered social and economic opportunities as well as facing several problems such as air, water and noise pollution, lack of open and green areas and inadequate transportation. It is predicted that by the end of the 21st century threequarters of the world's population will be urban. There is no doubt that this demographic trend will increase more the existing negative effects on urban environment. These urban issues are handled within the framework of sustainability (Vasconcelos Silva, 2006).

Water is basic source of life for the living. At the same time, it is an ecological, economic and social benefits for the cities.

Areas which is seen these benefits are waterfronts. To be benefited from those should be provided a sustainable developments in these areas.

Sustainability is evaluated three dimensions: economic, environmental and social. These three dimensions must be combined at all levels (Vasconcelos Silva, 2006).

Giovinazzi & Moretti (2010) indicated the 10 principles, which were developed by Cities on Water in collaboration by Wasserstadt GmbH, Berlin, in the course of international seminars, were approved in the context of the initiatives for the Global Conference on the Urban Future (URBAN 21) held in Berlin in July 2000 and in the course of the EXPO 2000 World Exhibition, for a sustainable develpoment of urban waterfront areas. Also, Benson (2002), highlighted 9 lessons, which were experience of the Waterfront Regeneration Trust in The Lake Ontario Waterfront Trail, for success in regeneration. The some of these lessons overlaped with sustainability principles.

Urban Waterfront Regenerations 191

With these aims, while waterfront green areas plan, they should be combined with cultural landscape. In this manner, continuity of urban historical context will be provided. Beside,

Urban waterfronts are the interface between water and land (Wrenn *et al.*, 1983). While apply uses select, uses that require access the water should be priority as water function is in the foreground. Waterfronts should celebrate water by offering a diversity of cultural,

Bertsch (2008), as cited in Yassin *et al.* (2012), the urban waterfront should not be isolated or

Waterfronts should be both physically and visually accessible for locals and tourists of all ages and income at any time. Visual access to the waterfront area is enhanced by providing series of view corridors. The accessibility to the waterfront for pedestrians is maximized by providing physical linkages from the urban core areas. Also, public areas should constructed in high quality (Figure 23) to allow intensive use (Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010; Al Ansari, 2009; Shaziman, *et al.*, 2010). As technology develop, it is subject use of lots new kind of material (Figure 1) in this area (Hou, 2009). So, that should be considered in planning and

separated from the development, so that the public can access the waterfront easily.

**Figure 23.** An examples of innovative designs, Dark River Irvel in Manchester (APEM and

Once a vision for the waterfront is determined and development (or regeneration) should be handled not just for local residents and businesses but essentially for the community as its

Waterfront development connects people and spaces. It requires cooperation to reach a common objective (Benson, 2002). So, new waterfront developments should be planned in

the vitality of waterfront landscape will be enhanced (Anonymous, 2013i).

commercial and housing uses (Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010).

4. Mixed use is a priority

5. Public access is a prerequisite

designing phase.

Environment Agency, 2010)

priority (Benson, 2002).

6. Make the waterfront a community priority

7. Planning in public private partnerships speeds the process

According to them, principles for a sustainable development of urban waterfront area were explained as follow.

1. Secure the quality of water and the environment

Bruttomesso (2001), Krieger (2004), Locklin (1999), White (1991), the quality of the water is an important dimension that could affect the waterfront, particularly its accessibility and the variety of its uses (Al Ansari, 2009). For this reasons, the quality of water in the system of streams, rivers, canals, lakes, bays and the sea is a prerequisite for all waterfront developments. So, the water need to be treated to achieve good water quality and also, create better sense of smell for the public. Aspect of quality environment is an important element in dealing space for public comfort and health (Giovinazzi & Moretti 2010; Shaziman *et al.*, 2010).

The municipalities (local managements) are responsible for the sustainable recovery of derelict and neglect banks and contaminated water (Giovinazzi & Moretti 2010).

2. Waterfronts are part of the existing urban fabric

Waterfront development plans must ensure that waterfronts are reconnected to urban fabric. That is to say new waterfronts should be considered as an integral part of the existing city and contribute to its vitality. So, these plans should be based to develop on overall urban planning and also conserved the qualities of public areas (Benson, 2002; Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010; Hou, 2009). Beside, waterfront green areas should be considered whole city system (Kaynak!!)

Furthermore, water is a part of the urban landscape and should be used for specific functions such as waterborne transport, recreation, culture and aesthetic etc. (Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010).

3. The historic identity gives character

Collective heritage of water and city, of events, landmarks, existing architecture and nature should be utilised to give the waterfront redevelopment character and meaning. Especially, the preservation of the industrial past is an integral element of sustainable redevelopment for in post-industrial port cities (Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010). So, natural and cultural landscape should be conceived together.

With these aims, while waterfront green areas plan, they should be combined with cultural landscape. In this manner, continuity of urban historical context will be provided. Beside, the vitality of waterfront landscape will be enhanced (Anonymous, 2013i).

4. Mixed use is a priority

190 Advances in Landscape Architecture

explained as follow.

Shaziman *et al.*, 2010).

system (Kaynak!!)

Moretti, 2010).

overlaped with sustainability principles.

1. Secure the quality of water and the environment

2. Waterfronts are part of the existing urban fabric

3. The historic identity gives character

landscape should be conceived together.

Giovinazzi & Moretti (2010) indicated the 10 principles, which were developed by Cities on Water in collaboration by Wasserstadt GmbH, Berlin, in the course of international seminars, were approved in the context of the initiatives for the Global Conference on the Urban Future (URBAN 21) held in Berlin in July 2000 and in the course of the EXPO 2000 World Exhibition, for a sustainable develpoment of urban waterfront areas. Also, Benson (2002), highlighted 9 lessons, which were experience of the Waterfront Regeneration Trust in The Lake Ontario Waterfront Trail, for success in regeneration. The some of these lessons

According to them, principles for a sustainable development of urban waterfront area were

Bruttomesso (2001), Krieger (2004), Locklin (1999), White (1991), the quality of the water is an important dimension that could affect the waterfront, particularly its accessibility and the variety of its uses (Al Ansari, 2009). For this reasons, the quality of water in the system of streams, rivers, canals, lakes, bays and the sea is a prerequisite for all waterfront developments. So, the water need to be treated to achieve good water quality and also, create better sense of smell for the public. Aspect of quality environment is an important element in dealing space for public comfort and health (Giovinazzi & Moretti 2010;

The municipalities (local managements) are responsible for the sustainable recovery of

Waterfront development plans must ensure that waterfronts are reconnected to urban fabric. That is to say new waterfronts should be considered as an integral part of the existing city and contribute to its vitality. So, these plans should be based to develop on overall urban planning and also conserved the qualities of public areas (Benson, 2002; Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010; Hou, 2009). Beside, waterfront green areas should be considered whole city

Furthermore, water is a part of the urban landscape and should be used for specific functions such as waterborne transport, recreation, culture and aesthetic etc. (Giovinazzi &

Collective heritage of water and city, of events, landmarks, existing architecture and nature should be utilised to give the waterfront redevelopment character and meaning. Especially, the preservation of the industrial past is an integral element of sustainable redevelopment for in post-industrial port cities (Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010). So, natural and cultural

derelict and neglect banks and contaminated water (Giovinazzi & Moretti 2010).

Urban waterfronts are the interface between water and land (Wrenn *et al.*, 1983). While apply uses select, uses that require access the water should be priority as water function is in the foreground. Waterfronts should celebrate water by offering a diversity of cultural, commercial and housing uses (Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010).

5. Public access is a prerequisite

Bertsch (2008), as cited in Yassin *et al.* (2012), the urban waterfront should not be isolated or separated from the development, so that the public can access the waterfront easily.

Waterfronts should be both physically and visually accessible for locals and tourists of all ages and income at any time. Visual access to the waterfront area is enhanced by providing series of view corridors. The accessibility to the waterfront for pedestrians is maximized by providing physical linkages from the urban core areas. Also, public areas should constructed in high quality (Figure 23) to allow intensive use (Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010; Al Ansari, 2009; Shaziman, *et al.*, 2010). As technology develop, it is subject use of lots new kind of material (Figure 1) in this area (Hou, 2009). So, that should be considered in planning and designing phase.

**Figure 23.** An examples of innovative designs, Dark River Irvel in Manchester (APEM and Environment Agency, 2010)

6. Make the waterfront a community priority

Once a vision for the waterfront is determined and development (or regeneration) should be handled not just for local residents and businesses but essentially for the community as its priority (Benson, 2002).

7. Planning in public private partnerships speeds the process

Waterfront development connects people and spaces. It requires cooperation to reach a common objective (Benson, 2002). So, new waterfront developments should be planned in

form of public-private partnerships. "*Public authorities must guarantee the quality of the design, supply infrastructure and generate social equilibrium. Private developers should be involved from the start to insure knowledge of the markets and to speed the development*" (Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010).

Urban Waterfront Regenerations 193

12. It requires a multidisciplinary work

application (Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010).

from others engaged in regeneration (Benson, 2002).

**11.1. Porsuk Stream, Eskişehir, Turkey** 

Porsuk Stream running through the city center.

13. Look beyond your boundaries

**11. Case studies** 

(Pekin, 2008).

The regeneration of waterfronts is a highly complex task. For this reason, participation and collaboration of several occupational disciplines is required both in its planning and

According to Spirn (1994), although problems caused by urbanization may differ from city to city and from country to country, they have a lot in common (Arslan 1996). Approach of the countries and cities which succeeded in solving those problems should be examined and considered. Accordingly, when waterfront regeneration is also concerned, data, service and products at both national and international level should be shared and exchanged by means of a vision overreaching the borders. This reality means that the waterfront has become a place of international interest and significance. That's a vital economic reality and also a huge opportunity for the country or city to attract new investment, and to continue to learn

According to Anonim (2005), Ulu (2005), Eskişehir which was only a small settlement with under 30.000 residents until the period of the Republic increased the number of its population to 706.009 by 2000 with a rise of 4,5 times. Until 2001, Porsuk Stream and its banks within the city of Eskisehir has been exposed to intensive pressures because of the increasing number of the city population, and the following inaccurate use of the related lands. As a result, the stream has become almost an open sewage running through the city

Eskisehir Greater Municipality took into consideration the fact that a city with a river running through is always under threat of possible floods and also the recent earthquake disaster (August 17, 1999) the city experienced and so initiated the Project of Porsuk Stream in 2001 (Figure 24) with the support of European Investment Bank with the aim of protecting the city from the damages of natural disasters and also minimizing the effects. This project is performed as the Project to Lessen the Damages of the Natural Disasters (Component 2) which is part of the Urban Development Projects with three main components (Büyükerşen & Efelerli, 2005). This project includes the 12 km long part of

This project is basically project of flood defence, river rehabilitation was done to get over flood in a manner safe. The issue of floods in Eskişehir was examined by State Water Affairs in the frame of Porsuk Basin Water Administration Plan. In addition to this study, Porsuk Stream Urban Transition Rehabilitation Project was prepared. The according precautions may be summed up as follows (1) Building Sarsu Flood Detention Dam since Sarsu Stream which flows into Porsuk Stream within the city has an increasing effect on flood risk, (2)

8. Secure strategic public investment and attract private resources

Preservation of strategic public investments and luring private resources would have an increasing effect on utilization of waterfronts in long term. Entrepreneurial leadership, and strong, strategic planning attract investment of private sectors (Benson, 2002).

9. Public participation is an element of sustainability

Sustainable waterfront development should be developed not only in ecological and economical aspects but also socially. For this reason, the planning processes must be transparent and they must provide meaningful opportunities for the involvement of people. In other words the community should be informed and involved in discussions continuously from the start (Figure 24). Such an approach should be necessarily taken into consideration as an important element for sustainability and good planning of waterfront development (Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010; Benson, 2002).

10. Waterfronts are long term projects

"*Waterfronts need to be regenerated step by step so the entire city can benefit from their potentials. They are a challenge for more than one generation and need a variety of characters both in architecture, public space and art. Public administration must give impulses on a political level to ensure that the objectives are realized independently of economic cycles or shortterm interests*" (Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010).

11. Regeneration is an ongoing process

All master planning must be based on the detailed analysis of the principle functions and meanings the waterfront is concerned. Plans should be flexible, adapt to change and incorporate all relevant disciplines. To encourage a system of sustainable growth, the management and operation of waterfronts during the day and at night must have equal priority to building them (Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010).

#### 12. It requires a multidisciplinary work

192 Advances in Landscape Architecture

2010).

form of public-private partnerships. "*Public authorities must guarantee the quality of the design, supply infrastructure and generate social equilibrium. Private developers should be involved from the start to insure knowledge of the markets and to speed the development*" (Giovinazzi & Moretti,

Preservation of strategic public investments and luring private resources would have an increasing effect on utilization of waterfronts in long term. Entrepreneurial leadership, and

Sustainable waterfront development should be developed not only in ecological and economical aspects but also socially. For this reason, the planning processes must be transparent and they must provide meaningful opportunities for the involvement of people. In other words the community should be informed and involved in discussions continuously from the start (Figure 24). Such an approach should be necessarily taken into consideration as an important element for sustainability and good planning of waterfront

**Figure 24.** Public involvement in Newark Riverfront Regeneration Plan (Booker, Pryor and Rich, 2010)

"*Waterfronts need to be regenerated step by step so the entire city can benefit from their potentials. They are a challenge for more than one generation and need a variety of characters both in architecture, public space and art. Public administration must give impulses on a political level to ensure that the objectives are realized independently of economic cycles or short-*

All master planning must be based on the detailed analysis of the principle functions and meanings the waterfront is concerned. Plans should be flexible, adapt to change and incorporate all relevant disciplines. To encourage a system of sustainable growth, the management and operation of waterfronts during the day and at night must have equal

8. Secure strategic public investment and attract private resources

9. Public participation is an element of sustainability

development (Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010; Benson, 2002).

10. Waterfronts are long term projects

11. Regeneration is an ongoing process

*term interests*" (Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010).

priority to building them (Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010).

strong, strategic planning attract investment of private sectors (Benson, 2002).

The regeneration of waterfronts is a highly complex task. For this reason, participation and collaboration of several occupational disciplines is required both in its planning and application (Giovinazzi & Moretti, 2010).

13. Look beyond your boundaries

According to Spirn (1994), although problems caused by urbanization may differ from city to city and from country to country, they have a lot in common (Arslan 1996). Approach of the countries and cities which succeeded in solving those problems should be examined and considered. Accordingly, when waterfront regeneration is also concerned, data, service and products at both national and international level should be shared and exchanged by means of a vision overreaching the borders. This reality means that the waterfront has become a place of international interest and significance. That's a vital economic reality and also a huge opportunity for the country or city to attract new investment, and to continue to learn from others engaged in regeneration (Benson, 2002).

## **11. Case studies**

## **11.1. Porsuk Stream, Eskişehir, Turkey**

According to Anonim (2005), Ulu (2005), Eskişehir which was only a small settlement with under 30.000 residents until the period of the Republic increased the number of its population to 706.009 by 2000 with a rise of 4,5 times. Until 2001, Porsuk Stream and its banks within the city of Eskisehir has been exposed to intensive pressures because of the increasing number of the city population, and the following inaccurate use of the related lands. As a result, the stream has become almost an open sewage running through the city (Pekin, 2008).

Eskisehir Greater Municipality took into consideration the fact that a city with a river running through is always under threat of possible floods and also the recent earthquake disaster (August 17, 1999) the city experienced and so initiated the Project of Porsuk Stream in 2001 (Figure 24) with the support of European Investment Bank with the aim of protecting the city from the damages of natural disasters and also minimizing the effects. This project is performed as the Project to Lessen the Damages of the Natural Disasters (Component 2) which is part of the Urban Development Projects with three main components (Büyükerşen & Efelerli, 2005). This project includes the 12 km long part of Porsuk Stream running through the city center.

This project is basically project of flood defence, river rehabilitation was done to get over flood in a manner safe. The issue of floods in Eskişehir was examined by State Water Affairs in the frame of Porsuk Basin Water Administration Plan. In addition to this study, Porsuk Stream Urban Transition Rehabilitation Project was prepared. The according precautions may be summed up as follows (1) Building Sarsu Flood Detention Dam since Sarsu Stream which flows into Porsuk Stream within the city has an increasing effect on flood risk, (2)

Construction of Sarsu and Porsuk sand traps in order to detent swept down dregs and dirt and also cleaning of these traps before and after the flood season (3) Restoration of 9.6 km part of Porsuk Stream bed (4) Building nine bridges for vehicles, examination of four bridges for pedestrians against earthquake risk and building four new bridges for pedestrians (5) Construction of eight buildings for controlling water level in order to render the regulation of the river flow uniform in the restored parts and maintain full flow (6) Equipping water level buildings with automatic sensors which make them mobile in order to prevent those buildings to become any handicap during floods, (7) Rehabilitation of main irrigation canals that consists 3408 m. left bank and 5100 m. right bank (Büyükerşen & Efelerli 2005). Anonim (2006c), Beside, the stream flow is regulated by Porsuk Dam (Pekin, 2008). Also, it has been necessary to equip the water level buildings with boat transfer shutters in order not to prevent the waterborne transport within the stream (Büyükerşen & Efelerli 2005).

Urban Waterfront Regenerations 195

**11.2. Hafen City, Hamburg, Germany** 

**Figure 27.** In application River Elbe, Hafencity in Hamburg (Bruns, 2012)

(Erkök, 2009).

The city of Hamburg is located on the river Elbe which flows into the North Sea as Germany's second largest city and host to Europe's second-largest port (Waterfront Communities Project, 2007). While the important parts of the port are now located on the south bank of the river Elbe, most of the northwestern bank has become disused for port functions until 1997 and has thus been regenerated for urban use (Hans, 2008; Erkök, 2009). This regeneration area described as Hafen City. The Hafencity or harbour city Project (Figure 27) offers an amazing opportunity on the banks of the river Elbe. Because of its proximity to the central area, the project has the potential to become a comfortable extension to the city centre (Appleton, 2005). This project area (http://www.hafencity.com) takes place between the historic Speicherstadt warehouse district and the River Elbe, there will be a new city with a mixed uses. According to Hafencity Hamburg GmbH (2006), the area occasionally getting flooded required a smart solution for this problem, not cutting off land from water by high defenses. With the exception of the waterfront promenades, the entire area will be raised by 7.50 to 8.00 meters above mean sea level, creating a new and distinctive topography while preserving access to the water (Erkök, 2009). Beside, residental areas and promenades will be fixed on concrete piles (Mimdaporg, 2008). In the Project area, elevated footpaths, waterproof parking basements and the accessible waterfronts, as part of the new emergency infrastructure, have provided a successful combination of safety and spatial quality of urban spaces. As a solution for the accessibility of water at all tides in the very high quays, Enric Miralles designed a descending 'landscape' of surfaces (Figure 28, 29)

**Figure 25.** Porsuk Stream in Eskişehir in Turkey Porsuk Çay (a) before; (b) in application; (c) now (Eskişehir Greater Municipality, 2006)

Smooth parts revived after the restoration process made waterborne transport on the stream possible. In addition, a comprehensive landscape project was prepared to accommodate the restoration to the very surrounding of the stream (Figure 26). According to this, a footpaths, recreational areas and parks was done on the banks and its environs (Büyükerşen & Efelerli 2005).

**Figure 26.** (a) The water transport (Eskişehir Greater Municipality, 2006), and (b) Canoe competitions on the Porsuk Stream (Anonymous, 2013j), (c) Footpaths Eskişehir Greater Municipality, 2006).

## **11.2. Hafen City, Hamburg, Germany**

194 Advances in Landscape Architecture

(Eskişehir Greater Municipality, 2006)

2005).

Construction of Sarsu and Porsuk sand traps in order to detent swept down dregs and dirt and also cleaning of these traps before and after the flood season (3) Restoration of 9.6 km part of Porsuk Stream bed (4) Building nine bridges for vehicles, examination of four bridges for pedestrians against earthquake risk and building four new bridges for pedestrians (5) Construction of eight buildings for controlling water level in order to render the regulation of the river flow uniform in the restored parts and maintain full flow (6) Equipping water level buildings with automatic sensors which make them mobile in order to prevent those buildings to become any handicap during floods, (7) Rehabilitation of main irrigation canals that consists 3408 m. left bank and 5100 m. right bank (Büyükerşen & Efelerli 2005). Anonim (2006c), Beside, the stream flow is regulated by Porsuk Dam (Pekin, 2008). Also, it has been necessary to equip the water level buildings with boat transfer shutters in order not

to prevent the waterborne transport within the stream (Büyükerşen & Efelerli 2005).

**Figure 25.** Porsuk Stream in Eskişehir in Turkey Porsuk Çay (a) before; (b) in application; (c) now

Smooth parts revived after the restoration process made waterborne transport on the stream possible. In addition, a comprehensive landscape project was prepared to accommodate the restoration to the very surrounding of the stream (Figure 26). According to this, a footpaths, recreational areas and parks was done on the banks and its environs (Büyükerşen & Efelerli

**Figure 26.** (a) The water transport (Eskişehir Greater Municipality, 2006), and (b) Canoe competitions on the Porsuk Stream (Anonymous, 2013j), (c) Footpaths Eskişehir Greater Municipality, 2006).

The city of Hamburg is located on the river Elbe which flows into the North Sea as Germany's second largest city and host to Europe's second-largest port (Waterfront Communities Project, 2007). While the important parts of the port are now located on the south bank of the river Elbe, most of the northwestern bank has become disused for port functions until 1997 and has thus been regenerated for urban use (Hans, 2008; Erkök, 2009).

This regeneration area described as Hafen City. The Hafencity or harbour city Project (Figure 27) offers an amazing opportunity on the banks of the river Elbe. Because of its proximity to the central area, the project has the potential to become a comfortable extension to the city centre (Appleton, 2005). This project area (http://www.hafencity.com) takes place between the historic Speicherstadt warehouse district and the River Elbe, there will be a new city with a mixed uses. According to Hafencity Hamburg GmbH (2006), the area occasionally getting flooded required a smart solution for this problem, not cutting off land from water by high defenses. With the exception of the waterfront promenades, the entire area will be raised by 7.50 to 8.00 meters above mean sea level, creating a new and distinctive topography while preserving access to the water (Erkök, 2009). Beside, residental areas and promenades will be fixed on concrete piles (Mimdaporg, 2008). In the Project area, elevated footpaths, waterproof parking basements and the accessible waterfronts, as part of the new emergency infrastructure, have provided a successful combination of safety and spatial quality of urban spaces. As a solution for the accessibility of water at all tides in the very high quays, Enric Miralles designed a descending 'landscape' of surfaces (Figure 28, 29) (Erkök, 2009).

**Figure 27.** In application River Elbe, Hafencity in Hamburg (Bruns, 2012)

The project which includes an area of 155 hectares, is currently under construction and application of it includes an ambitious 25 years period. When it is fully realised, Hafencity will have 5,500 apartments, 20,000 work places, 20 hectares of public open space and major cultural facilities to this waterfront. Also it involves approximately 10 km of quayside promenades (Appleton, 2005; Erkök, 2009).

Urban Waterfront Regenerations 197

Beside, in Hafencity Project points out with a highly attractive public transport system. According to this, pedestrian ways (Figure 29) are more dominant than vehicle ways. Also 70 % of pedestrian ways are away from the streets and bicycle paths take place in the area

In this project was considered sustainability principles. There was noticed economic use of energy. In this context, eco-friendly building materials were used (Mimdaporg, 2008).

Numereous Projects which are developed by different architects, are together in Hafencity (Mimdap, 2008). Cultural highlights of the project range from the striking landmark Elbphilarmonie Concert Hall (Figure 30a), to International Maritime Museum of Hamburg (Figure 30b) and the new urban plazas being used for smaller events (Erkök, 2009). Beside, with reuse of warehouse, bridge and cranes were provided to integrate the historical texture

**Figure 30.** (a) Elbphilarmonie Concert Hall, (b) International Maritime Museum of Hamburg

Cheonggyecheon ("clear valley stream") (Figure 31) is a former seasonal waterway in the city center of Seoul, South Korea and fallen into Han River. Between 1958 and 1976, the stream was covered and Cheonggye Road and Elevated Expressway were built above it. Per day, combined traffic counts on both roads were approximately 168000 vehicles and stream have continued to exist as a sewage canal (Seattle Urban Mobility Plan, 2008; Önen, 2007).

In the year 2000, a study by the Korean Society of Civil Engineering discovered that serious repair works should be done for three years to adress deficiencies of the road and elevated structure. Also the Cheonggye area become the most congested and noisy part of Seoul. When Lee Myung-bak was elected Mayor of Seoul in 2001, one of his key campaign promises was to remove this freeway and restore the Cheonggyecheon Stream. So, instead of repairing the elevated highway structure, the politicians at the time decided to restore the historical stream underneath the structure. Thus, a project studies was begun in July 2003 and it became the largest urban reneval project underteaken in Korean history (Martires,

(Hans, 2008; Mimdaporg, 2008).

(Schneider, 2010)

and waterfront (Waterfront Communities Project, 2007).

**11.3. The Cheonggyecheon Canal in Seoul** 

2007; The Preservation Institute, 2007).

It is the largest inner city development project in Europe. With Hafencity project will be enlarged city center by 40 % and also it will be home 10000-12000 inhabitants (Erkök, 2009; Hans, 2008).

**Figure 28.** A waterfront terraces and the descending 'landscape' of surfaces (Schneider, 2010)

**Figure 29.** A views of public uses in Hafencity (Bruns, 2012)

Beside, in Hafencity Project points out with a highly attractive public transport system. According to this, pedestrian ways (Figure 29) are more dominant than vehicle ways. Also 70 % of pedestrian ways are away from the streets and bicycle paths take place in the area (Hans, 2008; Mimdaporg, 2008).

In this project was considered sustainability principles. There was noticed economic use of energy. In this context, eco-friendly building materials were used (Mimdaporg, 2008).

Numereous Projects which are developed by different architects, are together in Hafencity (Mimdap, 2008). Cultural highlights of the project range from the striking landmark Elbphilarmonie Concert Hall (Figure 30a), to International Maritime Museum of Hamburg (Figure 30b) and the new urban plazas being used for smaller events (Erkök, 2009). Beside, with reuse of warehouse, bridge and cranes were provided to integrate the historical texture and waterfront (Waterfront Communities Project, 2007).

**Figure 30.** (a) Elbphilarmonie Concert Hall, (b) International Maritime Museum of Hamburg (Schneider, 2010)

## **11.3. The Cheonggyecheon Canal in Seoul**

196 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Hans, 2008).

promenades (Appleton, 2005; Erkök, 2009).

The project which includes an area of 155 hectares, is currently under construction and application of it includes an ambitious 25 years period. When it is fully realised, Hafencity will have 5,500 apartments, 20,000 work places, 20 hectares of public open space and major cultural facilities to this waterfront. Also it involves approximately 10 km of quayside

It is the largest inner city development project in Europe. With Hafencity project will be enlarged city center by 40 % and also it will be home 10000-12000 inhabitants (Erkök, 2009;

**Figure 28.** A waterfront terraces and the descending 'landscape' of surfaces (Schneider, 2010)

**Figure 29.** A views of public uses in Hafencity (Bruns, 2012)

Cheonggyecheon ("clear valley stream") (Figure 31) is a former seasonal waterway in the city center of Seoul, South Korea and fallen into Han River. Between 1958 and 1976, the stream was covered and Cheonggye Road and Elevated Expressway were built above it. Per day, combined traffic counts on both roads were approximately 168000 vehicles and stream have continued to exist as a sewage canal (Seattle Urban Mobility Plan, 2008; Önen, 2007).

In the year 2000, a study by the Korean Society of Civil Engineering discovered that serious repair works should be done for three years to adress deficiencies of the road and elevated structure. Also the Cheonggye area become the most congested and noisy part of Seoul. When Lee Myung-bak was elected Mayor of Seoul in 2001, one of his key campaign promises was to remove this freeway and restore the Cheonggyecheon Stream. So, instead of repairing the elevated highway structure, the politicians at the time decided to restore the historical stream underneath the structure. Thus, a project studies was begun in July 2003 and it became the largest urban reneval project underteaken in Korean history (Martires, 2007; The Preservation Institute, 2007).

Urban Waterfront Regenerations 199

**Figure 32.** Three sections of the Project (Lee, 2006)

character (Figure 33) at night (Martires, 2007).

A number of 22 bridges take place over stream. The seven of their are only pedestrian way, the others are mixed as pedestrian and vehicle way. And also historic bridges (e.g. Gwanggyo Bridge) were restored. The bridges that span the restored waterway have been

The lighting scheme has been designed to give the stream and neighborhood a distinctive

designed to reflect the character of their neighborhoods ((Martires, 2007; Önen, 2007).

**Figure 33.** The Cheonggyecheon Canal at night (The Preservation Institute, 2007)

covered with granite plate to recreate the past image of masonry wall.

Along the stream (Figure 34), small squares, art works, waterfront decks were built for citizens and biotopes were introduced for plants, fishes and birds. The streambed of upper reach is mostly built with stone to resist scouring. Slope walls of 41,889 m² separating roads from the stream with a height of 2 to 6.5 m were newly built, and the surface of the wall was

**Figure 31.** Before (a) and after (b) Cheonggye Expressway (Seattle Urban Mobility Plan, 2008)

According to Martires (2007), Seoul Metropolitan Government (2009) the aims of the Project are as follow:


There was a two problem related to in application the Project. One of the problem is being lived congestion in North Seoul with the replacement of roads which is in position of main artery. And the other that closed stream is dry except during summer months (Önen, 2007).

Between 2003 and 2005, the highway was removed and stream recovered. As a result, the problem of drought was solved by bringing water from Han River and water depth was 40 cm. The stream is the center piece of a 5,8 km linear park. New two lane, one-way streets are on each side of the park (Önen, 2007; Seattle Urban Mobility Plan, 2008).

The Project divided into three sections (Figure 32) and planning each section with specific themes, history (tradition), culture-urban (present age), and nature (future). Also, Three each teams which was civil engineering, landscape architecture and other disciplines worked together in the each sections (Seoul Metropolitan Government, 2009; Lee, 2006; Önen, 2007).

New Cheonggyecheon provides an uninterrupted tract of green space covering 276650 m² along 5.8 km of the stream. The Project based on technology and creativity. The basic concept of the landscape design is to implement the image of 'Urban Stream with Nature'. Main Concepts of Landscape Arragments are considered as follows (Önen, 2007; Lee, 2013).


**Figure 32.** Three sections of the Project (Lee, 2006)

are as follow:

Önen, 2007).

**Figure 31.** Before (a) and after (b) Cheonggye Expressway (Seattle Urban Mobility Plan, 2008)

Solution for safety problem of deteriorating structure over Cheonggyecheon,

Balanced regional development between north and south of Seoul,

on each side of the park (Önen, 2007; Seattle Urban Mobility Plan, 2008).

 To transform from urban landscape to natural structure as gradual, To create thematic areas like ecological parks, fountain and waterfall, To provide the optimal balance between exploitation and ecology,

 Creation of environment-friendly urban space, Restoration of historicity and culture of Seoul,

To improve the city's water quality,

Stimulate economic growth.

According to Martires (2007), Seoul Metropolitan Government (2009) the aims of the Project

There was a two problem related to in application the Project. One of the problem is being lived congestion in North Seoul with the replacement of roads which is in position of main artery. And the other that closed stream is dry except during summer months (Önen, 2007). Between 2003 and 2005, the highway was removed and stream recovered. As a result, the problem of drought was solved by bringing water from Han River and water depth was 40 cm. The stream is the center piece of a 5,8 km linear park. New two lane, one-way streets are

The Project divided into three sections (Figure 32) and planning each section with specific themes, history (tradition), culture-urban (present age), and nature (future). Also, Three each teams which was civil engineering, landscape architecture and other disciplines worked together in the each sections (Seoul Metropolitan Government, 2009; Lee, 2006;

New Cheonggyecheon provides an uninterrupted tract of green space covering 276650 m² along 5.8 km of the stream. The Project based on technology and creativity. The basic concept of the landscape design is to implement the image of 'Urban Stream with Nature'. Main Concepts of Landscape Arragments are considered as follows (Önen, 2007; Lee, 2013).

To create green areas with concept of continuous space along 5.8 km of the stream,

A number of 22 bridges take place over stream. The seven of their are only pedestrian way, the others are mixed as pedestrian and vehicle way. And also historic bridges (e.g. Gwanggyo Bridge) were restored. The bridges that span the restored waterway have been designed to reflect the character of their neighborhoods ((Martires, 2007; Önen, 2007).

The lighting scheme has been designed to give the stream and neighborhood a distinctive character (Figure 33) at night (Martires, 2007).

**Figure 33.** The Cheonggyecheon Canal at night (The Preservation Institute, 2007)

Along the stream (Figure 34), small squares, art works, waterfront decks were built for citizens and biotopes were introduced for plants, fishes and birds. The streambed of upper reach is mostly built with stone to resist scouring. Slope walls of 41,889 m² separating roads from the stream with a height of 2 to 6.5 m were newly built, and the surface of the wall was covered with granite plate to recreate the past image of masonry wall.

The construction cost was 386 million (USD). In the 15 months after its opening, the park attracted approximately 90,000 visitors per day, 30% of them from outside the metropolitan area (Lee, 2013; Seattle Urban Mobility Plan, 2008).

Urban Waterfront Regenerations 201

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ort\_EA.pdf

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from:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban\_beach

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basariyla-donusturen-projenin-sirlari/4907

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Bütüncül Yaklaşm Sempozyumu, 277-285 p., Ankara.

and Tecnology, Vol 45, No:11 pp. 65-70, IWA Publishing.

**Figure 34.** Cheonggyecheon: (a) Art installation, (b) Marathon (Martires, 2007)

## **Author details**

Umut Pekin Timur *Çankr Karatekin University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Çankr, Turkey* 

## **12. References**

Λουκαδάκη, B. (2011). *Το Παραλιακό Μέτωπο ως Παράγοντας Πολιτισμού και Ανάπτυξης.Ο Φαληρικός Όρμος ως Περίπτωση Μελέτης* Βασιλική. Date of Access: 10.01.2013, Available from:

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200 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Author details** 

Umut Pekin Timur

*Çankr, Turkey* 

**12. References** 

Ankara.

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and Landscape, 353 p., Newcastle.

**Figure 34.** Cheonggyecheon: (a) Art installation, (b) Marathon (Martires, 2007)

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Breen, A. and Rigby, D. (1994). Waterfronts: Cities Reclaim Their Edge. McGraw-Hill, Inc.,

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Erdoğan, Z. (2006). The Role of Tourism in Waterfront Redevelopment Projects Feasibility Analysis of Galataport Project. Master Thesis, Istanbul Technical University, Institute of

Erkök, F. (2009). Waterfronts: Potentials for Improving the Quality of Urban Life, ITU A|Z

Eskişehir Greater Municipality. (2006). Başlanan vizyon projeler sunum CD'si. Eskişehir

Gençtürk, İ. Z. (2006). Design of Water Features in Squares: A Case Study on Sultanahmet and Beyazt Squares. Master Thesis, Istanbul Technical University, Institute of Science

Giovinazzi, O. & Giovinazzi, S. (2008).Waterfront Planning: a Window of Opportunities for

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Giovinazzi, O. & Moretti, M. (2010). Port Cities and Urban Waterfront: Transformations and Opportunities. TeMALab Journal, Date of Access: 01.02.2013, Available from:

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Stevens, Q. (2011). The German "City Beach" as a New Approach to Waterfront Development. (Edited by Desfor, G., Laidley, J., Stevens, Q., and Schubert, D.), by

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**Section 2** 

**Landscape Design** 

## **Landscape Design**

206 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Date of Access: 02.01.2011, Available from:

http://www.ece.auckland.ac.nz/~sinnen/VasconcelosSilva2006.pdf

Vasconcelos Silva, P. (2006). Greenways, a path towards urban sustainability. Master's Thesis. Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal.

**Chapter 8** 

© 2013 Arısoy, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Built environments ignore people's need and their potential for learning. The negative effects related to the ignorance of natural systems in human development are evident. Making natural cycles and processes visible bring the designed environment back to life. Effective design helps inform us of our place within nature. Landscape architects have developed theories and methodologies which represent a new, ecologically oriented

Eco-revelatory design (ERD) is an ecological design concept in the field of landscape architecture means "a design strategy that attempts to enhance site ecosystems as well as engage users by revealing ecological and cultural phenomena, processes and relationships affecting a site " [1]. Landscape architects reveal nature through their form, materials and formation, and they also reveal the nature of the person who designed them. ERD is a new approach to landscape architecture, one where ecological processes and the

ERD is a different exposition and interpretation –updated version- of design. It is an integrative and ecologically responsible design. It is a partnership between people and nature. ERD attempts to enhance site ecosystems and engage users by revealing ecological and cultural phenomena, processes, and relationships affecting a site. It aspires to reveal endemic ecological process and affords a more direct connection between fundamental ecological process and the phenomenological experience of landscape. It is important to involve using knowledge about how interact with environment to form objects and spaces with skill and artistry [4]. This approach to design should be applied not only to urban sides, but also to nonurban sides such as wetlands, arboretums. The theory has received heavy criticism about its ability to absorb an audience in ecological understanding or improve site conditions [2,3].

Another criticism about ERD is some designs make tangible improvements in local ecological health while others are symbolic gestures [2]. It is adequate for people to develop

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Eco-Revelatory Design** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

environment is a fundamental determinant of the design.

Nurgül Konaklı Arısoy

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55764

**1. Introduction** 

approach to design.

**Chapter 8** 

## **Eco-Revelatory Design**

Nurgül Konaklı Arısoy

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55764

## **1. Introduction**

Built environments ignore people's need and their potential for learning. The negative effects related to the ignorance of natural systems in human development are evident. Making natural cycles and processes visible bring the designed environment back to life. Effective design helps inform us of our place within nature. Landscape architects have developed theories and methodologies which represent a new, ecologically oriented approach to design.

Eco-revelatory design (ERD) is an ecological design concept in the field of landscape architecture means "a design strategy that attempts to enhance site ecosystems as well as engage users by revealing ecological and cultural phenomena, processes and relationships affecting a site " [1]. Landscape architects reveal nature through their form, materials and formation, and they also reveal the nature of the person who designed them. ERD is a new approach to landscape architecture, one where ecological processes and the environment is a fundamental determinant of the design.

ERD is a different exposition and interpretation –updated version- of design. It is an integrative and ecologically responsible design. It is a partnership between people and nature. ERD attempts to enhance site ecosystems and engage users by revealing ecological and cultural phenomena, processes, and relationships affecting a site. It aspires to reveal endemic ecological process and affords a more direct connection between fundamental ecological process and the phenomenological experience of landscape. It is important to involve using knowledge about how interact with environment to form objects and spaces with skill and artistry [4]. This approach to design should be applied not only to urban sides, but also to nonurban sides such as wetlands, arboretums. The theory has received heavy criticism about its ability to absorb an audience in ecological understanding or improve site conditions [2,3].

Another criticism about ERD is some designs make tangible improvements in local ecological health while others are symbolic gestures [2]. It is adequate for people to develop

© 2013 Arısoy, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

ecological perception by means of the visibility of ecological process in design. The theory has received heavy criticism about its ability to absorb an audience in ecological understanding or improve site conditions.

Eco-Revelatory Design 211

calls "the reciprocal revelations of landscapes and sounds, how sounds can reveal landscapes and how landscapes can reveal sounds." She is therefore also concerned with

ERD roots are based on ecologically minded landscape architects such as Ian McHarg and Frederick Law Olmsted but they didn't use the term as ERD. These landscape architects created works to foster function in natural systems and processes aesthetically. Ian McHarg was accepted as the first person who to apply his ecological knowledge into design. He began advocating the use of ecology as a basis for design in the early 1960s. He accomplished his goal

Thirty years ago, in *Design with Nature*, McHarg proposed a system of ecological inventories to help explain the way natural processes may influence regional and urban planning and design [6]. Also, it makes the case for an ecological approach to design. McHarg gave a new dimension to the historical goal of 'imitating nature' (mimesis). He was concerned both with

of merging design with ecology. He gave importance of ecological principles in design.

how people perceive, understand and engage with landscapes.

**Figure 1.** Eco-revelatory design exhibit

**Figure 2.** Central Park, NYC

It aspires to reveal endemic ecological process and affords a more direct connection between fundamental ecological process and the phenomenological experience of landscape. It is important to involve using knowledge about how interact with environment to form objects and spaces with skill and artistry (Ndubisi, 2002). This approach to design should be applied not only to urban sides, but also to non-urban sides such as wetlands, arboretums.

They are typically designed landscapes that elucidate natural phenomenon such as the cleansing action of wetlands. Ecorevelatory landscapes have also been referred to as "educational and enlightening". They are reference sites for what we understand about our environment and its workings. Designs can convey knowledge through direct experience as well as by interpretation. Interpretation seeks to create connections between the resources that are being interpreted and relevant everyday knowledge that everyone has by engaging emotions, creating experiences, and entertaining ideas through engagement [5]. By highlighting the particular ecological relationships at any given site, such design can punctuate and enliven our environment and sensitize us to what is known about its interlocking complexities" [1]. These sites often still use traditional interpretive media such as wayside exhibits and publications to fully convey their meaning and function, but ecorevelatory design can bring to light processes that usually remain unseen and forgotten.

## **2. History**

This study explores descriptive theory, principals, techniques and practice of eco-revelatory design, can help to plan a sustainable development, which uses and reveals natural systems to reconciling human systems and its effects on the surrounding environment. The goal of this study, therefore, is to generate ideas and to begin a discussion about how the design within an eco-revelatory framework will be.

Most of the "eco" prefixes such as eco-city, eco-technique, eco-efficient was began to used nineties; also ERD emerged in 1998 as a new theory within the field of landscape architecture.

The term and practice of ERD was coined from an exhibit Nature Constructed/Nature Revealed sponsored by the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Two predominant schools of thought, one insistently cultural and the other assertively ecological, reigned over the conceptual and theoretical dialog in landscape design and planning. In 1998 a group of practitioners and landscape scholars published a special issue of Landscape Journal as a catalogue and record of the exhibition Eco-Revelatory Design: Nature Constructed/Nature Revealed. Brenda Brown, Terry Harkness, and Douglas Johnston chaired the exhibition and served as guest editors of the journal (Figure 1). The exhibit opened at the University of Illinois in 1998 and closed at the Washington DC's National Building Museum in 2000.

Brown identifies three areas of investigation on landscapes as/of sound: listening gardens, sound, or listening trails, and sound designs [3]. She is particularly interested in what she calls "the reciprocal revelations of landscapes and sounds, how sounds can reveal landscapes and how landscapes can reveal sounds." She is therefore also concerned with how people perceive, understand and engage with landscapes.

ERD roots are based on ecologically minded landscape architects such as Ian McHarg and Frederick Law Olmsted but they didn't use the term as ERD. These landscape architects created works to foster function in natural systems and processes aesthetically. Ian McHarg was accepted as the first person who to apply his ecological knowledge into design. He began advocating the use of ecology as a basis for design in the early 1960s. He accomplished his goal of merging design with ecology. He gave importance of ecological principles in design.

Thirty years ago, in *Design with Nature*, McHarg proposed a system of ecological inventories to help explain the way natural processes may influence regional and urban planning and design [6]. Also, it makes the case for an ecological approach to design. McHarg gave a new dimension to the historical goal of 'imitating nature' (mimesis). He was concerned both with

**Figure 1.** Eco-revelatory design exhibit

210 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**2. History** 

understanding or improve site conditions.

within an eco-revelatory framework will be.

ecological perception by means of the visibility of ecological process in design. The theory has received heavy criticism about its ability to absorb an audience in ecological

It aspires to reveal endemic ecological process and affords a more direct connection between fundamental ecological process and the phenomenological experience of landscape. It is important to involve using knowledge about how interact with environment to form objects and spaces with skill and artistry (Ndubisi, 2002). This approach to design should be applied not only to urban sides, but also to non-urban sides such as wetlands, arboretums.

They are typically designed landscapes that elucidate natural phenomenon such as the cleansing action of wetlands. Ecorevelatory landscapes have also been referred to as "educational and enlightening". They are reference sites for what we understand about our environment and its workings. Designs can convey knowledge through direct experience as well as by interpretation. Interpretation seeks to create connections between the resources that are being interpreted and relevant everyday knowledge that everyone has by engaging emotions, creating experiences, and entertaining ideas through engagement [5]. By highlighting the particular ecological relationships at any given site, such design can punctuate and enliven our environment and sensitize us to what is known about its interlocking complexities" [1]. These sites often still use traditional interpretive media such as wayside exhibits and publications to fully convey their meaning and function, but ecorevelatory design can bring to light processes that usually remain unseen and forgotten.

This study explores descriptive theory, principals, techniques and practice of eco-revelatory design, can help to plan a sustainable development, which uses and reveals natural systems to reconciling human systems and its effects on the surrounding environment. The goal of this study, therefore, is to generate ideas and to begin a discussion about how the design

Most of the "eco" prefixes such as eco-city, eco-technique, eco-efficient was began to used nineties; also ERD emerged in 1998 as a new theory within the field of landscape architecture. The term and practice of ERD was coined from an exhibit Nature Constructed/Nature Revealed sponsored by the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Two predominant schools of thought, one insistently cultural and the other assertively ecological, reigned over the conceptual and theoretical dialog in landscape design and planning. In 1998 a group of practitioners and landscape scholars published a special issue of Landscape Journal as a catalogue and record of the exhibition Eco-Revelatory Design: Nature Constructed/Nature Revealed. Brenda Brown, Terry Harkness, and Douglas Johnston chaired the exhibition and served as guest editors of the journal (Figure 1). The exhibit opened at the University of Illinois in 1998 and closed at the Washington DC's National Building Museum in 2000.

Brown identifies three areas of investigation on landscapes as/of sound: listening gardens, sound, or listening trails, and sound designs [3]. She is particularly interested in what she

**Figure 2.** Central Park, NYC

the practicalities of 'design with nature' and with the aesthetic results of a naturalist approach to landscape and garden design. It was demanded that local landscapes should follow ecological principles that implied that landscape could not represent some particular claim of social identity.

Eco-Revelatory Design 213

Several components of the Emerald Necklace pre-date the plan to unite them. Some links of the Emerald Necklace not only offer an opportunity for recreation in a wooded environment, but are also ecologically important urban wilds that provide nesting places for migratory birds, fishes and other animals and improve the air quality of the city. The Emerald Necklace Project successfully ties together conservation, land restoration, sewage treatment, solid waste disposal, recreation, transportation, and water and visual quality [7]. The park system provides opportunities for people to learn about natural systems by

Today, landscape architects recognize the effects of ignorance on natural systems in human

Arcata Marsh is one of the ERD examples of today design approach. The Arcata Marsh and Wildlife Sanctuary was constructed in 1981 (Figure 5). The City of Arcata incorporated wastewater treatment to the system in 1986. The City of Arcata's unique wastewater treatment facility, marsh, and wildlife sanctuary attracts approximately 150,000 visitors per year [8]. Arcata's wastewater treatment plant is an example of a community involvement in environmental politics, innovative uses of land, and applications of appropriate technology in a small urban community. The Arcata Wastewater Treatment Plant combined with the Arcata Marsh and Wildlife Sanctuary has multiple uses, including wastewater treatment, recreation, wildlife habitat, education, and research. The residents of Arcata who stroll by the wetland can, for instance; see that wastewater treatment wetlands can be important habitat for fish and birds, as well as an energy-efficient, biologically based method of controlling water pollution. The experience of the Arcata wetland shows that ecological

processes can be brought into a constructive partnership with human settlements.

Students are centrally involved in the original design and development of the Marsh's constructed wetland water treatment system, and they continue to play a key role through

enjoying, observing, and appreciating these systems.

development. So they coined a new design approaches.

**Figure 5.** The Arcata Marsh and Wildlife Sanctuary

(source: http://www.humboldt.edu/engineering/graduate/facilities)

projects and research geared towards the continued optimization of the system.

In the second half of the 19th century, Frederick Law Olmsted completed a series of parks which continue to have a huge influence on the practices of Landscape Architecture today. Among these were Central Park in New York City (Figure 2), Prospect Park in Brooklyn (Figure3), New York and Boston's Emerald Necklace park system (Figure 4).

**Figure 3.** Prospect Park in Brooklyn

**Figure 4.** Boston's Emerald Necklace park system

The Emerald Necklace consists of a 1,100-acre (4.5 km2) chain of parks linked by parkways and waterways in Boston and Brookline, Massachusetts.

Several components of the Emerald Necklace pre-date the plan to unite them. Some links of the Emerald Necklace not only offer an opportunity for recreation in a wooded environment, but are also ecologically important urban wilds that provide nesting places for migratory birds, fishes and other animals and improve the air quality of the city. The Emerald Necklace Project successfully ties together conservation, land restoration, sewage treatment, solid waste disposal, recreation, transportation, and water and visual quality [7]. The park system provides opportunities for people to learn about natural systems by enjoying, observing, and appreciating these systems.

212 Advances in Landscape Architecture

claim of social identity.

**Figure 3.** Prospect Park in Brooklyn

**Figure 4.** Boston's Emerald Necklace park system

and waterways in Boston and Brookline, Massachusetts.

the practicalities of 'design with nature' and with the aesthetic results of a naturalist approach to landscape and garden design. It was demanded that local landscapes should follow ecological principles that implied that landscape could not represent some particular

In the second half of the 19th century, Frederick Law Olmsted completed a series of parks which continue to have a huge influence on the practices of Landscape Architecture today. Among these were Central Park in New York City (Figure 2), Prospect Park in Brooklyn

The Emerald Necklace consists of a 1,100-acre (4.5 km2) chain of parks linked by parkways

(Figure3), New York and Boston's Emerald Necklace park system (Figure 4).

Today, landscape architects recognize the effects of ignorance on natural systems in human development. So they coined a new design approaches.

Arcata Marsh is one of the ERD examples of today design approach. The Arcata Marsh and Wildlife Sanctuary was constructed in 1981 (Figure 5). The City of Arcata incorporated wastewater treatment to the system in 1986. The City of Arcata's unique wastewater treatment facility, marsh, and wildlife sanctuary attracts approximately 150,000 visitors per year [8]. Arcata's wastewater treatment plant is an example of a community involvement in environmental politics, innovative uses of land, and applications of appropriate technology in a small urban community. The Arcata Wastewater Treatment Plant combined with the Arcata Marsh and Wildlife Sanctuary has multiple uses, including wastewater treatment, recreation, wildlife habitat, education, and research. The residents of Arcata who stroll by the wetland can, for instance; see that wastewater treatment wetlands can be important habitat for fish and birds, as well as an energy-efficient, biologically based method of controlling water pollution. The experience of the Arcata wetland shows that ecological processes can be brought into a constructive partnership with human settlements.

**Figure 5.** The Arcata Marsh and Wildlife Sanctuary (source: http://www.humboldt.edu/engineering/graduate/facilities)

Students are centrally involved in the original design and development of the Marsh's constructed wetland water treatment system, and they continue to play a key role through projects and research geared towards the continued optimization of the system.

The second example for ERD is the Gateway Business Center - post-industrial area- is a 25 acre site consisting of 10 industrial tilt-up buildings located at the San Gabriel Mountain foothills on a great alluvial fan that crosses the San Gabriel Valley on its way to the Pacific Ocean. The site concept transformed an industrial building environment into a sustainable and nature-inspiring experience. The layout of cairns act as way finding and directional markers and add to the overall landscape display and experience of bioswales, infiltration zones, rain harvesting, solar canopies and an array of recycled materials.

Eco-Revelatory Design 215

The term ecology, like the term landscape, has multiple meanings. Ecology has historically focused on pristine, natural environments, however, by the 1970's many ecologists began to turn their interest towards the ecological interactions taking place in, and caused by urban environments. Urban ecology is recognized as a diverse and complex concept which differs in application between North America and Europe. The European concept of urban ecology examines the biota of urban areas while to the North American concept which has traditionally examined the social sciences of the urban landscape as well as the ecosystem

Environmental knowledge have been part of the intent of design in landscape architecture and various conceptions and methodologies have been improved for measuring the

Nassauer and Opdam define design as intentional change of landscape pattern, for the purpose of sustainably providing ecosystem services while recognizably meeting societal needs and respecting societal values [11]. Design is both a product, landscape pattern

Ecology plays a big role in ERD. Disciplines in applied ecology such as urban ecology, landscape ecology etc. helps planning and design practice in landscape architecture. These disciplines help put theories into practice. The most important thing is to find how to use

Landscape architecture is informed by scientific knowledge and aspires to provide aesthetic expressions in landscapes across a range of spatial scales. Landscape ecology has been defined as the study of the effect of landscape pattern on process, in heterogeneous landscapes, across a range of spatial and temporal scales [12]. The logical reasons for integrating these two fields are clear and compelling, with a great potential to support

Proponents of ERD recognized that landscape architecture alters and directs both cultural and ecological systems. Furthermore, they acknowledged landscape architects' capacity to direct human experience and reveal, through design, aspects of ecology and culture. This integrated approach provides opportunity for people to place themselves in and as part of an interconnected socio-ecologic world, reinforcing the relationships between humans and

Landscape ecology is defined as a problem-oriented science [13]. It has developed from the growing awareness of environmental problems since the nineteen seventies. Spatial planning and landscape design are disciplines which transfer the knowledge developed in landscape ecology to application. To optimize this process of knowledge transfer, landscape ecology must co-evolve with spatial planning [14]. The development of ecologically sustainable landscapes requires that patterns of future landscapes sustain the necessary

changed by intention, and the activity of deciding what that pattern could be.

**4. Landscape architecture and landscape ecology** 

sustainable landscapes through ecologically based planning and design.

fluxes and processes.

environmental consequences of design.

ecological thinking in design.

the bio-geosphere.

The site landscape is designed to mimic the natural feel of the local native landscape character and capture it into the renovated industrial complex. The goal is to create "biophilia" (an instinctive bond between man and nature). The bioswale has taken the place of the previous concrete swale, while the concrete catch basin remains to collect any additional runoff in a deluge, and as a reminder of the previous form of site storm water drainage. More than 95 percent of the runoff water in this parking lot is captured.

The storm garden is irrigated by the adjacent rain harvesting tanks. A natural wash picks up excess rainwater and roof water not captured by the parking lot bioswale. [9] (Figure 6)

**Figure 6.** The Storm Garden of Gateway Business Center

## **3. Design and ecology relationship**

Design is the intention that redefines how we relate to each other and our environment. The process of designing places and artefacts are opportunities to reimagine a new relationship with our environment, especially when it seems remote or difficult to create. Design that reveals hidden systems, whether ecological or economic, is a powerful way to meet the challenges of ecologically benign communities. Landscape design is a discipline which transfer the knowledge developed in landscape ecology to application [10].

The term ecology, like the term landscape, has multiple meanings. Ecology has historically focused on pristine, natural environments, however, by the 1970's many ecologists began to turn their interest towards the ecological interactions taking place in, and caused by urban environments. Urban ecology is recognized as a diverse and complex concept which differs in application between North America and Europe. The European concept of urban ecology examines the biota of urban areas while to the North American concept which has traditionally examined the social sciences of the urban landscape as well as the ecosystem fluxes and processes.

Environmental knowledge have been part of the intent of design in landscape architecture and various conceptions and methodologies have been improved for measuring the environmental consequences of design.

Nassauer and Opdam define design as intentional change of landscape pattern, for the purpose of sustainably providing ecosystem services while recognizably meeting societal needs and respecting societal values [11]. Design is both a product, landscape pattern changed by intention, and the activity of deciding what that pattern could be.

Ecology plays a big role in ERD. Disciplines in applied ecology such as urban ecology, landscape ecology etc. helps planning and design practice in landscape architecture. These disciplines help put theories into practice. The most important thing is to find how to use ecological thinking in design.

## **4. Landscape architecture and landscape ecology**

214 Advances in Landscape Architecture

The second example for ERD is the Gateway Business Center - post-industrial area- is a 25 acre site consisting of 10 industrial tilt-up buildings located at the San Gabriel Mountain foothills on a great alluvial fan that crosses the San Gabriel Valley on its way to the Pacific Ocean. The site concept transformed an industrial building environment into a sustainable and nature-inspiring experience. The layout of cairns act as way finding and directional markers and add to the overall landscape display and experience of bioswales, infiltration

The site landscape is designed to mimic the natural feel of the local native landscape character and capture it into the renovated industrial complex. The goal is to create "biophilia" (an instinctive bond between man and nature). The bioswale has taken the place of the previous concrete swale, while the concrete catch basin remains to collect any additional runoff in a deluge, and as a reminder of the previous form of site storm water

The storm garden is irrigated by the adjacent rain harvesting tanks. A natural wash picks up excess rainwater and roof water not captured by the parking lot bioswale. [9] (Figure 6)

Design is the intention that redefines how we relate to each other and our environment. The process of designing places and artefacts are opportunities to reimagine a new relationship with our environment, especially when it seems remote or difficult to create. Design that reveals hidden systems, whether ecological or economic, is a powerful way to meet the challenges of ecologically benign communities. Landscape design is a discipline

which transfer the knowledge developed in landscape ecology to application [10].

zones, rain harvesting, solar canopies and an array of recycled materials.

**Figure 6.** The Storm Garden of Gateway Business Center

**3. Design and ecology relationship** 

drainage. More than 95 percent of the runoff water in this parking lot is captured.

Landscape architecture is informed by scientific knowledge and aspires to provide aesthetic expressions in landscapes across a range of spatial scales. Landscape ecology has been defined as the study of the effect of landscape pattern on process, in heterogeneous landscapes, across a range of spatial and temporal scales [12]. The logical reasons for integrating these two fields are clear and compelling, with a great potential to support sustainable landscapes through ecologically based planning and design.

Proponents of ERD recognized that landscape architecture alters and directs both cultural and ecological systems. Furthermore, they acknowledged landscape architects' capacity to direct human experience and reveal, through design, aspects of ecology and culture. This integrated approach provides opportunity for people to place themselves in and as part of an interconnected socio-ecologic world, reinforcing the relationships between humans and the bio-geosphere.

Landscape ecology is defined as a problem-oriented science [13]. It has developed from the growing awareness of environmental problems since the nineteen seventies. Spatial planning and landscape design are disciplines which transfer the knowledge developed in landscape ecology to application. To optimize this process of knowledge transfer, landscape ecology must co-evolve with spatial planning [14]. The development of ecologically sustainable landscapes requires that patterns of future landscapes sustain the necessary

ecological processes in the landscape. Therefore, we must know how landscape patterns relate to these processes.

Eco-Revelatory Design 217

systems that motivate and maintain it, and reveal them through creative, imaginative, and

A design theory is a procedure for how to set about a design project. The classical twentieth century approach to landscape design has been Survey-Analysis- Design (SAD). It has been elevated to the status of a design methodology and cruelly overworked. The resultant places lacked clarity of intention. The intention of ERD is to "connect people with the natural environment". A dynamic balance between natural environment and society, intended to reveal and interpret (resolve and educate the relationship between user and the designed

Most of the landscape designers' style ignores natural systems and have only one purpose, primarily focused on aesthetics. ERD has to combine aesthetics and science. It is one of the endeavours that contribute to rediscovering aesthetics. It is hard to measure aesthetics outcome statistically or collectively. But can measure the environmental effects in numbers.

It is important to choose a method that is most compatible design strategy. It depends on the design intent, the place and the designer. How methods fit into design process should be

a. We need to design a natural area to show the ecological processes and relationships. Artificial waterfalls can perfectly mimic the nature a way that highlight the system of the real one (Figure 7). Native trees and shrubs mimic the adjacent natural areas. The site landscape is designed to mimic the natural feel of the local native landscape character. b. ERD utilizes the natural capabilities of the environment. In an ecorevelatory approach the pre-existing natural, structural and functional characteristics of the place are

There are a lot of methods for ERD that landscape architecture can use such as environmental method, man centred method, evaluation method, interpretive analogy

Through our senses, we form concrete relationships, we reconciliate, with the world. With this understanding, phenomenology can be used as a method for eco-revelatory design.

integrated into design and made them observable and understandable.

method. The design method is up to designer's idea and knowledge.

Suitability analysis is also one of the approaches for ERD.

So you can measure the sustainability by its effects on environment not by aesthetics.

area ) and finally to provide awareness on ecological understanding.

Generally two methods are used at ERD as follows;

visible form of the landscape [19].

**5. Theory** 

**6. Method** 

determined clearly.

a. Mimic the nature b. Use the nature

Humans are the driving force behind urban ecology and influence the environment in a variety of ways, such as modifying and altering land surfaces and waterways, introducing foreign species. In this context, changes between human-environment affect the styles of landscape design directly.

However, the present concept of ecological design and its interpretation in this sense does not refer to information charts or written explanations, which people encounter at places like zoological gardens or arboretums.

Generally, "ecological designs blend with their contexts and results in a diffuse visual pattern" [15]. Consequently, this perceptual subtlety can make ecological landscapes difficult for inhabitants to recognize and care about. ERD make ecological considerations perceivably a "visible part of landscape experience". It achieve this is by benefiting from the contrast between cultural and ecological domains. One way to achieve this is by exploiting the power of contrast, particularly the contrast between cultural and ecological domains. Ecological design has tended to diffuse edges to provide transition.

We can use basic principles of landscape ecology in landscape design. Such as linear parks, neighbourhood parks, playgrounds as for patch, greenways for corridor.

Every human directly or indirectly contributes towards enriching as well as degrading the quality and experience of cities. In order to create a successful ecological design it is important to recognize and interpret the historic and cultural significance of the landscape. In other words, "eco-revelatory design expands by hitching human habitat and their inevitable cultural determinants in to an environmentally inclusive vision" [16].

Farina observed that landscape design is an important component in practical landscape ecology as it expresses the relationship of spatial patterns and processes in a practical manner [17]. It provides in depth understanding on wildlife habitats and movements and biological interdependency within a region. The two disciplines should be complementary [17].

People use land for its scenic and recreational uses. Thus, the aesthetic use is important for them. However, natural systems are the important part of the designing decisions.

It is important to understand the social and cultural backgrounds and expectations of the society who use the land are determinant. It depends on two factors [18], in how people experience and use their landscapes, and their understanding of ecological processes.

It is important to organize a linkage between cultural expectations and ecological process. Man made land uses affect the ecological system activities such as wildlife crossing and subsurface water movement. Lyle has explained the following six basic ecological processes that are vital for operational integrity of natural systems [19].

In order to participate creatively in natural processes and to do so with reasonable hope of success, we need to include as subject of design the inner workings of the landscape, the systems that motivate and maintain it, and reveal them through creative, imaginative, and visible form of the landscape [19].

## **5. Theory**

216 Advances in Landscape Architecture

relate to these processes.

landscape design directly.

[17].

like zoological gardens or arboretums.

ecological processes in the landscape. Therefore, we must know how landscape patterns

Humans are the driving force behind urban ecology and influence the environment in a variety of ways, such as modifying and altering land surfaces and waterways, introducing foreign species. In this context, changes between human-environment affect the styles of

However, the present concept of ecological design and its interpretation in this sense does not refer to information charts or written explanations, which people encounter at places

Generally, "ecological designs blend with their contexts and results in a diffuse visual pattern" [15]. Consequently, this perceptual subtlety can make ecological landscapes difficult for inhabitants to recognize and care about. ERD make ecological considerations perceivably a "visible part of landscape experience". It achieve this is by benefiting from the contrast between cultural and ecological domains. One way to achieve this is by exploiting the power of contrast, particularly the contrast between cultural and ecological domains.

We can use basic principles of landscape ecology in landscape design. Such as linear parks,

Every human directly or indirectly contributes towards enriching as well as degrading the quality and experience of cities. In order to create a successful ecological design it is important to recognize and interpret the historic and cultural significance of the landscape. In other words, "eco-revelatory design expands by hitching human habitat and their

Farina observed that landscape design is an important component in practical landscape ecology as it expresses the relationship of spatial patterns and processes in a practical manner [17]. It provides in depth understanding on wildlife habitats and movements and biological interdependency within a region. The two disciplines should be complementary

People use land for its scenic and recreational uses. Thus, the aesthetic use is important for

It is important to understand the social and cultural backgrounds and expectations of the society who use the land are determinant. It depends on two factors [18], in how people

It is important to organize a linkage between cultural expectations and ecological process. Man made land uses affect the ecological system activities such as wildlife crossing and subsurface water movement. Lyle has explained the following six basic ecological processes

In order to participate creatively in natural processes and to do so with reasonable hope of success, we need to include as subject of design the inner workings of the landscape, the

them. However, natural systems are the important part of the designing decisions.

experience and use their landscapes, and their understanding of ecological processes.

that are vital for operational integrity of natural systems [19].

Ecological design has tended to diffuse edges to provide transition.

neighbourhood parks, playgrounds as for patch, greenways for corridor.

inevitable cultural determinants in to an environmentally inclusive vision" [16].

A design theory is a procedure for how to set about a design project. The classical twentieth century approach to landscape design has been Survey-Analysis- Design (SAD). It has been elevated to the status of a design methodology and cruelly overworked. The resultant places lacked clarity of intention. The intention of ERD is to "connect people with the natural environment". A dynamic balance between natural environment and society, intended to reveal and interpret (resolve and educate the relationship between user and the designed area ) and finally to provide awareness on ecological understanding.

Most of the landscape designers' style ignores natural systems and have only one purpose, primarily focused on aesthetics. ERD has to combine aesthetics and science. It is one of the endeavours that contribute to rediscovering aesthetics. It is hard to measure aesthetics outcome statistically or collectively. But can measure the environmental effects in numbers. So you can measure the sustainability by its effects on environment not by aesthetics.

## **6. Method**

It is important to choose a method that is most compatible design strategy. It depends on the design intent, the place and the designer. How methods fit into design process should be determined clearly.

Generally two methods are used at ERD as follows;


There are a lot of methods for ERD that landscape architecture can use such as environmental method, man centred method, evaluation method, interpretive analogy method. The design method is up to designer's idea and knowledge.

Through our senses, we form concrete relationships, we reconciliate, with the world. With this understanding, phenomenology can be used as a method for eco-revelatory design. Suitability analysis is also one of the approaches for ERD.

Eco-Revelatory Design 219

Expose infrastructure and process

generally as follows:

**9. Visibility** 

context.

Reclaim landscapes so that the past is remembered

material conclusions to form and inform landscapes.

designed environment back to life.

Change perspectives by structuring how we interact with the Landscape.

Interpretation of ecological processes refers to the ability of the design to reveal ecological processes at work. This process of revealing can only be successful if the environments created are visible, observable, legible, and have the ability to raise curiosity in visitors to explore and understand the complexity of the landscape. Principles for ERD are described

Visibility is a cardinal point for ERD. Many designers and planners have become concerned in recent years with "revealing" ecological processes in their designs so that the users of the environment may experience, learn about, and appreciate those processes. In practice, "revelation" of ecological process has meant everything from capturing stormwater on the surface of the land before it drains away to the storm sewers. In addition, the ecological processes that are revealed may themselves be truly "natural," in the sense that they could continue to exist without the management of humans, or they may be highly artificial, engineered systems that need constant supervision if they are to persist in an urbanized

"Most of the time, natural systems themselves are not visible and readily engaging. What are visible are the surface manifestations and the material conclusions of these natural systems, for example layers of rocks are not ecological process, but the result of it" [21]. Thus the most important challenge for designers is to recognize which ecological processes can actually be made visible and how they can interpret these dynamic processes or their

The Arcata Marsh and Wildlife Sanctuary, a real-world example of eco-revelatory design, highlights some of the positive potential of using visibility as a design strategy (Figure 8).

Some ERDs, for example, have sought to bring ecological processes (such as water flows) into the open, but then blend them in with the surrounding landscape as much as possible. Many proposals to capture rainfall in grassy areas and infiltrate it into the soil before it runs off into the storm sewers would use either parks or front lawns for this purpose. Although this strategy reveals an ecological process occurring during and just after a rainfall, the rest of the time these spaces would simply look like what they have always looked like--large grassy expanses--and would forfeit an opportunity to communicate a clear, consistent, and meaningful landscape message. Making natural cycles and processes visible bring the

In reference [22] the quantitative interpretation challenges aesthetics by rendering it negative, segregated and unstable. Under this "hegemony" various endeavours in which eco-revelatory design played a part involved in. It is important for people to "read" or "experienced" the

ecological knowledge tried to given. This attempt is achieved by visibility.

**Figure 7.** Artificial Waterfalls

## **7. Design process**

When we examine the literature about ERD we can't see any knowledge about the design process. Landscape ecology principles integrate to design process. How can we adopt the ecology approach and principles into design process? We can use basic principles of landscape ecology in landscape design such as linear parks, neighbourhood parks, playgrounds as for patch, greenways for corridor. Landscape ecology principles influence every stage of landscape design process such as site planning.

One of the design processes is traditional design process that landscape architects undertake. It typically starts with the selection of a site based on a set of criteria. Once a site is selected, the typical design process will move through a series of phase including site inventory, site analysis, conceptual design, design development, construction documentation and finally implementation [20].

Landscape designers need to understand how natural and human systems work and design as an integral part of a nature and establish relationship with nature. They can achieve this by combining those with new technology to meet changing cultural and ecological needs.

## **8. Principles (Design strategy)**

The hosts of the exhibit, Barbara Brown, Terry Harkness and Doug Johnston, take great care in describing what deserves to be called eco-revelatory design, and stressed stringent and ambitious goals for the competition. Those chosen for the exhibit represent rigorous application of eco-revelatory design, and utilize some or all of the following strategies [1]:


Interpretation of ecological processes refers to the ability of the design to reveal ecological processes at work. This process of revealing can only be successful if the environments created are visible, observable, legible, and have the ability to raise curiosity in visitors to explore and understand the complexity of the landscape. Principles for ERD are described generally as follows:

## **9. Visibility**

218 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 7.** Artificial Waterfalls

When we examine the literature about ERD we can't see any knowledge about the design process. Landscape ecology principles integrate to design process. How can we adopt the ecology approach and principles into design process? We can use basic principles of landscape ecology in landscape design such as linear parks, neighbourhood parks, playgrounds as for patch, greenways for corridor. Landscape ecology principles influence

One of the design processes is traditional design process that landscape architects undertake. It typically starts with the selection of a site based on a set of criteria. Once a site is selected, the typical design process will move through a series of phase including site inventory, site analysis, conceptual design, design development, construction

Landscape designers need to understand how natural and human systems work and design as an integral part of a nature and establish relationship with nature. They can achieve this by combining those with new technology to meet changing cultural and ecological needs.

The hosts of the exhibit, Barbara Brown, Terry Harkness and Doug Johnston, take great care in describing what deserves to be called eco-revelatory design, and stressed stringent and ambitious goals for the competition. Those chosen for the exhibit represent rigorous application of eco-revelatory design, and utilize some or all of the following strategies [1]:

 New uses of landscapes producing deeper caring for life and ecological processes Signifying features that speak for natural/cultural processes that might otherwise

every stage of landscape design process such as site planning.

documentation and finally implementation [20].

Abstraction and simulation of natural processes

**8. Principles (Design strategy)** 

remain invisible

**7. Design process** 

Visibility is a cardinal point for ERD. Many designers and planners have become concerned in recent years with "revealing" ecological processes in their designs so that the users of the environment may experience, learn about, and appreciate those processes. In practice, "revelation" of ecological process has meant everything from capturing stormwater on the surface of the land before it drains away to the storm sewers. In addition, the ecological processes that are revealed may themselves be truly "natural," in the sense that they could continue to exist without the management of humans, or they may be highly artificial, engineered systems that need constant supervision if they are to persist in an urbanized context.

"Most of the time, natural systems themselves are not visible and readily engaging. What are visible are the surface manifestations and the material conclusions of these natural systems, for example layers of rocks are not ecological process, but the result of it" [21]. Thus the most important challenge for designers is to recognize which ecological processes can actually be made visible and how they can interpret these dynamic processes or their material conclusions to form and inform landscapes.

The Arcata Marsh and Wildlife Sanctuary, a real-world example of eco-revelatory design, highlights some of the positive potential of using visibility as a design strategy (Figure 8).

Some ERDs, for example, have sought to bring ecological processes (such as water flows) into the open, but then blend them in with the surrounding landscape as much as possible. Many proposals to capture rainfall in grassy areas and infiltrate it into the soil before it runs off into the storm sewers would use either parks or front lawns for this purpose. Although this strategy reveals an ecological process occurring during and just after a rainfall, the rest of the time these spaces would simply look like what they have always looked like--large grassy expanses--and would forfeit an opportunity to communicate a clear, consistent, and meaningful landscape message. Making natural cycles and processes visible bring the designed environment back to life.

In reference [22] the quantitative interpretation challenges aesthetics by rendering it negative, segregated and unstable. Under this "hegemony" various endeavours in which eco-revelatory design played a part involved in. It is important for people to "read" or "experienced" the ecological knowledge tried to given. This attempt is achieved by visibility.

Eco-Revelatory Design 221

on stormwater garden (Figure 9). It gives opportunity to people to have information about their native plants. Native trees and shrubs mimic the adjacent natural riparian areas, native plant communities and wildlife habitat. Natural water sources and planting zones will be

You can help stop the exotic plant invasion by using and nurturing native plants around your home and on your property. Native plants generally grow well and require less care than exotic species when grown on the proper soils under the right environmental

serve as an important genetic resource for future food crops or other plant-derived

If you enjoy observing nature, are concerned about the environment, or wish to make a long-term contribution to your community's ecosystem, then using native plants is a

considered when choosing plant material to minimize the need for irrigation.

**Figure 9.** Stormwater management- the use of native plants

provide food and habitat for native wildlife

add beauty to the landscape and preserve our natural heritage

 Protective cover for most animals. Seeds, nuts, and fruits for squirrels

Seeds, fruits, and insects for birds.

and other mammals.

conditions.

products

**Figure 8.** An Oxidation Pond at the Arcata Wastewater Treatment Plant

## **10. Sustainability**

The second concern for ERD is to provide sustainability. The term sustainability was first used in 1980 in IUCN's World Conservation Strategy. The sustainability concept is arguably relevant to systems from the global to the local scale. Sustainable ecologically-based approaches to design are desirable but their application is not widely seen.

Sustainability reshapes environmental ethics, available technologies, planning techniques, and assessment criteria, which in turn influence environmental design disciplines. This approach suggests a need to contemplate spiritual aspects of sustainable design. A set of criteria is developed for sustainability to evaluate the environmental performance. In this context, sustainability becomes the key consideration in design.

If we propose to use ecological design of urban places to promote cultural change in the human relationship to the environment, then, we should be thinking about how to create physical settings with cues for sustainable behaviour.

The design of sustainable systems is consistent with ecological principles, which integrate human society with its natural environment for the benefit of both. There are many compelling reasons why environmental and resource problems should be placed in a dynamic perspective. It is important to provide sustainability by using moderate and efficient resource use. ERD strives for moderation and efficiency in resource use.

## **11. The use of native plants (Naturalness)**

Naturalness provide to "sustainability" and "knowledge" about native plants. It also engages people and nature as it used to be. We can see the usage of native plants example on stormwater garden (Figure 9). It gives opportunity to people to have information about their native plants. Native trees and shrubs mimic the adjacent natural riparian areas, native plant communities and wildlife habitat. Natural water sources and planting zones will be considered when choosing plant material to minimize the need for irrigation.

**Figure 9.** Stormwater management- the use of native plants

You can help stop the exotic plant invasion by using and nurturing native plants around your home and on your property. Native plants generally grow well and require less care than exotic species when grown on the proper soils under the right environmental conditions.

Protective cover for most animals.

220 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**10. Sustainability** 

**Figure 8.** An Oxidation Pond at the Arcata Wastewater Treatment Plant

context, sustainability becomes the key consideration in design.

physical settings with cues for sustainable behaviour.

**11. The use of native plants (Naturalness)** 

approaches to design are desirable but their application is not widely seen.

The second concern for ERD is to provide sustainability. The term sustainability was first used in 1980 in IUCN's World Conservation Strategy. The sustainability concept is arguably relevant to systems from the global to the local scale. Sustainable ecologically-based

Sustainability reshapes environmental ethics, available technologies, planning techniques, and assessment criteria, which in turn influence environmental design disciplines. This approach suggests a need to contemplate spiritual aspects of sustainable design. A set of criteria is developed for sustainability to evaluate the environmental performance. In this

If we propose to use ecological design of urban places to promote cultural change in the human relationship to the environment, then, we should be thinking about how to create

The design of sustainable systems is consistent with ecological principles, which integrate human society with its natural environment for the benefit of both. There are many compelling reasons why environmental and resource problems should be placed in a dynamic perspective. It is important to provide sustainability by using moderate and

Naturalness provide to "sustainability" and "knowledge" about native plants. It also engages people and nature as it used to be. We can see the usage of native plants example

efficient resource use. ERD strives for moderation and efficiency in resource use.


If you enjoy observing nature, are concerned about the environment, or wish to make a long-term contribution to your community's ecosystem, then using native plants is a responsible, money-saving, long-term, positive investment to both your property and your community.

Eco-Revelatory Design 223

Legibility was interpreted as the understanding of how the landscape worked from its manifestation based on coherence between climate, soil, water and human occupation; or

The spatial organization of design was utilized to clarify the ecological and cultural phenomena for people. People accompany the space by their senses. It gives people to create a spiritual connection with their environment and to have an educational consciousness.

If the design does not take attention it can not to carry out its mission. To make people curious about the design shows its success. The perception is the most important element of

It is important for people to "read" or "experienced" the ecological knowledge tried to given. This attempt is achieved by rising curiosity. If people wonder, they can learn the ecological awareness. Designers should enhance visitor's experience by encouraging

Effective design solutions or distinctive features are chosen as the general publics' ability to gain ecological information from their environment is limited. By using and revealing natural systems to spread consciousness and earn attention and care for our environment.

ERD overlap cultural needs and ecological processes to raise curiosity in visitors to explore

ERD is a new approach in subdiscipline of design for landscape architecture, one where ecological process, the environment and the cultural awareness of people is a fundamental determinant of the design. Landscape architects should enhance visitor's experience by encouraging interaction to interpret the ecological processes. In this context, the ecological knowledge of them should be enough for interpretation of ecological processes on their designs. Also, it is important to be understood that the ecological phenomena helps people

The present concept of ERD enriches the landscapes by incorporating visibility and observability. In this context, it reveals ecological phenomena and process. This process of revealing can only be successful if the environments created are visible, observable, legible, and have the ability to raise curiosity in visitors to explore and understand the complexity of

In order to create a successful ecological design it is important to recognize and interpret the historic and cultural significance of the landscape. In other words, "ERD expands by hitching human habitat and their inevitable cultural determinants in to an environmentally

"understanding relationships between process and material, form and space" [26].

**15. Ability to raise curiosity** 

design that its comprehensibleness and arouse curiosity.

interaction to interpret the ecological processes.

and understand the complexity of the landscape.

understand their environment and its cycles by their senses.

**16. Conclusion** 

the landscape.

inclusive vision" [16].

Landscaping with native plants improves the environment. Native plants are hardy because they have adapted to the local conditions. The native plants increase our connection to nature, help educate our neighbours, and provide a beautiful, peaceful place to relax.

The interest in the preservation and restoration of native plant communities increases as the public becomes more concerned about the environment. Native plants are valued for their economic, ecological, genetic, and aesthetic benefits in addition to the growing societal belief in their intrinsic value as living species.

## **12. Observability**

It is relevant with visibility. People observe the design by hearing, listening and seeing. It makes awareness about the nature.

When ecological design incorporates "visibility" [23] and "observability" [24] it reveals ecological phenomena and processes and can be referred to as ERD.

## **13. Multifunctionality**

Multifunctionality is the most important characteristics of this design strategy. It serves people multifunctional activities such as recreation, protection and education together. For instance, The Arcata Wastewater Treatment Plant combined with the Arcata Marsh and Wildlife Sanctuary has multiple uses, including wastewater treatment, recreation, wildlife habitat, education, and research.

Some people come to learn about the innovative wastewater treatment that enhances the community. Other people come to see the more than 270 species of birds that make use of the habitat provided by the Marsh [8]. Even more people come to exercise on the trails while enjoying the natural experience.

Multifunctionality is fundamental for sustainability. Multi-functionality is generally desirable, as it encourages efficient use of land, delivers wider public benefit and builds partnerships of user groups, leading to better stewardship. [25].

A designed land has many layers for visitors such as place for leisure activities, resting areas, conservation areas, fish and wildlife areas, sports activities and educational areas together. People gain social, environmental, economical advantage from multifunctional places.

## **14. Legibility**

The design gives its mission to the visitor clearly. ERD purpose is "educate" and illumine". In this context, the messages have to be understandable. Effective design helps inform us about our place within nature.

Legibility was interpreted as the understanding of how the landscape worked from its manifestation based on coherence between climate, soil, water and human occupation; or "understanding relationships between process and material, form and space" [26].

The spatial organization of design was utilized to clarify the ecological and cultural phenomena for people. People accompany the space by their senses. It gives people to create a spiritual connection with their environment and to have an educational consciousness.

## **15. Ability to raise curiosity**

222 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**12. Observability** 

in their intrinsic value as living species.

makes awareness about the nature.

**13. Multifunctionality** 

habitat, education, and research.

enjoying the natural experience.

places.

**14. Legibility** 

about our place within nature.

community.

responsible, money-saving, long-term, positive investment to both your property and your

Landscaping with native plants improves the environment. Native plants are hardy because they have adapted to the local conditions. The native plants increase our connection to

The interest in the preservation and restoration of native plant communities increases as the public becomes more concerned about the environment. Native plants are valued for their economic, ecological, genetic, and aesthetic benefits in addition to the growing societal belief

It is relevant with visibility. People observe the design by hearing, listening and seeing. It

When ecological design incorporates "visibility" [23] and "observability" [24] it reveals

Multifunctionality is the most important characteristics of this design strategy. It serves people multifunctional activities such as recreation, protection and education together. For instance, The Arcata Wastewater Treatment Plant combined with the Arcata Marsh and Wildlife Sanctuary has multiple uses, including wastewater treatment, recreation, wildlife

Some people come to learn about the innovative wastewater treatment that enhances the community. Other people come to see the more than 270 species of birds that make use of the habitat provided by the Marsh [8]. Even more people come to exercise on the trails while

Multifunctionality is fundamental for sustainability. Multi-functionality is generally desirable, as it encourages efficient use of land, delivers wider public benefit and builds

A designed land has many layers for visitors such as place for leisure activities, resting areas, conservation areas, fish and wildlife areas, sports activities and educational areas together. People gain social, environmental, economical advantage from multifunctional

The design gives its mission to the visitor clearly. ERD purpose is "educate" and illumine". In this context, the messages have to be understandable. Effective design helps inform us

ecological phenomena and processes and can be referred to as ERD.

partnerships of user groups, leading to better stewardship. [25].

nature, help educate our neighbours, and provide a beautiful, peaceful place to relax.

If the design does not take attention it can not to carry out its mission. To make people curious about the design shows its success. The perception is the most important element of design that its comprehensibleness and arouse curiosity.

It is important for people to "read" or "experienced" the ecological knowledge tried to given. This attempt is achieved by rising curiosity. If people wonder, they can learn the ecological awareness. Designers should enhance visitor's experience by encouraging interaction to interpret the ecological processes.

Effective design solutions or distinctive features are chosen as the general publics' ability to gain ecological information from their environment is limited. By using and revealing natural systems to spread consciousness and earn attention and care for our environment.

ERD overlap cultural needs and ecological processes to raise curiosity in visitors to explore and understand the complexity of the landscape.

## **16. Conclusion**

ERD is a new approach in subdiscipline of design for landscape architecture, one where ecological process, the environment and the cultural awareness of people is a fundamental determinant of the design. Landscape architects should enhance visitor's experience by encouraging interaction to interpret the ecological processes. In this context, the ecological knowledge of them should be enough for interpretation of ecological processes on their designs. Also, it is important to be understood that the ecological phenomena helps people understand their environment and its cycles by their senses.

The present concept of ERD enriches the landscapes by incorporating visibility and observability. In this context, it reveals ecological phenomena and process. This process of revealing can only be successful if the environments created are visible, observable, legible, and have the ability to raise curiosity in visitors to explore and understand the complexity of the landscape.

In order to create a successful ecological design it is important to recognize and interpret the historic and cultural significance of the landscape. In other words, "ERD expands by hitching human habitat and their inevitable cultural determinants in to an environmentally inclusive vision" [16].

The *Eco-Revelatory Design Exhibit*, summarized in the 1998 special issue of *Landscape Journal*  [1], clearly articulates an open challenge for landscape architects to work as environmental educators and to help heal the relationship between society and natural systems.

Eco-Revelatory Design 225

[6] McHarg I L. Design with Nature. Doubleday/Natural History Press, Garden City, NJ;

[7] Forman R T. The Missing Catalyst: Design and Planning with Ecology Roots.

[10] Opdam P Verboom J and Reijnen R.. Landscape cohesion assessment: determining the

[11] Nassauer J I Opdam P.. Design in science: extending the landscape ecology paradigm,

[12] Turner M G. Landscape ecology: The effect of pattern on process. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst

[14] Ahern J. Integration of landscape ecology and landscape design: An evolutionary process. Edited by J. A. Wiens and M. R. Moss. International Association for Landscape

[15] Lyle J T. Regenerative Design for Sustainable Development. New York: John Wiley &

[16] Mozingo L A. The Aesthetics of Ecological Design: Seeing Science as Culture Landscape

[17] Farina A. Principles and methods in landscape ecology. London: Chapman & Hall;

[18] Deshpande A M. Design Process to Integrate Natural and Human Systems, Landscape

[19] Lyle J T. Design for human ecosystems. Landscape, land use, and natural resources.

[20] LaGro J A. Site analysis. Linking program and concept in land planning and design.

[21] Nassauer J I. The appearance of ecological systems as a matter of policy. Landscape

[22] Zhang B. Technicalization of Environmental Aesthetics and a Resolution of Spirituality, Architecture, Culture, and Spirituality Symposium. JUne29-July 1 2011, Serenbe,

[24] Thayer R L. The experience of sustainable landscapes. Landscape Journal 1989: 8

[25] Selman P. Community Essay. Department of Landscape, University of Sheffield, Crookesmoor Building, Conduit Road, Sheffield S10 1FL United Kingdom, Planning for

landscape multifunctionality, Sustinnability: Science, Practice &Policy 2009: 5 (2) [26] Spirn A W. The language of landscape. New Haven and London, Yale University Press;

conservation potential of landscapes for biodiversity (submitted); 2002

Landscape Ecol, Springer 2008: 23:633–644, DOI 10.1007/s10980-008-9226-7

[13] IALE Executive Committee, 1998. IALE Mission Statement. IALE Bulletin 16:1

Ecology, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.Landscape Ecology 1999: 119–123.

Journa,l Spring, 1997 (16) 1 46-59 DOI: 10.3368/lj.16.1.46

New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc ; 1985

[23] Hough M. Cities and Natural Process, London: Routledge; 1995

New York: John Wiley and Sons: 2001

Ecology 1992: (6) 239–250

Georgia, USA

(2):101-110.

1998.

Architecture, State University, Ms Thesis, Blacksburg, VA.; 2003

Washington Covelo London:Island Press; 2002

[9] http://www.landscapeonline.com/research/article/15739

[8] The Ashford Borough Council. 2008

1989: 20: 171-197.

Sons;1994.

1998

1969

Explaining this new philosophy as distinctly different and complementary to ecological design, a more technical approach for designing with natural processes, ERD reveals the significant ecological aspects of a site and helps visitors build meaning and connection between the landscape and their own lives. In this sense, eco-revelatory designs are educative landscapes, pushing their visitors to think, gain perspective, and internalize new information [1].

ERD serves as a lens for reading the landscape's story. This design idea was resulted from environmental and ecological degradation, and the erosion of spiritual connections with the land.

Most of the projects have only one purpose: they are planned for recreation that ignores natural system usually or planned for protection. However, ERD is a multifunctional design that reveals natural systems and meets the cultural and ecological needs of human systems. By revealing natural systems earn people consciousness attention, and care for their environment. The basis for ERD is to create a landscape that is ecologically as well as culturally sustainable. It provides people educational and recreational opportunities.

The technology and the conditions of life break people's connections with nature. Landscape architecture can play a major role in the mission to bring together again nature and people and reveal the ecological processes by design.

## **Author details**

Nurgül Konakl Arsoy *Selçuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

## **17. References**


information [1].

**Author details** 

**17. References** 

Nurgül Konakl Arsoy

land.

The *Eco-Revelatory Design Exhibit*, summarized in the 1998 special issue of *Landscape Journal*  [1], clearly articulates an open challenge for landscape architects to work as environmental

Explaining this new philosophy as distinctly different and complementary to ecological design, a more technical approach for designing with natural processes, ERD reveals the significant ecological aspects of a site and helps visitors build meaning and connection between the landscape and their own lives. In this sense, eco-revelatory designs are educative landscapes, pushing their visitors to think, gain perspective, and internalize new

ERD serves as a lens for reading the landscape's story. This design idea was resulted from environmental and ecological degradation, and the erosion of spiritual connections with the

Most of the projects have only one purpose: they are planned for recreation that ignores natural system usually or planned for protection. However, ERD is a multifunctional design that reveals natural systems and meets the cultural and ecological needs of human systems. By revealing natural systems earn people consciousness attention, and care for their environment. The basis for ERD is to create a landscape that is ecologically as well as

The technology and the conditions of life break people's connections with nature. Landscape architecture can play a major role in the mission to bring together again nature and people

[1] Brown B Harkness T Johnston D. Eco-Revelatory Design: Nature Constructed/Nature Revealed: Guest Editors' Introduction. Landscape Journal. 1998 Special Issue: x–xi. [2] Eisenstein W. Ecological design, urban places and the culture of sustainability: Can citybuilding foster a culture of sustainability? Retrieved 8/23/2009, from SPUR. 2001.

[5] Cox Von Ins R E. Desgnng for Interpretaton: Nanny's Mountan Park, Master Of Landscape Archtecture. Maureen Grasso Dean of the Graduate School The University

culturally sustainable. It provides people educational and recreational opportunities.

*Selçuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

http://www.spur.org/publications/library/article/ecologicaldesign09012001 [3] Brown B. Holding moving landscapes. Landscape Journal 1998 (Special issue):53-68. [4] Ndubisi F.. Ecological planning: a historical and comparative synthesis. Johns Hopkins

and reveal the ecological processes by design.

University Press, Baltimore; 2002

of Georgia , Athens; 2006.

educators and to help heal the relationship between society and natural systems.

	- [27] Lyle J T. Regenerative Design for Sustainable Development. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1994

**Chapter 9** 

© 2013 Özdemir, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Designing Landscapes for Child Health** 

Childhood obesity has reached epidemic proportions and is a major public health problem globally (Ebbeling et al., 2002; Pate et al., 2008), which causes many serious health-related problems (van Emmerik et al., 2012; Daniels et al., 2005; Din-Dzietham et al., 2007; Lorch and Sharkey, 2007) such as coronary heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis (Sallis and Owen 1999; Pate et al. 1995; Hume et al. 2005; Raitakari et al., 1997; Teixeira et al., 2001; Bailey, 1995; Berenson, 1986; Van Mechelen et al., 2000), sleep apnea syndrome (Wabitsch, 2000) and psychological problems (Dietz, 1998; Daniels, 2006). Obesity is caused by a higher energy intake than energy expenditure, resulting in excessive weight gain (Koezuka et al., 2006). Theory implies that energy balance is maintained by energy expenditure, and physical activity helps to improve energy expenditure resulting weight loss (Weinsier et al., 1998; Lambert and Goedecke, 2004; Chaput et al., 2011). Physical activity helps to improve metabolic profile, muscular and bone health (Anderson and Butcher, 2006; Ekelund et al., 2008; Hind and Burrows, 2007; Biddle et al., 1998), mental health and academic performance (Singh et al., 2012; Strong et al., 2005). For a healthy living, it is recommended that children should participate to at least 60 min/day of physical activity and include vigorous physical activity at least 3 days/week (Strong et al., 2008). Daily walking is a useful activity for healthy living (Shultz et al., 2011) and children should accumulate at least 12.000 steps per

Environmental factors, which discourage energy expenditure and thus limit the availability of facilities for physical activity, have potential to influence body weight and healthy behavior (Lachowycz and Jones, 2011; Feng et al., 2010; Papas et al., 2007; Sallis et al., 2000). Studies reported a positive relationship between access to greenspaces and physical activity (Lachowycz and Jones, 2011; Kaczynski and Henderson, 2007; Kaczynski et al., 2008). Increased vegetation was associated with reduced weight among children (Liu et al., 2007) and neighborhood greenness influenced less weight gain in children (Bell et al., 2008). Promoting physical activity among children, therefore, should be a public health priority,

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

day to maintain a healthy weight (Tudor-Locke et al., 2011).

Aydın Özdemir

**1. Introduction** 

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55762

## **Designing Landscapes for Child Health**

## Aydın Özdemir

226 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Sons; 1994

[27] Lyle J T. Regenerative Design for Sustainable Development. New York: John Wiley &

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55762

## **1. Introduction**

Childhood obesity has reached epidemic proportions and is a major public health problem globally (Ebbeling et al., 2002; Pate et al., 2008), which causes many serious health-related problems (van Emmerik et al., 2012; Daniels et al., 2005; Din-Dzietham et al., 2007; Lorch and Sharkey, 2007) such as coronary heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis (Sallis and Owen 1999; Pate et al. 1995; Hume et al. 2005; Raitakari et al., 1997; Teixeira et al., 2001; Bailey, 1995; Berenson, 1986; Van Mechelen et al., 2000), sleep apnea syndrome (Wabitsch, 2000) and psychological problems (Dietz, 1998; Daniels, 2006). Obesity is caused by a higher energy intake than energy expenditure, resulting in excessive weight gain (Koezuka et al., 2006). Theory implies that energy balance is maintained by energy expenditure, and physical activity helps to improve energy expenditure resulting weight loss (Weinsier et al., 1998; Lambert and Goedecke, 2004; Chaput et al., 2011). Physical activity helps to improve metabolic profile, muscular and bone health (Anderson and Butcher, 2006; Ekelund et al., 2008; Hind and Burrows, 2007; Biddle et al., 1998), mental health and academic performance (Singh et al., 2012; Strong et al., 2005). For a healthy living, it is recommended that children should participate to at least 60 min/day of physical activity and include vigorous physical activity at least 3 days/week (Strong et al., 2008). Daily walking is a useful activity for healthy living (Shultz et al., 2011) and children should accumulate at least 12.000 steps per day to maintain a healthy weight (Tudor-Locke et al., 2011).

Environmental factors, which discourage energy expenditure and thus limit the availability of facilities for physical activity, have potential to influence body weight and healthy behavior (Lachowycz and Jones, 2011; Feng et al., 2010; Papas et al., 2007; Sallis et al., 2000). Studies reported a positive relationship between access to greenspaces and physical activity (Lachowycz and Jones, 2011; Kaczynski and Henderson, 2007; Kaczynski et al., 2008). Increased vegetation was associated with reduced weight among children (Liu et al., 2007) and neighborhood greenness influenced less weight gain in children (Bell et al., 2008). Promoting physical activity among children, therefore, should be a public health priority,

© 2013 Özdemir, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and studies should focus on the determinants of the environmental variables of physical activity.

Designing Landscapes for Child Health 229

long-term health outcomes: decrease in obesity, increase in physical activity, and decrease in serious health problems. Several studies have linked urban green space to fewer health complaints (Maas et al., 2009; Takano et al., 2002; Mitchell and Popham, 2008; Richardson and Mitchell, 2010; Mitchell et al., 2011). Based on these numerous health outcomes, planning and

Research on the determinants of potential environmental variables of physical activity is a growing trend (Carnegie et al., 2002; Sallis et al., 1990; Brug et al., 2005; Humpel et al., 2002; Owen et al., 2004; Trost et al., 2002; Saelens et al., 2003; Cunningham and Michael 2004; Wendel-Vos et al., 2007). Despite extensive research, the determinants of physical activity are not fully understood (Dishman and Sallis, 1994; Sallis and Owen, 1997; Vita and Owen, 1995). In order to promote planned and systematic physical activity among children, the key issue should be to gain insight into environmental factors that facilitate or obstruct physical

The social model of health conceptualizes health in environmental and social rather than just physical or individual terms (Figure 2). Research on the determinants of healthy child development showed that studies should include a mix of social and environmental factors—income, education, health and everyday environments—and all levels of society (Bonnefoy, et al., 2007). Healthy children will be those who are enabled to satisfy their needs and change, and cope with the urban environment (Davis and Jones, 1996; Black and Krishnakumar, 1998). However there is no systematic analysis of health effects of environments (Davis and Jones, 1996). Physical activity researchers, on the other hand, have not seriously addressed how the wider social and physical environment influences

design decisions should take into consideration these public health impacts.

activity among children (Baranowski and Jago, 2005; Wendel-Vos et al., 2004).

**Figure 2.** Factors influencing physical activity in communities (Adapted from Dahlgren and

**1.1. Environmental characteristics and health outcomes** 

children's play and mobility.

Whitehead, 1991).

Previous reviews found associations between aesthetic attributes of the physical environment with physical activity (Sallis and Owen, 1999; Sallis et al., 1998; Owen et al., 2000; Humpel et al., 2002). Models developed from such research help to explain environment-behavior relationships that can play a key role in linking research, policy and practice. In this context, there is a need for high-quality empirical evidence supporting environmental influences on health (Humpel et al., 2002) and an understanding of how these environmental attributes are related to promoting more physical activity.

Within the extant literature there are many models and theories which help to conceptualize a potential way of mapping ecological, social and biological frameworks. Ecological model implies that behavior is influenced by the environmental factors, and changes in the environment—positive or negative—will have effects on health (McLeroy et al., 1988). The evidence shows that the built environment—the office environments (Chao et al., 2003), healing environments such as hospitals and day care centers (Whitehouse et al., 2001; Cooper-Marcus and Barnes, 1999), school buildings (Cradock, et al., 2007; Everett Jones et al., 2003), outdoor school environments (Rivkin, 1997; Dyment et al., 2009; Dyment and Bell, 2007; Tranter and Malone, 2004; Brink et al., 2010; Özdemir and Ylmaz, 2008), housing and home environments (Shaw, 2004; Wigle, 2003; Evans et al., 2003; Saegert, 1982), recreation facilities and access to green spaces (Wells and Evans, 2003; Maller et al., 2006; Stigsdotter et al., 2010; Sugiyama et al., 2008), greening vacant urban space (Branas et al., 2011), the design of neighborhoods (Wells and Yang, 2008) and store locations (Holsten, 2009)—will affect health and well-being of users.

**Figure 1.** Model of environment health relation (Adapted from Pikora et al., 2003).

Established links between health and environment suggest that individual, social and physical environmental factors are related to behavioral intention, thus, shape our way of activities (Figure 1). As a result, improvements in the physical environment might lead to a number of long-term health outcomes: decrease in obesity, increase in physical activity, and decrease in serious health problems. Several studies have linked urban green space to fewer health complaints (Maas et al., 2009; Takano et al., 2002; Mitchell and Popham, 2008; Richardson and Mitchell, 2010; Mitchell et al., 2011). Based on these numerous health outcomes, planning and design decisions should take into consideration these public health impacts.

## **1.1. Environmental characteristics and health outcomes**

228 Advances in Landscape Architecture

health and well-being of users.

activity.

and studies should focus on the determinants of the environmental variables of physical

Previous reviews found associations between aesthetic attributes of the physical environment with physical activity (Sallis and Owen, 1999; Sallis et al., 1998; Owen et al., 2000; Humpel et al., 2002). Models developed from such research help to explain environment-behavior relationships that can play a key role in linking research, policy and practice. In this context, there is a need for high-quality empirical evidence supporting environmental influences on health (Humpel et al., 2002) and an understanding of how

Within the extant literature there are many models and theories which help to conceptualize a potential way of mapping ecological, social and biological frameworks. Ecological model implies that behavior is influenced by the environmental factors, and changes in the environment—positive or negative—will have effects on health (McLeroy et al., 1988). The evidence shows that the built environment—the office environments (Chao et al., 2003), healing environments such as hospitals and day care centers (Whitehouse et al., 2001; Cooper-Marcus and Barnes, 1999), school buildings (Cradock, et al., 2007; Everett Jones et al., 2003), outdoor school environments (Rivkin, 1997; Dyment et al., 2009; Dyment and Bell, 2007; Tranter and Malone, 2004; Brink et al., 2010; Özdemir and Ylmaz, 2008), housing and home environments (Shaw, 2004; Wigle, 2003; Evans et al., 2003; Saegert, 1982), recreation facilities and access to green spaces (Wells and Evans, 2003; Maller et al., 2006; Stigsdotter et al., 2010; Sugiyama et al., 2008), greening vacant urban space (Branas et al., 2011), the design of neighborhoods (Wells and Yang, 2008) and store locations (Holsten, 2009)—will affect

these environmental attributes are related to promoting more physical activity.

**Figure 1.** Model of environment health relation (Adapted from Pikora et al., 2003).

Established links between health and environment suggest that individual, social and physical environmental factors are related to behavioral intention, thus, shape our way of activities (Figure 1). As a result, improvements in the physical environment might lead to a number of Research on the determinants of potential environmental variables of physical activity is a growing trend (Carnegie et al., 2002; Sallis et al., 1990; Brug et al., 2005; Humpel et al., 2002; Owen et al., 2004; Trost et al., 2002; Saelens et al., 2003; Cunningham and Michael 2004; Wendel-Vos et al., 2007). Despite extensive research, the determinants of physical activity are not fully understood (Dishman and Sallis, 1994; Sallis and Owen, 1997; Vita and Owen, 1995). In order to promote planned and systematic physical activity among children, the key issue should be to gain insight into environmental factors that facilitate or obstruct physical activity among children (Baranowski and Jago, 2005; Wendel-Vos et al., 2004).

The social model of health conceptualizes health in environmental and social rather than just physical or individual terms (Figure 2). Research on the determinants of healthy child development showed that studies should include a mix of social and environmental factors—income, education, health and everyday environments—and all levels of society (Bonnefoy, et al., 2007). Healthy children will be those who are enabled to satisfy their needs and change, and cope with the urban environment (Davis and Jones, 1996; Black and Krishnakumar, 1998). However there is no systematic analysis of health effects of environments (Davis and Jones, 1996). Physical activity researchers, on the other hand, have not seriously addressed how the wider social and physical environment influences children's play and mobility.

**Figure 2.** Factors influencing physical activity in communities (Adapted from Dahlgren and Whitehead, 1991).

## **1.2. Outdoor school environments and health outcomes**

Despite the fact that most physical activity by children is undertaken outside of the school building (Sallis et al., 1993; Vicent and Pangrazi, 2002), schools have not been recognized as key settings both to promote and to contribute to physical activity guidelines (Zimring et al., 2005; Zask et al., 2001; Iverson et al., 1985; Biddle et al., 1998) because children spend a large proportion of their time there (Biddle et al., 1998; Iverson et al., 1985).

Designing Landscapes for Child Health 231

Schofield, 2005; Handy et al., 2002), which in turn enhance energy expenditure. Environmental factors are influential in type and frequency of activity, such as climate of the region, terrains, neighborhood and traffic safety, and parents' perceptions of their children's activities outdoors (Saelens et al., 2003; Leslie et al., 2005). Sociocultural background (Flavia et al., 2010; Fredriks, 2005) and neighborhood characteristics are effective in obesity prevention; children in deprived neighborhoods are more likely to be overweight (deJong et al., 2011; Janssen et al., 2006; Lackshman et al., 2010; Veugelers and Fitzgerald, 2005). Several reviews indicate that people with low income are more likely to live in poor quality built environments, and this contributes to poor health (Lavin et al., 2006; Sallis et al., 2009). Parents in lower income neighborhoods reported the highest rates of unpleasant walking environments (van Lenthe et al., 2005). Neighborhood violent crime may be a significant environmental barrier to outdoor physical activity for urban dwelling (Bennett et al., 2007;

Studies reported a positive relationship between access to greenspaces and physical activity (Kaczynski and Henderson, 2007; Lachowycz and Jones, 2011; Lee and Maheswaran, 2010). Children living in neighborhoods with playgrounds, parks and other recreational facilities engage in more physical activities and are less likely to be obese (Veugelers et al., 2008; Gordon-Larsen et al., 2006). Increased vegetation was associated with reduced weight among children (Liu et al., 2007) and neighborhood greenness influenced less weight gain in children (Kaczynski and Henderson, 2007; Roemmich et al., 2006; Bell et al., 2008). Park playgrounds were influential in reduced BMI values in children (Potwarka et al., 2008). A cross-sectional survey of adults in 8 European cities found that people in the greenest areas are less likely to be obese (Ellaway et al., 2005). Parents complained about the heavy traffic streets and the absence of a park nearby, which limited their children's play outside. Additionally, some parents indicated that their children never play outside of their home,

The assessment techniques of physical activity can be grouped into two categories: subjective and objective. Subjective techniques include observations, questionnaires, interviews, physical activity logs and activity diaries. Objective techniques include physiological indices such as heart rate monitoring and electronic motion sensors (accelerometry, pedometer measurements), and tracking movement with Global Positioning

Assessment of children's physical activity levels is a research-priority (Trost et al., 2000) and several tools have been developed for this assessment (Welk, 2002; Ekelund et al., 2001). The most common technique is the subjectively measurement of child physical activity by survey techniques with self-reports (Loprinzi and Cardinal, 2011). Sallis et al. (2002) discussed self-report techniques that are defined as inexpensive and easy to administer.

even during the weekend due to the lack of nearby park (Aarts et al., 2012).

**1.4. Measurement techniques of physical activity** 

Gomez, 2004).

Systems (GPS).

*1.4.1. Subjective assessments* 

School environments and policies have been studied for their effects on healthy behavior and obesity prevention (Trudeau and Shepherd, 2005; Story et al., 2006; Wechsler et al., 2000). Additionally, school building and campus characteristics have been associated with objective measures of physical activity (Cradock et al., 2007). Effects of school recess time (Ridgers et al., 2006), type and size of space and fixed outdoor equipments (Sallis et al., 2001), school size and available number of balls (Zask et al., 2001), size of schoolyards (Özdemir and Ylmaz, 2008), the provision of extra equipment (Sallis et al., 2003; Verstraete et al., 2006), school ground paintings (Stratton and Mullan, 2005; Ridgers et al., 2007) and school environment improvements (Haug et al., 2010) have been found to be associated with physical activity. Past studies concentrated on environmental influences on health outcomes, however, found limited and ambiguous results (Ferreira et al., 2007; Davison and Lawson, 2006). Children were found to be healthier in large schoolyards (Özdemir and Ylmaz, 2008); however, children were more active in small schoolyards (Özdemir and Çorakç, 2010). Additionally, limited outdoor play time and short recess were associated with a higher body mass index levels in young children (Ernst and Pangrazi, 1999; Alhassan et al., 2007; Ridgers et al., 2006).

Access to urban parks and recreational facilities, schoolyard renovations, type and quality of play spaces have been studied for their effects on increased physical activity in children (Sallis et al., 2009; Stucky-Ropp and DiLorenzo, 1993; Sallis et al., 1993). Some studies reported a significant association between active commuting to school and weight status (Faulkner et al., 2009; Lee et al., 2008; Lee and Tudor-Locke, 2005; Heelan et al., 2005; Pabayo et al., 2011; Rosenberg, et al., 2006; Mendoza et al., 2011), and children who actively commute to school are healthier than passive commuters (Heelan et al., 2005; Özdemir and Ylmaz, 2008; Lee and Tudor-Locke, 2005). In a comparison between cycling and non-cycling children, after 6 years of observations, children who cycle to school were found healthier (Cooper et al., 2008).

In order to develop school-based interventions, it is crucial to better understand the ways by which the school environment may promote or inhibit children's physical activity (van Sluijs et al., 2012). For a sustainable and a successful transition of school grounds from a conventional asphalt surface to a natural educational setting, outdoor school environments need to be conducive to health promotion with an integrated and a participatory approach.

## **1.3. Neighborhood characteristics and health outcomes**

Active behaviors should be promoted with city planning and infrastructure by creating safe and accessible urban environments (Lopez and Hynes, 2006; Frank et al., 2005; Badland and Schofield, 2005; Handy et al., 2002), which in turn enhance energy expenditure. Environmental factors are influential in type and frequency of activity, such as climate of the region, terrains, neighborhood and traffic safety, and parents' perceptions of their children's activities outdoors (Saelens et al., 2003; Leslie et al., 2005). Sociocultural background (Flavia et al., 2010; Fredriks, 2005) and neighborhood characteristics are effective in obesity prevention; children in deprived neighborhoods are more likely to be overweight (deJong et al., 2011; Janssen et al., 2006; Lackshman et al., 2010; Veugelers and Fitzgerald, 2005). Several reviews indicate that people with low income are more likely to live in poor quality built environments, and this contributes to poor health (Lavin et al., 2006; Sallis et al., 2009). Parents in lower income neighborhoods reported the highest rates of unpleasant walking environments (van Lenthe et al., 2005). Neighborhood violent crime may be a significant environmental barrier to outdoor physical activity for urban dwelling (Bennett et al., 2007; Gomez, 2004).

Studies reported a positive relationship between access to greenspaces and physical activity (Kaczynski and Henderson, 2007; Lachowycz and Jones, 2011; Lee and Maheswaran, 2010). Children living in neighborhoods with playgrounds, parks and other recreational facilities engage in more physical activities and are less likely to be obese (Veugelers et al., 2008; Gordon-Larsen et al., 2006). Increased vegetation was associated with reduced weight among children (Liu et al., 2007) and neighborhood greenness influenced less weight gain in children (Kaczynski and Henderson, 2007; Roemmich et al., 2006; Bell et al., 2008). Park playgrounds were influential in reduced BMI values in children (Potwarka et al., 2008). A cross-sectional survey of adults in 8 European cities found that people in the greenest areas are less likely to be obese (Ellaway et al., 2005). Parents complained about the heavy traffic streets and the absence of a park nearby, which limited their children's play outside. Additionally, some parents indicated that their children never play outside of their home, even during the weekend due to the lack of nearby park (Aarts et al., 2012).

## **1.4. Measurement techniques of physical activity**

The assessment techniques of physical activity can be grouped into two categories: subjective and objective. Subjective techniques include observations, questionnaires, interviews, physical activity logs and activity diaries. Objective techniques include physiological indices such as heart rate monitoring and electronic motion sensors (accelerometry, pedometer measurements), and tracking movement with Global Positioning Systems (GPS).

## *1.4.1. Subjective assessments*

230 Advances in Landscape Architecture

et al., 2007; Ridgers et al., 2006).

(Cooper et al., 2008).

**1.2. Outdoor school environments and health outcomes** 

proportion of their time there (Biddle et al., 1998; Iverson et al., 1985).

Despite the fact that most physical activity by children is undertaken outside of the school building (Sallis et al., 1993; Vicent and Pangrazi, 2002), schools have not been recognized as key settings both to promote and to contribute to physical activity guidelines (Zimring et al., 2005; Zask et al., 2001; Iverson et al., 1985; Biddle et al., 1998) because children spend a large

School environments and policies have been studied for their effects on healthy behavior and obesity prevention (Trudeau and Shepherd, 2005; Story et al., 2006; Wechsler et al., 2000). Additionally, school building and campus characteristics have been associated with objective measures of physical activity (Cradock et al., 2007). Effects of school recess time (Ridgers et al., 2006), type and size of space and fixed outdoor equipments (Sallis et al., 2001), school size and available number of balls (Zask et al., 2001), size of schoolyards (Özdemir and Ylmaz, 2008), the provision of extra equipment (Sallis et al., 2003; Verstraete et al., 2006), school ground paintings (Stratton and Mullan, 2005; Ridgers et al., 2007) and school environment improvements (Haug et al., 2010) have been found to be associated with physical activity. Past studies concentrated on environmental influences on health outcomes, however, found limited and ambiguous results (Ferreira et al., 2007; Davison and Lawson, 2006). Children were found to be healthier in large schoolyards (Özdemir and Ylmaz, 2008); however, children were more active in small schoolyards (Özdemir and Çorakç, 2010). Additionally, limited outdoor play time and short recess were associated with a higher body mass index levels in young children (Ernst and Pangrazi, 1999; Alhassan

Access to urban parks and recreational facilities, schoolyard renovations, type and quality of play spaces have been studied for their effects on increased physical activity in children (Sallis et al., 2009; Stucky-Ropp and DiLorenzo, 1993; Sallis et al., 1993). Some studies reported a significant association between active commuting to school and weight status (Faulkner et al., 2009; Lee et al., 2008; Lee and Tudor-Locke, 2005; Heelan et al., 2005; Pabayo et al., 2011; Rosenberg, et al., 2006; Mendoza et al., 2011), and children who actively commute to school are healthier than passive commuters (Heelan et al., 2005; Özdemir and Ylmaz, 2008; Lee and Tudor-Locke, 2005). In a comparison between cycling and non-cycling children, after 6 years of observations, children who cycle to school were found healthier

In order to develop school-based interventions, it is crucial to better understand the ways by which the school environment may promote or inhibit children's physical activity (van Sluijs et al., 2012). For a sustainable and a successful transition of school grounds from a conventional asphalt surface to a natural educational setting, outdoor school environments need to be conducive to health promotion with an integrated and a participatory approach.

Active behaviors should be promoted with city planning and infrastructure by creating safe and accessible urban environments (Lopez and Hynes, 2006; Frank et al., 2005; Badland and

**1.3. Neighborhood characteristics and health outcomes** 

Assessment of children's physical activity levels is a research-priority (Trost et al., 2000) and several tools have been developed for this assessment (Welk, 2002; Ekelund et al., 2001). The most common technique is the subjectively measurement of child physical activity by survey techniques with self-reports (Loprinzi and Cardinal, 2011). Sallis et al. (2002) discussed self-report techniques that are defined as inexpensive and easy to administer.

However, accuracy and reliability of self-report data are discussed, since young children may have difficulties in recalling their activity behaviors (Pate et al., 1995; Welk et al., 2000; Affuso et al., 2011), which calls for a response bias that affect the quality of data (Klesges et al., 2004).

Designing Landscapes for Child Health 233

compare descriptive data (steps per day) for specific age groups, cultures and environmental contexts (Whitt et al., 2004). However, they fail to capture data of seated activity (Berlin et al., 2006) and they only measure horizontal activities such as walking and

Accelerometers are also useful, reliable and valid tools with motion sensors to assess the intensity, frequency, pattern and duration of activity, which is an advantage over the pedometers (Berlin et al., 2006). Data collected by these devices should be processed on a computer. Research that included pedometer measurements found that obese children have lower pedometer counts than non-obese children (Tudor-Locke and Bassett, 2004; Eisenmann et al., 2007; Al-Hazzaa, 2007). Tudor-Locke and Bassett (2004) proposed a system used to classify healthy adults based on their activity levels: <5,000 steps a day for sedentary lifestyle, 5,000 to 7,499 steps a day for low activity, 7,500 to 9,999 steps a day for somewhat active, 10,000 to 12,499 steps a day for active, and >12,500 steps a day for highly active.

Heart rate (HR) monitoring is an objective, inexpensive and unobtrusive assessment tool providing indirect, intensity and duration data of physical activity among children (Loprinzi and Cardinal, 2011). HR monitoring provides information about total energy expenditure and about the amount of time spent in high-intensity activity (Ainslie et al., 2003). This tool has provided a valid and reliable objective estimate of physical activity (Rowlands and Eston, 2007) however, the link between heart rate measurements and energy expenditure is not as strong as other objective techniques (Trost et al., 2001). Heart rate can be measured easily with monitors attached to the wrists and the beltline. The resting and maximal heart rate is compared to gauge exercise and activity intensity. According to the American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand (1998), physical activity intensity according to frequency of heart rate is calculated for practical purposes as shown in Table 1

% Heart rate reserve Rating of perceived exertion

**Intensity descriptor Relative Intensity**

\*Adapted from American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand (1998). **Table 1.** Physical activity intensity according to frequency of heart rate

Very light < 20 < 10 Light 20-39 10-11 Moderate 40-59 12-13 Vigorous 60-84 14-16 Very vigorous > 85 17-19

Heart rate also has a significant relationship with energy expenditure and has been widely used in studies of physical activity in children (Eston et al., 1998; Spurr et al., 1988; Ceesay et al., 1989; Livingstone et al., 1992). HR monitoring reports much lower levels of physical activity and is based on small sample groups (Livingstone et al., 2003). However there are a

running.

**Heart rate monitoring** 

below:

Some studies included parental reports of their children's height and weight (Hinkley et al., 2008; Oliver et al., 2007; Eiser and Morse, 2001), which are often inaccurate (Rowland, 1990). Indirect subjective measures such as parent and teacher questionnaires were also administered to assess child physical activity (Oliver et al., 2007) and health related quality of life (Eiser et al., 2000).

The evaluation of the children's perception of the environment and its effect on behavior should be provided by multi-method approach. Focus groups are useful techniques in research with children (Hoppe et al., 1995; Morgan et al., 2002; O'Dea, 2003; Vaughn et al., 1996), and discussing topics in groups in schools is an appropriate method to gain insight into child views on several topics. Focus group method has been used for providing data which are deeper, more qualified and appropriate to the purpose of the research. Focus group is one of the rapid scanning methods which provide qualitative information in a short time. It is generally realized with 10-12 participants. The moderator provides the different/same opinion, comment or information to occur via questions which help to discuss. It is one of the most frequently used information gathering methods, because it provides convenience to reach different information in a short time, enables the flexible, unexpected and unknown findings to occur, catches extreme points and is cost-effective (Babbie, 2006; Debus, 1990; Engelbrektsson, 2002; Krueger and King, 1998; Krueger and Casey, 2000).

## *1.4.2. Objective measurements*

Direct measures with objective tools such as accelerometers, pedometers, heart-rate monitoring (Oliver et al., 2007; Sirard and Pate, 2001; Trost et al., 2000) and GPS techniques can be used to monitor, measure and assess childhood physical activity. The use of these tools reduces the bias commonly associated with self-report measures. The objective assessment with measurement tools has high practical utility, high reliability and high validity relative to subjective measurements (King et al., 2011; Corder et al., 2008).

#### **Pedometers and accelerometers**

Accelerometer-based devices provide valid and objective information on physical activity with several outputs such as calories and fat burnt during a period of time, time spent in moderate and vigorous activity, distance walked and total step counts (Bassett and John, 2010). They are battery-operated devices that are attached to the wrists or ankles of the subjects to measure the number of steps during activities. Pedometers enable translating physical activity recommendations into pedometer-based step goals and commonly used in research with children (Pate et al., 2010; Mitre et al., 2009; Marshall et al., 2009; Tudor-Locke et al., 2011; Tudor-Locke and Bassett, 2004). They are widely used in medical research to compare descriptive data (steps per day) for specific age groups, cultures and environmental contexts (Whitt et al., 2004). However, they fail to capture data of seated activity (Berlin et al., 2006) and they only measure horizontal activities such as walking and running.

Accelerometers are also useful, reliable and valid tools with motion sensors to assess the intensity, frequency, pattern and duration of activity, which is an advantage over the pedometers (Berlin et al., 2006). Data collected by these devices should be processed on a computer. Research that included pedometer measurements found that obese children have lower pedometer counts than non-obese children (Tudor-Locke and Bassett, 2004; Eisenmann et al., 2007; Al-Hazzaa, 2007). Tudor-Locke and Bassett (2004) proposed a system used to classify healthy adults based on their activity levels: <5,000 steps a day for sedentary lifestyle, 5,000 to 7,499 steps a day for low activity, 7,500 to 9,999 steps a day for somewhat active, 10,000 to 12,499 steps a day for active, and >12,500 steps a day for highly active.

#### **Heart rate monitoring**

232 Advances in Landscape Architecture

of life (Eiser et al., 2000).

al., 2004).

Casey, 2000).

*1.4.2. Objective measurements* 

**Pedometers and accelerometers** 

However, accuracy and reliability of self-report data are discussed, since young children may have difficulties in recalling their activity behaviors (Pate et al., 1995; Welk et al., 2000; Affuso et al., 2011), which calls for a response bias that affect the quality of data (Klesges et

Some studies included parental reports of their children's height and weight (Hinkley et al., 2008; Oliver et al., 2007; Eiser and Morse, 2001), which are often inaccurate (Rowland, 1990). Indirect subjective measures such as parent and teacher questionnaires were also administered to assess child physical activity (Oliver et al., 2007) and health related quality

The evaluation of the children's perception of the environment and its effect on behavior should be provided by multi-method approach. Focus groups are useful techniques in research with children (Hoppe et al., 1995; Morgan et al., 2002; O'Dea, 2003; Vaughn et al., 1996), and discussing topics in groups in schools is an appropriate method to gain insight into child views on several topics. Focus group method has been used for providing data which are deeper, more qualified and appropriate to the purpose of the research. Focus group is one of the rapid scanning methods which provide qualitative information in a short time. It is generally realized with 10-12 participants. The moderator provides the different/same opinion, comment or information to occur via questions which help to discuss. It is one of the most frequently used information gathering methods, because it provides convenience to reach different information in a short time, enables the flexible, unexpected and unknown findings to occur, catches extreme points and is cost-effective (Babbie, 2006; Debus, 1990; Engelbrektsson, 2002; Krueger and King, 1998; Krueger and

Direct measures with objective tools such as accelerometers, pedometers, heart-rate monitoring (Oliver et al., 2007; Sirard and Pate, 2001; Trost et al., 2000) and GPS techniques can be used to monitor, measure and assess childhood physical activity. The use of these tools reduces the bias commonly associated with self-report measures. The objective assessment with measurement tools has high practical utility, high reliability and high

Accelerometer-based devices provide valid and objective information on physical activity with several outputs such as calories and fat burnt during a period of time, time spent in moderate and vigorous activity, distance walked and total step counts (Bassett and John, 2010). They are battery-operated devices that are attached to the wrists or ankles of the subjects to measure the number of steps during activities. Pedometers enable translating physical activity recommendations into pedometer-based step goals and commonly used in research with children (Pate et al., 2010; Mitre et al., 2009; Marshall et al., 2009; Tudor-Locke et al., 2011; Tudor-Locke and Bassett, 2004). They are widely used in medical research to

validity relative to subjective measurements (King et al., 2011; Corder et al., 2008).

Heart rate (HR) monitoring is an objective, inexpensive and unobtrusive assessment tool providing indirect, intensity and duration data of physical activity among children (Loprinzi and Cardinal, 2011). HR monitoring provides information about total energy expenditure and about the amount of time spent in high-intensity activity (Ainslie et al., 2003). This tool has provided a valid and reliable objective estimate of physical activity (Rowlands and Eston, 2007) however, the link between heart rate measurements and energy expenditure is not as strong as other objective techniques (Trost et al., 2001). Heart rate can be measured easily with monitors attached to the wrists and the beltline. The resting and maximal heart rate is compared to gauge exercise and activity intensity. According to the American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand (1998), physical activity intensity according to frequency of heart rate is calculated for practical purposes as shown in Table 1 below:


\*Adapted from American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand (1998).

**Table 1.** Physical activity intensity according to frequency of heart rate

Heart rate also has a significant relationship with energy expenditure and has been widely used in studies of physical activity in children (Eston et al., 1998; Spurr et al., 1988; Ceesay et al., 1989; Livingstone et al., 1992). HR monitoring reports much lower levels of physical activity and is based on small sample groups (Livingstone et al., 2003). However there are a number of limitations to the use of this technique (Armstrong and Welsman, 2006; Rowlands et al., 1997). Since HR is influenced not only by physical activity, reliability of this measurement is questionable. A child with low levels of physical activity may have high heart rates due to the influence of other parameters such as emotional stress, anxiety, hydration and environment (Armstrong and Welsman, 2006; Rowlands et al., 1997). In this respect, heart rate monitoring should be considered to measure moderate to vigorous physical activity, and heart rates below 120bpm would be considered to be valid measures of physical activity.

Designing Landscapes for Child Health 235

technique; the method of photography did not include children's talk about their taken pictures and the reasons of taking those pictures. Children took pictures and we defined and

**2. Schoolyard design to promote physical activity: An exploratory study** 

This study aims to assess outdoor school environments for their possible association with healthy behavior of children. For this purpose, children's total step counts were associated with the schoolyard size and 1115 students in 4 primary schools were surveyed. The aim of the project is to examine whether size and design of the outdoor school environments affect child physical activity. In addition, gender and age were selected to be variables to

A random stratified sampling of primary schools from various districts of the city was used to represent a cross-section of the population. The schools, which have the adequate open space for the renewal projects, are located in different districts in terms of socio-culture and economy, have different numbers of students and need their schoolyards to be renewed, have been selected from a list of elementary schools provided from the Provincial

For each schoolyard, ordinal categories were used as being applied for the classification of landscape quality. Aerial images and photo surveys were used to assess outdoor school environments; total area, usable area, landscaped-vegetated areas and hard surfaces were measured. The reliability tests of these measurements showed that both measurements on aerial images and hand measurements of a selected schoolyard gave specific and similar results. The photographs describe a variety of outdoor settings suggesting the need for a more spacious space per student after the calculation of the open space standards for school population for each case. Outdoor environments and the adjacent areas were assessed with respect to physical and landscape qualities (i.e. vegetation, material, size). A group of reviewers, which includes landscape architects and architects, reviewed the photographs and scored the schoolyards based on the features such as size, material, vegetation cover, vegetation quality, maintenance and spaciousness. Environments with low physical

discussed them as adults.

determine their relation to physical activity.

Directorate for National Education (Table 2).

**District School**

*2.1.1. Defining landscape characteristics of schoolyards* 

qualities scored 1. Environments with advanced features scored 2.

Çankaya Kavakldere Primary School Mamak Çocuk Sevenler Primary School Keçiören Kamil Ocak Primary School Akyurt TOKİ Primary School **Table 2.** The primary schools subject to the research and their districts

**2.1. Methodology** 

#### **GIS/GPS Tools**

Transportation, urban design and planning studies include Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to support the hypothesis that neighborhood environment is associated with physical activity in the form of walking and biking for transport (Frumkin, 2002; Saelens et al., 2003). GIS tools have been used to describe the associations between objective measures of the built environment and walking and transportation activity (McGinn et al., 2007). In the public health literature, the relationship between the built environment and physical activity was assessed by measuring the frequency, intensity and duration of activity. In such studies, objective measures of the environment were collected and mapped using GIS tools (McGinn et al., 2007). Global positioning system (GPS) is also used to track areas in a settlement or a space in a district where physical activity is promoted (Wheeler et al., 2010; Fjörtoft et al., 2009; Fjörtoft et al., 2010). GPS system was used to record children's movement patterns, which was transferred to GIS systems for further analysis (Fjörtoft et al., 2009; Fjörtoft et al., 2010). The purpose of the studies using GPS tools is to describe the interaction between environment and physical activity; based on the GPS data, designers explore and determine how space may interact with physical activity in children. However, GPS devices fail to record position indoors, under heavy tree canopy and in dense urban areas (Maddison and Ni Mhurchu, 2009) and they have limited accuracy in sensing stationary device location (Chen et al., 2012).

#### **Photography**

Studies of children's geography and social behavior concluded that children's physical activity and use of public spaces have been constricted and controlled (Blades et al., 1998; Matthews et al., 1998). In order to include views of children as key informants of research for their health and well-being, qualitative approaches have been employed (Darbyshire et al., 2005). It is important to offer children the opportunity to portray their own environments and one of the methods used for this purpose is photography, which is commonly accepted and validated by many researchers (Booth and Booth, 2003; Sharples et al., 2003; Wang and Burris, 1997) aiming to generate different and complementary visual information (Darbyshire et al, 2005). In a current study, children were asked to take pictures with disposable cameras (Özdemir, 2010). This visual data production strategy enabled children to relate their everyday life with their activities and environmental perceptions. There is extensive research with children using photography (Aitken and Wingate, 1993; Dodman, 2003; Morrow, 2001; Young and Barrett, 2001). However, there limits of this technique; the method of photography did not include children's talk about their taken pictures and the reasons of taking those pictures. Children took pictures and we defined and discussed them as adults.

## **2. Schoolyard design to promote physical activity: An exploratory study**

## **2.1. Methodology**

234 Advances in Landscape Architecture

of physical activity.

**GIS/GPS Tools** 

(Chen et al., 2012).

**Photography** 

number of limitations to the use of this technique (Armstrong and Welsman, 2006; Rowlands et al., 1997). Since HR is influenced not only by physical activity, reliability of this measurement is questionable. A child with low levels of physical activity may have high heart rates due to the influence of other parameters such as emotional stress, anxiety, hydration and environment (Armstrong and Welsman, 2006; Rowlands et al., 1997). In this respect, heart rate monitoring should be considered to measure moderate to vigorous physical activity, and heart rates below 120bpm would be considered to be valid measures

Transportation, urban design and planning studies include Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to support the hypothesis that neighborhood environment is associated with physical activity in the form of walking and biking for transport (Frumkin, 2002; Saelens et al., 2003). GIS tools have been used to describe the associations between objective measures of the built environment and walking and transportation activity (McGinn et al., 2007). In the public health literature, the relationship between the built environment and physical activity was assessed by measuring the frequency, intensity and duration of activity. In such studies, objective measures of the environment were collected and mapped using GIS tools (McGinn et al., 2007). Global positioning system (GPS) is also used to track areas in a settlement or a space in a district where physical activity is promoted (Wheeler et al., 2010; Fjörtoft et al., 2009; Fjörtoft et al., 2010). GPS system was used to record children's movement patterns, which was transferred to GIS systems for further analysis (Fjörtoft et al., 2009; Fjörtoft et al., 2010). The purpose of the studies using GPS tools is to describe the interaction between environment and physical activity; based on the GPS data, designers explore and determine how space may interact with physical activity in children. However, GPS devices fail to record position indoors, under heavy tree canopy and in dense urban areas (Maddison and Ni Mhurchu, 2009) and they have limited accuracy in sensing stationary device location

Studies of children's geography and social behavior concluded that children's physical activity and use of public spaces have been constricted and controlled (Blades et al., 1998; Matthews et al., 1998). In order to include views of children as key informants of research for their health and well-being, qualitative approaches have been employed (Darbyshire et al., 2005). It is important to offer children the opportunity to portray their own environments and one of the methods used for this purpose is photography, which is commonly accepted and validated by many researchers (Booth and Booth, 2003; Sharples et al., 2003; Wang and Burris, 1997) aiming to generate different and complementary visual information (Darbyshire et al, 2005). In a current study, children were asked to take pictures with disposable cameras (Özdemir, 2010). This visual data production strategy enabled children to relate their everyday life with their activities and environmental perceptions. There is extensive research with children using photography (Aitken and Wingate, 1993; Dodman, 2003; Morrow, 2001; Young and Barrett, 2001). However, there limits of this This study aims to assess outdoor school environments for their possible association with healthy behavior of children. For this purpose, children's total step counts were associated with the schoolyard size and 1115 students in 4 primary schools were surveyed. The aim of the project is to examine whether size and design of the outdoor school environments affect child physical activity. In addition, gender and age were selected to be variables to determine their relation to physical activity.

A random stratified sampling of primary schools from various districts of the city was used to represent a cross-section of the population. The schools, which have the adequate open space for the renewal projects, are located in different districts in terms of socio-culture and economy, have different numbers of students and need their schoolyards to be renewed, have been selected from a list of elementary schools provided from the Provincial Directorate for National Education (Table 2).


**Table 2.** The primary schools subject to the research and their districts

## *2.1.1. Defining landscape characteristics of schoolyards*

For each schoolyard, ordinal categories were used as being applied for the classification of landscape quality. Aerial images and photo surveys were used to assess outdoor school environments; total area, usable area, landscaped-vegetated areas and hard surfaces were measured. The reliability tests of these measurements showed that both measurements on aerial images and hand measurements of a selected schoolyard gave specific and similar results. The photographs describe a variety of outdoor settings suggesting the need for a more spacious space per student after the calculation of the open space standards for school population for each case. Outdoor environments and the adjacent areas were assessed with respect to physical and landscape qualities (i.e. vegetation, material, size). A group of reviewers, which includes landscape architects and architects, reviewed the photographs and scored the schoolyards based on the features such as size, material, vegetation cover, vegetation quality, maintenance and spaciousness. Environments with low physical qualities scored 1. Environments with advanced features scored 2.

## *2.1.2. Focus groups*

The study also included 30 minutes meetings that were held with the students in each school. These focus groups, targeting children, included discussions on the current problems and future developments of the schoolyards; children's attitudes towards the school settings and the parents' views on their children's use of the schoolyards were discussed. Teachers did not attend the meetings; students had the chance to express their opinions freely.

Designing Landscapes for Child Health 237

Researchers offered a variety of workshops for school-aged children, teachers and parents. These workshops were oriented towards the respective target audience and based on participatory methods, providing insight into the design process. The aim was to increase environmental awareness among children and to inspire creative thinking. In these workshops, children were introduced to landscape design through presentation, design

In this case study, after the presentations to the school community, workshops were organized with the voluntary students. Firstly, borders of the schoolyards on the layout plans and draft drawings, entrances, current uses (parking, playfield, etc.) and green fields were shown to the students and they became familiar with the plan. Alternative uses, requested by the students in the schoolyard, were listed. Group of students prepared their own designs. In this process, the researchers assisted the children regarding the drawing techniques. Each project was developed in line with different concepts such as "adventure" or "blossom." First group made an adventure road strolling along the schoolyard. Each member of the second group named her/himself after a flower name and requested these flowers to be planted to the different parts of the schoolyard. The authentic design examples provided at the end of nearly half-hour study were displayed and presented by the group

Each group prepared a draft plan with sketches and colored markings. The final version of these projects, including before and after images, was displayed on the school boards in

order to get feedback from students and teachers (Figure 4 and 5).

*2.1.5. Workshops* 

drawings, sketches and 3D models.

representatives (Figure 3).

**Figure 3.** Views from the workshops

## *2.1.3. Pedometer measurements and BMI value assessments*

Intensity of children's school time activities was measured with electronic pedometers (Omron HJ-12). Pedometers were attached to randomly selected students. Average step counts of 10 children in each school were determined. Measurements also included distance covered, the amount of calorie (kcal) and body oil (gram) burnt during activities. It was assumed that the measurements would be distributed according to age groups, gender and schoolyard size.

Students were asked to indicate their weight and height on the questionnaire sheets to assess their nutritional status. In order to ensure reliability of self-reports, we weighed a group of students using a standard electronic scale, and their heights were measured with a wooden measuring board. Self-reported and objectively measured height and weight status were compared and it was found that self-reports were reliable. The height and weight information obtained in the surveys were used to calculate the BMI, which was computed as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared (kg/m2).

BMI values according to age groups are shown below (Table 3) (Uluocak et al., 2006; Şimşek et al., 2005; Öner et al., 2004; Altunkaynak and Özbek, 2007; Uğuz ve Bodur, 2007).


**Table 3.** BMI values according to age groups

#### *2.1.4. Photography*

Children's perception of environment was evaluated with photography technique. In this scope, students, selected randomly from each school, were given disposable cameras and were asked to take pictures of places they visit during weekend. It was assumed that children would take pictures of a number of scenes such as greenery, plants, open views, pets, buildings and structures, traffic, indoors and their daily activities. Children's environmental perception would differ according to places they visit such as an urban park or an indoor environment. Based on the picture characteristics, potential perceptual variables were listed after expert ratings of scenes; experts included landscape architects and graduate students.

## *2.1.5. Workshops*

236 Advances in Landscape Architecture

The study also included 30 minutes meetings that were held with the students in each school. These focus groups, targeting children, included discussions on the current problems and future developments of the schoolyards; children's attitudes towards the school settings and the parents' views on their children's use of the schoolyards were discussed. Teachers did not attend the meetings; students had the chance to express their

Intensity of children's school time activities was measured with electronic pedometers (Omron HJ-12). Pedometers were attached to randomly selected students. Average step counts of 10 children in each school were determined. Measurements also included distance covered, the amount of calorie (kcal) and body oil (gram) burnt during activities. It was assumed that the measurements would be distributed according to age groups, gender and

Students were asked to indicate their weight and height on the questionnaire sheets to assess their nutritional status. In order to ensure reliability of self-reports, we weighed a group of students using a standard electronic scale, and their heights were measured with a wooden measuring board. Self-reported and objectively measured height and weight status were compared and it was found that self-reports were reliable. The height and weight information obtained in the surveys were used to calculate the BMI, which was computed as

BMI values according to age groups are shown below (Table 3) (Uluocak et al., 2006; Şimşek

Primary School 3 and 4 9-10 <14.0 14.0-20.0 >20

Children's perception of environment was evaluated with photography technique. In this scope, students, selected randomly from each school, were given disposable cameras and were asked to take pictures of places they visit during weekend. It was assumed that children would take pictures of a number of scenes such as greenery, plants, open views, pets, buildings and structures, traffic, indoors and their daily activities. Children's environmental perception would differ according to places they visit such as an urban park or an indoor environment. Based on the picture characteristics, potential perceptual variables were listed after expert ratings of scenes; experts included landscape architects and

Grade Age Underweight Normal Overweight

5 and 6 11-12 <14.6 14.6-23.1 >23.1

et al., 2005; Öner et al., 2004; Altunkaynak and Özbek, 2007; Uğuz ve Bodur, 2007).

*2.1.3. Pedometer measurements and BMI value assessments* 

weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared (kg/m2).

**Table 3.** BMI values according to age groups

*2.1.4. Photography* 

graduate students.

*2.1.2. Focus groups* 

opinions freely.

schoolyard size.

Researchers offered a variety of workshops for school-aged children, teachers and parents. These workshops were oriented towards the respective target audience and based on participatory methods, providing insight into the design process. The aim was to increase environmental awareness among children and to inspire creative thinking. In these workshops, children were introduced to landscape design through presentation, design drawings, sketches and 3D models.

In this case study, after the presentations to the school community, workshops were organized with the voluntary students. Firstly, borders of the schoolyards on the layout plans and draft drawings, entrances, current uses (parking, playfield, etc.) and green fields were shown to the students and they became familiar with the plan. Alternative uses, requested by the students in the schoolyard, were listed. Group of students prepared their own designs. In this process, the researchers assisted the children regarding the drawing techniques. Each project was developed in line with different concepts such as "adventure" or "blossom." First group made an adventure road strolling along the schoolyard. Each member of the second group named her/himself after a flower name and requested these flowers to be planted to the different parts of the schoolyard. The authentic design examples provided at the end of nearly half-hour study were displayed and presented by the group representatives (Figure 3).

Each group prepared a draft plan with sketches and colored markings. The final version of these projects, including before and after images, was displayed on the school boards in order to get feedback from students and teachers (Figure 4 and 5).

**Figure 3.** Views from the workshops

Designing Landscapes for Child Health 239

**Usable yard space per student** 

**Total yard area** 

Physical and landscape characteristics of schoolyards were defined according to total yard

**Total school area** 

**students** 

**Çankaya** Kavakldere PS 650\* 2050 m2 1350 m2 2.08 m2 **Mamak** Çocuk Sevenler PS 580\* 5500 m2 4750 m2 8.19 m2 **Keçiören** Kamil Ocak PS 1300\* 9300 m2 6800 m2 5.23 m2 **Akyurt** TOKİ PS 720 6100 m2 4525 m2 6.28 m2

Kamil Ocak Primary School has the largest yard; however, the available area per student is not adequate. According to zoning standards in Turkey, child play spaces should have at least 10m2 usable area per child. This standard is also applicable to schoolyards; however, none of the schools provide sufficient space for child activities in this study (Table 4). Çocuk Sevenler Primary School, which has the largest usable space per student, received the best expert rating score. On the other hand, Kavakldere Primary School, which has the smallest and inadequate space per student, received the lowest expert rating score. It is assumed that spatial conditions such as spaciousness influence expert ratings. Kamil Ocak Primary School yard received one of the lowest scores due to the confined feeling and the existence of a high retaining wall that divides the yard into separate lots. This wall was defined as dangerous and useless. Green spaces that have the potential for recreational purposes are out of reach of children and they are not accessible. There is the scarcity of shaded seating spaces and

Almost half of the respondents were boys (49,4%) and 4th and 5th graders (55,6%). Most of the students have spent at least two years in their school. We may conclude that these students are familiar with the school settings. More than half of the students (54,8%) reside in the same neighborhood where the school is located, and most of the students prefer to walk to their schools. Only 22,3% of respondents commute to school with a

There is variability in type of activities during recess. A considerable amount of children spend their recess time inside the school (13,5%). More than half of students spend their recess time both indoors and outdoors (59%). Most of the students prefer to walk in the schoolyard (43,5%) and 21,2% of them behave active during recess. On the other hand, only 13,3% of children in these four schools prefer passive behaviors such as eating and sitting

size, total school size, and available space per students as shown in Table 4.

**District School Number of** 

most of the ground is covered with hard material such as asphalt.

\*The number shows only the morning shift students **Table 4.** Physical assessment of schoolyards

*2.2.1. Questionnaires* 

during recess (Figure 6).

vehicle.

**2.2. Results** 

**Figure 4.** Current status of the schoolyards and the views after the arrangement

**Figure 5.** One of the alternative projects include sport facilities, fruit and vegetable gardens, rose garden, parking lot, open-air class, play field and walking trail, as proposed by the children


## **2.2. Results**

238 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 5.** One of the alternative projects include sport facilities, fruit and vegetable gardens, rose garden, parking lot, open-air class, play field and walking trail, as proposed by the children

**Figure 4.** Current status of the schoolyards and the views after the arrangement

Physical and landscape characteristics of schoolyards were defined according to total yard size, total school size, and available space per students as shown in Table 4.

\*The number shows only the morning shift students

**Table 4.** Physical assessment of schoolyards

Kamil Ocak Primary School has the largest yard; however, the available area per student is not adequate. According to zoning standards in Turkey, child play spaces should have at least 10m2 usable area per child. This standard is also applicable to schoolyards; however, none of the schools provide sufficient space for child activities in this study (Table 4). Çocuk Sevenler Primary School, which has the largest usable space per student, received the best expert rating score. On the other hand, Kavakldere Primary School, which has the smallest and inadequate space per student, received the lowest expert rating score. It is assumed that spatial conditions such as spaciousness influence expert ratings. Kamil Ocak Primary School yard received one of the lowest scores due to the confined feeling and the existence of a high retaining wall that divides the yard into separate lots. This wall was defined as dangerous and useless. Green spaces that have the potential for recreational purposes are out of reach of children and they are not accessible. There is the scarcity of shaded seating spaces and most of the ground is covered with hard material such as asphalt.

## *2.2.1. Questionnaires*

Almost half of the respondents were boys (49,4%) and 4th and 5th graders (55,6%). Most of the students have spent at least two years in their school. We may conclude that these students are familiar with the school settings. More than half of the students (54,8%) reside in the same neighborhood where the school is located, and most of the students prefer to walk to their schools. Only 22,3% of respondents commute to school with a vehicle.

There is variability in type of activities during recess. A considerable amount of children spend their recess time inside the school (13,5%). More than half of students spend their recess time both indoors and outdoors (59%). Most of the students prefer to walk in the schoolyard (43,5%) and 21,2% of them behave active during recess. On the other hand, only 13,3% of children in these four schools prefer passive behaviors such as eating and sitting during recess (Figure 6).

Designing Landscapes for Child Health 241

**Figure 8.** Students' satisfaction of schoolyards among scored yards (Quality scores - 1: High quality; 4:

As a result of BMI distribution among schools, 16,2% of children were defined as overweight (N=181). Most of the students were in the normal range of BMI values (78,6%, N=876). Boys had higher BMI values than girls, and as expected, BMI values raised according to age groups, except 3rd grade students, which had lower BMI values than 2nd

**Domain N Percentage Mean sd**  Gender Female 564 50.6 17.89 2.88 Male 551 49.4 18.64 2.96 Grade 2 70 6.3 17.86 2.71 3 215 19.2 17.30 2.79 4 303 27.2 18.15 2.86 5 317 28.4 18.62 2.98 6 210 18.8 18.99 2.93

Walk 866 77.7 18.20 2.95

Çocuk Sevenler 293 17.58 2.88

 Vehicle 249 22.3 18.47 2.87 Yard size Kamil Ocak (Largest yard) 293 18.17 2.75

 TOKİ Akyurt 55 18.13 2.73 Kavakldere (Smallest yard) 474 18.75 3.02

BMI Underweight 58 5.2 Normal 876 78.6 Overweight 181 16.2

**Table 5.** Subject characteristics and BMI values

Low quality)

Type of commute

*2.2.2. BMI distribution among schools* 

grade students (Table 5).

**Figure 6.** Scatter-plot diagram showing the distribution of type of activities across schools

More than half of respondents define their schoolyards as inadequate for any of the activities (59%). Regardless of the size of schoolyards, this relationship was found statistically significant (F=113.05, df=3, p<0.005, R=0.48) (Figure 7).

**Figure 7.** Adequacy of schoolyards

There is a statistical significance among number of students who liked yards; most of the students preferred the larger yards (F=226.6, df=3, p<0.005, R=0.60). Similar results were identified between the expert ratings and students' responses; children liked the yards which were also highly rated by the experts (F=226.6, df=3, p<0.005, R=0.60) (Figure 8).

Most of the students (65%) were not satisfied with the yards. Responses indicated that the size of the yards was a major contributor of this result; most of the children (34,2%) did not enjoy the small yards (F=16.1, p<0.05). Other reasons included inadequacy of sport facilities and limited green spaces.

#### Designing Landscapes for Child Health 241

**Figure 8.** Students' satisfaction of schoolyards among scored yards (Quality scores - 1: High quality; 4: Low quality)

#### *2.2.2. BMI distribution among schools*

240 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 7.** Adequacy of schoolyards

and limited green spaces.

**Figure 6.** Scatter-plot diagram showing the distribution of type of activities across schools

statistically significant (F=113.05, df=3, p<0.005, R=0.48) (Figure 7).

More than half of respondents define their schoolyards as inadequate for any of the activities (59%). Regardless of the size of schoolyards, this relationship was found

There is a statistical significance among number of students who liked yards; most of the students preferred the larger yards (F=226.6, df=3, p<0.005, R=0.60). Similar results were identified between the expert ratings and students' responses; children liked the yards which were also highly rated by the experts (F=226.6, df=3, p<0.005, R=0.60) (Figure 8).

Most of the students (65%) were not satisfied with the yards. Responses indicated that the size of the yards was a major contributor of this result; most of the children (34,2%) did not enjoy the small yards (F=16.1, p<0.05). Other reasons included inadequacy of sport facilities As a result of BMI distribution among schools, 16,2% of children were defined as overweight (N=181). Most of the students were in the normal range of BMI values (78,6%, N=876). Boys had higher BMI values than girls, and as expected, BMI values raised according to age groups, except 3rd grade students, which had lower BMI values than 2nd grade students (Table 5).


**Table 5.** Subject characteristics and BMI values

Results showed that there is a statistical significance between type of activities and BMI values (F=2.67, P=0.032). Students who were active during recess had lower BMI values than passive students. This was similar with the active school commuters; children who actively commute to school have lower BMI values, and this result is statistically significant (F=3.78, df=1, p=0.013). Interestingly, large schoolyards have limited influence on decreased BMI values. Children in smaller schoolyards were more active and had lower BMI values. This finding is assessed by the relationship between total step counts and yard sizes, which is presented in the next section.

Designing Landscapes for Child Health 243

**Scene-**

**plants Animals** 

**scene** 

*2.2.4. Assessment of student pictures* 

**Kamil Ocak** 

**Kavakldere** 

**Çocuk** 

**Sevenler** 

Total of 472 pictures taken by students were assessed as shown in Table 7. Experts defined type of images and visible elements in the pictures. As a control group, researcher took pictures with a disposable camera and included these images within other groups of images for a random presentation. Both control group images and student images were similarly

> **F** 19 4 5 2 8 **F** 15 2 7 1 2 3 **F** 20 3 8 1 8

> **F** 20 3 8 1 8

**F** 25 1 3 1 **20**

**F** 18 3 8 4 3

F 15 4 4 5 1 1

F 23 2 11 2 8 F 16 1 8 4 1 2 F 20 3 6 7 4

F 27 1 10 9 4 3

Most of the students took pictures of plants and plant groups (35%). A considerable number of students took landscape images (27%). Only 12% of children captured interior spaces such as their home environments and school interiors. The most frequent type of images was captured from a vantage point—balcony or a terrace—looking toward the green spaces and plant groups. Although most of the images were captured during weekend, most of the pictures included home environments and local parks. We may conclude that children

M 27 2 8 5 12

**Table 7.** Number of pictures according to the picture character across schools

spend their weekend time at home and in the neighborhood.

**F** 27 5 3 1 13 5

M 22 1 7 1 8 5 M 25 1 **16** 3 4 1

**F** 25 2 **19** 4 **F** 22 1 6 5 5 5

**F** 23 7 4 9 3

F 25 1 14 2 1 4 3

M 20 10 1 3 6 M 21 1 6 2 7 5

F 17 1 5 8 3

assessed, which conclude that assessments are reliable and valid.

**School Gender Total Built Planting Enclosed Open** 

## *2.2.3. Pedometer measurements*

A total of 120 measurements were made to indicate the variations in daily step counts, distance covered, burnt calories and fat among children at ages between 9 and 11 (Table 6).


**Table 6.** Step counts, distance, burnt fat and calorie across gender, grades, and yard sizes

Average step counts were 5346 in Kavakldere, 4174 in Çocuk sevenler, 3646 in Kamil Ocak primay schools. Boys were more active than girls, and small children were more active than older ones. Similar results were found for values of energy expenditure; boys and small children burnt more calorie and fat than girls and older students. The most interesting outcome of the study was the statistical significant and inverse relationship between schoolyard size and pedometer counts. Children in small schoolyards walked more (F=4.47, df=2, p=0.013), and burnt more calories (F=12.83, df=2, p<0.05) and fat (F=11.78, df=2, p<0.05).

## *2.2.4. Assessment of student pictures*

242 Advances in Landscape Architecture

presented in the next section.

(Table 6).

**Gender** 

**Grade** 

Kamil Ocak

Kavakldere

**Yard size** 

p<0.05).

*2.2.3. Pedometer measurements* 

**N % Step** 

**count** 

Results showed that there is a statistical significance between type of activities and BMI values (F=2.67, P=0.032). Students who were active during recess had lower BMI values than passive students. This was similar with the active school commuters; children who actively commute to school have lower BMI values, and this result is statistically significant (F=3.78, df=1, p=0.013). Interestingly, large schoolyards have limited influence on decreased BMI values. Children in smaller schoolyards were more active and had lower BMI values. This finding is assessed by the relationship between total step counts and yard sizes, which is

A total of 120 measurements were made to indicate the variations in daily step counts, distance covered, burnt calories and fat among children at ages between 9 and 11

**sd Distance**

Female 65 55 4201.7 1971 2.43 1.19 66.6 33.9 3.75 2.01

Male 55 45 4609.5 2068 2.75 1.25 84.1 41.8 4.71 2.48

3 10 8 5605 2970.8 3.32 1.91 82.5 51.1 4.85 3.2

4 40 34 4839 2041.7 2.81 1.32 74.6 34.3 4.17 1.95

5 70 58 3957 1734.4 2.34 0.96 73.4 39.3 4.1 2.32

(Largest yard) 40 33 3645.8 2171.6 2.23 1.34 61.18 36.9 3.46 2.24

Çocuk Sevenler 40 33 4173.7 1585.7 2.49 1.02 61.1 27.3 3.6 1.54

(Smallest yard) 40 33 5346.4 1914.7 3.01 1.76 97.5 40.1 5.5 2.4

Average step counts were 5346 in Kavakldere, 4174 in Çocuk sevenler, 3646 in Kamil Ocak primay schools. Boys were more active than girls, and small children were more active than older ones. Similar results were found for values of energy expenditure; boys and small children burnt more calorie and fat than girls and older students. The most interesting outcome of the study was the statistical significant and inverse relationship between schoolyard size and pedometer counts. Children in small schoolyards walked more (F=4.47, df=2, p=0.013), and burnt more calories (F=12.83, df=2, p<0.05) and fat (F=11.78, df=2,

**Table 6.** Step counts, distance, burnt fat and calorie across gender, grades, and yard sizes

**(km) sd Burnt calorie** 

**(Kcal) sd Burnt** 

**fat (gr) sd** 

Total of 472 pictures taken by students were assessed as shown in Table 7. Experts defined type of images and visible elements in the pictures. As a control group, researcher took pictures with a disposable camera and included these images within other groups of images for a random presentation. Both control group images and student images were similarly assessed, which conclude that assessments are reliable and valid.


**Table 7.** Number of pictures according to the picture character across schools

Most of the students took pictures of plants and plant groups (35%). A considerable number of students took landscape images (27%). Only 12% of children captured interior spaces such as their home environments and school interiors. The most frequent type of images was captured from a vantage point—balcony or a terrace—looking toward the green spaces and plant groups. Although most of the images were captured during weekend, most of the pictures included home environments and local parks. We may conclude that children spend their weekend time at home and in the neighborhood.

Distribution of image properties are associated with regional locations (Figure 9). Kavakldere Primary School is located in a highly dense region with dense traffic and limited green spaces. Local parks in the district are scarce and limited front yards of apartments are used for parking cars. Kamil Ocak Primary School, on the other hand, is located in a district with lower dense housing distribution. This neighborhood with lower income families has more open spaces and green lots. Students' perceptions of environment, therefore, may vary according to the neighborhood characteristics. Most of the students in Kavakldere Primary School took pictures of plants in their homes. On the other hand, Kamil Ocak and Çocuk Sevenler students took pictures of open spaces and open vistas. These results can be associated with neighborhood characteristics. However, these assumptions should be based on valid and systematic research that should include significant comparisons of children's environmental perceptions and spatial characteristics of neighborhoods.

Designing Landscapes for Child Health 245

It was expected that larger yards would improve health of students with lower BMI values, which was found in the study of Özdemir and Ylmaz (2008). However, this study found a statistical significant and inverse relationship between schoolyard size and pedometer counts. Children in smaller schoolyards were more active with more step counts. The findings from the questionnaires, which included assessment of BMI values showed similar results; children in schools with smaller yards are more active and have lower BMI values.

The schools are considered for the purpose of this study in the small to medium size bracket. The current study questionnaire sample would appear to be representative in terms of school size and regional distribution. Data in the present study indicate that small schools reported more positive physical activity promoting practices than larger schools. Small schools experienced fewer barriers than larger schools specifically with respect to restricted areas, accessibility, supervision, security and availability of play equipments. Small schoolyards may provide more opportunities for mixed and group plays and the limited availability of space may promote children to be more active. Children in small schoolyards all play together, rather than being in separate groups in larger yards. However, these

On the other hand, larger schoolyards were more likely to permit children to play on the green areas, which are generally allocated for cars. These schools also permit the free-play of children during recess for security and health reasons; teachers are generally worried about the possible injury of children on vast and vacant yards. Meanwhile in larger schoolyards, children were more likely to engage in group activities. Since these schools lack fixed equipments and playground markings, children stroll around during recess. Barriers in the large yards such as walls, fences and parked cars limit the active behavior of children.

The findings of this study are relevant to Zask et al. (2001)'s results that as schools got larger children became less active. On the other hand, the pedometer measurements of Cardon et al. (2008) and Louie and Chan (2003) indicated that more space per child was found to be associated with more PA during recess; children in schools with large outdoor space were significantly more active than children at schools with smaller outdoor space. The present study would indicate that the comparison of yard sizes exhibit different challenges in relation to play habits, yard organization, and availability of play equipments, crowding, landscaping, maintenance and most importantly effects on physical activity and child health. More research is needed to investigate possible relations between these factors in order to overcome these challenges and to decide whether yard size is influential on child

Children who were active during recess had lower BMI values than passive students. This finding is similar with the active school commuters; children who actively commute to school have lower BMI values. The study also found gender and age differences; boys have higher BMI values than girls, and as expected, BMI values rise according to age groups, except 3rd grade students, which have lower BMI values than 2nd grade students. Boys and small children burnt more calorie and fat than girls and older students. More boys were engaged in active behavior than girls and similar findings were consistently reported in

factors were not included in this study, which requires further investigation.

health.

**Figure 9.** Distribution of picture properties across schools

#### **2.3. Discussion**

The results of this study contribute to both health and design professionals; environmental variables are effective in health promotion. In terms of design outcomes, this study provides evidence indicating the spatial effects of school environments on child health. Although most schools lack spacious schoolyards that were defined as mostly crowded and congested during recess, children were more active in small yards. Students generally complain about limited outdoor space for both play and physical activities; most students requested more spacious and green space for attraction and comfort. On the contrary of the expectations, pedometer measurements provided support that space distribution rather than the size is effective in health promotion. As many children attend to public schools, improvement the quality of the schoolyards to promote more physical activities is recommended.

It was expected that larger yards would improve health of students with lower BMI values, which was found in the study of Özdemir and Ylmaz (2008). However, this study found a statistical significant and inverse relationship between schoolyard size and pedometer counts. Children in smaller schoolyards were more active with more step counts. The findings from the questionnaires, which included assessment of BMI values showed similar results; children in schools with smaller yards are more active and have lower BMI values.

244 Advances in Landscape Architecture

of neighborhoods.

**2.3. Discussion** 

**Figure 9.** Distribution of picture properties across schools

Distribution of image properties are associated with regional locations (Figure 9). Kavakldere Primary School is located in a highly dense region with dense traffic and limited green spaces. Local parks in the district are scarce and limited front yards of apartments are used for parking cars. Kamil Ocak Primary School, on the other hand, is located in a district with lower dense housing distribution. This neighborhood with lower income families has more open spaces and green lots. Students' perceptions of environment, therefore, may vary according to the neighborhood characteristics. Most of the students in Kavakldere Primary School took pictures of plants in their homes. On the other hand, Kamil Ocak and Çocuk Sevenler students took pictures of open spaces and open vistas. These results can be associated with neighborhood characteristics. However, these assumptions should be based on valid and systematic research that should include significant comparisons of children's environmental perceptions and spatial characteristics

The results of this study contribute to both health and design professionals; environmental variables are effective in health promotion. In terms of design outcomes, this study provides evidence indicating the spatial effects of school environments on child health. Although most schools lack spacious schoolyards that were defined as mostly crowded and congested during recess, children were more active in small yards. Students generally complain about limited outdoor space for both play and physical activities; most students requested more spacious and green space for attraction and comfort. On the contrary of the expectations, pedometer measurements provided support that space distribution rather than the size is effective in health promotion. As many children attend to public schools, improvement the

quality of the schoolyards to promote more physical activities is recommended.

The schools are considered for the purpose of this study in the small to medium size bracket. The current study questionnaire sample would appear to be representative in terms of school size and regional distribution. Data in the present study indicate that small schools reported more positive physical activity promoting practices than larger schools. Small schools experienced fewer barriers than larger schools specifically with respect to restricted areas, accessibility, supervision, security and availability of play equipments. Small schoolyards may provide more opportunities for mixed and group plays and the limited availability of space may promote children to be more active. Children in small schoolyards all play together, rather than being in separate groups in larger yards. However, these factors were not included in this study, which requires further investigation.

On the other hand, larger schoolyards were more likely to permit children to play on the green areas, which are generally allocated for cars. These schools also permit the free-play of children during recess for security and health reasons; teachers are generally worried about the possible injury of children on vast and vacant yards. Meanwhile in larger schoolyards, children were more likely to engage in group activities. Since these schools lack fixed equipments and playground markings, children stroll around during recess. Barriers in the large yards such as walls, fences and parked cars limit the active behavior of children.

The findings of this study are relevant to Zask et al. (2001)'s results that as schools got larger children became less active. On the other hand, the pedometer measurements of Cardon et al. (2008) and Louie and Chan (2003) indicated that more space per child was found to be associated with more PA during recess; children in schools with large outdoor space were significantly more active than children at schools with smaller outdoor space. The present study would indicate that the comparison of yard sizes exhibit different challenges in relation to play habits, yard organization, and availability of play equipments, crowding, landscaping, maintenance and most importantly effects on physical activity and child health. More research is needed to investigate possible relations between these factors in order to overcome these challenges and to decide whether yard size is influential on child health.

Children who were active during recess had lower BMI values than passive students. This finding is similar with the active school commuters; children who actively commute to school have lower BMI values. The study also found gender and age differences; boys have higher BMI values than girls, and as expected, BMI values rise according to age groups, except 3rd grade students, which have lower BMI values than 2nd grade students. Boys and small children burnt more calorie and fat than girls and older students. More boys were engaged in active behavior than girls and similar findings were consistently reported in other studies (Myers et al., 1996; Sallis et al., 2000; Mota et al., 2005; Tudor-Locke et al., 2006; Özdemir and Ylmaz, 2008).

Designing Landscapes for Child Health 247

It is assumed that findings would reinforce the need to provide and support school physical environments related to physical activity. The results of exploratory studies indicate support for the contention that child spaces should be thought of as a part of a viable strategy for health promotion. The hypothesis is that outdoor environments with more natural landscape characteristics are a viable context for health promotion activities such as physical

A conceptual framework should be outlined that addresses the complexity of the relationship between spatial characteristics of outdoor environments and students' physical

Active behaviors should be promoted with city planning and infrastructure by creating safe and accessible urban environments. Changes in neighborhood characteristics, adding more parks, safe walking routes and playgrounds and recreational facilities will have positive

Research is needed to develop effective interventions to increase daily physical activity via active commute to school, monitoring daily physical activity behaviors, promoting school activity programs and promoting healthy curriculum and dietary habits. Studies should include more objective measurements of physical activity among different age groups and the specific roles of environmental factors should be defined that are related to preventing childhood obesity (Lobstein et al., 2004). School environment represents a fundamental opportunity for children to gain active lifestyle through the use of spaces that promote active behavior (Pate et al., 2006; Wagner and Kirch, 2006). Schools are ideal places for health promotion by including healthy school programs, curriculums and making availability of daily exercise (Stice et al., 2006; Doak et al., 2006; Brown et al., 2009). Research should include identification of environmental variables of schools contributing to high levels of obesity in children. Schools in neighborhoods with high risks of obesity should be the focus of future studies; those school settings should be re-developed and re-designed to encourage physical activity focusing on minority and disadvantaged groups and

Research should include longitudinal approach to track changes in children's activities, and include sample from rural and remote areas with disadvantaged neighborhoods. Changes in neighborhood characteristics, adding more parks, safe walking routes and playgrounds and recreational facilities will have positive effects on health of children. Promoting physical activity in urban neighborhoods, especially lower income ones, must address concerns

The key strengths of this study are the use of measured height and weight for the calculation of BMI, the objective measurement of the PA by pedometers and the adoption of

activity behavior, which should be structured to guide future policy and research.

activity.

effects on health of children and adults.

about the physical and social environment.

**2.6. Strengths and limitations** 

**2.5. Future directions** 

communities.

## **2.4. Conclusions**

Given the increasing rates of childhood obesity, energy expenditure is a research priority to improve settings promoting more activity. The effect of the built environment on health is a current research agenda and research has found associations between environmental features and physical activity and body mass. However, the examination of physical environments to explain and promote physical activity is an important yet underinvestigated area of research inquiry, and research on health outcomes of the physical environment has been limited by insufficient data regarding the role of the environment.

Many factors contribute to obesity, and the physical environment in particular can have a strong influence on children's opportunities for regular physical activity. Decisions made at the local level regarding planning and design of school environments can have a significant impact on child health. By recognizing these links, communities can help reverse obesity trends and build healthy environments. Young children appear to engage in low levels of physical activity at school. With more than 25 millions of children attending schools in Turkey, it is important to better understand factors inherent in school environment that influence physical activity behaviors of young children.

Major critical factor emerged from this investigation was the spaciousness is not a critical measure for an active behavior as well as for play and learning. Almost all students had complaints about the lack of adequate space for play due to the crowded schoolyard in all recess time. However small spaces may promote more active behavior and public schools with limited space inside the city centers can better develop design guidelines to improve the physical qualities of these yards.

Previous studies have shown the impact of outdoor environments on physical activity and prevention from obesity in various nations, and the recognition of such approach may lead to the advancement of the outdoor school environments. Encouraging students to be active in safe and attractive outdoor environments may be accomplished by careful and systematic landscape designs, but the major concerns are the finance and the maintenance.

The urban environment is not built to suit child needs and to accommodate child play behaviors in a safe environment. The most natural way to be active and to develop healthy attitudes in PA among children is to play outside in a safe and open environment (Caroli et al., 2011), and the school environment is one of the settings to provide safe and healthy environment for children. School setting is a valuable resource contributing improved PA and this type of environment should be studied to find ways of reducing obesity by improving active behavior. Research should include identification of environmental variables of schools contributing to high levels of obesity in children. Schools in neighborhoods with high risks of obesity should be the focus of future studies; those school settings should be re-developed and re-designed to encourage PA in children.

It is assumed that findings would reinforce the need to provide and support school physical environments related to physical activity. The results of exploratory studies indicate support for the contention that child spaces should be thought of as a part of a viable strategy for health promotion. The hypothesis is that outdoor environments with more natural landscape characteristics are a viable context for health promotion activities such as physical activity.

A conceptual framework should be outlined that addresses the complexity of the relationship between spatial characteristics of outdoor environments and students' physical activity behavior, which should be structured to guide future policy and research.

Active behaviors should be promoted with city planning and infrastructure by creating safe and accessible urban environments. Changes in neighborhood characteristics, adding more parks, safe walking routes and playgrounds and recreational facilities will have positive effects on health of children and adults.

## **2.5. Future directions**

246 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Özdemir and Ylmaz, 2008).

**2.4. Conclusions** 

other studies (Myers et al., 1996; Sallis et al., 2000; Mota et al., 2005; Tudor-Locke et al., 2006;

Given the increasing rates of childhood obesity, energy expenditure is a research priority to improve settings promoting more activity. The effect of the built environment on health is a current research agenda and research has found associations between environmental features and physical activity and body mass. However, the examination of physical environments to explain and promote physical activity is an important yet underinvestigated area of research inquiry, and research on health outcomes of the physical environment has been limited by insufficient data regarding the role of the environment.

Many factors contribute to obesity, and the physical environment in particular can have a strong influence on children's opportunities for regular physical activity. Decisions made at the local level regarding planning and design of school environments can have a significant impact on child health. By recognizing these links, communities can help reverse obesity trends and build healthy environments. Young children appear to engage in low levels of physical activity at school. With more than 25 millions of children attending schools in Turkey, it is important to better understand factors inherent in school environment that

Major critical factor emerged from this investigation was the spaciousness is not a critical measure for an active behavior as well as for play and learning. Almost all students had complaints about the lack of adequate space for play due to the crowded schoolyard in all recess time. However small spaces may promote more active behavior and public schools with limited space inside the city centers can better develop design guidelines to improve

Previous studies have shown the impact of outdoor environments on physical activity and prevention from obesity in various nations, and the recognition of such approach may lead to the advancement of the outdoor school environments. Encouraging students to be active in safe and attractive outdoor environments may be accomplished by careful and systematic

The urban environment is not built to suit child needs and to accommodate child play behaviors in a safe environment. The most natural way to be active and to develop healthy attitudes in PA among children is to play outside in a safe and open environment (Caroli et al., 2011), and the school environment is one of the settings to provide safe and healthy environment for children. School setting is a valuable resource contributing improved PA and this type of environment should be studied to find ways of reducing obesity by improving active behavior. Research should include identification of environmental variables of schools contributing to high levels of obesity in children. Schools in neighborhoods with high risks of obesity should be the focus of future studies; those school

landscape designs, but the major concerns are the finance and the maintenance.

settings should be re-developed and re-designed to encourage PA in children.

influence physical activity behaviors of young children.

the physical qualities of these yards.

Research is needed to develop effective interventions to increase daily physical activity via active commute to school, monitoring daily physical activity behaviors, promoting school activity programs and promoting healthy curriculum and dietary habits. Studies should include more objective measurements of physical activity among different age groups and the specific roles of environmental factors should be defined that are related to preventing childhood obesity (Lobstein et al., 2004). School environment represents a fundamental opportunity for children to gain active lifestyle through the use of spaces that promote active behavior (Pate et al., 2006; Wagner and Kirch, 2006). Schools are ideal places for health promotion by including healthy school programs, curriculums and making availability of daily exercise (Stice et al., 2006; Doak et al., 2006; Brown et al., 2009). Research should include identification of environmental variables of schools contributing to high levels of obesity in children. Schools in neighborhoods with high risks of obesity should be the focus of future studies; those school settings should be re-developed and re-designed to encourage physical activity focusing on minority and disadvantaged groups and communities.

Research should include longitudinal approach to track changes in children's activities, and include sample from rural and remote areas with disadvantaged neighborhoods. Changes in neighborhood characteristics, adding more parks, safe walking routes and playgrounds and recreational facilities will have positive effects on health of children. Promoting physical activity in urban neighborhoods, especially lower income ones, must address concerns about the physical and social environment.

## **2.6. Strengths and limitations**

The key strengths of this study are the use of measured height and weight for the calculation of BMI, the objective measurement of the PA by pedometers and the adoption of

BMI cut-off points for children. This use of objective measurement of PA reduces the bias commonly associated with self-report measures. The sample selected is a good representative of the population; schools were randomly selected according to regions and a considerable number of students were included in the study in each school.

Designing Landscapes for Child Health 249

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## **Author details**

Aydn Özdemir *Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

## **Acknowledgement**

This study; "Schoolyard Design to Promote Physical Activity: An Exploratory Study" was supported by a grant from the Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit, Ankara University, Turkey (BAP-09Ö4347001). The author is grateful for the help and support of Mehmet Çorakç, Gizem Klnç, Merve Heper and Filiz Uncu who worked with the author in the development and design of this case study.

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**Chapter 10** 

© 2013 Yücel, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Integrating Ecosytem Landscapes in Cityscape:** 

Today, with the rapid growth of cities, sustainable landscape planning and design are a serious concern, because within the urban context, green areas such as parks, gardens, green belts, and road reserves enable positive human interaction with nature, help maintain natural resources, and form environments that bring in wildlife, including, in particular, birds and butterflies [1]. Such eco-friendly urban gardens increase people's appreciation of nature, which can be a source of pleasure, and also make it possible for the behavior and

In urban environments which are not ecologically designed, the practices of mowing lawns, clipping shrubs and raking up organic material from borders, as well as the widespread use of deadheaded flowers, eliminate food sources, nesting grounds and places of shelter for wildlife. Typically, gardens designed with open populations of birds and butterflies in mind are found in urban and suburban areas, and those with closed populations are found in parks and in public or private lots [3]. These gardens help to create and maintain communities which are essentially urban ecosystems where human beings interact with

Gardens in urban ecosystems may have co-existing bird and butterfly species, although the kinds of vegetation and habitats that various species require, as well as their life cycles, may differ [4]. Australian researchers have noted relationships between endemic vegetation and the presence of endemic bird species (French et al., 2005; Daniels and Kirkpatrick, 2006), and Burghardt et.al. (2009) found larger populations of endemic birds and butterflies in areas

Birds and butterflies have simple needs: consistent food and water sources, safety, and shelter. It is therefore critical that urban gardens designed to attract them should have

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Birds and Butterflies** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

ecology of these species of wildlife to be studied [2].

designed with endemic landscaping [5].

Gökçen Firdevs Yücel

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55753

**1. Introduction** 

nature.


## **Integrating Ecosytem Landscapes in Cityscape: Birds and Butterflies**

Gökçen Firdevs Yücel

262 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Human Kinetics Publishers.

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Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55753

## **1. Introduction**

Today, with the rapid growth of cities, sustainable landscape planning and design are a serious concern, because within the urban context, green areas such as parks, gardens, green belts, and road reserves enable positive human interaction with nature, help maintain natural resources, and form environments that bring in wildlife, including, in particular, birds and butterflies [1]. Such eco-friendly urban gardens increase people's appreciation of nature, which can be a source of pleasure, and also make it possible for the behavior and ecology of these species of wildlife to be studied [2].

In urban environments which are not ecologically designed, the practices of mowing lawns, clipping shrubs and raking up organic material from borders, as well as the widespread use of deadheaded flowers, eliminate food sources, nesting grounds and places of shelter for wildlife. Typically, gardens designed with open populations of birds and butterflies in mind are found in urban and suburban areas, and those with closed populations are found in parks and in public or private lots [3]. These gardens help to create and maintain communities which are essentially urban ecosystems where human beings interact with nature.

Gardens in urban ecosystems may have co-existing bird and butterfly species, although the kinds of vegetation and habitats that various species require, as well as their life cycles, may differ [4]. Australian researchers have noted relationships between endemic vegetation and the presence of endemic bird species (French et al., 2005; Daniels and Kirkpatrick, 2006), and Burghardt et.al. (2009) found larger populations of endemic birds and butterflies in areas designed with endemic landscaping [5].

Birds and butterflies have simple needs: consistent food and water sources, safety, and shelter. It is therefore critical that urban gardens designed to attract them should have

© 2013 Yücel, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

appropriate vegetation, water features, feeding areas, and also areas where they can take cover from predators and thrive in safety and security.

Integrating Ecosytem Landscapes in Cityscape: Birds and Butterflies 265

Bird baths are made of various substances, including concrete, metal, ceramic and plastic, and come in various sizes and shapes. A bird bath should be set up at least 4.5m away from the feeding station, and near plants or shrubs that afford shelter, since birds do not fly efficiently immediately after bathing. It should also be surrounded by a clearing about three meters in diameter, so that while they are drinking, the birds will have time to escape from approaching predators. Several birds can use a bird bath at the same time if it is at least 60cm in diameter; however, the depth of the water in it should not exceed 5cm. The ideal depth of bath is sloping from 1.25cm – 2.5cm at the edges, down to between 6cm and 7.5cm

Appropriate plants need to be planted in urban gardens, because birds use them as a means of escape or to seek cover from predators, to perch and rest on, to nest in during the summer, and to shelter in during the winter months. In the winter, when the leaves have fallen from other trees, evergreens such as *Magnolia spp., Ilex spp.,* and *Rhododenron spp.,* and conifers such as the *juniper* tree provide essential shelter. Landscaping features frequented

Sources of nutrition must be made available throughout the year; birds are more likely to visit gardens where supplementary food sources are available, especially during the winter [11]. The saps, buds, and seeds of some plants are also used as food sources [10]. Food sources and the times they are sought vary depending on the species: chickadees and nuthatches, for example, tend to eat during daylight hours; some birds eat berries and other fruits from trees and shrubs; others, such as woodpeckers and many songbirds, hunt for insect eggs and larvae in tree trunks and branches [12]. In the case of hummingbirds, there ought to be several feeders available, each at least 180cm away from the others; this is because these territorial birds do not share food unless there is competition between large numbers of them, and having several feeders will prevent one hummingbird from

Bird houses are shelters, usually made of wood or more durable composite materials, that can be set up for birds to nest and roost in. They are quite simple, consisting of four sides, a base or bottom, and an overhanging sloping roof (this should be watertight to prevent rainwater entering); the birds go in and out either through a hole or the front side (if this is left open) under the roof [14]. Bird houses should be fixed to trees, walls or fences, at a height of about 2-5m, and well insulated to provide shelter; if they are wooden, the walls should be at least 1.5cm thick. Holes may be drilled in the bottom to drain out any water that may get in, and these same holes will also provide ventilation. Bird houses should not

by birds seeking shelter include shade arbors, pergolas, arches, and trellises.

*Bird baths* 

in the middle [9]. *Safety and shelter* 

dominating the entire garden [13].

*Bird garden equipments* 

*Bird houses* 

*Food* 

## **1.1. Benefits of bird and butterfly gardening**

The primary benefits of designing bird and butterfly gardens as part of urban ecosystems are, for the wildlife, flower pollination, food sharing, and environmental conservation, as well as public education. Additional benefits for people include pest and weed control, the stress relief provided by the natural environment, and financial gain as a result of the increasing value of eco-friendly property.

## **2. Issues in urban ecosytem landscape design**

## **2.1. Bird gardens**

#### *Site Selection*

Bird gardens are easy to create, since birds' requirements are flexible; however, they should be open to sunlight as well as have ample areas of shade; and vegetation that affords shelter should be available.

## *2.1.1. Criterias for structural design in bird gardens*

## *Paths*

Rigid, linear paths are less attractive to wildlife than natural, organic paths, and animals are attracted to unexpected twists and turns, where they can explore new areas. Organically curved and narrow pathways in a garden make it easy for birds to visit a wide range of shrubs and flowers.

#### *Slopes*

Certain kinds of birds forage for food on the ground, and they are attracted to uneven slopes, such as one finds in low, rocky hills where there are fallen trees and underbrush. This environment can be provided for them in the form of rock walls or rock gardens with vegetation covering them.

#### *Water*

Liquid water is an essential requirement for birds in the winter months, when natural sources are frozen, and also during the summer, when they use it to cool down [6]. Sources may include bird baths, misters, ponds, waterfalls or streams; but flowing water is safer than the static pool of a traditional bird bath, from where diseases may be spread [7]. Interestingly, birds such as robins, flickers, and hummingbirds are highly attuned to the sound of flowing water, and may hear it even if the source is very small. Robins are particularly attracted to the steady spray from lawn sprinklers [8]. Some plants, such as *Hosta spp. and Cornus spp.,* have concave leaf surfaces where water accumulates, and these are used as baths by small birds, including warblers and hummingbirds.

#### *Bird baths*

264 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**2.1. Bird gardens** 

should be available.

shrubs and flowers.

vegetation covering them.

*Site Selection* 

*Paths* 

*Slopes* 

*Water* 

cover from predators and thrive in safety and security.

**2. Issues in urban ecosytem landscape design** 

*2.1.1. Criterias for structural design in bird gardens* 

**1.1. Benefits of bird and butterfly gardening** 

increasing value of eco-friendly property.

appropriate vegetation, water features, feeding areas, and also areas where they can take

The primary benefits of designing bird and butterfly gardens as part of urban ecosystems are, for the wildlife, flower pollination, food sharing, and environmental conservation, as well as public education. Additional benefits for people include pest and weed control, the stress relief provided by the natural environment, and financial gain as a result of the

Bird gardens are easy to create, since birds' requirements are flexible; however, they should be open to sunlight as well as have ample areas of shade; and vegetation that affords shelter

Rigid, linear paths are less attractive to wildlife than natural, organic paths, and animals are attracted to unexpected twists and turns, where they can explore new areas. Organically curved and narrow pathways in a garden make it easy for birds to visit a wide range of

Certain kinds of birds forage for food on the ground, and they are attracted to uneven slopes, such as one finds in low, rocky hills where there are fallen trees and underbrush. This environment can be provided for them in the form of rock walls or rock gardens with

Liquid water is an essential requirement for birds in the winter months, when natural sources are frozen, and also during the summer, when they use it to cool down [6]. Sources may include bird baths, misters, ponds, waterfalls or streams; but flowing water is safer than the static pool of a traditional bird bath, from where diseases may be spread [7]. Interestingly, birds such as robins, flickers, and hummingbirds are highly attuned to the sound of flowing water, and may hear it even if the source is very small. Robins are particularly attracted to the steady spray from lawn sprinklers [8]. Some plants, such as *Hosta spp. and Cornus spp.,* have concave leaf surfaces where water accumulates, and these

are used as baths by small birds, including warblers and hummingbirds.

Bird baths are made of various substances, including concrete, metal, ceramic and plastic, and come in various sizes and shapes. A bird bath should be set up at least 4.5m away from the feeding station, and near plants or shrubs that afford shelter, since birds do not fly efficiently immediately after bathing. It should also be surrounded by a clearing about three meters in diameter, so that while they are drinking, the birds will have time to escape from approaching predators. Several birds can use a bird bath at the same time if it is at least 60cm in diameter; however, the depth of the water in it should not exceed 5cm. The ideal depth of bath is sloping from 1.25cm – 2.5cm at the edges, down to between 6cm and 7.5cm in the middle [9].

#### *Safety and shelter*

Appropriate plants need to be planted in urban gardens, because birds use them as a means of escape or to seek cover from predators, to perch and rest on, to nest in during the summer, and to shelter in during the winter months. In the winter, when the leaves have fallen from other trees, evergreens such as *Magnolia spp., Ilex spp.,* and *Rhododenron spp.,* and conifers such as the *juniper* tree provide essential shelter. Landscaping features frequented by birds seeking shelter include shade arbors, pergolas, arches, and trellises.

#### *Food*

Sources of nutrition must be made available throughout the year; birds are more likely to visit gardens where supplementary food sources are available, especially during the winter [11]. The saps, buds, and seeds of some plants are also used as food sources [10]. Food sources and the times they are sought vary depending on the species: chickadees and nuthatches, for example, tend to eat during daylight hours; some birds eat berries and other fruits from trees and shrubs; others, such as woodpeckers and many songbirds, hunt for insect eggs and larvae in tree trunks and branches [12]. In the case of hummingbirds, there ought to be several feeders available, each at least 180cm away from the others; this is because these territorial birds do not share food unless there is competition between large numbers of them, and having several feeders will prevent one hummingbird from dominating the entire garden [13].

#### *Bird garden equipments*

#### *Bird houses*

Bird houses are shelters, usually made of wood or more durable composite materials, that can be set up for birds to nest and roost in. They are quite simple, consisting of four sides, a base or bottom, and an overhanging sloping roof (this should be watertight to prevent rainwater entering); the birds go in and out either through a hole or the front side (if this is left open) under the roof [14]. Bird houses should be fixed to trees, walls or fences, at a height of about 2-5m, and well insulated to provide shelter; if they are wooden, the walls should be at least 1.5cm thick. Holes may be drilled in the bottom to drain out any water that may get in, and these same holes will also provide ventilation. Bird houses should not

be set up in direct sunlight [15]; they should face northeast-southeast, affording protection from the sun and wet winds [16].

Integrating Ecosytem Landscapes in Cityscape: Birds and Butterflies 267

Seeds, nesting

Seeds; flower buds; insects on foliage

Fruits

build nests; dried grasses during the winter also enable them to hide from predators. For successful urban ecosystems to flourish, then, this type of landscape should be increased at the expense of mowed lawn and turf areas, which are unproductive habitats and tend to attract less desirable species, such as *Columba livia,* the Sturnidae family, the *Molothrus* genus and Quiscalus quiscula [20]. These turf areas provide little in the way of nutrition or habitable environment, and may also be maintained by fertilizers and pesticides which have

There are two main categories of vegetation that are appropriate for bird gardens: nectar

As for this category of plants, it is essential to have diversity, as each species of bird feeds on different food at different times of the year; at the same time, there should be a sufficient quantity of plant species that produce visible masses of fruit, so these can be recognized by the birds (Table 1). However, this diversity should not extend to exotic trees and shrubs,

In their natural habitats, birds have a wide variety of fruits to choose from during the year, as different fruits ripen in each season; among the most appealing are: *Prunus, Sorbus, Ilex, Amalanchier, Cornus* and *Juniper*. Vines are also a good food source; and they provide nesting

Many bird species are attracted to the fruit of *Cornus* and *Juniper*; for example, *Cornus florida* draws bluebirds, robins, thrushes, and 30 other species. The dogwood tree is colorful in spring, has beautiful leaves in the autumn, and then produces bright red fruit. Junipers, many of which have attractive red bark, can be incorporated practically anywhere in an ecofriendly garden; *Juniperus virginiana* attracts some 54 bird species, and can tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions (only the female plant bears fruit, but both male and

**Botanical Name Birds Attracted Plant Appeal** 

melanocephalus, Pheucticus ludovicianus, Poecile

Cardinalidae family, genus Carduelis, Erithacus

caerulea*,* Parulidae family, Pheucticus

carolinensis, Sitta europaea, Troglodytes

Bombycilla, Fringilla coelebs, Garrulus glandarius, genus Junco, Poecile carolinensis

a detrimental effect on birds, as well as on other wildlife [7].

which can invade and take over endemic habitats.

female plants are required for fruit to be produced) [8].

Acer spp. Cardinalidae family, Carduelis pinus, Passerina

troglodytes and many others

*Amelanchier* spp. 40+ species, including genus Ailuroedus,

Betula nigra 35 + species, including songbirds, genus

rubecula

sites and shelter for birds (Table 1).

plants and fruit plants.

*Nectar plants* 

*Fruit plants* 

**Trees** 

### *Bird feeders*

Providing food to garden birds at feeding stations with bird feeders can increase urban bird populations in the landscape as a whole [17]. The water in the feeders needs to be changed at least once a week in hot weather, and the feeders need to be washed regularly with soap and hot water [18].

#### *Dead trees (snags)*

Birds tend to defend their territories by finding perches, such as dead trees, and using them as singing posts. For this reason, dead trees are particularly useful as supports for bird houses [6].

## *2.1.2. Criterias for planting design in bird gardens*

The most useful way to plan a bird garden is to start by finding out which bird species already exist in the area, and which are to be attracted to the birdscape. Each species adapts to different parts of the habitat, depending on its needs, so native vegetation will provide the best types and ranges of food and shelter that the birds need at different times of the year.

For the same reasons, diversity in the vegetation will attract a broader range of bird species: some will be ground foragers, and others bush and shrub feeders; some may prefer nesting at lower levels, and others higher up. The habits of a single species may include using different types and layers of vegetation for feeding, roosting and nesting, and these habits also need to be taken into account.

The landscaping should include trees which afford protection from winds, especially during the winter months – for example, rows of evergreens or a mixture of evergreens and deciduous trees (a 50:50 mix would be ideal); and if the typical winds are northwesterly, the trees should line the north and west sides of the garden. These tall trees will also have the added advantage of attracting birds and providing a high perch for them from which they can look out for any possible danger before descending into the garden [19].

In addition, the landscaping should provide a variety of levels of vegetation to be used as food sources and nesting sites, This can be done by layering in smaller trees and shrubs, such as *Malus* trees, *Rosa, Amelanchier spp.,* and deciduous *İlex spp.*, planted in front of the windbreaks created by the taller trees. Perennials and annuals, whose seeds and nectar are an excellent food source, can form yet another layer in front [12]; birds are drawn to the bright colors of wild flowers and fruit, in particular when they are migrating, and *Salvia coccinea,* Penstemon spp., and *Campsis radicans* will attract a wide range of species [20].

Another essential part of a good birdscape is grasses, which are resilient, tolerate extremes of heat and dryness as well as the winter cold, and are easily sustainable. Song and game birds that feed at low levels use the grass seeds as a food source, and the blades of grass to build nests; dried grasses during the winter also enable them to hide from predators. For successful urban ecosystems to flourish, then, this type of landscape should be increased at the expense of mowed lawn and turf areas, which are unproductive habitats and tend to attract less desirable species, such as *Columba livia,* the Sturnidae family, the *Molothrus* genus and Quiscalus quiscula [20]. These turf areas provide little in the way of nutrition or habitable environment, and may also be maintained by fertilizers and pesticides which have a detrimental effect on birds, as well as on other wildlife [7].

There are two main categories of vegetation that are appropriate for bird gardens: nectar plants and fruit plants.

### *Nectar plants*

266 Advances in Landscape Architecture

*Bird feeders* 

and hot water [18].

*Dead trees (snags)* 

houses [6].

from the sun and wet winds [16].

*2.1.2. Criterias for planting design in bird gardens* 

also need to be taken into account.

be set up in direct sunlight [15]; they should face northeast-southeast, affording protection

Providing food to garden birds at feeding stations with bird feeders can increase urban bird populations in the landscape as a whole [17]. The water in the feeders needs to be changed at least once a week in hot weather, and the feeders need to be washed regularly with soap

Birds tend to defend their territories by finding perches, such as dead trees, and using them as singing posts. For this reason, dead trees are particularly useful as supports for bird

The most useful way to plan a bird garden is to start by finding out which bird species already exist in the area, and which are to be attracted to the birdscape. Each species adapts to different parts of the habitat, depending on its needs, so native vegetation will provide the best types

For the same reasons, diversity in the vegetation will attract a broader range of bird species: some will be ground foragers, and others bush and shrub feeders; some may prefer nesting at lower levels, and others higher up. The habits of a single species may include using different types and layers of vegetation for feeding, roosting and nesting, and these habits

The landscaping should include trees which afford protection from winds, especially during the winter months – for example, rows of evergreens or a mixture of evergreens and deciduous trees (a 50:50 mix would be ideal); and if the typical winds are northwesterly, the trees should line the north and west sides of the garden. These tall trees will also have the added advantage of attracting birds and providing a high perch for them from which they

In addition, the landscaping should provide a variety of levels of vegetation to be used as food sources and nesting sites, This can be done by layering in smaller trees and shrubs, such as *Malus* trees, *Rosa, Amelanchier spp.,* and deciduous *İlex spp.*, planted in front of the windbreaks created by the taller trees. Perennials and annuals, whose seeds and nectar are an excellent food source, can form yet another layer in front [12]; birds are drawn to the bright colors of wild flowers and fruit, in particular when they are migrating, and *Salvia coccinea,* Penstemon spp., and *Campsis radicans* will attract a wide range of species [20].

Another essential part of a good birdscape is grasses, which are resilient, tolerate extremes of heat and dryness as well as the winter cold, and are easily sustainable. Song and game birds that feed at low levels use the grass seeds as a food source, and the blades of grass to

and ranges of food and shelter that the birds need at different times of the year.

can look out for any possible danger before descending into the garden [19].

As for this category of plants, it is essential to have diversity, as each species of bird feeds on different food at different times of the year; at the same time, there should be a sufficient quantity of plant species that produce visible masses of fruit, so these can be recognized by the birds (Table 1). However, this diversity should not extend to exotic trees and shrubs, which can invade and take over endemic habitats.

#### *Fruit plants*

In their natural habitats, birds have a wide variety of fruits to choose from during the year, as different fruits ripen in each season; among the most appealing are: *Prunus, Sorbus, Ilex, Amalanchier, Cornus* and *Juniper*. Vines are also a good food source; and they provide nesting sites and shelter for birds (Table 1).

Many bird species are attracted to the fruit of *Cornus* and *Juniper*; for example, *Cornus florida* draws bluebirds, robins, thrushes, and 30 other species. The dogwood tree is colorful in spring, has beautiful leaves in the autumn, and then produces bright red fruit. Junipers, many of which have attractive red bark, can be incorporated practically anywhere in an ecofriendly garden; *Juniperus virginiana* attracts some 54 bird species, and can tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions (only the female plant bears fruit, but both male and female plants are required for fruit to be produced) [8].



Integrating Ecosytem Landscapes in Cityscape: Birds and Butterflies 269

site

Fruit; shelter; nesting

Fruit ripens in August – September and persists into spring; shelter

Fruits ripen in June-July on female plants

Fruit ripens in August, often persisting into winter, nesting site

Berries ripen from late August into fall

Berries ripen in October, persisting late into

Berries ripen in fall;

Fruit ripens July-September; nesting site

Nesting site

winter

nesting site

**Botanical Name Birds Attracted Plant Appeal** 

Erithacus rubecula, genus Junco, Melospiza melodia, Toxostoma rufum, Turdus migratorius,

rubecula, Passeridae family, Picidae family, genus

Passeridae family, genus Pipilo and Thraupidae

caerulea, Pheucticus melanocephalus, Pheucticus

Bombycilla, Fringillidae family, Parulidae family,

"Butterfly gardening" is the term used to describe the development and maintenance of a tract of land as a butterfly habitat. It involves attracting and retaining populations of butterflies, which, apart from their being beautiful, enable plant reproduction through pollination [14] *.* Butterfly gardening is believed to have begun in England in the 1970s, as an expression of the British love of gardening and nature; the Butterfly World habitat was

Erithacus rubecula, Poecile carolinensis and

Juniperus species Bombycilla cedrorum, Coccothraustes vespertinus,

Rhus typhina 98+ species, including genus Colaptes*,* Erithacus

Pipilo and Thraupidae family

Rosa spp. 42+ species, including genus Bombycilla, Passerina

Sambucus spp. 120+ species including genus Ailuroedus, genus

Syringa spp. Cardinalidae family, Fringilla coelebs and Poecile

Viburnum spp. Cardinalidae family, Genus Sialia, Mimidae

inaugurated at Coconut Creek in Florida, in the USA, in 1988.

carolinensis.

Cardinalidae

family

Picidae family and genus Regulus

ludovicianus and Poecile carolinensis

149+, including genus Ailuroedus, Picidae families, genus Tyrannus, Thraupidae family, Zonotrichia leucophrys and Zonotrichia albicollis

Spizella passerina

Ribes spp. 98+ species, including Erithacus rubecula,

family

Rubus allegheniensis

Symphoricarpos orbiculatus

Other attracting plants for birds:

**2.2. Butterfly gardens** 

Vines: Hedera helix, Lonicera spp., Vitis spp., Annuals: Cosmos spp., Helianthus spp., Zinnia spp., Perennials: Aster spp., Centaurea cyanus, Echinacea spp. Grasses: Carex spp., Digitaria spp., Panicum spp. Water plants: Hosta spp., Polygonum spp., Typha spp., **Table 1.** Bird Garden Plant List [8, 12, 28, 30]


Other attracting plants for birds:

268 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Botanical Name Birds Attracted Plant Appeal** 

melanocephalus, Pheucticus ludovicianus

Carduelis carduelis*,* Passerina caerulea, Pheucticus

Morus spp. 40+ species. Fruit ripens July-

glandarius, Loxia curvirostra, Picidae family and

caerulea, Pheucticus melanocephalus, Pheucticus ludovicianus, Pheucticus ludovicianus*,* Picidae

family, Sitta europaea, Toxostoma rufum

Erithacus rubecula, Icteridae family, Picidae family and genus Sialia, Turdus migratorius

Passeridae family, Passerina caerulea, Pheucticus melanocephalus, Pheucticus ludovicianus and

Berberis ssp. Many species Berries ripen in fall;

rubecula, Fringillidae family, Garrulus glandarius,

Crataegus spp. Bombycilla cedrorum, Cardinalidae family Fruits; insects on foliage;

Anatidae family Seeds; shelter

Nutlets; shelter

Fruits ripen in late summer, nesting; shelter

Fruit; nesting site

August; nesting site

site

Fruit

site

site

shelter

summer.

Fruit; shelter

nesting site

Fruit matures in autumn and persists through winter; nesting site

nesting site

Cones; shelter; nesting

Cones on trees 10+ years old; shelter; nesting site

Acorns; insects; shelter;

Cones; shelter; nesting

Cones; shelter; nesting

Fruits ripen in late

Fruit ripens in late August- September

Carpinus spp. Songbirds, especially Cardinalidae family,

Malus spp. 29+ species, including songbirds, Erithacus rubecula and Picidae family

Poecile carolinensis

Sitta europaea

family

Taxodium distichum

**Shrubs**

Pinus spp. Carduelis spinus, Fringilla coelebs, Garrulus

Celtis occidentalis 48 + species, including Erithacus rubecula, Picidae family and Toxostoma rufum

Picea spp. 25+ species, including genus Loxia, Sitta europaea,

Prunus spp. 84+ species, including genus Bombycilla, Passerina

Quercus spp. 60+ species, including Cyanocitta cristata, Picidae

Taxus cuspidata Genus Bombycilla, Cardinalidae family, Turdidae family and many others

Sorbus spp. 20 + species, including genus Bombycilla,

Thuja plicata Cardinalidae family, Erithacus rubecula,

Poecile carolinensis

Cornus spp. 93+ species, including Empidonax minimus,

Cotoneaster spp. Genus Ailuroedus, Cardinalidae family, Erithacus

Ilex decidua 49+ species including genus Ailuroedus, genus

Turdus migratorius and many others

Bombycilla and Erithacus rubecula

Picidae family

Vines: Hedera helix, Lonicera spp., Vitis spp., Annuals: Cosmos spp., Helianthus spp., Zinnia spp., Perennials: Aster spp., Centaurea cyanus, Echinacea spp. Grasses: Carex spp., Digitaria spp., Panicum spp. Water plants: Hosta spp., Polygonum spp., Typha spp.,

**Table 1.** Bird Garden Plant List [8, 12, 28, 30]

## **2.2. Butterfly gardens**

"Butterfly gardening" is the term used to describe the development and maintenance of a tract of land as a butterfly habitat. It involves attracting and retaining populations of butterflies, which, apart from their being beautiful, enable plant reproduction through pollination [14] *.* Butterfly gardening is believed to have begun in England in the 1970s, as an expression of the British love of gardening and nature; the Butterfly World habitat was inaugurated at Coconut Creek in Florida, in the USA, in 1988.

#### *Site selection*

One factor that affects butterflies' activities is wind; strong winds tend to work against them, so a windbreak will be crucial if the chosen site is an open area. Of course, a site surrounded by trees or houses will not need wind protection [21]; however, the site should not be shaded: butterflies need warmth to fly and most plants preferred by butterflies also thrive in sunlight. The ideal site would have a southern exposure and get no less than six hours of sunlight daily [22].

Integrating Ecosytem Landscapes in Cityscape: Birds and Butterflies 271

taller trees or shrubs serving as a windbreak, with another inner layer of tall plants for

Butterflies begin their life cycle as eggs, which are laid on plants and adult hatch into larvae or caterpillars, which first eat their egg shells and then feed on the leaves of their host plant. This is different from the case of the adult butterflies, which feed on primarily on liquid

Some butterfly larvae, such as tent caterpillars, cutworms, and the tobacco hornworm, are seen as pests; most, however, are not, and emerge as beautiful adult butterflies. It is therefore essential that a butterfly garden have plants which will serve as food for different kinds of butterfly larvae, such as flowering plants with long blooming periods and life cycles covering different months. This diversity will create a source of nutrients for a range of species, and also conceal damaged leaves. In any case, the larvae usually do little harm to plants; they also feed on tree sap, organic detritus and animal waste, and adults are often

attracted by fruit which has fallen off plants and lies rotting on the ground.

hibernating butterflies by providing them a place to stay.

*2.2.2. Criterias for planting design in butterfly gardens* 

flowering plants closer to the center.

Butterflies tend to sit and warm themselves on rocks that have been heated by the sun.

Fences or corner nooks and crannies may be used by butterflies as shelters in strong winds

In adverse weather conditions, migrating butterflies usually take shelter in cracks in buildings or trees. A butterfly house is a shelter created specifically to assist migrating and

As noted earlier, in a butterfly garden there should be an appropriate range of plants that will support both the larvae and the adult butterflies [7]. The location of the flowering plants is not simply a matter of aesthetics; they should be planted in clusters, with taller plants in the background and shorter ones in the front, so that the butterflies can have access to the widest possible range of flowers. If the garden is in the middle of an open area, taller plants should be placed in the center and shorter ones at the outer edge, with the shortest

Wood piles also offer butterflies shelter and a place where they can hibernate [31].

further protection [23].

nectar from flowers [27].

*Food* 

*Rocks* 

*Fences* 

and rainstorms.

*Butterfly houses* 

*Wood piles* 

*Butterfly garden equipments* 

#### *Climate*

Sunlight is a critical factor, both for flowers and for butterflies. Butterflies can only fly efficiently when their body temperature is about 85-100F. This is why they tend to rest in the early morning on rocks, bricks or gravel paths that have been heated by the sun. When the temperatures rise during the day, they seek out flowers for their nectar, but only in areas where there is warm sunlight.

## *2.2.1. Criterias for structural design in butterfly gardens*

The area allocated for a butterfly garden can be as small as a 1.5 x 3m strip of land by a path, or as large as a naturally landscaped garden, but drainage and walkways around the beds of plants must be taken into consideration; materials ranging from boards to railroad ties, rocks, bricks, etc., can be used to create a raised-bed butterfly garden.

#### *Open areas*

Because of their need for warmth in order to fly, butterflies need sunny open areas, and these can be supplied by designing open lawns with groundcover and clover, as well as flat surfaces such as rocks or paving stones for the butterflies to rest on; in addition, the clover will provide nectar for adult butterflies, and help the lawns to grow by fixing soil nitrogen.

#### *Water*

Butterflies are unable to drink directly from open water; instead, they "mud-puddle," which means they take in water from the moist areas near open water. This situation can be catered for by leaving a bowl of wet sand or creating a mud puddle in the garden where the butterflies can drink. [23]. If sand is used, ideally it should be salt-saturated beach sand, because the salt helps the male butterflies produce sperm; an added advantage is that the salt keeps away slugs and snails which attack the butterflies' host plants and kill caterpillars [24]. Adding a few rocks or sticks to the bowl or puddle will allow the butterflies to perch on them while they are drinking, and as the male butterfies need extra sodium in the mating season, a little salt can be added to the puddle [25].

#### *Shelter*

Like most fauna, butterflies need shelter from wind and rain, and will tend to take cover in protected areas [26]. They also tend to feed and lay their eggs in warm areas sheltered from the wind. For these reasons, the design of the butterfly garden might well include a row of taller trees or shrubs serving as a windbreak, with another inner layer of tall plants for further protection [23].

### *Food*

270 Advances in Landscape Architecture

One factor that affects butterflies' activities is wind; strong winds tend to work against them, so a windbreak will be crucial if the chosen site is an open area. Of course, a site surrounded by trees or houses will not need wind protection [21]; however, the site should not be shaded: butterflies need warmth to fly and most plants preferred by butterflies also thrive in sunlight. The ideal site would have a southern exposure and get no less than six hours of

Sunlight is a critical factor, both for flowers and for butterflies. Butterflies can only fly efficiently when their body temperature is about 85-100F. This is why they tend to rest in the early morning on rocks, bricks or gravel paths that have been heated by the sun. When the temperatures rise during the day, they seek out flowers for their nectar, but only in areas

The area allocated for a butterfly garden can be as small as a 1.5 x 3m strip of land by a path, or as large as a naturally landscaped garden, but drainage and walkways around the beds of plants must be taken into consideration; materials ranging from boards to railroad ties,

Because of their need for warmth in order to fly, butterflies need sunny open areas, and these can be supplied by designing open lawns with groundcover and clover, as well as flat surfaces such as rocks or paving stones for the butterflies to rest on; in addition, the clover will provide nectar for adult butterflies, and help the lawns to grow by fixing soil nitrogen.

Butterflies are unable to drink directly from open water; instead, they "mud-puddle," which means they take in water from the moist areas near open water. This situation can be catered for by leaving a bowl of wet sand or creating a mud puddle in the garden where the butterflies can drink. [23]. If sand is used, ideally it should be salt-saturated beach sand, because the salt helps the male butterflies produce sperm; an added advantage is that the salt keeps away slugs and snails which attack the butterflies' host plants and kill caterpillars [24]. Adding a few rocks or sticks to the bowl or puddle will allow the butterflies to perch on them while they are drinking, and as the male butterfies need extra sodium in the mating

Like most fauna, butterflies need shelter from wind and rain, and will tend to take cover in protected areas [26]. They also tend to feed and lay their eggs in warm areas sheltered from the wind. For these reasons, the design of the butterfly garden might well include a row of

*Site selection* 

sunlight daily [22].

where there is warm sunlight.

*2.2.1. Criterias for structural design in butterfly gardens* 

season, a little salt can be added to the puddle [25].

rocks, bricks, etc., can be used to create a raised-bed butterfly garden.

*Climate* 

*Open areas* 

*Water* 

*Shelter* 

Butterflies begin their life cycle as eggs, which are laid on plants and adult hatch into larvae or caterpillars, which first eat their egg shells and then feed on the leaves of their host plant. This is different from the case of the adult butterflies, which feed on primarily on liquid nectar from flowers [27].

Some butterfly larvae, such as tent caterpillars, cutworms, and the tobacco hornworm, are seen as pests; most, however, are not, and emerge as beautiful adult butterflies. It is therefore essential that a butterfly garden have plants which will serve as food for different kinds of butterfly larvae, such as flowering plants with long blooming periods and life cycles covering different months. This diversity will create a source of nutrients for a range of species, and also conceal damaged leaves. In any case, the larvae usually do little harm to plants; they also feed on tree sap, organic detritus and animal waste, and adults are often attracted by fruit which has fallen off plants and lies rotting on the ground.

#### *Rocks*

Butterflies tend to sit and warm themselves on rocks that have been heated by the sun.

#### *Fences*

Fences or corner nooks and crannies may be used by butterflies as shelters in strong winds and rainstorms.

#### *Butterfly garden equipments*

#### *Butterfly houses*

In adverse weather conditions, migrating butterflies usually take shelter in cracks in buildings or trees. A butterfly house is a shelter created specifically to assist migrating and hibernating butterflies by providing them a place to stay.

#### *Wood piles*

Wood piles also offer butterflies shelter and a place where they can hibernate [31].

#### *2.2.2. Criterias for planting design in butterfly gardens*

As noted earlier, in a butterfly garden there should be an appropriate range of plants that will support both the larvae and the adult butterflies [7]. The location of the flowering plants is not simply a matter of aesthetics; they should be planted in clusters, with taller plants in the background and shorter ones in the front, so that the butterflies can have access to the widest possible range of flowers. If the garden is in the middle of an open area, taller plants should be placed in the center and shorter ones at the outer edge, with the shortest flowering plants closer to the center.

The types of flowering plant selected are also significant, because the sizes and shapes of flowers may determine the kinds of butterflies that visit them: large butterflies like *Papilio machaon,* for instance, have a tendency to alight on flowers with large compact heads, on which they can rest their bodies while feeding.

Integrating Ecosytem Landscapes in Cityscape: Birds and Butterflies 273

**Attracted** 

antiopa

Danaus plexippus, Junonia coenia, Libytheana carinenta, Nymphalidae families, Papilio polyxenes,

Pyrgus communis,

Danaus plexippus

Papilio zelicaon

Papilio cresphontes

Papilio machaon,

plexippus, Papilio machaon

cresphontes, Papilio glaucas,

cresphontes, Papilio cresphontes

plexippus, Nymphalidae family,

Papilio glaucas, Phyciodes tharos,

Speyeria cybele, Vanessa atalanta

**Nectar Source/Butterflies** 

Enodia anthedon, Nymphalis

**Botanical Name Butterfly Caterpillar/Larval Host**

Prunus spp.Celastrina ladon, genus of

Salix spp. Satyrium liparops, Limenitis

Tilia spp. Polygonia interrogationis Ulmus hybrids Nymphalis antiopa, Polygonia

vaualbum

album

Crataegus spp. Limenitis arthemis, Satyrium liparops

Hamamelis virginiana Celastrina ladon

Hydrangea paniculata

'Tardiva'

Quercus spp. Satyrium liparops

**Shrubs** 

Limenitis, Papilio glaucas,

arthemis, L. archippus, Papilio glaucas, Nymphalis antiopa, N.

interrogationis, Polygonia c-

Cornus sericea spp. Celastrina ladon Libytheana carinenta

Lantana spp. Papilio glaucas, Papilio troilus

Lavandula angustifolia Cupido comyntas, Danaus

Lonicera spp. Hesperia comma, Papilio

Rhododendron spp. Battus philenor, Papilio

Syringa vulgaris Battus philenor, Danaus

Buddleja davidii Battus philenor,

Satyrium liparops

The two basic types of plants that butterflies look for are: first, those that provide nectar for food; and second, host plants, on which the females lay their eggs, and which also serve, when the eggs hatch, as food for the caterpillars.

#### *Nectar plants*

The butterfly garden can include a wide range of nectar plants, comprising a mixture of annuals, perennials, herbs, shrubs and endemic wildflowers (Table 2). Such colorful flowering plants are key to attracting and maintaining butterfly populations [32], for when the female finds these food sources, she will deposit her eggs [24].

#### *Host plants*

Having sufficient host plants in the garden will maintain the butterfly population: when the female is ready to lay, she searches for and locates host plants with leaves that the caterpillars will eat when the eggs hatch. Many species of larvae eat only the flowering parts and ignore the leaves; some feed on the leaves [33]; others feed on the reproductive parts of flowers or seeds. Caterpillars typically spend most of their time feeding on their host plant (Table 2); many starve to death if they cannot find the right plant [25]; and in the end, only about 5% of the 60-150 eggs the female lays will survive to the adult phase.



*Nectar plants* 

*Host plants* 

**Trees** 

which they can rest their bodies while feeding.

when the eggs hatch, as food for the caterpillars.

the female finds these food sources, she will deposit her eggs [24].

about 5% of the 60-150 eggs the female lays will survive to the adult phase.

Vaualbum; Papilio glaucas,

Libytheana carinenta,

interrogationis

Nymphalis antiopa, Polygonia

antiopa, Rubidus Hybrid,

Satyrium liparops

**Botanical Name Butterfly Caterpillar/Larval Host**

Celtis occidentalis Asterocampa celtis, A.clyton;

Amelanchier spp. Satyrium liparops Betula spp. Nymphalis antiopa, N.

Gleditsia triacanthos Hesperia comma Carpinus spp. Limenitis arthemis Carya spp. Satyrium calanus

Juglans nigra Satyrium calanus Liriodendron tulipifera Papilio glaucas

Malus spp. Limenitis, Papilio glaucas Populus spp. Limenitis arthemis, Nymphalis

The types of flowering plant selected are also significant, because the sizes and shapes of flowers may determine the kinds of butterflies that visit them: large butterflies like *Papilio machaon,* for instance, have a tendency to alight on flowers with large compact heads, on

The two basic types of plants that butterflies look for are: first, those that provide nectar for food; and second, host plants, on which the females lay their eggs, and which also serve,

The butterfly garden can include a wide range of nectar plants, comprising a mixture of annuals, perennials, herbs, shrubs and endemic wildflowers (Table 2). Such colorful flowering plants are key to attracting and maintaining butterfly populations [32], for when

Having sufficient host plants in the garden will maintain the butterfly population: when the female is ready to lay, she searches for and locates host plants with leaves that the caterpillars will eat when the eggs hatch. Many species of larvae eat only the flowering parts and ignore the leaves; some feed on the leaves [33]; others feed on the reproductive parts of flowers or seeds. Caterpillars typically spend most of their time feeding on their host plant (Table 2); many starve to death if they cannot find the right plant [25]; and in the end, only

**Nectar Source/Butterflies** 

**Attracted** 

Enodia anthedon

Enodia anthedon


Integrating Ecosytem Landscapes in Cityscape: Birds and Butterflies 275

populations can easily be increased and maintained with some basic knowledge and organization. Urban ecological environments for them do not need much land; indeed,

Urban ecological gardens can be created by carrying out an analysis of the proposed site, and selecting and arranging the planting of appropriate vegetation and other design elements. Birds and butterflies have the same fundamental needs – food, water, safety, and shelter – and these needs can be met through the creation of simple constructions such as water features and feeding stations, as well as through basic procedures that afford

There are some design differences in the construction of gardens for birds and those for butterflies: while butterflies need what is provided by particular plants, birds tend to need particular kinds of habitat structures which facilitate sheltering, roosting, nesting, and foodfinding. These structures may range from open plains, to deep woods, to a combination of both [37]. Butterflies prefer, and indeed need, the warmth of the sun, whereas birds make use of both sun and shade. Water features (e.g. the bird bath) are more important for bird gardens than for butterfly gardens, because birds need to drink more to cool themselves.

Food is, of course, important for both birds and butterflies; increasing its availability. will result in larger populations of both in the cityscape [11]. For butterflies, the food source of the host plant is needed for the larval phase, and nectar for the adult. Food sources like berries will attract the birds; fragrant flowers will draw in the butterflies. Certain types of equipment can also enhance the appeal and sustenance provided by both types of urban ecological garden: these include bird houses, feeders and dead trees for bird gardens; and

The design and organization of vegetation plays a critical role in both types of garden; in each case the garden should be seen as comprised of three basic areas: the background, middleground and foreground. The background area, comprising purpose-planted trees and shrubs, functions as a windbreak, and also as a backdrop for the flowers. The middleground, comprising clusters of colorful, medium to tall flowers, is the central focus of the garden; and the foreground, with low-growing plants, marks its front boundary. Unmowed areas of gardens where nature is left to itself may have more diverse plant species than are found in mowed areas, and so form better habitats with more food sources. Because adult butterflies are more likely to recognize plant masses than individual plants, there should be relatively more massed vegetation in butterfly gardens than in bird gardens.

In the planning of ecological urban gardens, it should be reiterated that plants that produce seeds, berries, fruit, or nuts tend to attract birds, while fragrant and nectar-producing flowers attract butterflies; and that host plants are also critical for butterflies, especially in the larval period. Nectar plants which also serve as food sources are the main desirable plants for both birds and butterflies. Ecological urban gardens usually contain a mixture of such plants, both endemic and non-endemic [38], and the landscape should be designed to reflect the natural environment. Research indicates that the range of bird species seen in these gardens increases

the more endemic plants they contain, and the greater the total plant biomass [39].

existing gardens can be modified for this purpose [32].

butterfly houses and wood piles for butterfly gardens.

protection from predators, and privacy.

Other attracting plants for butterfly:

Annuals: Antirrhinum spp., Cleome spp., Echium vulgare, Helianthus spp., Tropaeolum majus.

Perennials: Asclepias spp., Aster spp., Carex spp., Centaurea spp., Coreopsis spp., Echinops ritro, Rudbeckia hirta, Solidago spp., Viola odorata, Verbena spp.

Herbs: Anethum graveolens, Artemisia dracunculus, Humulus lupulus, Levisticum officinale, Mentha spp., Origanum vulgare, Salvia officinalis.

Weeds: Boehmeria spp., Plantago spp., Trifolium spp., Urtica spp.

**Table 2.** Butterfly Garden Plant List [24, 34, 35, 36]

#### *Color*

The flowers selected for a butterfly garden should have a variety of colors [32]. Each butterfly species has its own preferences as regards color, but they usually tend to prefer warm colors such as reds, yellows, and oranges, and especially purple, white, yellow, and pink [27].

#### *Fragrance*

Yet another factor that affects butterflies' choice of habitat is fragrance, which may surpass color in significance [2]. Butterflies' antennae are speckled with thousands of minute holes that absorb scents so intensely that they can pick up the fragrance of flowers up to two miles away. Flowers such as *Lavandula, Syringa* and *Lonicera* emit strong scents to attract butterflies for pollination [25], as do the wild flowers that grow in fields, meadows, and beside roads [29].

## **2.3. Maintenance of butterfly and bird gardens**

These gardens should be maintained in much the same way as any other flower garden. Applying 5-7.5cm of a coarse wood chip mulch enhances the soil, prevents weed growth, helps the soil to retain moisture, and also provides cover for butterfly pupae and beneficial insects.

The greatest problem for butterfly gardens is the growth of undesirable plants such as weeds and grasses that might crowd out the adult butterflies' nectar plants and the larvae's host plants [3]. During weeding and pruning, care should be taken not to damage or destroy butterfly eggs, which are frequently laid on the undersides of leaves and other parts of host plants [2]. Pesticides should be avoided [25]; organic pest control in the form of insectrepelling plants should be used instead.

## **3. Conclusion**

Butterflies and birds, in contrast to most fauna, are not restricted in their habitat to distant natural environments; they live in both rural and urban environments, and their populations can easily be increased and maintained with some basic knowledge and organization. Urban ecological environments for them do not need much land; indeed, existing gardens can be modified for this purpose [32].

274 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Other attracting plants for butterfly:

vulgare, Salvia officinalis.

*Color* 

*Fragrance* 

beside roads [29].

**3. Conclusion** 

Solidago spp., Viola odorata, Verbena spp.

**Botanical Name Butterfly Caterpillar/Larval Host**

Weeds: Boehmeria spp., Plantago spp., Trifolium spp., Urtica spp.

**2.3. Maintenance of butterfly and bird gardens** 

repelling plants should be used instead.

**Table 2.** Butterfly Garden Plant List [24, 34, 35, 36]

Viburnum lentago Celastrina ladon

**Nectar Source/Butterflies** 

**Attracted** 

atalanta

Viburnum dentatum Macroglossum stellatarum Polygonia interrogationis, Vanessa

Perennials: Asclepias spp., Aster spp., Carex spp., Centaurea spp., Coreopsis spp., Echinops ritro, Rudbeckia hirta,

Herbs: Anethum graveolens, Artemisia dracunculus, Humulus lupulus, Levisticum officinale, Mentha spp., Origanum

The flowers selected for a butterfly garden should have a variety of colors [32]. Each butterfly species has its own preferences as regards color, but they usually tend to prefer warm colors

Yet another factor that affects butterflies' choice of habitat is fragrance, which may surpass color in significance [2]. Butterflies' antennae are speckled with thousands of minute holes that absorb scents so intensely that they can pick up the fragrance of flowers up to two miles away. Flowers such as *Lavandula, Syringa* and *Lonicera* emit strong scents to attract butterflies for pollination [25], as do the wild flowers that grow in fields, meadows, and

These gardens should be maintained in much the same way as any other flower garden. Applying 5-7.5cm of a coarse wood chip mulch enhances the soil, prevents weed growth, helps the soil to retain moisture, and also provides cover for butterfly pupae and beneficial insects.

The greatest problem for butterfly gardens is the growth of undesirable plants such as weeds and grasses that might crowd out the adult butterflies' nectar plants and the larvae's host plants [3]. During weeding and pruning, care should be taken not to damage or destroy butterfly eggs, which are frequently laid on the undersides of leaves and other parts of host plants [2]. Pesticides should be avoided [25]; organic pest control in the form of insect-

Butterflies and birds, in contrast to most fauna, are not restricted in their habitat to distant natural environments; they live in both rural and urban environments, and their

such as reds, yellows, and oranges, and especially purple, white, yellow, and pink [27].

Annuals: Antirrhinum spp., Cleome spp., Echium vulgare, Helianthus spp., Tropaeolum majus.

Urban ecological gardens can be created by carrying out an analysis of the proposed site, and selecting and arranging the planting of appropriate vegetation and other design elements. Birds and butterflies have the same fundamental needs – food, water, safety, and shelter – and these needs can be met through the creation of simple constructions such as water features and feeding stations, as well as through basic procedures that afford protection from predators, and privacy.

There are some design differences in the construction of gardens for birds and those for butterflies: while butterflies need what is provided by particular plants, birds tend to need particular kinds of habitat structures which facilitate sheltering, roosting, nesting, and foodfinding. These structures may range from open plains, to deep woods, to a combination of both [37]. Butterflies prefer, and indeed need, the warmth of the sun, whereas birds make use of both sun and shade. Water features (e.g. the bird bath) are more important for bird gardens than for butterfly gardens, because birds need to drink more to cool themselves.

Food is, of course, important for both birds and butterflies; increasing its availability. will result in larger populations of both in the cityscape [11]. For butterflies, the food source of the host plant is needed for the larval phase, and nectar for the adult. Food sources like berries will attract the birds; fragrant flowers will draw in the butterflies. Certain types of equipment can also enhance the appeal and sustenance provided by both types of urban ecological garden: these include bird houses, feeders and dead trees for bird gardens; and butterfly houses and wood piles for butterfly gardens.

The design and organization of vegetation plays a critical role in both types of garden; in each case the garden should be seen as comprised of three basic areas: the background, middleground and foreground. The background area, comprising purpose-planted trees and shrubs, functions as a windbreak, and also as a backdrop for the flowers. The middleground, comprising clusters of colorful, medium to tall flowers, is the central focus of the garden; and the foreground, with low-growing plants, marks its front boundary. Unmowed areas of gardens where nature is left to itself may have more diverse plant species than are found in mowed areas, and so form better habitats with more food sources. Because adult butterflies are more likely to recognize plant masses than individual plants, there should be relatively more massed vegetation in butterfly gardens than in bird gardens.

In the planning of ecological urban gardens, it should be reiterated that plants that produce seeds, berries, fruit, or nuts tend to attract birds, while fragrant and nectar-producing flowers attract butterflies; and that host plants are also critical for butterflies, especially in the larval period. Nectar plants which also serve as food sources are the main desirable plants for both birds and butterflies. Ecological urban gardens usually contain a mixture of such plants, both endemic and non-endemic [38], and the landscape should be designed to reflect the natural environment. Research indicates that the range of bird species seen in these gardens increases the more endemic plants they contain, and the greater the total plant biomass [39].

Today in the cityscape context, landscaping based on ecological principles is increasing in importance, and the successful creation, development and maintenance of sustainable environments requires both the construction of natural habitats, and the attraction to these habitats of compatible and balanced populations of wildlife species. Bird and butterfly gardens are paradigms for the new eco-friendly city.

Integrating Ecosytem Landscapes in Cityscape: Birds and Butterflies 277

[14] Moss, Stephen. The Garden Bird Handbook: How to Attract, Identify and Watch the

[15] Whittley, Sarah and Cole, Dan. The Garden Bird Book, Publisher: New Holland

[16] Golley, Mark and Moss, Stephen and Daly, Dave. The Complete Garden Bird Book: How to Identify and Attract Birds to Your Garden, New Holland Publishers (UK);

[17] Fuller, Richard A. and Warren, Philip H.and Armsworth, Paul R.and Barbosa, Olga, and Gaston, Kevin. Garden bird feeding predicts the structure of urban avian assemblages, Biodiversity Research, Diversity and Distributions (Diversity Distrib.)

[18] Hostetler, Mark E. and Klowden, Gregg and Miller, Sarah Webb and Youngentob Kara N. Landscaping Backyards for Wildlife: Top Ten Tips for Success, University of Florida IFAS Extension; 2012, http://manatee.ifas.ufl.edu/lawn\_and\_garden/mastergardener/gardening-manatee-style/b/backyard-wildlife-habitats.pdf (accessed 20

[19] Rose, Tui. Green, Healthy & Thrifty Gardening Helpful Hints: A Practical Guidebook of 1001 Wholesome Living Solutions to Make Life Easier & Save Money with Safe &

[20] Bender, Kelly Conrad. Texas Wildscapes: Gardening for Wildlife, The Texas A & M

[21] Schlicht, Dennis W. and Downey, John C. and Nekola, Jeffrey C. The Butterflies of Iowa,

[22] Lewis, Alcinda and Buchanan, Steve. Butterfly Gardens: Luring Nature's Loveliest Pollinators to Your Yard (21st Century Gardening), Publisher: Brooklyn Botanic

[23] Krischik, Vera. Creating a Butterfly Garden From Butterfly Gardening, Regents of the

[24] Mikula, Rick. Garden Butterflies of North America: A Gallery of Garden Butterflies &

[25] Lamb, S. and Chambers, S. and Allen N. Create a Butterfly Garden, The Wildlife

[26] Harris, Linda, D. Gardens for Birds, Hummingbirds & Butterflies (Black & Decker Outdoor Home), Creative Publishing International, US; illustrated edition edition;

[27] Barnes, Thomas, G. Gardening for the Birds, The University Press of Kentucky;

http://www.mortonarb.org/?option=com\_content&view=article&id=868&Itemid=6

[30] Oddie, Bill, Beddard, Roy. The Garden Bird Year: A Seasonal Guide to Enjoying the

Birds in Your Garden, New Hollond Publishers(UK); 2006.

Natural Non-Toxic Tips, CCB Publishing; 2012.

University of Iowa Press; 2007.

University of Minnesota; 2012.

[28] Trees and shrubs that attract birds,

(accessed 20 January 2013)

Nature Guides Edition, Texas A&M University Press; 2009.

How to Attract Them, Publisher: Willow Creek Press; 2001.

Garden, Oregon State University Extension Service Press; 2002.

[29] Malam, John. Grow Your Own Butterfly Farm, Publisher: Raintree; 2012.

Birds in Your Garden New Holland Publishers Ltd; 2007.

Publishers Ltd; 2006.

2008;14, 131–137

January 2013)

Garden; 2007.

2001.

1999.

2001.

## **Author details**

Gökçen Firdevs Yücel *Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Istanbul Aydn University, Istanbul, Turkey* 

## **4. References**


[14] Moss, Stephen. The Garden Bird Handbook: How to Attract, Identify and Watch the Birds in Your Garden, New Hollond Publishers(UK); 2006.

276 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Author details** 

**4. References** 

Press;2001.

2010.

2001.

1st edition; 2001.

Garden; 1998.

Gökçen Firdevs Yücel

gardens are paradigms for the new eco-friendly city.

Today in the cityscape context, landscaping based on ecological principles is increasing in importance, and the successful creation, development and maintenance of sustainable environments requires both the construction of natural habitats, and the attraction to these habitats of compatible and balanced populations of wildlife species. Bird and butterfly

[1] Lex, Hes and Roy, Tredler. Attracting Birds to Your Garden in Southern Africa,

[2] Gochfeld, Michael and Burger, Joanna. Butterflies of New Jersey: A Guide to Their Status, Distribution, and Appreciation, Publisher: Rutgers University Press; 1996. [3] Shepard, John and Guppy, Crispin. Butterflies of British Columbia: Including Western Alberta, Southern Yukon, the Alaska Panhandle, Washington, Northern Oregon, Northern Idaho, and Northwestern Montana, University of British Columbia

[4] Ortho. Ortho's All About Attracting Hummingbirds and Butterflies, Publisher: Ortho;

[5] Gaston, Kevin. J.Urban Ecology (Ecological Reviews), Cambridge University Press;

[6] Kress, Stephen W. Bird Gardens (21st Century Gardening), Publisher: Brooklyn Botanic

[7] Livingston, Margaret. Landscape design for attracting wildlife in southwestern urban environments, Proceedings 4th International Urban Wildlife Symposium; 2004. [8] Zickefoose, Julie. The Bird-Friendly Backyard: Natural Gardening for Birds: Simple Ways to Create a Bird Haven (Rodale Organic Gardening Book), Publisher: Rodale Pr. ;

[9] Adams, George. Birdscaping Your Garden: A Practical Guide to Backyard Birds and the

[10] Marinelli, Janet. The Wildlife Gardener's Guide (Brooklyn Botanic Garden All-Region

[11] Fuller, Richard A. and Warren, Philip H.and Armsworth, Paul R. And Barbosa, Olga and Gaston, Kevin J. Garden bird feeding predicts the structure of urban avian

[12] Ellis, Barbara W. Attracting Birds and Butterflies (Taylor's Guides), Publisher:

[13] Newfield, Nancy L. Hummingbird Gardens - Attracting Nature's Jewels to Your

Plants That Attract Them, Publisher: Rodale Pr; First Edition edition; 1994.

Guides), Publisher: Brooklyn Botanic Garden; 2008.

Backyard, Publisher: W. W. Norton & Co; 1996.

Houghton Mifflin (Trade); 1997.

assemblages, Diversity and Distributions; 2008, 14, 1, 131–137

*Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Istanbul Aydn University, Istanbul, Turkey* 

Publisher: Struik Publishers; 2nd Revised edition edition; 2000.

	- [31] Sprenkel, Richard. Getting Started in Butterfly Gardening, Entomology and Nematology Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, 2005.

**Chapter 11** 

© 2013 Ak, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Visual Quality Assessment Methods** 

In our day, the continuous rise in population density and technological developments make urban life attractive. However, this situation has inevitable negative influences on human factors. The psychological pressure which is a result of these negative influences alienates human from natural life and makes human beings' admirations and expectations

The visual problems, which are the reflection of changes in urban landscape design, causes loss of prestige for many settlements and decreases the values of natural-cultural landscape

While environmental issues are becoming more and more problematic and the size of green areas is decreasing day by day, the importance of natural resources are comprehended more seriously in today's conditions. Therefore, it can be accepted that the landscape is not just an economic issue but also an aesthetic one to evaluate and discuss about (Erdönmez and Kaptanoğlu, 2007). "Visual quality assessment" becomes an indispensable research topic

This point depends on visual perception and it can be called as "visual quality" in cities and "scenery beauty" in rural areas. Similar to the natural and cultural landscape areas, perceiving a space in recreational areas in terms of visuality influences the active or passive usage of these areas (Polat et al, 2012). Therefore, in order to develop the quality of recreational areas and increase users' satisfaction, specifying users' demographical characteristics is

When more than half of the last century is taken into account, landscape quality assessment can be seen as a contest between expert or design approach and public perceptual approach.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

important in studies about "visual quality assessment" in landscape design.

**in Landscape Architecture Studies** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

when landscape is discussed as an aesthetic entity.

Mehmet Kıvanç Ak

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55769

(Coşkun and Kaplan, 2001).

**1. Introduction** 

different.


## **Chapter 11**

## **Visual Quality Assessment Methods in Landscape Architecture Studies**

Mehmet Kıvanç Ak

278 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Publisher: Rodale Press; 2002.

butterflies.html (accessed 20 January 2013)

[36] Plants that Attract Butterflies,

[31] Sprenkel, Richard. Getting Started in Butterfly Gardening, Entomology and Nematology Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and

[33] Allen, Thomas J. Caterpillars in the Field and Garden - A field guide to the butterfly

[34] Roth, Sally. Attracting Butterflies & Hummingbirds to Your Backyard: Watch Your Garden Come Alive with Beauty on the Wing (Rodale Organic Gardening Books),

[37] Lowry, Judith Larner. Gardening With a Wild Heart: Restoring California's Native

[38] Bauer, Nancy. The California Wildlife Habitat Garden: How to Attract Bees, Butterflies,

[39] Day, Tim D. Bird species composition and abundance in relation to native plants in

http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/IN/IN56400.pdf (accessed 20 January 2013)

[35] Shalaway, Scott. Butterflies in the Backyard, Publisher: Stackpole Books; 2004.

http://www.mortonarb.org/tree-plant-advice/article/889/plants-that-attract-

[32] Capinera, John L. Encyclopedia of Entomology, Springer Press; 2008.

caterpillar of North America, Oxford University Press; 2005.

Landscapes at Home, University of California Press; 2007.

Birds, and Other Animals, University of California Press; 2012.

urban gardens, Hamilton, New Zealand, Notornis;1995, 42, 3, 172–186.

Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, 2005.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55769

## **1. Introduction**

In our day, the continuous rise in population density and technological developments make urban life attractive. However, this situation has inevitable negative influences on human factors. The psychological pressure which is a result of these negative influences alienates human from natural life and makes human beings' admirations and expectations different.

The visual problems, which are the reflection of changes in urban landscape design, causes loss of prestige for many settlements and decreases the values of natural-cultural landscape (Coşkun and Kaplan, 2001).

While environmental issues are becoming more and more problematic and the size of green areas is decreasing day by day, the importance of natural resources are comprehended more seriously in today's conditions. Therefore, it can be accepted that the landscape is not just an economic issue but also an aesthetic one to evaluate and discuss about (Erdönmez and Kaptanoğlu, 2007). "Visual quality assessment" becomes an indispensable research topic when landscape is discussed as an aesthetic entity.

This point depends on visual perception and it can be called as "visual quality" in cities and "scenery beauty" in rural areas. Similar to the natural and cultural landscape areas, perceiving a space in recreational areas in terms of visuality influences the active or passive usage of these areas (Polat et al, 2012). Therefore, in order to develop the quality of recreational areas and increase users' satisfaction, specifying users' demographical characteristics is important in studies about "visual quality assessment" in landscape design.

When more than half of the last century is taken into account, landscape quality assessment can be seen as a contest between expert or design approach and public perceptual approach.

The previous studies mostly developed perception-centred approaches. These studies are usually used in sustainable environmental perception and landscape assessment research. Furthermore, the same studies are developed for public land administration practice. Both approaches put forward the fundamental idea which claims that biophysical characteristics are in interaction with the components of environment, human perception or experience. Landscape quality consists of the relationship between the characteristics of landscape and the influence of these characteristics on the users (Daniel, 2001).

Visual Quality Assessment Methods in Landscape Architecture Studies 281

Even though the literature shows that there are different definitions of visual quality concept in landscape design, it can be argued that the implied concept and the elements that

Landscape visual quality is simply defined as 'the aesthetical perfection of landscape' (Polat and Önder, 2011). According to Daniel (2001), landscape visual quality is a common product of the observer's psychological (perceptual, cognitive, emotional) process which is in an interaction with apparent (visible) landscape characteristics. According to Kaln (2004), visual quality for an environment has a remarkable perceptual and objective structure as it includes many variables inside of it. Because of this characteristic, 'visual quality' is probably one of the hardest phenomenons that can be analysed and measured in an

In general, visual quality is a concept which shows the degrees of people's opinions and

According to Porteous (1996), the concept of aesthetic originates from the Greek words "aisthanesthai" which means 'to perceive', and "aistheta" which means 'perceivable objects'. The lexical meaning of aesthetic is defined as the knowledge which was derived from senses

When its theoretical aspects are taken into account, aesthetics is one of the environmental design criteria which influences the protection and development of the 'landscape visual quality' for an ecological and sustainable landscaping (Kamicaityte and Janusatis, 2004). In this context, researchers' work would become easier by using the analyses on spatial applications. Photographic images and digital drawings are usually used as a method in order to evaluate the environmental quality. Most research projects showed that there are clear similarities between the actual land and the photographs which were employed in the surveys for the users. This means that objective results can be gathered even if the participants in the survey only make comments by looking at the images instead of going to the actual land. In addition to landscape designers and expert resource managers, different professionals such as ecologists, geographers, environmental experts and psychologists also use visual quality assessment in their research projects. Each profession discipline looks for a different method. 'Visual quality assessment' in landscape design are usually named as the

When the approaches on aesthetic perception are considered, it can be seen that different methods were used concerning the studies on 'visual quality assessment'. Table 1 below

While the expert approach is particularly powerful in environmental management applications, the approaches which are based on user perception are dominant in research

aesthetic admirations about living creatures, objects and the view around them.

Visual quality concept

is served for are similar.

environment.

(Çakc, 2007).

The concept of aesthetic

perceptual interactivity of people (Lu et al., 2012).

categorised these approaches in brief.

Visual assessment studies focus on evaluating the visual characteristics, locational installation, and social life of a place or a route on a perceptual basis (including all sense organs, especially the eyes) within a functional relationship. These assessments become operative in urban settlements such as a broad place which includes a whole city or a division of a settlement or a route (boulevard, main road, street). The findings from the assessments also shape people's daily life, physical planning and design works (Kaplan and Hepcan, 2004).

This study presents an analysis of quality assessment and assessment approaches in landscape architecture, together with conducting a broad literature review and how the was used in practice. "Landscape quality assessment" studies claim that users' admirations and expectations have an influence on their awareness. Therefore, the studies put forward that landscape should not only be evaluated with design rules, and argue that the users' admirations should also be taken into account together with these rules.

## **2. Landscape architecture and visual quality**

It is immensely important to explain what 'landscape' means in order to better analyse the work of 'visual quality assessment' within the profession discipline of landscape architecture. This is because visual quality works can be a research topic for different profession disciplines.

In this context,

Landscape concept

Landscape is the view which situates in an observable frame and is composed of natural and cultural substances. At the same time, the notion refers to our capacity of how and how much we perceive the materials that surround us and how we setup a relationship with them. Landscapes are the most important aspects in setting up our locational identities. By the help of nature and history, landscapes provide the fundamental interaction amongst human (L.C.A., 2008).

Moreover, the lexical meaning of 'landscape' refers to a scene which comprises the natural beauties of a region or an area. In other words, it refers to the total land form or shape of a region. According to another definition, landscape can be described as a piece of area which is positioned in a certain view frame. It also refers to a composition of all natural and cultural environments within the aforementioned frame (Acar, 2003).

#### Visual quality concept

280 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Hepcan, 2004).

profession disciplines.

Landscape concept

human (L.C.A., 2008).

In this context,

The previous studies mostly developed perception-centred approaches. These studies are usually used in sustainable environmental perception and landscape assessment research. Furthermore, the same studies are developed for public land administration practice. Both approaches put forward the fundamental idea which claims that biophysical characteristics are in interaction with the components of environment, human perception or experience. Landscape quality consists of the relationship between the characteristics of landscape and

Visual assessment studies focus on evaluating the visual characteristics, locational installation, and social life of a place or a route on a perceptual basis (including all sense organs, especially the eyes) within a functional relationship. These assessments become operative in urban settlements such as a broad place which includes a whole city or a division of a settlement or a route (boulevard, main road, street). The findings from the assessments also shape people's daily life, physical planning and design works (Kaplan and

This study presents an analysis of quality assessment and assessment approaches in landscape architecture, together with conducting a broad literature review and how the was used in practice. "Landscape quality assessment" studies claim that users' admirations and expectations have an influence on their awareness. Therefore, the studies put forward that landscape should not only be evaluated with design rules, and argue that the users'

It is immensely important to explain what 'landscape' means in order to better analyse the work of 'visual quality assessment' within the profession discipline of landscape architecture. This is because visual quality works can be a research topic for different

Landscape is the view which situates in an observable frame and is composed of natural and cultural substances. At the same time, the notion refers to our capacity of how and how much we perceive the materials that surround us and how we setup a relationship with them. Landscapes are the most important aspects in setting up our locational identities. By the help of nature and history, landscapes provide the fundamental interaction amongst

Moreover, the lexical meaning of 'landscape' refers to a scene which comprises the natural beauties of a region or an area. In other words, it refers to the total land form or shape of a region. According to another definition, landscape can be described as a piece of area which is positioned in a certain view frame. It also refers to a composition of all natural and

cultural environments within the aforementioned frame (Acar, 2003).

the influence of these characteristics on the users (Daniel, 2001).

admirations should also be taken into account together with these rules.

**2. Landscape architecture and visual quality** 

Even though the literature shows that there are different definitions of visual quality concept in landscape design, it can be argued that the implied concept and the elements that is served for are similar.

Landscape visual quality is simply defined as 'the aesthetical perfection of landscape' (Polat and Önder, 2011). According to Daniel (2001), landscape visual quality is a common product of the observer's psychological (perceptual, cognitive, emotional) process which is in an interaction with apparent (visible) landscape characteristics. According to Kaln (2004), visual quality for an environment has a remarkable perceptual and objective structure as it includes many variables inside of it. Because of this characteristic, 'visual quality' is probably one of the hardest phenomenons that can be analysed and measured in an environment.

In general, visual quality is a concept which shows the degrees of people's opinions and aesthetic admirations about living creatures, objects and the view around them.

The concept of aesthetic

According to Porteous (1996), the concept of aesthetic originates from the Greek words "aisthanesthai" which means 'to perceive', and "aistheta" which means 'perceivable objects'. The lexical meaning of aesthetic is defined as the knowledge which was derived from senses (Çakc, 2007).

When its theoretical aspects are taken into account, aesthetics is one of the environmental design criteria which influences the protection and development of the 'landscape visual quality' for an ecological and sustainable landscaping (Kamicaityte and Janusatis, 2004). In this context, researchers' work would become easier by using the analyses on spatial applications. Photographic images and digital drawings are usually used as a method in order to evaluate the environmental quality. Most research projects showed that there are clear similarities between the actual land and the photographs which were employed in the surveys for the users. This means that objective results can be gathered even if the participants in the survey only make comments by looking at the images instead of going to the actual land. In addition to landscape designers and expert resource managers, different professionals such as ecologists, geographers, environmental experts and psychologists also use visual quality assessment in their research projects. Each profession discipline looks for a different method. 'Visual quality assessment' in landscape design are usually named as the perceptual interactivity of people (Lu et al., 2012).

When the approaches on aesthetic perception are considered, it can be seen that different methods were used concerning the studies on 'visual quality assessment'. Table 1 below categorised these approaches in brief.

While the expert approach is particularly powerful in environmental management applications, the approaches which are based on user perception are dominant in research projects. Both approaches accept that landscape quality originates from the interaction between the landscape's biological and the observer's perceptual process. The difference between the two approaches is the mutual dominancy of expert and user. In today's approach model, it is internalised that the first two approaches should be applied in parallel. This research, which prefers to evaluate the users' preferences and the experts' ideas together, is preferred more as it allows analysis and investigation in landscape planning and design (Erdönmez and Kaptanoğlu, 2007).

Visual Quality Assessment Methods in Landscape Architecture Studies 283

whether the salient criteria, which were evaluated by the users, are statistically meaningful

Visual quality studies directly address the users and they have an impact on the users. Therefore, it is important that planners and designers take into account the public opinion before a decision-making process in order to conduct the research in an objective way. According to the current literature, collaborating with the users and providing a good communication with them by employing photomontage and simulation techniques on the users have a positive impact on decision-making process in environmental design (Mahdjoubi and Wiltshire, 2001). It is observed that the visual techniques (photomontage, simulation, etc) that are used in research projects encourage the users' participation in the decision making process. This kind of comparison work lets the participants imagine their living space beforehand which is beneficial for us to perceive the participants' impressions. These impressions gathered from the participants are interpreted together with the experts' views. Accordingly, this provides a more objective evaluation in scientific research about

The previous research also shows that the planning and design decisions which were supported by simulation and photomontage methods, carried out by the users, are more reliable and practical knowledge (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989; Nasar, 1988; Nasar 1998; Purcell, 1986; Zube 1980). While Chon (2004) argues that the research related to environmental preference is usually presented with one criterion to the users, Moore (1989) claims that the preference of more than one user supports an interactive view. As a result of

Likability represents a psychological construction which includes subjective assessments

According to Lothian (2012), evaluation and mapping works in Australia was conducted by 'National Trust'. In their work, soil-geology, bio-diversity - geomorphology, rivers-lakes and the characteristics which were emphasised by those were analysed. The aim of the analysis was to explore the quality of landscape. However, the biggest shortcoming of their work was the exclusion of the public in the research. Therefore, the studies were by and large

In order to carry out the landscape analysis work in an objective way, the studies should include observation, analysis and synthesis, and these should undergo the cognitive process of human brain. On the other hand -within the scope of assessing qualitative values- visual quality, including the liked and not liked, is an emotional process which consist of people's preferences. Therefore, in this context, the components are analysed and the preferences are evaluated. Lothian's work about 'visual landscape quality' (2012) underlines that the

about environment (Nasar, 1998). Likability includes two types of variables. They are:

The method which was used in their studies are summarised in Figure 1 below.

participation of the local users brought more objective results in the Figure 2 below.

the interactivity of users' perception and aesthetics, 'environment' occurs.

or not.

visual quality (Chon, 2004).

Physical environment,

User's reaction

unsuccessful.


**Table 1.** The approaches which are used in visual quality assessment studies

## **3. Visual quality assessment**

In visual landscape assessments -in accordance with landscape planning, design and management objectives- there are several inventory analysis and assessments for different visual characteristics of landscape (Palmer and Hoffmann, 2000). Systematic visual landscape quality assessment developed and manifested in the second half of the 20th century. It started to be an actor in environmental management and policies, and became a scientific research area with its important literature (Özhanc and Ylmaz, 2011).

In this sense, the fundamental of today's 'visual quality assessment' studies originates from Kevin Lynch who published the book "The Image of the City" in 1960. The factors concerning the production of 'urban images', listed in Lynch's book (1960), light the way for many studies in the field.

Urban landscape is an important concept which mobilises people's joy and emotions, keeps them away from their daily life's stress, and psychologically refreshes them. For this purpose, renovating a city and its environment by a systematic way is only possible by using 'visual quality assessment' studies (Lynch, 1960). In this context, Nasar (1998) emphasised that the users' preferences can be measured in order to designate the likability degree of the elements that people like or not in different sectors of their cities (Chon, 2004).

In order to understand the importance of environment, investigating how people react to different characteristics of the environment is required. Therefore, experts want to know whether the salient criteria, which were evaluated by the users, are statistically meaningful or not.

Visual quality studies directly address the users and they have an impact on the users. Therefore, it is important that planners and designers take into account the public opinion before a decision-making process in order to conduct the research in an objective way. According to the current literature, collaborating with the users and providing a good communication with them by employing photomontage and simulation techniques on the users have a positive impact on decision-making process in environmental design (Mahdjoubi and Wiltshire, 2001). It is observed that the visual techniques (photomontage, simulation, etc) that are used in research projects encourage the users' participation in the decision making process. This kind of comparison work lets the participants imagine their living space beforehand which is beneficial for us to perceive the participants' impressions. These impressions gathered from the participants are interpreted together with the experts' views. Accordingly, this provides a more objective evaluation in scientific research about visual quality (Chon, 2004).

The previous research also shows that the planning and design decisions which were supported by simulation and photomontage methods, carried out by the users, are more reliable and practical knowledge (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989; Nasar, 1988; Nasar 1998; Purcell, 1986; Zube 1980). While Chon (2004) argues that the research related to environmental preference is usually presented with one criterion to the users, Moore (1989) claims that the preference of more than one user supports an interactive view. As a result of the interactivity of users' perception and aesthetics, 'environment' occurs.

Likability represents a psychological construction which includes subjective assessments about environment (Nasar, 1998). Likability includes two types of variables. They are:


282 Advances in Landscape Architecture

experts' opinion

the perception of users.

many studies in the field.

(Chon, 2004).

design (Erdönmez and Kaptanoğlu, 2007).

The evaluation approach which is based on

The evaluation approach which is based on

**Table 1.** The approaches which are used in visual quality assessment studies

The visual quality assessment approach which is based on the convergence of users'

preferences and experts' opinions.

**3. Visual quality assessment** 

projects. Both approaches accept that landscape quality originates from the interaction between the landscape's biological and the observer's perceptual process. The difference between the two approaches is the mutual dominancy of expert and user. In today's approach model, it is internalised that the first two approaches should be applied in parallel. This research, which prefers to evaluate the users' preferences and the experts' ideas together, is preferred more as it allows analysis and investigation in landscape planning and

**APPROACHES APPLICATION AREAS** 

In visual landscape assessments -in accordance with landscape planning, design and management objectives- there are several inventory analysis and assessments for different visual characteristics of landscape (Palmer and Hoffmann, 2000). Systematic visual landscape quality assessment developed and manifested in the second half of the 20th century. It started to be an actor in environmental management and policies, and became a

In this sense, the fundamental of today's 'visual quality assessment' studies originates from Kevin Lynch who published the book "The Image of the City" in 1960. The factors concerning the production of 'urban images', listed in Lynch's book (1960), light the way for

Urban landscape is an important concept which mobilises people's joy and emotions, keeps them away from their daily life's stress, and psychologically refreshes them. For this purpose, renovating a city and its environment by a systematic way is only possible by using 'visual quality assessment' studies (Lynch, 1960). In this context, Nasar (1998) emphasised that the users' preferences can be measured in order to designate the likability degree of the elements that people like or not in different sectors of their cities

In order to understand the importance of environment, investigating how people react to different characteristics of the environment is required. Therefore, experts want to know

scientific research area with its important literature (Özhanc and Ylmaz, 2011).

Environmental management applications

Research projects, academic works, etc.

Environmental management applications, research projects, academic works, etc

> According to Lothian (2012), evaluation and mapping works in Australia was conducted by 'National Trust'. In their work, soil-geology, bio-diversity - geomorphology, rivers-lakes and the characteristics which were emphasised by those were analysed. The aim of the analysis was to explore the quality of landscape. However, the biggest shortcoming of their work was the exclusion of the public in the research. Therefore, the studies were by and large unsuccessful.

The method which was used in their studies are summarised in Figure 1 below.

In order to carry out the landscape analysis work in an objective way, the studies should include observation, analysis and synthesis, and these should undergo the cognitive process of human brain. On the other hand -within the scope of assessing qualitative values- visual quality, including the liked and not liked, is an emotional process which consist of people's preferences. Therefore, in this context, the components are analysed and the preferences are evaluated. Lothian's work about 'visual landscape quality' (2012) underlines that the participation of the local users brought more objective results in the Figure 2 below.

Visual Quality Assessment Methods in Landscape Architecture Studies 285

**Figure 2.** Landscape quality assessment method (Lothian, 2012).

Table 2., illustrates this by showing the influence of familiarity with the Flinders Ranges in South Australia. Being very familiar lifted the average rating for those persons by 12.5%, or

0.8 on the 1 – 10 scale. Even being slightly familiar enhanced ratings by 8% or 0.5.

**Figure 2.** Landscape quality assessment method (Lothian, 2012).

**Figure 1.** Traditional landscape quality assessment method – the wrong approach (Lothian, 2012).

Table 2., illustrates this by showing the influence of familiarity with the Flinders Ranges in South Australia. Being very familiar lifted the average rating for those persons by 12.5%, or 0.8 on the 1 – 10 scale. Even being slightly familiar enhanced ratings by 8% or 0.5.


Visual Quality Assessment Methods in Landscape Architecture Studies 287

James' (2000) study called "Reliability of Rating Visible Landscape Qualities" looked at the reliability of evaluating the apprehended landscape characteristics by using perception. It was emphasised that the methods which were used in quality assessments should include the evaluation forms (questionnaires) which were approved by visual presentations. Moreover, the requirement to use the pictures while explaining the visual quality criteria

Bishop and Rohrmann's (2003) study looks at the comparison of actual images and animation images. The study evaluated an actual and an animation view of a park at night and in day time together with the participants' perceptual reactions on these views. The

**Figure 3.** Conceptual framework of the study. Participant responses to the presentations are shown in circles. The presentations are a combination of the actual features of the environment and the chosen

In another study, Kaltenborn and Bjerke (2002) put forward the relationship between different landscape preferences and the living area. Local people were asked to evaluate the visual aspects of 24 different pictures which show different areas in the local people's area.

Kaplan and Hepcan's (2004) work focuses on visual quality assessments of the places where vehicles and pedestrians' way are used together. The study is based on the physical structure that shapes the location, and the visual analysis and assessment of senses which were gathered from social life. As the perceived senses differentiate during the day because

conceptual framework of the study is shown in Figure.3.

means of presentation (Bishop and Rohrmann, 2003).

was also mentioned.

**Table 2.** Influence of familiarity - Flinders Ranges (Lothian, 2012).

## **4. Some of visual quality assessment studies and the employed methods**

Lynch developed a fundamental method which seeks to evaluate the urban form and improve the urban images (Coşkun and Kaplan, 2001). By the distinct model he established, Lynch claimed that any environment has the possibility to create a powerful quality and this was defined as 'imageability'. Lynch worked on this presumption by the quality assignation programme he conducted in the downtowns of Boston, New Jersey and Los Angeles. After these applications, the method proposed by Lynch includes two parallel study. In the first step, the analysed area is scanned and the observations are listed in a report. In parallel with this, a survey is conducted on a group of people which is large enough to represent the general characteristics of the society. The questionnaire includes questions related to important routes and locations. In addition to these two parallel studies, the strong and weak aspects of environment are analysed. In the second step, the important elements selected from another group will be placed, virtual travels will be performed, and the impression of experimental subjects by preparing the rough copies will be presented (Ak, 2010). By preparing a map and a report, the general quality of environment, its visual weakness and powerful aspects, characteristics and changing possibilities were determined.

In their research, Özhanc and Ylmaz (2011) focussed on 120 people and conducted a survey about a visual quality analysis of the area they chose. For this purpose, 48 pictures which can represent the area were selected and the participants were asked to evaluate the area in the pictures. Before the questionnaire, the participants were informed about the topic. Accordingly, parameters which are based on perception (naturality, diversity, consistency, openness, mystery, perspective, confidence, order, the beauty of view) and recreation value parameters were used. In the second evaluation step, expert evaluations which focus on landscape characteristics were considered.

In Daniel's (2001) research called "Whither Scenic beauty? Visual landscape quality assessment in the 21st Century", reliability of individual expert evaluations was mentioned. The research found out that the consistency is not stable and different experts have different opinions on the same landscape. Studies in the field do not examine whether the abstract design parameters, which are based on expert evaluations, are related to landscape quality or perception-centred measurements.

In brief, it was not proved that the expert views were completely confidential in visual landscape quality assessments.

James' (2000) study called "Reliability of Rating Visible Landscape Qualities" looked at the reliability of evaluating the apprehended landscape characteristics by using perception. It was emphasised that the methods which were used in quality assessments should include the evaluation forms (questionnaires) which were approved by visual presentations. Moreover, the requirement to use the pictures while explaining the visual quality criteria was also mentioned.

286 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Familiarity Mean %

**Table 2.** Influence of familiarity - Flinders Ranges (Lothian, 2012).

which focus on landscape characteristics were considered.

or perception-centred measurements.

landscape quality assessments.

Not familiar 6.07 100.0 Slightly familiar 6.57 108.3 Very familiar 6.83 112.5

**4. Some of visual quality assessment studies and the employed methods** 

Lynch developed a fundamental method which seeks to evaluate the urban form and improve the urban images (Coşkun and Kaplan, 2001). By the distinct model he established, Lynch claimed that any environment has the possibility to create a powerful quality and this was defined as 'imageability'. Lynch worked on this presumption by the quality assignation programme he conducted in the downtowns of Boston, New Jersey and Los Angeles. After these applications, the method proposed by Lynch includes two parallel study. In the first step, the analysed area is scanned and the observations are listed in a report. In parallel with this, a survey is conducted on a group of people which is large enough to represent the general characteristics of the society. The questionnaire includes questions related to important routes and locations. In addition to these two parallel studies, the strong and weak aspects of environment are analysed. In the second step, the important elements selected from another group will be placed, virtual travels will be performed, and the impression of experimental subjects by preparing the rough copies will be presented (Ak, 2010). By preparing a map and a report, the general quality of environment, its visual weakness and powerful aspects, characteristics and changing possibilities were determined.

In their research, Özhanc and Ylmaz (2011) focussed on 120 people and conducted a survey about a visual quality analysis of the area they chose. For this purpose, 48 pictures which can represent the area were selected and the participants were asked to evaluate the area in the pictures. Before the questionnaire, the participants were informed about the topic. Accordingly, parameters which are based on perception (naturality, diversity, consistency, openness, mystery, perspective, confidence, order, the beauty of view) and recreation value parameters were used. In the second evaluation step, expert evaluations

In Daniel's (2001) research called "Whither Scenic beauty? Visual landscape quality assessment in the 21st Century", reliability of individual expert evaluations was mentioned. The research found out that the consistency is not stable and different experts have different opinions on the same landscape. Studies in the field do not examine whether the abstract design parameters, which are based on expert evaluations, are related to landscape quality

In brief, it was not proved that the expert views were completely confidential in visual

Bishop and Rohrmann's (2003) study looks at the comparison of actual images and animation images. The study evaluated an actual and an animation view of a park at night and in day time together with the participants' perceptual reactions on these views. The conceptual framework of the study is shown in Figure.3.

**Figure 3.** Conceptual framework of the study. Participant responses to the presentations are shown in circles. The presentations are a combination of the actual features of the environment and the chosen means of presentation (Bishop and Rohrmann, 2003).

In another study, Kaltenborn and Bjerke (2002) put forward the relationship between different landscape preferences and the living area. Local people were asked to evaluate the visual aspects of 24 different pictures which show different areas in the local people's area.

Kaplan and Hepcan's (2004) work focuses on visual quality assessments of the places where vehicles and pedestrians' way are used together. The study is based on the physical structure that shapes the location, and the visual analysis and assessment of senses which were gathered from social life. As the perceived senses differentiate during the day because of climate, the fieldwork was conducted in İzmir, Turkey where this differentiation clearly appears in June in different times of the day. According to the method, the first section of the study looks at the typology of views which were perceived from important locations. The second section deals with the visual experiences and psychological senses which were gathered on the move and these were transformed into a set of statistical data and then evaluated. Then, the study presented some findings by ranking the values that were gathered in morning, noon and evening time. Finally, comparisons on these different rankings and a discussion were presented.

Visual Quality Assessment Methods in Landscape Architecture Studies 289

Acar, C., 2003. Dağ Ekosistemlerinde Görsel Kalite ve Görsel Kaynak Yönetimi-Ekolojik ve Görsel İndikatörler. Kaçkar Dağlar Milli Park Çevre Eğitimi, Ayder-Çamlhemşin,

Ak, K., 2010. Akçakoca Ky Band Örneğinde Görsel Kalitenin Belirlenmesi ve

Bishop, I.D., Rohrmann, B., 2003. Subjective Responses to Simulated and Real Environments:

Chon, J.H., 2004. Aesthetic Responses to Urban Greenway Trail Corridors: Implications for Sustainable Development in Tourism and Recreation Settings. Ph.D Thesis. Texas A&M

Coşkun, Ç., Kaplan, A., 2001. Urla (İzmir) Kent Merkezi ve Yakn Çevresi Örneğinde Görsel Etki Değerlendirme Çalşmas. Ege Üniversitesi Araştrma Projesi, ZRF-36, İzmir Çakc, I., 2007. Peyzaj Planlama Çalşmalarnda Görsel Peyzaj Değerlendirmesine Yönelik Bir Yöntem Araştrmas. Ankara Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Doktora Tezi,

Daniel, T.C., 2001. Whitherscenic beauty? Visual landscape quality assessment in the 21st

Erdönmez, M.Ö., Kaptanoğlu, A.Y.Ç., 2007. Peyzaj Estetiği ve Görsel Kalite Değerlendirmesi. İstanbul Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Yaynlar, Seri B, Cilt 58, Say:1,

James, F.P., 2000. Reliability of Rating Visible Landscape Qualities. Landscape Journal. 19(1-

Kaln, A., 2004., Çevre Tercih ve Değerlendirmesinde Görsel Kalitenin Belirlenmesi ve Geliştirilmiş: Trabzon Sahil Band Örneği. K.T.Ü. Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Doktora Tezi,

Kaltenborn, B.P., Bjerke, T., 2002. Associations Between Landscape Preferences and Place Attachment: A Study in Roros, Southern Norway. Landscape Research, Vol. 27, No:4,

Kamicaityte, J.V., Janusatis, R., 2004. Some Methodical Aspects of Landscape Visual Quality Preferences Analysis. Environmental research, engineering and management, ISSN

Kaplan, A., Hepcan, Ç.C., 2004. Ege Üniversitesi Kampüsü 'Sevgi Yolu'nun Görsel (Etki) Değerlendirme Çalşmas. Ege Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi. 41(1):159-167 ISSN

Kaplan, R. Kaplan, S., 1989. Experience of nature. New York: Cambridge University Press. L.C.A., 2008. Landscape Character Assessment. http://www.landscapecharacter.org.uk.

Lothian, A., 2012. Measuring and Mapping Landscape Quality Using the Community Preferences Method. New Zealand Planning Institute Annual Conference, Blenheim. Lu, D., Burley, J., Crawford, P., Schutzki, R., Loures, L., 2012. Quantitative Methods in Environmental and Visual Quality Mapping and Assessment: A Muskegon, Michigan

Değerlendirilmesi Üzerine Bir Araştrma. Doktora Tezi.Ankara.

A Comparison. Landscape and Urban Planning. 65(2003)261-277.

century. Landscape and Planning, 54(2001) 267-281.

**6. References** 

Rize.

University.

Ankara.

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2):166-178.

Trabzon.

381-396.

1018-8851.

1392-1649 No.3(29).P.51-60.

(accessed 12.October.2012).

## **5. Conclusion**

Studies on environmental quality assessment developed in the last 50 years. Researchers are active and influential in measuring the locational quality of environment, and preparing reliable visual quality maps about urban and rural environments. The quest for new methods in recent years in research projects shows how much important the visual quality studies are in perceiving the environment.

When 'visual quality assessment' studies are examined, there is no study which accepts the quality among the studies that were conducted only by referring to expert evaluations. Again, no study verified quality among the studies that were conducted only by the evaluations of public/users. In this context, the evaluations of experts and the perceptions and evaluations of public/users should be investigated in order to see how much they are in line with real aesthetic values.

Until recently, the evaluations were mainly about physical characteristics. In recent years, because of the aesthetic concerns on landscape, user-centred method selections were also added to these evaluations. In order to put forward the correct data regarding visual quality assessments, the physical, biological and social characteristics of environment should be considered together.

In particular, as long as expert/design approach continues to be unsuccessful in providing the correct and reliable criteria, the problem of deciding whether this approach is valid or not will be a continuous discussion.

According to most studies, if objective results are expected in 'visual quality assessment' studies, expert's view should not be the only source and the view of people who live in the area should also be taken into account. In this context, the analysis studies which are continuously renewed and corrected provide a basis for the plan which is going to shape the visual configuration of environment in the future.

## **Author details**

Mehmet Kvanç Ak *Düzce University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Düzce / Turkey* 

#### **6. References**

288 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**5. Conclusion** 

rankings and a discussion were presented.

studies are in perceiving the environment.

line with real aesthetic values.

not will be a continuous discussion.

visual configuration of environment in the future.

considered together.

**Author details** 

Mehmet Kvanç Ak

of climate, the fieldwork was conducted in İzmir, Turkey where this differentiation clearly appears in June in different times of the day. According to the method, the first section of the study looks at the typology of views which were perceived from important locations. The second section deals with the visual experiences and psychological senses which were gathered on the move and these were transformed into a set of statistical data and then evaluated. Then, the study presented some findings by ranking the values that were gathered in morning, noon and evening time. Finally, comparisons on these different

Studies on environmental quality assessment developed in the last 50 years. Researchers are active and influential in measuring the locational quality of environment, and preparing reliable visual quality maps about urban and rural environments. The quest for new methods in recent years in research projects shows how much important the visual quality

When 'visual quality assessment' studies are examined, there is no study which accepts the quality among the studies that were conducted only by referring to expert evaluations. Again, no study verified quality among the studies that were conducted only by the evaluations of public/users. In this context, the evaluations of experts and the perceptions and evaluations of public/users should be investigated in order to see how much they are in

Until recently, the evaluations were mainly about physical characteristics. In recent years, because of the aesthetic concerns on landscape, user-centred method selections were also added to these evaluations. In order to put forward the correct data regarding visual quality assessments, the physical, biological and social characteristics of environment should be

In particular, as long as expert/design approach continues to be unsuccessful in providing the correct and reliable criteria, the problem of deciding whether this approach is valid or

According to most studies, if objective results are expected in 'visual quality assessment' studies, expert's view should not be the only source and the view of people who live in the area should also be taken into account. In this context, the analysis studies which are continuously renewed and corrected provide a basis for the plan which is going to shape the

*Düzce University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Düzce / Turkey* 


Watershed Case Study with Urban Planning Implications.Advances in Spatial Planning. ISBN: 978-953-51-0377-6, InTech, DOI: 10.5772/33400.

**Chapter 12** 

© 2013 Acar, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Landscape Design for Children** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Habibe Acar

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55751

becomes an extremely important issue.

positive contributions to their development.

**1. Introduction** 

for them.

**and Their Environments in Urban Context** 

One of the most important topics of landscape architecture profession is to design highquality open spaces for people to meet their needs and expectation. These open spaces range from smaller-scale residential gardens, used by certain number of people, to large city parks, used by people with different age groups and the crowded masses. These different open spaces and differences in uses lead to changes in the needs and expectations. Therefore, it is necessary to know well about the needs and expectations of people when designing spaces

Children constitute a significant part of users in urban open spaces. Because children's time, spent in open spaces with play during the development, is extremely important and necessary in terms of physical social, emotional, and cognitive aspects. Therefore, nature of the play space is very important. Because, the elements, facilities and quality of a space also affect the quality of the play. As it will be discussed in the following sections of this text, when importance of play for children is considered, the design of open spaces for children

Today cities are getting crowded due to the variety of business and social opportunities offered to the people. Due to the increasing population density and intensive construction, open spaces that children can use are decreasing. In this context, introducing new and alternative play spaces and play options are a solution. It is extremely important that designed play areas should be qualified to meet children's needs and desires and to make

This chapter focuses on landscape designs for children, particularly in urban spaces. At this point, the subject will be discussed in terms of landscape design, children, and urban context. First, it will be focused on the general definition of landscape design, interests, and

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


## **Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context**

Habibe Acar

290 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Watershed Case Study with Urban Planning Implications.Advances in Spatial Planning.

Mahdjoubi, L., Wiltshire, J., 2001. Towards a framework for evaluation of computer visual

Moore, G.T., 1989. Environmental and behavior research in North America: History, development, and unresolved issues. In D. Stokols & I. Altman (Eds.), Handbook of

Nasar, J.L., 1988. Perception and evaluation of residential street scenes. In J.L. Nasar (Ed.), Environmental aesthetics (pp.275-289). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nasar, J.L., 1998. The evaluative image of the city. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Nasar, J.L., 1998. The evaluative image of the city. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Özhanc, E., Ylmaz, H., 2011. Evaluation of Recreation Areas for Visual Landscape Quality;Sample of Erzurum, Turkey. Iğdr Univ. J. Inst. Sci. & Tech. 1(2): 67-76. Palmer, J.F., Hoffman, R.E. 2000. Rating Reliability and Representation Validity in Scenic

Polat, A.T., Güngör, S., Adyaman, S., 2012. The Relationships between and the Visual Quality of Urban Recreation Areas near by the city of Konya and Demographic

Polat, A.T., Önder, S., 2011. Konya İli Kent Parklarnn Görsel Kalitesinin Belirlenmesi. I.

Porteous, J.D., 1996. Environmental Aesthetics: ideas, politics and planning. Routledge, 290

Purcell, A.T., 1986. Environmental perception and affect: A schema discrepancy model.

Zube, E.H., 1980. Environmental evaluation: Perception and public policy. Monterey, CA:

Lynch, K., 1960. The Image of the City, Twenty First Printing, The MIT Press, USA.

Landscape Assessment. Landscape and Urban Planning. 54 (2001) 149-161.

Characteristics of their Users KSU J. Nat. Sci., Special Issue.

Konya Kent Sempozyumu. 26-27 Kasm.

Environment and Behavior, 18(1), 3-30.

p., London.

Brooks/Cole.

simulations in environmental design. Design Studies, 22(2), 193-209.

environmental psychology (pp.1359-1410). New York: John Wiley.

ISBN: 978-953-51-0377-6, InTech, DOI: 10.5772/33400.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55751

## **1. Introduction**

One of the most important topics of landscape architecture profession is to design highquality open spaces for people to meet their needs and expectation. These open spaces range from smaller-scale residential gardens, used by certain number of people, to large city parks, used by people with different age groups and the crowded masses. These different open spaces and differences in uses lead to changes in the needs and expectations. Therefore, it is necessary to know well about the needs and expectations of people when designing spaces for them.

Children constitute a significant part of users in urban open spaces. Because children's time, spent in open spaces with play during the development, is extremely important and necessary in terms of physical social, emotional, and cognitive aspects. Therefore, nature of the play space is very important. Because, the elements, facilities and quality of a space also affect the quality of the play. As it will be discussed in the following sections of this text, when importance of play for children is considered, the design of open spaces for children becomes an extremely important issue.

Today cities are getting crowded due to the variety of business and social opportunities offered to the people. Due to the increasing population density and intensive construction, open spaces that children can use are decreasing. In this context, introducing new and alternative play spaces and play options are a solution. It is extremely important that designed play areas should be qualified to meet children's needs and desires and to make positive contributions to their development.

This chapter focuses on landscape designs for children, particularly in urban spaces. At this point, the subject will be discussed in terms of landscape design, children, and urban context. First, it will be focused on the general definition of landscape design, interests, and

the place of children's play areas among them. Second, the concept of play, the relationship of the child with their environment, open spaces, natural areas and their importance, the differences between environmental perceptions of children and adults will be mentioned. Children's needs and expectations in urban open spaces will also be discussed. Third, all of above mentioned issues will be evaluated in terms of urban context with playgrounds examples selected from around the world. Finally, in the light of all this information and assessments, children's expectations from open spaces, design process of children's play areas and considerations to design an ideal playground will be presented.

Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context 293

When designing places for people, the first necessary thing is to know the users of these places. In this way, it would be possible to determine the user's needs and expectations. Places to meet these needs are preferred and used by users. Therefore, design for children requires to know the child, to understand the importance and necessity of play for child,

When you think of a child, the first thing that comes to mind is play. The play is a concept of universal that extremely important for the development of child's personality. There are

According to the Winnicott 'to play is to use imagination, the most important thing a person can do…Play is always an experience of creating, also of uniting time and space- so is

Moore (1990) states that "play lies at the heart of childhood, limited in its boundaries only by the opportunities afforded by physical settings and by the attitudes and commitment of

According to Piaget, play is not a condition of mental, but is a behavior or action and it causes the child makes effort about what to do. According to him, the play is necessary for

Play is a form of behavior which has many definition, description and developmental theories (Piaget and Inhelder, 1971; Jones, 1997). As a result, if we need to briefly mention, the play refers to a unscheduled, spontaneous situation. It is possible to mention the four

1. children learn during the play and play is necessary for the child's development and

2. the play is not limited to younger children, it is an important concept in adults' life-

3. to play outside is an important need because it offers opportunities not found anywhere

Children obtain feelings of achievement and self-security, of being together with others, respect for themselves and others as a result of playing the play (Day and Midbjer, 2007).

Play is an extremely important concept in terms of children's rights. The International Play Association (IPA) Declaration of the Child's Right to Play was introduced in November 1977 at the IPA Malta Consultation held in preparation for the International Year of Child (1979) (Clements and Fiorentino, 2004). Play was emphasized that nutrition, health, housing and education, as well as of vital importance for the development potential of each child in this

and to know activities children do and want to do especially in public areas.

**3. Children** 

growth,

cycle,

else,

*Play and importance of play for children* 

many definitions of play in the literature.

fundamental to how we live'(Day and Midbjer, 2007).

those whose business it is to manage them" (Jones, 1997).

the development of intelligence (Piaget and Inhelder, 1971).

4. play environments are educational areas

declaration (Ylmaz and Bulut, 2003).

assumptions about the play (Jones, 1997). These are listed as follows;

## **2. Landscape design**

"Landscape, originates from French word "paysage" which means scenery. Nowadays, the word encompasses a wider and deeper meaning. While in the medieval period, "landscape" was used as a synonym for "region" and "territory" in most of the Germanic languages, beginning from the 15th century landscape became a pictorial genre. The use of landscape as a term in science is relatively new. Today, landscape refers to not only a phenomenon described and analyzed by scientific methods, but also a subjective experience which has perspective, aesthetical, artistic and existential meaning" (Memlük, 2012).

Design is the creative process of responding to conditions and concentrating meaning; and landscape design is the creation of responsive, evocative, meaningful, sustainable, and regenerative landscapes (Motloch, 2000). In other words "landscape design is the art and science of organizing and enriching outdoor space through the placement of plants and structures in agreeable and useful relationship with the natural environment" (Van Der Zanden and Rodie, 2008, Adapted from the Nebraska Master Gardener Handbook, 1994).

A designer must handle both aesthetics and function at the same time in the designs. Because one cannot exist without the other in quality design (VanDerZanden and Rodie, 2008). Especially, when the area is considered for children, function is more important. Because children evaluate the environment with its functional rather than its esthetical features. The aim of the landscape design is to build up qualified spaces in open areas for people. Open areas that are the interest of landscape design may be urban or rural and private or public. In this article urban landscape will be emphasized. "From a wider perspective, urban landscape is a part of urban matrix. Therefore design of urban landscapes should be considered as an integral part of urban design. Urban landscape design is clearly not urban design, but a crucial part of it. Hence, factors influencing urban design also influence the form and functioning of urban landscapes (Memlük, 2012).

There are lots of spaces, having different functions, that can be subject of landscape design in urban. Some of them may be ranged as urban squares, public gardens, playgrounds, open areas of public institutes such as education, health…etc. and yards. Each of these spaces requires different activity fields according to their users and locations. Among these spaces, children's play areas have an important place because playing in open areas in the childhood period is extremely important for children's healthy development.

## **3. Children**

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**2. Landscape design** 

the place of children's play areas among them. Second, the concept of play, the relationship of the child with their environment, open spaces, natural areas and their importance, the differences between environmental perceptions of children and adults will be mentioned. Children's needs and expectations in urban open spaces will also be discussed. Third, all of above mentioned issues will be evaluated in terms of urban context with playgrounds examples selected from around the world. Finally, in the light of all this information and assessments, children's expectations from open spaces, design process of children's play

"Landscape, originates from French word "paysage" which means scenery. Nowadays, the word encompasses a wider and deeper meaning. While in the medieval period, "landscape" was used as a synonym for "region" and "territory" in most of the Germanic languages, beginning from the 15th century landscape became a pictorial genre. The use of landscape as a term in science is relatively new. Today, landscape refers to not only a phenomenon described and analyzed by scientific methods, but also a subjective experience which has

Design is the creative process of responding to conditions and concentrating meaning; and landscape design is the creation of responsive, evocative, meaningful, sustainable, and regenerative landscapes (Motloch, 2000). In other words "landscape design is the art and science of organizing and enriching outdoor space through the placement of plants and structures in agreeable and useful relationship with the natural environment" (Van Der Zanden and Rodie, 2008, Adapted from the Nebraska Master Gardener Handbook, 1994).

A designer must handle both aesthetics and function at the same time in the designs. Because one cannot exist without the other in quality design (VanDerZanden and Rodie, 2008). Especially, when the area is considered for children, function is more important. Because children evaluate the environment with its functional rather than its esthetical features. The aim of the landscape design is to build up qualified spaces in open areas for people. Open areas that are the interest of landscape design may be urban or rural and private or public. In this article urban landscape will be emphasized. "From a wider perspective, urban landscape is a part of urban matrix. Therefore design of urban landscapes should be considered as an integral part of urban design. Urban landscape design is clearly not urban design, but a crucial part of it. Hence, factors influencing urban

design also influence the form and functioning of urban landscapes (Memlük, 2012).

childhood period is extremely important for children's healthy development.

There are lots of spaces, having different functions, that can be subject of landscape design in urban. Some of them may be ranged as urban squares, public gardens, playgrounds, open areas of public institutes such as education, health…etc. and yards. Each of these spaces requires different activity fields according to their users and locations. Among these spaces, children's play areas have an important place because playing in open areas in the

areas and considerations to design an ideal playground will be presented.

perspective, aesthetical, artistic and existential meaning" (Memlük, 2012).

When designing places for people, the first necessary thing is to know the users of these places. In this way, it would be possible to determine the user's needs and expectations. Places to meet these needs are preferred and used by users. Therefore, design for children requires to know the child, to understand the importance and necessity of play for child, and to know activities children do and want to do especially in public areas.

#### *Play and importance of play for children*

When you think of a child, the first thing that comes to mind is play. The play is a concept of universal that extremely important for the development of child's personality. There are many definitions of play in the literature.

According to the Winnicott 'to play is to use imagination, the most important thing a person can do…Play is always an experience of creating, also of uniting time and space- so is fundamental to how we live'(Day and Midbjer, 2007).

Moore (1990) states that "play lies at the heart of childhood, limited in its boundaries only by the opportunities afforded by physical settings and by the attitudes and commitment of those whose business it is to manage them" (Jones, 1997).

According to Piaget, play is not a condition of mental, but is a behavior or action and it causes the child makes effort about what to do. According to him, the play is necessary for the development of intelligence (Piaget and Inhelder, 1971).

Play is a form of behavior which has many definition, description and developmental theories (Piaget and Inhelder, 1971; Jones, 1997). As a result, if we need to briefly mention, the play refers to a unscheduled, spontaneous situation. It is possible to mention the four assumptions about the play (Jones, 1997). These are listed as follows;


Children obtain feelings of achievement and self-security, of being together with others, respect for themselves and others as a result of playing the play (Day and Midbjer, 2007).

Play is an extremely important concept in terms of children's rights. The International Play Association (IPA) Declaration of the Child's Right to Play was introduced in November 1977 at the IPA Malta Consultation held in preparation for the International Year of Child (1979) (Clements and Fiorentino, 2004). Play was emphasized that nutrition, health, housing and education, as well as of vital importance for the development potential of each child in this declaration (Ylmaz and Bulut, 2003).

Experts working on childhood states that the best learning is provided through play and exploration for children (Vicki and Stoecklin, 2004). A child learns and discovers himself and his environment during the play. During the play, children use objects to learn how to use them, perform activities with them and recognize them. Children should change the places of them, create compositions, bring together, separate, take a piece of them, and reinstall the missing part (Piaget and Inhelder, 1971). In this way, children find the opportunity to learn by trying different things. Therefore play is the child's experiment tool.

Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context 295

independently, infants are interested in many of things that fall within their reach" (Bell, 2008). Environments that offer opportunity for movement and that offer diversity for children are more preferred. At the same time, as this kind of environment will provide an opportunity to explore, it will make positive contributions to the development of children.

Studies on children's needs and the experiences in the environment can be found in the environmental psychology literature (Spencer and Woolley, 2000). Environmental psychology is a branch of discipline developed by Proshansky, Rivlin and Ittelson. This interdisciplinary work area includes specific research topics such as perception, cognition and social learning in the relationship between the environment and human (Loebach, 2004). In the field of environmental psychology, the best concept to assessment the child's relationship with the environment, the opportunities presented by the environment and its elements is "affordance" theory. Affordance generally refers to functional facilities offered by the environment. Firstly, it has been developed by James J. Gibson in the late 1970's. Later, the concept of affordance used to identify children's environment's opportunities by many researchers particularly in Harry Heft (1988) and Marketta Kyttä (2002, 2003, 2004) (Loebach, 2004; Clark and Uzzell, 2008; Acar, 2009). Functional possibilities offered by the environment create opportunities for different activities for

**Figure 1.** Sloping surfaces in any area are used to slide by children (Photo Acar, H., Rotterdam,

children (figure 1, 2, 3).

Netherland).

Benefits of play on the development of children can be classified under two headings. These are; the benefits of playing during the play, the benefits of playing over time. In 1978, Jones and Prescott stated that "through play, children (and bigger people, too) learn a great deal about the variety and complexity of the world, and about themselves as self-directed learners" (Jones and Prescott, in Jones, 1997).

There are also benefits that bring to the play over time, summarized as follows:


Recognizing the importance of play and playing game will provide to better understand the importance of play spaces as well. Because the nature of space and its components affects children's play. As we live in an environment that surrounds us, outdoor areas where children play are not possible to think independently from the environment. In this context, the relationship between the child and their environment is important.

#### *Child and Environment*

The physical environment influences everybody's behavior (Proshansky et al., 1976; Day and Midbjer, 2007) and supports the formation of self-identity during childhood years. Children obtain information about environment and interact socially as a result of their experiences in the physical environment. In order to learn about the environment children need actively use and explore the environment. They invest certain meanings and names in special environments for themselves. The importance of these special environments continues through adulthood period. This sense of attachment and meaning of color, smell and texture of special places has been studied by educators and designers (Francis, C. 1997). Studies on this subject and the remaining images in the minds of children about their environment can be evaluated in future play space design.

Individuals' motivation, behavior and mental health are affected between individual characteristics from the environment and the characteristics of the environment (Özdemir and Ylmaz, 2008). When we look at it in terms of children, if an environment meets the psychological needs of children, it provides satisfaction, if it does not meet, it provides dissatisfaction. In addition, motion is required in order the children get to know a place and to explore it. "Before they can locomote or move from place to place (crawl, walk, run, etc.) independently, infants are interested in many of things that fall within their reach" (Bell, 2008). Environments that offer opportunity for movement and that offer diversity for children are more preferred. At the same time, as this kind of environment will provide an opportunity to explore, it will make positive contributions to the development of children.

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learners" (Jones and Prescott, in Jones, 1997).

ability of children develop Children's creativity increases

*Child and Environment* 

Children gain a sense of freedom and self-confidence

Experts working on childhood states that the best learning is provided through play and exploration for children (Vicki and Stoecklin, 2004). A child learns and discovers himself and his environment during the play. During the play, children use objects to learn how to use them, perform activities with them and recognize them. Children should change the places of them, create compositions, bring together, separate, take a piece of them, and reinstall the missing part (Piaget and Inhelder, 1971). In this way, children find the opportunity to learn by trying different things. Therefore play is the child's experiment tool. Benefits of play on the development of children can be classified under two headings. These are; the benefits of playing during the play, the benefits of playing over time. In 1978, Jones and Prescott stated that "through play, children (and bigger people, too) learn a great deal about the variety and complexity of the world, and about themselves as self-directed

There are also benefits that bring to the play over time, summarized as follows:

When a child's respect for other individuals increases, sharing also increases

the relationship between the child and their environment is important.

environment can be evaluated in future play space design.

Children become an healthy individual both physically and mentally, the learning

Recognizing the importance of play and playing game will provide to better understand the importance of play spaces as well. Because the nature of space and its components affects children's play. As we live in an environment that surrounds us, outdoor areas where children play are not possible to think independently from the environment. In this context,

The physical environment influences everybody's behavior (Proshansky et al., 1976; Day and Midbjer, 2007) and supports the formation of self-identity during childhood years. Children obtain information about environment and interact socially as a result of their experiences in the physical environment. In order to learn about the environment children need actively use and explore the environment. They invest certain meanings and names in special environments for themselves. The importance of these special environments continues through adulthood period. This sense of attachment and meaning of color, smell and texture of special places has been studied by educators and designers (Francis, C. 1997). Studies on this subject and the remaining images in the minds of children about their

Individuals' motivation, behavior and mental health are affected between individual characteristics from the environment and the characteristics of the environment (Özdemir and Ylmaz, 2008). When we look at it in terms of children, if an environment meets the psychological needs of children, it provides satisfaction, if it does not meet, it provides dissatisfaction. In addition, motion is required in order the children get to know a place and to explore it. "Before they can locomote or move from place to place (crawl, walk, run, etc.) Studies on children's needs and the experiences in the environment can be found in the environmental psychology literature (Spencer and Woolley, 2000). Environmental psychology is a branch of discipline developed by Proshansky, Rivlin and Ittelson. This interdisciplinary work area includes specific research topics such as perception, cognition and social learning in the relationship between the environment and human (Loebach, 2004). In the field of environmental psychology, the best concept to assessment the child's relationship with the environment, the opportunities presented by the environment and its elements is "affordance" theory. Affordance generally refers to functional facilities offered by the environment. Firstly, it has been developed by James J. Gibson in the late 1970's. Later, the concept of affordance used to identify children's environment's opportunities by many researchers particularly in Harry Heft (1988) and Marketta Kyttä (2002, 2003, 2004) (Loebach, 2004; Clark and Uzzell, 2008; Acar, 2009). Functional possibilities offered by the environment create opportunities for different activities for children (figure 1, 2, 3).

**Figure 1.** Sloping surfaces in any area are used to slide by children (Photo Acar, H., Rotterdam, Netherland).

Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context 297

These activity opportunities may be in open or closed spaces. But open areas are more

Children need environment-related experiences during the character decisive years of their life. Environmental experiences helps children prepare for their life and provide positive contributions to their development. Open spaces are important places for obtaining these experiences because play outside offers a direct relation with environment and makes children discover their environment. Therefore open areas must be provided for children to play. Outside play areas contribute to the development of children's gross motor, allow them to play freely and noisier plays, and also help them to learn about the natural

Open spaces provide more opportunity than the closed spaces with the materials they have (Heerwagen and Orians, 2002; Day and Midbjer, 2007; Acar, 2009). First of all, these spaces experimentally allow children to contact with their environment, to make observation and to learn natural events (change of the seasons and so on). Also, it helps children to become social because it presents the opportunity of being together with other children

**Figure 5.** Open spaces provide the opportunity to be together with other children (Photo Acar, H.,

more important to make the existing places more qualified.

It is possible to increase these opportunities offered by open spaces for children. The importance of children's use of open spaces is more valuable, especially in urban areas. Children's opportunity to benefit from and access to open areas is less than in the rural areas than urban areas due to security, traffic and intensive construction. Therefore, it has become

important for children than closed areas.

environment (Wilson, 2004).

(figure 5, 6).

Paris, France).

*Opportunities offered by open spaces for children* 

**Figure 2.** Any object that children can enter might be a play space for them (Photo Acar, H., Den Haag, Netherland).

**Figure 3.** Open green spaces provide opportunities for different activities (Photo Acar, H., Paris, France).

Children use these opportunities according to their own imagination, creativity, or purposes (figure 4).

**Figure 4.** Children use materials in the environments according to their own purposes (Photo Acar, H., Paris, France).

These activity opportunities may be in open or closed spaces. But open areas are more important for children than closed areas.

#### *Opportunities offered by open spaces for children*

296 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Netherland).

(figure 4).

Paris, France).

**Figure 2.** Any object that children can enter might be a play space for them (Photo Acar, H., Den Haag,

**Figure 3.** Open green spaces provide opportunities for different activities (Photo Acar, H., Paris, France).

Children use these opportunities according to their own imagination, creativity, or purposes

**Figure 4.** Children use materials in the environments according to their own purposes (Photo Acar, H.,

Children need environment-related experiences during the character decisive years of their life. Environmental experiences helps children prepare for their life and provide positive contributions to their development. Open spaces are important places for obtaining these experiences because play outside offers a direct relation with environment and makes children discover their environment. Therefore open areas must be provided for children to play. Outside play areas contribute to the development of children's gross motor, allow them to play freely and noisier plays, and also help them to learn about the natural environment (Wilson, 2004).

Open spaces provide more opportunity than the closed spaces with the materials they have (Heerwagen and Orians, 2002; Day and Midbjer, 2007; Acar, 2009). First of all, these spaces experimentally allow children to contact with their environment, to make observation and to learn natural events (change of the seasons and so on). Also, it helps children to become social because it presents the opportunity of being together with other children (figure 5, 6).

**Figure 5.** Open spaces provide the opportunity to be together with other children (Photo Acar, H., Paris, France).

It is possible to increase these opportunities offered by open spaces for children. The importance of children's use of open spaces is more valuable, especially in urban areas. Children's opportunity to benefit from and access to open areas is less than in the rural areas than urban areas due to security, traffic and intensive construction. Therefore, it has become more important to make the existing places more qualified.

**Figure 6.** Even a fountain allows children come together, to communicate, to socialize. At the same time helps them to learn issues such as to respect the rights of others and their right to self-defense (Photo Acar, H., Paris, France).

Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context 299

"As childhood has become more restricted, opportunities for interaction with nature and natural experience are even more critical" (Mark Francis, in Lyle, 1997). Interaction with nature and natural materials contribute children's physical, mental, moral and emotional development. There are strong evidences that constant change and growth in nature have a strong effect on the development of intelligence. Also, when human beings and animals are in dynamic environment containing natural areas, neural connections in the brain increase and start to be more complex. Being deprived of such rich environments can cause lack of

Diversity and complexity offered by the environment support children's play. This complexity and diversity creates opportunities for social interaction and problem solving. If a play environment contains complexity and diversity, this environment will continue to attract the attention of children over time (Jones, 1997). These complexity, diversity and richness in the environment can be created more with the natural materials. Because natural materials can be evaluated in different ways in the extent of children's creativity due to their variability. Therefore, areas that have such elements will attract the

In addition, nature's contributions to the development of children are frequently mentioned

 Nature contributes in terms of psychological, cognitive, and emotional health, treatment of attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, motor development, play quality,

Natural environments are rich, tutorial, educational and informative environments

Stephen R. Kellert who is social ecology expert express that children can relate to nature in

*Direct;* there is physical contact with nature and children recognize the nature more

*Indirect;* physical contact with nature is limited and is programmed, such as zoos,

*Symbolically;* there is no physical contact with nature, children recognize the nature with

The most ideal of these for children is direct contact with nature (figure 7). But today establishing a direct relationship with nature and access to nature's facilities are limited for children in their daily experiences. The most important factor of this is the vast majority of the population has begun to live in urban and suburban areas. In this case children see the natural areas in their environment less than children live in rural or even they cannot see, they usually go to school by service or other vehicles, they cannot have the experience or the

in the literature. These can be grouped under the following headings (Acar, 2009);

increased sensitivity to the environment, socialization Nature develops the imagination, creativity and social play

Nature evokes positive emotions, sense of place

Nature allows thinking, observation and research

energy and violent behavior (Tai et al., 2006).

attention of children for a long time.

Nature has a stimulating effect

three ways. These are (Kellert, 2002);

materials such as book and computer.

closely.

botanical gardens.

#### *Natural materials and play potential*

Natural areas, one of the open spaces, and the materials they have can provide lots of opportunity for different activities when they are used in accordance with the creativity and imagination of children. Some researchers state that experiences in natural areas play an important role on children's cognitive and affective development (Pyle, 2002; Derr, 2008). Actually these studies show that this situation is a reflection of adults' childhood experience (Derr, 2008). That is, adult's childhood experiences affect attitudes of their adulthood. Therefore, being in interaction with nature and natural materials in childhood contribute to getting information about this subject in future, being sensitive and conscious towards the environment and handing down this experience to the next generations.

Childhood is a period for exploring and it is wonderful, powerful and life-changing discoveries for many children. In this process, period of 6-12 years is considered as middle childhood (Tai et al., 2006). Especially during middle childhood, children get significant experiences and skills that they can use throughout their lives. Therefore, interaction with nature is extremely important for people during this period (Bixler et al., 2002; Tai et al., 2006; Acar, 2009).

Studies show that children have a tendency to more natural materials and these materials provides a positive contribution to their healthy development (Fjørtoft and Sageie, 2000; Fjørtoft , 2004; Taylor and Kuo, 2008; Louv, 2008). For this reason, these materials should be used in the play areas by considering their utility situations in plays and activity facilities. Especially these materials must be used in play spaces in urban areas where it is difficult to find natural areas and materials. But, it cannot be provided just by taking these materials into the playground. The important thing is that these materials should support children's activities. For example, if the climbing activity will be done by a tree instead of a climbing wall, the tree should be appropriate for children's dimensions and in an appropriate form to climb.

"As childhood has become more restricted, opportunities for interaction with nature and natural experience are even more critical" (Mark Francis, in Lyle, 1997). Interaction with nature and natural materials contribute children's physical, mental, moral and emotional development. There are strong evidences that constant change and growth in nature have a strong effect on the development of intelligence. Also, when human beings and animals are in dynamic environment containing natural areas, neural connections in the brain increase and start to be more complex. Being deprived of such rich environments can cause lack of energy and violent behavior (Tai et al., 2006).

Diversity and complexity offered by the environment support children's play. This complexity and diversity creates opportunities for social interaction and problem solving. If a play environment contains complexity and diversity, this environment will continue to attract the attention of children over time (Jones, 1997). These complexity, diversity and richness in the environment can be created more with the natural materials. Because natural materials can be evaluated in different ways in the extent of children's creativity due to their variability. Therefore, areas that have such elements will attract the attention of children for a long time.

In addition, nature's contributions to the development of children are frequently mentioned in the literature. These can be grouped under the following headings (Acar, 2009);


298 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Acar, H., Paris, France).

2006; Acar, 2009).

climb.

*Natural materials and play potential* 

**Figure 6.** Even a fountain allows children come together, to communicate, to socialize. At the same time helps them to learn issues such as to respect the rights of others and their right to self-defense (Photo

Natural areas, one of the open spaces, and the materials they have can provide lots of opportunity for different activities when they are used in accordance with the creativity and imagination of children. Some researchers state that experiences in natural areas play an important role on children's cognitive and affective development (Pyle, 2002; Derr, 2008). Actually these studies show that this situation is a reflection of adults' childhood experience (Derr, 2008). That is, adult's childhood experiences affect attitudes of their adulthood. Therefore, being in interaction with nature and natural materials in childhood contribute to getting information about this subject in future, being sensitive and conscious towards the

Childhood is a period for exploring and it is wonderful, powerful and life-changing discoveries for many children. In this process, period of 6-12 years is considered as middle childhood (Tai et al., 2006). Especially during middle childhood, children get significant experiences and skills that they can use throughout their lives. Therefore, interaction with nature is extremely important for people during this period (Bixler et al., 2002; Tai et al.,

Studies show that children have a tendency to more natural materials and these materials provides a positive contribution to their healthy development (Fjørtoft and Sageie, 2000; Fjørtoft , 2004; Taylor and Kuo, 2008; Louv, 2008). For this reason, these materials should be used in the play areas by considering their utility situations in plays and activity facilities. Especially these materials must be used in play spaces in urban areas where it is difficult to find natural areas and materials. But, it cannot be provided just by taking these materials into the playground. The important thing is that these materials should support children's activities. For example, if the climbing activity will be done by a tree instead of a climbing wall, the tree should be appropriate for children's dimensions and in an appropriate form to

environment and handing down this experience to the next generations.


Stephen R. Kellert who is social ecology expert express that children can relate to nature in three ways. These are (Kellert, 2002);


The most ideal of these for children is direct contact with nature (figure 7). But today establishing a direct relationship with nature and access to nature's facilities are limited for children in their daily experiences. The most important factor of this is the vast majority of the population has begun to live in urban and suburban areas. In this case children see the natural areas in their environment less than children live in rural or even they cannot see, they usually go to school by service or other vehicles, they cannot have the experience or the opportunity to explore their environment, children use more open areas under adult supervision due to security matters or they are recommended to use closed areas to play and due to the increasing constructions children can use limited areas for play. Studies about subject show that all of them effect the healthy development of children negatively. Considering we don't have a chance to change our living conditions and after that these conditions would change more against the children, especially designers who design open spaces for children have important role from now on.

Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context 301

**Figure 8.** Figure 8. A rock garden and rocks in the garden designed aesthetically for adults are elements seating, climbing, over and around the watch for children (Photo Acar, H., Trabzon, Turkey)

**Figure 9.** Figure 9. A curved equipment designed by adults for aesthetically or sitting in the shopping

For example, while adults enjoy looking at a lake, trees, the grass, these must be a tactile auditory, oral and olfactory experience for children. "It is through body contact, direct and often disorderly, that need to experience their world". Puddles of water that adults avoid are funny places splashing when pressed for children. Lush green hills adults likes looking at is a place to roll down, feel the wet soft grass, smell its green smell for a child, an experience the free fall of tumbling round and round. Adults prefer visually clean and well maintained places instead of irregular and wet grass in open spaces. However, children as

The streets have always been one of the important and attractive play spaces for children (figure 10). Children meet their friends around there, get to know each other and explore the environment. The most important feature that makes streets attractive is its accessibility for

one of the players that use the environment are "place-messers" (Francis, M. 1997).

center can be play element to slide for a child (Photo Acar, H., Trabzon, Turkey)

"Study nature, love nature, stay close to nature. It will never fail you" Frank Lloyd Wright (Tai et al., 2006). This expression of Wright explicitly refers to the result of being in relationship with nature.

**Figure 7.** An activity allowing direct contact with nature- pony ride on the area- (Photo Acar, H., Paris, France)

#### *Differences in the perceptions and expectations of children and adults about the environment*

Children and adults see and perceive the world differently (Day and Midbjer, 2007) and use open spaces differently (Moore, 1991). Therefore, while making a decision about the design of open spaces we should not forget that there are differences between children's and adults' perspectives. Functional features of the environment are more important than the aesthetic features for children (figure 8). Therefore, when designing areas for children we should determine according to children's needs and desires.

Adults just focus on how to use space and they know what it is. On the other hand, for children what the space means and how they meet and experience it is more important (figure 9). "Paula Lillard distinguishes these approaches: 'children use the environment to improve themselves; adults use themselves to improve the environment. Children work for the sake of process; adults work to achieve and result. This means places-for adults-are for pre-defined purposes; but to children, they offer opportunities for things to do. Adults live (mostly) in a world of material facts-'known' and unchanging. For children, the 'real' world is often servant to an imaginary world" (Day and Midbjer, 2007).

Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context 301

300 Advances in Landscape Architecture

relationship with nature.

France)

spaces for children have important role from now on.

determine according to children's needs and desires.

is often servant to an imaginary world" (Day and Midbjer, 2007).

opportunity to explore their environment, children use more open areas under adult supervision due to security matters or they are recommended to use closed areas to play and due to the increasing constructions children can use limited areas for play. Studies about subject show that all of them effect the healthy development of children negatively. Considering we don't have a chance to change our living conditions and after that these conditions would change more against the children, especially designers who design open

"Study nature, love nature, stay close to nature. It will never fail you" Frank Lloyd Wright (Tai et al., 2006). This expression of Wright explicitly refers to the result of being in

**Figure 7.** An activity allowing direct contact with nature- pony ride on the area- (Photo Acar, H., Paris,

Children and adults see and perceive the world differently (Day and Midbjer, 2007) and use open spaces differently (Moore, 1991). Therefore, while making a decision about the design of open spaces we should not forget that there are differences between children's and adults' perspectives. Functional features of the environment are more important than the aesthetic features for children (figure 8). Therefore, when designing areas for children we should

Adults just focus on how to use space and they know what it is. On the other hand, for children what the space means and how they meet and experience it is more important (figure 9). "Paula Lillard distinguishes these approaches: 'children use the environment to improve themselves; adults use themselves to improve the environment. Children work for the sake of process; adults work to achieve and result. This means places-for adults-are for pre-defined purposes; but to children, they offer opportunities for things to do. Adults live (mostly) in a world of material facts-'known' and unchanging. For children, the 'real' world

*Differences in the perceptions and expectations of children and adults about the environment* 

**Figure 8.** Figure 8. A rock garden and rocks in the garden designed aesthetically for adults are elements seating, climbing, over and around the watch for children (Photo Acar, H., Trabzon, Turkey)

**Figure 9.** Figure 9. A curved equipment designed by adults for aesthetically or sitting in the shopping center can be play element to slide for a child (Photo Acar, H., Trabzon, Turkey)

For example, while adults enjoy looking at a lake, trees, the grass, these must be a tactile auditory, oral and olfactory experience for children. "It is through body contact, direct and often disorderly, that need to experience their world". Puddles of water that adults avoid are funny places splashing when pressed for children. Lush green hills adults likes looking at is a place to roll down, feel the wet soft grass, smell its green smell for a child, an experience the free fall of tumbling round and round. Adults prefer visually clean and well maintained places instead of irregular and wet grass in open spaces. However, children as one of the players that use the environment are "place-messers" (Francis, M. 1997).

The streets have always been one of the important and attractive play spaces for children (figure 10). Children meet their friends around there, get to know each other and explore the environment. The most important feature that makes streets attractive is its accessibility for

both sexes and all age groups. However, streets are thought as a transportation routes used to go from a point to b point or parking areas for vehicles by adults (Moore, 1991).

Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context 303

spaces especially in public spaces are used by different age groups. Children are one of the

Churchman (2003) began his research with a question "Is there a place for children in the city?". In fact, we should ask this question for all cities and even all the settlements where children are in. Because unfortunately open green spaces decreases in parallel with an increase in the population and the number of structural elements such as residential and business centers increases in urban areas with the process of urbanization. Decrease in open areas also causes a decrease in outside play areas for children. Whereas as mentioned in the previous sections playing in open spaces is really important and necessary for the healthy

Nowadays childhood has shown a change through over-controlled by families rather than child-centered (Francis and Lorenzo, 2008). Especially changing environmental conditions in urban areas-traffic density, lack of security- have significant impact on this change. As a result of this, while children spend less time in open areas, they spend more time with individual plays in their homes, in virtual environments such as computers and television and with technological devices such as mobile phone, portable play station, play station (Heerwagen and Orians, 2002; Onur, 2007; Acar, 2009). Eventually, problematic children who cannot interact with nature and with their peers, cannot develop talents and creativity and have limited knowledge about their environment are brought up. This also means problematic adults (Francis and Lorenzo, 2008). Whereas former children were playing in the gardens of their houses or in vacant fields near their homes, on the streets or special places they created. They could find opportunity to be with the same or different age groups and friends in there. Today this condition disappeared in urban areas although it continues in rural areas. This case is not special only for Turkey but for the world-wide (Francis and

Especially in the last four decades of childhood both negative and positive changes have been occurred. The most alarming cause of these changes is developed cities. Children are increasingly disappearing in density and the chaos of the cities. They are often under the control of the adults while using open spaces. Researchers refer that this situation prevents the needs and the rights of living and enjoying the city of children (Francis and Lorenzo, 2008). Therefore, it is very important to find solutions that will allow children to use open spaces freely and happily for their needs in advanced and crowded cities. Because kids are the same everywhere and need opportunities for healthy development. According to Ellen Ruppel Shell (2001) the title of her article "Kids don't need equipment, they need

There are open spaces that have different qualities in the urban centers. These areas provide

opportunities for children and are grouped under the following headings;

most important of these user groups.

development of the children.

Lorenzo, 2008; Acar, 2009).

opportunity".

Private residential gardens

Schools' and daycare centers' open spaces

*Being Child in the City* 

**Figure 10.** Figure 10. Streets are play spaces for children near their home (Photos Acar, H., Trabzon, Turkey)

One way to understand how children use the environment and what kind of environment they want is observing them. If the user of area that is designed for the child is apparent - for example a school or daycare garden- in order to learn the expectations of children we should observe children's behavior in the area instead of learning by interviews. In this way, it can be determined that which points in the area, when, how often, with how many people and finally and most importantly, for which activity children use. Also, children can build special places such as wooden houses, clubhouses built with waste materials, cottages, and so on, for their own needs in their environments. These places built by the children are an important indicator of their expectations from the environment. These special places are not very aesthetically pleasing but it is important for the development of children's creativity. Therefore, designers should learn to look at the environment through children's eyes or listen them while designing the spaces for children.

## **4. Urban context**

Human has needed spaces that have different functions for various needs and wishes since the transition of urban life. These can be either open or closed spaces. Space, with the simplest definition, is place of a person or group. Space is a place which has human, human relations, and equipment required for these relations and the boundaries of a space is defined according to the structure and characteristics of activity (Gür, 1996). Urban is a settlement consists of these spaces and people using them.

While Norberg Schulz defines the urban as a "meeting place" in which people come together and a "microcosm" surrounding the people (Erdönmez and Ak, 2005), Lynch (1960) defines the urban as a place of a communication in which there are open and closed symbols, religious symbols, signs and plates, towers, columns, entries and rural areas. Urban have a different user segments together with the diversity of this place. So, all of the city's open spaces especially in public spaces are used by different age groups. Children are one of the most important of these user groups.

Churchman (2003) began his research with a question "Is there a place for children in the city?". In fact, we should ask this question for all cities and even all the settlements where children are in. Because unfortunately open green spaces decreases in parallel with an increase in the population and the number of structural elements such as residential and business centers increases in urban areas with the process of urbanization. Decrease in open areas also causes a decrease in outside play areas for children. Whereas as mentioned in the previous sections playing in open spaces is really important and necessary for the healthy development of the children.

#### *Being Child in the City*

302 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Turkey)

**4. Urban context** 

both sexes and all age groups. However, streets are thought as a transportation routes used

**Figure 10.** Figure 10. Streets are play spaces for children near their home (Photos Acar, H., Trabzon,

listen them while designing the spaces for children.

settlement consists of these spaces and people using them.

One way to understand how children use the environment and what kind of environment they want is observing them. If the user of area that is designed for the child is apparent - for example a school or daycare garden- in order to learn the expectations of children we should observe children's behavior in the area instead of learning by interviews. In this way, it can be determined that which points in the area, when, how often, with how many people and finally and most importantly, for which activity children use. Also, children can build special places such as wooden houses, clubhouses built with waste materials, cottages, and so on, for their own needs in their environments. These places built by the children are an important indicator of their expectations from the environment. These special places are not very aesthetically pleasing but it is important for the development of children's creativity. Therefore, designers should learn to look at the environment through children's eyes or

Human has needed spaces that have different functions for various needs and wishes since the transition of urban life. These can be either open or closed spaces. Space, with the simplest definition, is place of a person or group. Space is a place which has human, human relations, and equipment required for these relations and the boundaries of a space is defined according to the structure and characteristics of activity (Gür, 1996). Urban is a

While Norberg Schulz defines the urban as a "meeting place" in which people come together and a "microcosm" surrounding the people (Erdönmez and Ak, 2005), Lynch (1960) defines the urban as a place of a communication in which there are open and closed symbols, religious symbols, signs and plates, towers, columns, entries and rural areas. Urban have a different user segments together with the diversity of this place. So, all of the city's open

to go from a point to b point or parking areas for vehicles by adults (Moore, 1991).

Nowadays childhood has shown a change through over-controlled by families rather than child-centered (Francis and Lorenzo, 2008). Especially changing environmental conditions in urban areas-traffic density, lack of security- have significant impact on this change. As a result of this, while children spend less time in open areas, they spend more time with individual plays in their homes, in virtual environments such as computers and television and with technological devices such as mobile phone, portable play station, play station (Heerwagen and Orians, 2002; Onur, 2007; Acar, 2009). Eventually, problematic children who cannot interact with nature and with their peers, cannot develop talents and creativity and have limited knowledge about their environment are brought up. This also means problematic adults (Francis and Lorenzo, 2008). Whereas former children were playing in the gardens of their houses or in vacant fields near their homes, on the streets or special places they created. They could find opportunity to be with the same or different age groups and friends in there. Today this condition disappeared in urban areas although it continues in rural areas. This case is not special only for Turkey but for the world-wide (Francis and Lorenzo, 2008; Acar, 2009).

Especially in the last four decades of childhood both negative and positive changes have been occurred. The most alarming cause of these changes is developed cities. Children are increasingly disappearing in density and the chaos of the cities. They are often under the control of the adults while using open spaces. Researchers refer that this situation prevents the needs and the rights of living and enjoying the city of children (Francis and Lorenzo, 2008). Therefore, it is very important to find solutions that will allow children to use open spaces freely and happily for their needs in advanced and crowded cities. Because kids are the same everywhere and need opportunities for healthy development. According to Ellen Ruppel Shell (2001) the title of her article "Kids don't need equipment, they need opportunity".

There are open spaces that have different qualities in the urban centers. These areas provide opportunities for children and are grouped under the following headings;


Some of these open areas used by children designed especially for children, some of them are not designed (such as natural areas, streets). Needs of each designed areas can show diversity according to the state of the user and usage. While designing these places, designers should pay attention to these needs and children's desires. There are studies on the design of these open spaces in the literature (Moore et al., 1997; Francis, 1998; Spencer and Woolley, 2000). Generally issue of "how urban open spaces should be designed for children" will be discussed under the next heading.

Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context 305

2. *Mixed use and mixed users:* Children do not like mono-functional zoning. These ideas are consistent with the mixed use and zoning idea of urban designers and planners today. Children want to be together with individuals with different age groups and cultures rather than special places for themselves. They want to try events and functions, and

3. *Sociability:* Children want to be together with different age groups of children and young people autonomously. Besides, children and youth want to be involved in

4. *Small, feasible, flexible:* Children often prefer small-scale constructions formed by

5. *Natural, environmentally healthy, growing and in movement:* Natural elements, especially plants are preferred by children and are responded to their expectations as they are living materials and reflect seasonal changes. Natural elements, therefore, used for different activities by children and should be included in the design of children places.

6. *Urban and place identity:* Disorder in scale, function and form in children's place, especially in urban areas, cause perception of space, as a market place. Whereas children know that places need to be identifiable. Signals and signs can be designed

into the physical plan. Their design solutions are colors, materials, plantings, etc. 7. *Places and opportunities for participation:* Children want to contribute to the ongoing, flexible, and permanent design in the process. Children feel good about themselves and have protective attitudes when they have a voice and contribute to the design of the

Tai et al. (2006) classified the design process in a play area under the titles such as research (the inventory and analysis, program development and user needs, design) and construction documentation (cost estimating, implementation). Considerations for determining user

 *Five senses:* Designs to outdoor areas used by children should contribute to the use and are aware of their feelings. Scientifically, unchanging and unchangeable environments is not ideal for the senses. When diversity is not exist in the environment, the brain searches for other ways to stimulate such as self-introspection or goes to sleep, concentration deteriorates, attention fluctuates and lapses. In contrast, varying stimuli

 *Safety:* Creating a play space, safety is one of the most important design principles to be considered. At this point, there are two important elements that children like to see

provides attention and awareness keeps you awake (Day and Midbjer, 2007). *Scale:* While adults see the world on a larger scale, children are more cautious about the details. Studies in this area also support this idea. Gary Nabha, one of the authors of The Geography of Childhood, saw his photographs are different, looking at the photos taken by his son in western National parks travels. While his photographs present interesting vistas, his son took more photos with rocks, twigs, lizards and other more tactile, small-scale objects. Therefore, when an adult designs a space for children, he

make observations without limitation of adults in a space.

recycled, low-cost materials, and natural and green components.

In addition, other living materials and water should be considered.

management of some places.

environment they live in.

needs in this process are listed as follows;

should care for the child's point of view.

#### *How cities should be for the children?*

Issues such as how cities should be for children, design criteria for urban open spaces designed for children, and specific points need to be considered in design are classified under specific headings by experts who design open space for children and work on these issues.

Elizabeth Jones (1997), classified specific design elements of spaces under the 9 titles including children play activities depending on the design requirements. These are:


"They all are essential in the creation of outdoor settings offering guidance in meeting the needs of children intellectually, socially, cognitively and physically" (Jones, 1997).

Owen (1988) determined the qualities required for children in urban design in accordance with the relevant experts and children's statements to define best cities. Francis and Lorenzo (2008) also determined characteristics of better urban places for children based on their design experiences and Owen's (1988) suggestions. These characteristics are;

1. *Accessibility:* Play areas (if far away from children's home), especially for small children, should be separated from traffic flow, and be connected to their home or school with a good link or be within reach by bike.

2. *Mixed use and mixed users:* Children do not like mono-functional zoning. These ideas are consistent with the mixed use and zoning idea of urban designers and planners today. Children want to be together with individuals with different age groups and cultures rather than special places for themselves. They want to try events and functions, and make observations without limitation of adults in a space.

304 Advances in Landscape Architecture

 Playgrounds Streets Urban forests

Cities

issues.

Play areas in urban parks

Vacant fields and natural areas

*How cities should be for the children?* 

1. Accessible-Inaccessible

5. Natural-People/Built

7. Permanence-Change 8. Private-Public 9. Simple-Complex

3. Challenge/Risk-Repetition/Security

good link or be within reach by bike.

2. Active-Passive

4. Hard-Soft

6. Open-Closed

Shopping centers'-plazas' open spaces and courtyards

children" will be discussed under the next heading.

Some of these open areas used by children designed especially for children, some of them are not designed (such as natural areas, streets). Needs of each designed areas can show diversity according to the state of the user and usage. While designing these places, designers should pay attention to these needs and children's desires. There are studies on the design of these open spaces in the literature (Moore et al., 1997; Francis, 1998; Spencer and Woolley, 2000). Generally issue of "how urban open spaces should be designed for

Issues such as how cities should be for children, design criteria for urban open spaces designed for children, and specific points need to be considered in design are classified under specific headings by experts who design open space for children and work on these

Elizabeth Jones (1997), classified specific design elements of spaces under the 9 titles

"They all are essential in the creation of outdoor settings offering guidance in meeting the

Owen (1988) determined the qualities required for children in urban design in accordance with the relevant experts and children's statements to define best cities. Francis and Lorenzo (2008) also determined characteristics of better urban places for children based on their

1. *Accessibility:* Play areas (if far away from children's home), especially for small children, should be separated from traffic flow, and be connected to their home or school with a

needs of children intellectually, socially, cognitively and physically" (Jones, 1997).

design experiences and Owen's (1988) suggestions. These characteristics are;

including children play activities depending on the design requirements. These are:


Tai et al. (2006) classified the design process in a play area under the titles such as research (the inventory and analysis, program development and user needs, design) and construction documentation (cost estimating, implementation). Considerations for determining user needs in this process are listed as follows;


around; the water and the high elements. Therefore they should be used in children places by taking the necessary safety precautions.

Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context 307

encourage children to be active. All of these and other similar elements can contribute to the development of children's physical ability, motion, coordination, balance and testing skill, and encourages them to play. The setting that include "attractive materials" can be a clue

As a part of biological diversity, plants, animals, water elements (lake, river, ...) that provide habitat for a particular species, and natural areas that include a portion or all of them in urban areas, can be a source of inspiration for play (Acar, 2010 ) (figure 12). Even if not completely natural, these should be used in the design of children spaces. As discussed in detail in the previous sections, contact with natural areas and natural elements in childhood is extremely important for children. As Robin Moore pointed out, "green" alone is not enough as well as. Spaces created for children should be child-centered, recollective and inviting, and should continuously be effective on the development of children (Tai et al.,

**Figure 11.** Playing with water have always been attractive and exciting for children (Photos Acar, H.)

Gender differences should be taken into account in play space design. Girls and boys are different from each other physically, and activity elements should be suitable for both sexes. Although the reason is not always clear, girls and boys are attracted to different places. Boys' plays can often last over days even weeks to complete. While boys usually construct unused buildings (especially tower), the girls usually construct rooms with people in them.

when designing play spaces for kids (Jones, 1997).

2006).


There are different elements around that we can use to draw children's attention. These elements should be utilized in the designed areas for children. Water is one of these elements. Water, either artificially created or with natural surroundings (a river, lake or sea), in the city are always offers unlimited opportunities for children to explore (figure 11). Similarly, blankets, pillows and boxes can be used to create places to hide. Trikes and bikes encourage children to be active. All of these and other similar elements can contribute to the development of children's physical ability, motion, coordination, balance and testing skill, and encourages them to play. The setting that include "attractive materials" can be a clue when designing play spaces for kids (Jones, 1997).

As a part of biological diversity, plants, animals, water elements (lake, river, ...) that provide habitat for a particular species, and natural areas that include a portion or all of them in urban areas, can be a source of inspiration for play (Acar, 2010 ) (figure 12). Even if not completely natural, these should be used in the design of children spaces. As discussed in detail in the previous sections, contact with natural areas and natural elements in childhood is extremely important for children. As Robin Moore pointed out, "green" alone is not enough as well as. Spaces created for children should be child-centered, recollective and inviting, and should continuously be effective on the development of children (Tai et al., 2006).

306 Advances in Landscape Architecture

game tubes.

places by taking the necessary safety precautions.

around; the water and the high elements. Therefore they should be used in children

 *Retreat:* Although children are different from adults, it should be noted that they are also individuals and there are similarities between adult and kids. Adults need special places that they will be alone for relaxing and escaping. Children need spaces away from the control of adult, feeling secure and playing privately. These spaces should be in a safe environment and close to adults so the security of children should be guaranteed. Such areas can be form in bounded tree house or a building, such as plastic

 *Play:* Play is an activity that is important to explore the world through the eyes of a child. There are many theories and classifications for play. One of them is contributing to the child's physical development and active movement. Another one is contributing to the development of the child's mind and the discovery of creative environment. *Active play:* Active play, in essence, includes a lot of action. These are extremely important for the development of physical health and motor skills. However, it should be noted that children having different needs have different expectations. This situation is related to different skill levels and preferences of the children. In this case, play spaces should be funny and comfortable for physical and active play. These places

 *Creative play:* Creative play is one of the most important experiences in the childhood period. Children's creativity develops when stimulated in a healthy play environment. The natural environments are the best areas to stimulate creativity and to encourage children. In such areas, twigs, leaves, rocks, provide opportunities for different play. When a child is given any material to create a new world, possibilities are endless. *Plants:* The selection of plant materials in the play area requires care. Dangerous,

*Wildlife:* Plants, necessary for play areas, is also important for wildlife. Monitoring these

 *Food:* While plants provide habitat for wildlife, they also provide information about ecology for children with the features such as acorns, nuts, berries, or other seeds. *Water:* All animals need water to drink or bathe. A water feature in the garden guarantees that birds will come into this area in the future. In this way, children can be

 *Shelter:* To attract wildlife and keep them in the area, shelters, especially on plants, can be made for animals. Brush piles, fallen logs, rock piles and other natural elements can

*Place to rise the young:* Wildlife has benefits both for adults and children. Children can

There are different elements around that we can use to draw children's attention. These elements should be utilized in the designed areas for children. Water is one of these elements. Water, either artificially created or with natural surroundings (a river, lake or sea), in the city are always offers unlimited opportunities for children to explore (figure 11). Similarly, blankets, pillows and boxes can be used to create places to hide. Trikes and bikes

should also be versatile for the different needs and abilities of children.

poisonous, thorny, and allergic species should not be used.

learn about wildlife by observing the natural environments.

habitats is necessary for childhood learning.

ensured to see birds.

provide animals safety and shelter.


Gender differences should be taken into account in play space design. Girls and boys are different from each other physically, and activity elements should be suitable for both sexes. Although the reason is not always clear, girls and boys are attracted to different places. Boys' plays can often last over days even weeks to complete. While boys usually construct unused buildings (especially tower), the girls usually construct rooms with people in them.

Girls are often pay attention to the aesthetics of the environment and like colorful and beautiful flowers. Girls particularly 13-15 aged ones, have a variety of definition about the space when compared to boys (Day and Midbjer, 2007). It is observed, that girls prefer, for example, flowers and butterflies and trees, whereas boys prefer more active play such as sliding and playing hide and seek. However, they all need quite places to rest, talk, and socialize (Simonic et al., 2005).

**Figure 12.** Figure 12. The opportunity of interaction with animals allows children to have information about the animals (Photo Acar, H., Nara, Japan)

Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context 309

Unpopular colors:

5-8 ages – black, white, gray, dark brown

 11-12 ages – olive green, rust green, purple, lilac 13-14 ages – rust green, brown, dark brown

yellow and orange colors were unfavourable (Acar, 2003).

**Figure 13.** Plants are interesting materials for children (Photo Acar, H., Paris, France)

The functional properties of the plants can be assessed by children in addition to the esthetic properties such as color, form, etc. As mentioned in previous sections, to evaluate existing elements, such as the functional point of view is more important for children. In this respect, children use plants in the playground depending on the features that they have for activities such as climbing, hiding, symbolic games (branch and leaf-like parts of the imaginary cone), and swinging (Acar, 2009). For these purposes, appropriate species selection is needed depending on, function and usage of the space, and the activities that will take place (e.g. size, form, texture, evergreen-deciduous, coniferous-broadleaved, fruit-fruitless, etc.)

9-10 ages – gray, dark brown, black, rust green, rust blue

Children would like to see plants that can be used for play. For this purpose, plants can also be used to serve a variety of outdoor activities in open spaces designed for children. Trees, shrubs, flowers, vegetables and parts of these plants, such as branches, leaves, pinecones are important elements of children's environments and plays (figure 13, 14, 15). Plants in child environments are used with the objectives of enclosure, identity, movement, climbing, play props, programmed activities/education, accessibility/integration, landmarks, seasonal change, wildlife enhancement, climate modification, and environmental quality (Moore, 2002). Plants offer different color options in different seasons with their colorful leaves, flowers and fruits. Results of the author's master thesis that focused on the plant preferences for children play spaces revealed that children like red, yellow, mottled, blue and orange colored leafs while they do not like yellow and green colored leafs. Study also revealed that purple, pink and white flowers were favorite, while red and white colors were unfavourable. In terms of fruit color, study also found that red and blue were favorite, while

Color is an important factor in the children's preferences. Color preferences are personal. Young children love bright colors. In the 1960s, some educationalists were considering that children can only perceive main colors. Today, it is believed that they are over-stimulating. Strong colors can be used in small spaces. But, in large spaces in which we spend more time, it would be better to use muted colors or mood stabilizers. Distinct and warm colors (red, yellow, and orange) are preferred by children over 6 years old. This is not surprising. At this age, they are activity-led, not feeling- or thought-led. Boys preferred red color more than girls that is compatible with their behavior. Older children prefer blue color. Beyond the personal preferences, there are also powerful therapeutic effects of the color (Day and Midbjer, 2007). The color choice seems to change according to age. H. Friedling, in his study performed in 1974, showed the color preferences of children according to age. According to this study, popular and unpopular colors vary as follows (Gür and Zorlu, 2002):


Unpopular colors:

308 Advances in Landscape Architecture

socialize (Simonic et al., 2005).

about the animals (Photo Acar, H., Nara, Japan)

Popular colors:

Girls are often pay attention to the aesthetics of the environment and like colorful and beautiful flowers. Girls particularly 13-15 aged ones, have a variety of definition about the space when compared to boys (Day and Midbjer, 2007). It is observed, that girls prefer, for example, flowers and butterflies and trees, whereas boys prefer more active play such as sliding and playing hide and seek. However, they all need quite places to rest, talk, and

**Figure 12.** Figure 12. The opportunity of interaction with animals allows children to have information

Color is an important factor in the children's preferences. Color preferences are personal. Young children love bright colors. In the 1960s, some educationalists were considering that children can only perceive main colors. Today, it is believed that they are over-stimulating. Strong colors can be used in small spaces. But, in large spaces in which we spend more time, it would be better to use muted colors or mood stabilizers. Distinct and warm colors (red, yellow, and orange) are preferred by children over 6 years old. This is not surprising. At this age, they are activity-led, not feeling- or thought-led. Boys preferred red color more than girls that is compatible with their behavior. Older children prefer blue color. Beyond the personal preferences, there are also powerful therapeutic effects of the color (Day and Midbjer, 2007). The color choice seems to change according to age. H. Friedling, in his study performed in 1974, showed the color preferences of children according to age. According to

this study, popular and unpopular colors vary as follows (Gür and Zorlu, 2002):

13-14 ages – light blue (masculine), red (feminine), blue, green, orange, dark orange

5-8 ages – pinkish purple, red, pink, lilac, lemon yellow

11-12 ages – green, light blue, red, purple

9-10 ages – purples, pink, red, turquoise, reddish orange, coffee,

 5-8 ages – black, white, gray, dark brown 9-10 ages – gray, dark brown, black, rust green, rust blue 11-12 ages – olive green, rust green, purple, lilac 13-14 ages – rust green, brown, dark brown

Children would like to see plants that can be used for play. For this purpose, plants can also be used to serve a variety of outdoor activities in open spaces designed for children. Trees, shrubs, flowers, vegetables and parts of these plants, such as branches, leaves, pinecones are important elements of children's environments and plays (figure 13, 14, 15). Plants in child environments are used with the objectives of enclosure, identity, movement, climbing, play props, programmed activities/education, accessibility/integration, landmarks, seasonal change, wildlife enhancement, climate modification, and environmental quality (Moore, 2002). Plants offer different color options in different seasons with their colorful leaves, flowers and fruits. Results of the author's master thesis that focused on the plant preferences for children play spaces revealed that children like red, yellow, mottled, blue and orange colored leafs while they do not like yellow and green colored leafs. Study also revealed that purple, pink and white flowers were favorite, while red and white colors were unfavourable. In terms of fruit color, study also found that red and blue were favorite, while yellow and orange colors were unfavourable (Acar, 2003).

**Figure 13.** Plants are interesting materials for children (Photo Acar, H., Paris, France)

The functional properties of the plants can be assessed by children in addition to the esthetic properties such as color, form, etc. As mentioned in previous sections, to evaluate existing elements, such as the functional point of view is more important for children. In this respect, children use plants in the playground depending on the features that they have for activities such as climbing, hiding, symbolic games (branch and leaf-like parts of the imaginary cone), and swinging (Acar, 2009). For these purposes, appropriate species selection is needed depending on, function and usage of the space, and the activities that will take place (e.g. size, form, texture, evergreen-deciduous, coniferous-broadleaved, fruit-fruitless, etc.)

(Moore, 2002). In addition, care must be taken for children's health and safety according to selected species (allergens, toxic, barbed should not be used).

**Figure 14.** Figure 14. Plants are ideal materials to hide behind (Photo Acar, H., Trabzon, Turkey)

Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context 311

These features and everything mentioned so far are important clues for the design of open space for the children Needs and preferences can vary depending on the individual; however, the knowledge of the general trend provides a significant contribution for space

Overall, by definition, "participation" refers to that the active participation in decisions affecting one's self and has a say. This is also the right of individual citizens in a democracy. A meaningful participation in the design of open space can be achieved by the participation of individuals from all ages on the subject that includes designed field evaluation, identification of problems, evaluation of the available data, solution proposals, needs and the development of alternatives and by combining all of these on a common plan for a conclusion. Participation is local, transparent, inclusive, interactive, responsive, relevant, educational, reflective, transformative, sustainable, personal and voluntary (Driskell,

Children should be included in the design of kid play areas through the design process, if possible. Children participation in the decision-making process has advantages for both designers and practitioners. In this way, their needs will be met and their contribution to the construction process leads to a protective attitudes towards these areas among them. "Local Agenda 21" action plan that was introduced in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and accepted by the UN members, strongly supports the involvement of children in the planning of local

A meeting was held in Bologna (Italy) in May 1994 to contribute the identification of childfriendly cities. Approximately more than 300 children from 100 primary and secondary schools in different cities of Italy, educators, planners, and administrations all have described the problems of the cities. All of the children supported by WWF Italy took part in participatory design projects. As a result of these activities, *The Children's Manifesto: How to Win Back Our Cities* gives clues for future urban design. According to this, the children's ideas are grouped under following headings: "needs in general, expectations from the city, needs regarding urban green spaces, needs in school, needs related to whelming traffic, and

to interact with nature in cities which means: playing, climbing, building huts, listening,

to have different experiences, sleeping out of doors, strolling together, 'kites between

needs for the future" (Francis and Lorenzo, 2002). Some of their expectations are;

design.

2002).

environments.

looking and understanding,

 areas for cycling to be heard by others

quiet environments

the houses', bridges between the windows, etc.

to establish children's council to participate decision-making

more sport activities and children's theaters,

*Children's participation in the design process* 

Finally, White and Stoecklin (1998), cited the following features that children likes to see in public areas;


These features and everything mentioned so far are important clues for the design of open space for the children Needs and preferences can vary depending on the individual; however, the knowledge of the general trend provides a significant contribution for space design.

#### *Children's participation in the design process*

310 Advances in Landscape Architecture

public areas;

sand and water

water

(Moore, 2002). In addition, care must be taken for children's health and safety according to

**Figure 14.** Figure 14. Plants are ideal materials to hide behind (Photo Acar, H., Trabzon, Turkey)

**Figure 15.** Figure 15. Plant parts are important play materials (Photo Acar, H., Trabzon, Turkey)

especially replaceable structures, materials, and equipment that they imagine

vegetation including trees, bushes, flowers and the long grass

hidden, and private, places and places providing good view

places to sit under, in, and on, and sheltered places

animals, creatures living in ponds

natural colors, diversity and change

Finally, White and Stoecklin (1998), cited the following features that children likes to see in

selected species (allergens, toxic, barbed should not be used).

Overall, by definition, "participation" refers to that the active participation in decisions affecting one's self and has a say. This is also the right of individual citizens in a democracy. A meaningful participation in the design of open space can be achieved by the participation of individuals from all ages on the subject that includes designed field evaluation, identification of problems, evaluation of the available data, solution proposals, needs and the development of alternatives and by combining all of these on a common plan for a conclusion. Participation is local, transparent, inclusive, interactive, responsive, relevant, educational, reflective, transformative, sustainable, personal and voluntary (Driskell, 2002).

Children should be included in the design of kid play areas through the design process, if possible. Children participation in the decision-making process has advantages for both designers and practitioners. In this way, their needs will be met and their contribution to the construction process leads to a protective attitudes towards these areas among them. "Local Agenda 21" action plan that was introduced in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and accepted by the UN members, strongly supports the involvement of children in the planning of local environments.

A meeting was held in Bologna (Italy) in May 1994 to contribute the identification of childfriendly cities. Approximately more than 300 children from 100 primary and secondary schools in different cities of Italy, educators, planners, and administrations all have described the problems of the cities. All of the children supported by WWF Italy took part in participatory design projects. As a result of these activities, *The Children's Manifesto: How to Win Back Our Cities* gives clues for future urban design. According to this, the children's ideas are grouped under following headings: "needs in general, expectations from the city, needs regarding urban green spaces, needs in school, needs related to whelming traffic, and needs for the future" (Francis and Lorenzo, 2002). Some of their expectations are;



These are very important as it reflects the expectations of children's requests.

Francis and Lorenzo (2002) stated that children should be included into the process of urban design. In this context, they identified seven realms for children's participation in urban design and planning.

Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context 313

**Figure 16.** Play space from Rotterdam, Netherland (Photos Acar, H.)

**Figure 17.** Figure 17. Play space from Brussels, Belgium (Photos Acar, H.)

towers offering different height options in this play spaces (figure 18).

This area was designed in woodland in the city. It is particularly suitable for disabled people with ramp play equipment. It provides an opportunity to contact with nature for children as

Ship is a play element that is frequently used in playgrounds and is also attractive in any time for children. It evokes discovery and adventure. The figure of the ship, located in the city offers many activities (sliding, hiding, stable standing, monitoring around, climbing, etc.) for children. Timber materials are used in the area and their colour are in a harmony with wooded area. Animal figures are used as sitting equipment. Although they are artificial, they give an opportunity to children to see and touch the turtle. Water-related spaces that children would like to see were designed in a wide range. In addition, there are

*Brussels, Belgium* 

*Luxemburg, Luxemburg* 

it is in a woodland area (figure 17).


A new approach is on the agenda in line with the participatory design to re-planning of cities which are not suitable for children to meet their needs. This approach is a proactive process that is including idea of children, adults and professional designers. This approach is fundamentally different approach to the participation of children, which indicates multifaceted perspective and multi-faceted participation. It is based on listening and learning the ideas of children, adults, designers, planners and decision-makers. Differences of opinion between children and adults are negotiated. In the design process, the concepts of equality, justice, and sustainability are important. This process is also based on social science methods that adults re-remember their childhood experiences and share them as their own children. In addition, this involves the use of Internet and Digital Media interactively. This approach claims that the work of children in other age groups, will contribute to the formation of livable, ecologically sustainable and child-and adult friendly cities (Francis and Lorenzo, 2008). In this process, children can participate to the design of children's play areas.

## **5. Examples from the world**

In order to make an overall assessment of selected samples around the world, it is important to see the different perspectives and approaches for the design of children's play. It is possible to increase the number of samples.

#### *Rotterdam, Netherland*

This example is a play space in which space's boundaries are defined with color differences on the ground in the city. This area is composed of artificial equipment completely and is quite small. Despite this, it allows more than one activities (figure 16).

**Figure 16.** Play space from Rotterdam, Netherland (Photos Acar, H.)

### *Brussels, Belgium*

312 Advances in Landscape Architecture

secure traffic

collect fruit trees

design and planning.

6. Institutionalization

design of children's play areas.

*Rotterdam, Netherland* 

**5. Examples from the world** 

possible to increase the number of samples.

1. Romantic 2. Advocacy 3. Needs 4. Learning 5. Rights

7. Proactive

colourful and beautiful schools

a lot of trees, shrubs and grasses,

These are very important as it reflects the expectations of children's requests.

Francis and Lorenzo (2002) stated that children should be included into the process of urban design. In this context, they identified seven realms for children's participation in urban

A new approach is on the agenda in line with the participatory design to re-planning of cities which are not suitable for children to meet their needs. This approach is a proactive process that is including idea of children, adults and professional designers. This approach is fundamentally different approach to the participation of children, which indicates multifaceted perspective and multi-faceted participation. It is based on listening and learning the ideas of children, adults, designers, planners and decision-makers. Differences of opinion between children and adults are negotiated. In the design process, the concepts of equality, justice, and sustainability are important. This process is also based on social science methods that adults re-remember their childhood experiences and share them as their own children. In addition, this involves the use of Internet and Digital Media interactively. This approach claims that the work of children in other age groups, will contribute to the formation of livable, ecologically sustainable and child-and adult friendly cities (Francis and Lorenzo, 2008). In this process, children can participate to the

In order to make an overall assessment of selected samples around the world, it is important to see the different perspectives and approaches for the design of children's play. It is

This example is a play space in which space's boundaries are defined with color differences on the ground in the city. This area is composed of artificial equipment completely and is

quite small. Despite this, it allows more than one activities (figure 16).

This area was designed in woodland in the city. It is particularly suitable for disabled people with ramp play equipment. It provides an opportunity to contact with nature for children as it is in a woodland area (figure 17).

**Figure 17.** Figure 17. Play space from Brussels, Belgium (Photos Acar, H.)

#### *Luxemburg, Luxemburg*

Ship is a play element that is frequently used in playgrounds and is also attractive in any time for children. It evokes discovery and adventure. The figure of the ship, located in the city offers many activities (sliding, hiding, stable standing, monitoring around, climbing, etc.) for children. Timber materials are used in the area and their colour are in a harmony with wooded area. Animal figures are used as sitting equipment. Although they are artificial, they give an opportunity to children to see and touch the turtle. Water-related spaces that children would like to see were designed in a wide range. In addition, there are towers offering different height options in this play spaces (figure 18).

Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context 315

**Figure 20.** Play space from Den Haag, Netherland (Photos Acar, H.)

This example is in woodland of the city. There are only artificial equipment offering different activities in this play space. Because these play spaces located in a natural area,

they provide the opportunity to become intimate with nature for children (figure 21).

*Istanbul, Turkey* 

**Figure 18.** Figure 18. Play space from Luxemburg, Luxemburg (Photos Acar, H.)

#### *Den Haag, Netherland*

There is also a ship figure in this play space. In addition, there are different equipment for different activities such as swinging, sliding, balancing, jumping, and playing with sand. Seating areas were also designed around the playground for parents together with the children (figure 19, 20).

**Figure 19.** Figure 19. Play space from Den Haag, Netherland (Photos Acar, H.)

**Figure 20.** Play space from Den Haag, Netherland (Photos Acar, H.)

#### *Istanbul, Turkey*

314 Advances in Landscape Architecture

*Den Haag, Netherland* 

children (figure 19, 20).

**Figure 18.** Figure 18. Play space from Luxemburg, Luxemburg (Photos Acar, H.)

**Figure 19.** Figure 19. Play space from Den Haag, Netherland (Photos Acar, H.)

There is also a ship figure in this play space. In addition, there are different equipment for different activities such as swinging, sliding, balancing, jumping, and playing with sand. Seating areas were also designed around the playground for parents together with the

> This example is in woodland of the city. There are only artificial equipment offering different activities in this play space. Because these play spaces located in a natural area, they provide the opportunity to become intimate with nature for children (figure 21).

Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context 317

**Figure 23.** Play space from Paris, France (Photos Acar, H.)

As a result, looking at the subject in the light of information covered so far in general, the design process in outdoor play space for children in urban areas can be classified under the

To form main design decisions in accordance with the field opportunities and the needs

In this process, the design considerations of play spaces in urban areas can be grouped

*Designed area:* The location of designed area in the city, the relationship of space with its surroundings and the possible means of transportation and routes of people expected to use

**6. Conclusion** 

following headings.

Producing scenario

under the following headings. *The nature of the site and facilities:* 

this area should be determined.

Application

Site analysis and data collection

and preferences of children

Selection of ideal scenarios and detailing

**Figure 21.** Play space from Istanbul, Turkey (Photos Acar, H.)

#### *Paris, France*

This play area located in Paris is an extremely good example in terms of different topography options. The existing slope in this area was evaluated without too much intervention. As described in affordance theory, curved surfaces afford to climb or slid. So, there is more climbing activity provided with different equipment such as rope in this play area. In addition, this play space is suitable for sliding. Also, although this is a fairly curved area, the safety of children is provided by safety barriers. Boundary elements are also suitable to sit (figure 22, 23).

**Figure 22.** Play space from Paris, France (Photos Acar, H.)

**Figure 23.** Play space from Paris, France (Photos Acar, H.)

## **6. Conclusion**

316 Advances in Landscape Architecture

*Paris, France* 

suitable to sit (figure 22, 23).

**Figure 21.** Play space from Istanbul, Turkey (Photos Acar, H.)

**Figure 22.** Play space from Paris, France (Photos Acar, H.)

This play area located in Paris is an extremely good example in terms of different topography options. The existing slope in this area was evaluated without too much intervention. As described in affordance theory, curved surfaces afford to climb or slid. So, there is more climbing activity provided with different equipment such as rope in this play area. In addition, this play space is suitable for sliding. Also, although this is a fairly curved area, the safety of children is provided by safety barriers. Boundary elements are also

As a result, looking at the subject in the light of information covered so far in general, the design process in outdoor play space for children in urban areas can be classified under the following headings.


In this process, the design considerations of play spaces in urban areas can be grouped under the following headings.

#### *The nature of the site and facilities:*

*Designed area:* The location of designed area in the city, the relationship of space with its surroundings and the possible means of transportation and routes of people expected to use this area should be determined.

*The usage status:* The place that will be designed as play space or its surroundings and the purpose of use should be evaluated. For example, the school, city park, playground, and so on. Accordingly, the users (age group), as well as the needs and demands of these users should be determined. For example, if the designed area is a primary school, intensive use depending on the number of students at certain intervals such as break hours; areas of application that can be made for courses such as science or nature experiences; areas for active movement such as physical education courses should be considered.

Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context 319

*Safety:* Safety is one of the most important issues in children's play spaces. If a field is not safe, no matter how many different activities it suggests, the children will not favour them. Or their families will not allow their children to use that space. Security in play areas should be ensured in terms of accessories used in the play space as well as its relationships with its

*Nature:* As it is mentioned the contribution of natural areas and materials for to the development of children are extremely high. For this reason, the natural elements designed children's play spaces must be provided transportation. Therefore in designs, natural materials such as plant, rock, and water should be used so that they allow for children to use

*Plant:* Plants and parts such as branches, leaves, and pinecones are very good play materials for children. They are preferred especially when children can use them with different aims due to their creativity during their plays if they are open to be changed. For this reason, they contribute to children's intellectual development and the development of their power of creativity. In addition, the use of nature enables the children to learn the natural cycle since they are alive seasonal changes, leafing, flowering and fructification time. However to manage this it is necessary to ensure the appropriate planting for play area. For example, for climbing activity, species that has branching structure which are not so high and are appropriate for climbing should be selected. To show seasonal variations, species showing coloration in autumn and having leaved broad can be selected. Species with edible fruits may be included where appropriate. For the development of children's visual senses, leaves, wind, sound-producing species should be suggested. These examples can be multiplied. If the existing plant species in the area will be used for these purposes, they should be protected. In addition, those which have psychologically negative affect or which are

harmful for children with, such as barbed or very tall species should be avoided.

from the ground, pied feet of small puddles of water, with sand in different forms.

species which attract birds and butterflies can be used.

*Water:* Water which always attracts the attention of children is a very important material. It should be used necessarily in play areas. It can be used such as a fountain, water gushing

*Animal:* Animals always attract the attention of children because of they are living organisms and acting. Children tend to touch or examine a small ant whenever they see them. Seeing animals around themselves will be affective to understand and have information on their roles in the life cycle, their nutrition their habitats. Zoos are open areas offering children a chance to see animals in nearly natural environments. However, arrangements can be made in smaller areas to provide the opportunity to see animals which do not need special care such as ant, bird, butterfly. For example, to manage this, plant

*Topography:* Topography of the area can be used for different activities. For example, curved surfaces enable children to climb and slide, high places do the same for going on around the watch, the hills are good for rolling over and hiding behind. If these and similar topography options are present in field, they should be established or improved in the different options. Because children prefer very irregular forms than a uniform backgrounds.

environment.

the appropriate size in playing.

*Site facilities:* The whole data during the site analysis and information gathering about field (topography, climate, existing vegetation types, soil, space and constructions around the pedestrian-vehicle transport) should be reviewed and evaluated. The positive ones (plant species evaluated in case of the protection, different topography options) should be evaluated in the designs by maintaining or strengthening. In this way, the area will be completely unmodified and untreated, so the existing facilities will be evaluated. The negative features (bad images, features that constitute a threat to children) should be removed from the area or improved.

#### *The needs of children:*

*User profile:* The user group of the area is extremely important. Because when the development, changes in physical measurements, sense and mental capacities and motion abilities of children according to their age is considered, the change of needs and desires is inevitable. Therefore, the varieties of activity and capacities of spaces should be determined appropriately for the age groups of children that will use these areas.

*Expectations:* The preferences of people vary according their personal expectations, environments and cultures. This situation is also same for children. However, the needs and desires of children about open spaces have been shown by some investigations. It is possible to determine on the basis of their general tendency. It will give useful results if some interviews are made with the users of the area to determine their direct expectations and even by including the children to the designing process. In this way, children's expectations will be fulfilled by mutual consultations. In this way, designed play spaces can be used by children for a long time. Apart from this, if there will be a revision to the design area, giving design decisions would be more healthy after observing the behaviors of children using the area for a while before design it from the beginning.

*Activities:* Before you design an environment, you need to determine the activities which are expected to be implemented in that area. Because, spaces are designed depending on the particular activities. When designing the space for the child, users' requests, the age groups of children are kept in mind to decide which activities would be done. These activities may be active or passive. The form, capacity and equipment of space are designed according to the type of determined activity and number of people performing this activity. Suggested activities for children in outdoor areas should contribute to their physical, mental, emotional and social developments. In addition, it is essential to suggest some areas for the parents to sit and rest since they need to be near their children.

*Safety:* Safety is one of the most important issues in children's play spaces. If a field is not safe, no matter how many different activities it suggests, the children will not favour them. Or their families will not allow their children to use that space. Security in play areas should be ensured in terms of accessories used in the play space as well as its relationships with its environment.

318 Advances in Landscape Architecture

removed from the area or improved.

*The needs of children:* 

*The usage status:* The place that will be designed as play space or its surroundings and the purpose of use should be evaluated. For example, the school, city park, playground, and so on. Accordingly, the users (age group), as well as the needs and demands of these users should be determined. For example, if the designed area is a primary school, intensive use depending on the number of students at certain intervals such as break hours; areas of application that can be made for courses such as science or nature experiences; areas for

*Site facilities:* The whole data during the site analysis and information gathering about field (topography, climate, existing vegetation types, soil, space and constructions around the pedestrian-vehicle transport) should be reviewed and evaluated. The positive ones (plant species evaluated in case of the protection, different topography options) should be evaluated in the designs by maintaining or strengthening. In this way, the area will be completely unmodified and untreated, so the existing facilities will be evaluated. The negative features (bad images, features that constitute a threat to children) should be

*User profile:* The user group of the area is extremely important. Because when the development, changes in physical measurements, sense and mental capacities and motion abilities of children according to their age is considered, the change of needs and desires is inevitable. Therefore, the varieties of activity and capacities of spaces should be determined

*Expectations:* The preferences of people vary according their personal expectations, environments and cultures. This situation is also same for children. However, the needs and desires of children about open spaces have been shown by some investigations. It is possible to determine on the basis of their general tendency. It will give useful results if some interviews are made with the users of the area to determine their direct expectations and even by including the children to the designing process. In this way, children's expectations will be fulfilled by mutual consultations. In this way, designed play spaces can be used by children for a long time. Apart from this, if there will be a revision to the design area, giving design decisions would be more healthy after observing the behaviors of children using the

*Activities:* Before you design an environment, you need to determine the activities which are expected to be implemented in that area. Because, spaces are designed depending on the particular activities. When designing the space for the child, users' requests, the age groups of children are kept in mind to decide which activities would be done. These activities may be active or passive. The form, capacity and equipment of space are designed according to the type of determined activity and number of people performing this activity. Suggested activities for children in outdoor areas should contribute to their physical, mental, emotional and social developments. In addition, it is essential to suggest some areas for the parents to

active movement such as physical education courses should be considered.

appropriately for the age groups of children that will use these areas.

area for a while before design it from the beginning.

sit and rest since they need to be near their children.

*Nature:* As it is mentioned the contribution of natural areas and materials for to the development of children are extremely high. For this reason, the natural elements designed children's play spaces must be provided transportation. Therefore in designs, natural materials such as plant, rock, and water should be used so that they allow for children to use the appropriate size in playing.

*Plant:* Plants and parts such as branches, leaves, and pinecones are very good play materials for children. They are preferred especially when children can use them with different aims due to their creativity during their plays if they are open to be changed. For this reason, they contribute to children's intellectual development and the development of their power of creativity. In addition, the use of nature enables the children to learn the natural cycle since they are alive seasonal changes, leafing, flowering and fructification time. However to manage this it is necessary to ensure the appropriate planting for play area. For example, for climbing activity, species that has branching structure which are not so high and are appropriate for climbing should be selected. To show seasonal variations, species showing coloration in autumn and having leaved broad can be selected. Species with edible fruits may be included where appropriate. For the development of children's visual senses, leaves, wind, sound-producing species should be suggested. These examples can be multiplied. If the existing plant species in the area will be used for these purposes, they should be protected. In addition, those which have psychologically negative affect or which are harmful for children with, such as barbed or very tall species should be avoided.

*Water:* Water which always attracts the attention of children is a very important material. It should be used necessarily in play areas. It can be used such as a fountain, water gushing from the ground, pied feet of small puddles of water, with sand in different forms.

*Animal:* Animals always attract the attention of children because of they are living organisms and acting. Children tend to touch or examine a small ant whenever they see them. Seeing animals around themselves will be affective to understand and have information on their roles in the life cycle, their nutrition their habitats. Zoos are open areas offering children a chance to see animals in nearly natural environments. However, arrangements can be made in smaller areas to provide the opportunity to see animals which do not need special care such as ant, bird, butterfly. For example, to manage this, plant species which attract birds and butterflies can be used.

*Topography:* Topography of the area can be used for different activities. For example, curved surfaces enable children to climb and slide, high places do the same for going on around the watch, the hills are good for rolling over and hiding behind. If these and similar topography options are present in field, they should be established or improved in the different options. Because children prefer very irregular forms than a uniform backgrounds.

*Socialization:* Open spaces allow children to be associated with ones at the same or different ages. It is important for the socialization of children. Therefore, you need to design areas to ensure children to have time together with other children. These places may include activities that meet large groups of people, and activities in large areas. Moreover, there should be relatively small-scale spaces allowing two children to sit and chat in more quiet corners of the field, either.

Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context 321

enable children to build up the objects in their dreams and to learn while doing and trying

*Design for Everyone:* The right of every citizen is to take advantages of urban open spaces equally. Therefore, in the play places designed for children in cities all children (disabled, non-disabled) should take advantage of them. Therefore, non-impaired persons with disabilities at the beginning of the design process needs to be considered. Both efficacy and

As a result this article deals with children's play areas' design in urban open space. It should not be forgotten that children's preferences and expectations may vary according to the individual, the society and the culture. However, scientific studies on children, children's environment and children's preferences, observations and experiences show us that the general trend is in this direction. In addition, all the types referred to in a play space, variety of activity areas or equipment may not be able to use together. In particular concept (such as water gardens, water gardens or sense) of one or a few of them in the play area may be considered. In addition, the above mentioned information is considered to be an important resource for those working with children and general open space designer for children.

Finally, "a child's play space should ideally never be finished, it should be in a constant state

Acar, H., 2003. A study on determining plant preferences of users in children playgrounds: An example of Trabzon city, (In Turkish: Çocuk oyun alanlarnda kullanclarn bitki tercihlerinin belirlenmesi üzerine bir araştrma: Trabzon kenti örneği), Master Thesis, Karadeniz Technical University, The Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences,

Acar, H., 2009. Assessment of natural landscape elements' play affordances, (In Turkish: Doğal peyzaj elemanlarnn oyun olanakllklarnn değerlendirilmesi), PhD Thesis, Karadeniz Technical University, The Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences,

Acar, H., 2010. Contribution of urban biodiversity to children's play, Proceeding of the 2nd International Conference of Urban Biodiversity and Design, p. 323, Nagoya, Japan, 18-

*Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture,* 

Department of Landscape Architecture, Trabzon, Turkey.

Department of Landscape Architecture, Trabzon, Turkey.

so and to be in cooperation with other children also.

of change" (Goltsman, in Loughlin and Suina, 1997).

**Author details** 

Habibe Acar

*Trabzon, Turkey* 

**7. References** 

22 May, 2010.

regulations (space and reinforcement measures) should be considered.

*The use of the senses:* The play spaces should contribute to the development of the senses of children. Therefore, designs and accessories that we can collect data from environment by five senses in the play should be used. For example, plant species with fragrant flowers to smell, different sound-producing musical instruments to hear, different display mirrors offering a choice of perceive to see by looking at the outside environment, edible plant species to taste, different textured surfaces or plants created by offering a choice of vertical and horizontal planes or different textures to touch should be used.

*Creativity:* Outdoor play areas contribute to the development of children's creativity. However, for this, environment elements can be modified and used for different purposes. These can be different materials such as water with sand, or non-constant materials to build a structure in the field, flowers and leaves to make a symbolic meal in children's plays, the boat leaves to refloat, the plant parts to ride a horse and so on. Children use them in playing in accordance with their creativity and imagination.

#### *The materials that is to be used:*

*Safety:* Security is the most important criteria in playgrounds design. For this reason, safety should come first both for the designed play areas, its surroundings and the material; we should avoid the life-threatening risks for children.

*Soundness*: All the materials to be used in play space should be sound, convenient and ergonomic in terms of anthropometric measurements of children. For more use, the deformed space and accessories should be renewed or replaced as soon as possible. Wooden materials that will be used should not be cracked or rough.

*Health:* Plant material that will be used in the play space should not be constituted a threat to the health of children. To do this, toxic, allergenic pollen, with thorny species should be avoided. In addition, horizontal, vertical, or other artificial materials used in contact with reinforcement made of materials should be non-toxic.

*Natural-Artificial:* Based on the studies on the subject, most of them appear to prefer natural areas or natural materials. And this material provides a positive contribution to their development. However, this does not indicate the need for children's play spaces using only natural materials. Because, artificial materials with color, texture and potential in different sizes attract children. For this reason, natural materials, as well as artificial materials should be included in the designs.

*Free materials:* In play areas, there should be portable free standing, unstable materials that allow children to change their places and take them together to build new things. These enable children to build up the objects in their dreams and to learn while doing and trying so and to be in cooperation with other children also.

*Design for Everyone:* The right of every citizen is to take advantages of urban open spaces equally. Therefore, in the play places designed for children in cities all children (disabled, non-disabled) should take advantage of them. Therefore, non-impaired persons with disabilities at the beginning of the design process needs to be considered. Both efficacy and regulations (space and reinforcement measures) should be considered.

As a result this article deals with children's play areas' design in urban open space. It should not be forgotten that children's preferences and expectations may vary according to the individual, the society and the culture. However, scientific studies on children, children's environment and children's preferences, observations and experiences show us that the general trend is in this direction. In addition, all the types referred to in a play space, variety of activity areas or equipment may not be able to use together. In particular concept (such as water gardens, water gardens or sense) of one or a few of them in the play area may be considered. In addition, the above mentioned information is considered to be an important resource for those working with children and general open space designer for children.

Finally, "a child's play space should ideally never be finished, it should be in a constant state of change" (Goltsman, in Loughlin and Suina, 1997).

## **Author details**

320 Advances in Landscape Architecture

corners of the field, either.

*The materials that is to be used:* 

be included in the designs.

*Socialization:* Open spaces allow children to be associated with ones at the same or different ages. It is important for the socialization of children. Therefore, you need to design areas to ensure children to have time together with other children. These places may include activities that meet large groups of people, and activities in large areas. Moreover, there should be relatively small-scale spaces allowing two children to sit and chat in more quiet

*The use of the senses:* The play spaces should contribute to the development of the senses of children. Therefore, designs and accessories that we can collect data from environment by five senses in the play should be used. For example, plant species with fragrant flowers to smell, different sound-producing musical instruments to hear, different display mirrors offering a choice of perceive to see by looking at the outside environment, edible plant species to taste, different textured surfaces or plants created by offering a choice of vertical

*Creativity:* Outdoor play areas contribute to the development of children's creativity. However, for this, environment elements can be modified and used for different purposes. These can be different materials such as water with sand, or non-constant materials to build a structure in the field, flowers and leaves to make a symbolic meal in children's plays, the boat leaves to refloat, the plant parts to ride a horse and so on. Children use them in playing

*Safety:* Security is the most important criteria in playgrounds design. For this reason, safety should come first both for the designed play areas, its surroundings and the material; we

*Soundness*: All the materials to be used in play space should be sound, convenient and ergonomic in terms of anthropometric measurements of children. For more use, the deformed space and accessories should be renewed or replaced as soon as possible. Wooden

*Health:* Plant material that will be used in the play space should not be constituted a threat to the health of children. To do this, toxic, allergenic pollen, with thorny species should be avoided. In addition, horizontal, vertical, or other artificial materials used in contact with

*Natural-Artificial:* Based on the studies on the subject, most of them appear to prefer natural areas or natural materials. And this material provides a positive contribution to their development. However, this does not indicate the need for children's play spaces using only natural materials. Because, artificial materials with color, texture and potential in different sizes attract children. For this reason, natural materials, as well as artificial materials should

*Free materials:* In play areas, there should be portable free standing, unstable materials that allow children to change their places and take them together to build new things. These

and horizontal planes or different textures to touch should be used.

in accordance with their creativity and imagination.

should avoid the life-threatening risks for children.

materials that will be used should not be cracked or rough.

reinforcement made of materials should be non-toxic.

Habibe Acar *Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Trabzon, Turkey* 

## **7. References**


Bell, S., 2008. Scale in children's experience with the environment, (in: Children and Their Environments, Edited by Christopher Spencer and Mark Blades), Cambridge University Press, New York, 13-25.

Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context 323

Heft, H., 1988. Affordances of children's environments: A functional approach to

Jones, E., 1997. Basics, (in: Landscapes for Learning: Creating Outdoor Environments for Children and Youth, Edited by Sharon Stine), John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New York, 13-43 Katcher, A., 2002. Animals in therapeutic education: Guides into the luminal state, (in: Children and Nature: Psychological, Sociocultural, and Evolutionary Investigations, Edited by Peter H. Kahn, Jr. and Stephen R. Kellert), The MIT Press, London, 179-198. Kellert, S., R., 2002. Experiencing nature: Affective, cognitive, and evaluative development in children, (in: Children and Nature: Psychological, Sociocultural, and Evolutionary Investigations, Edited by Peter H. Kahn, Jr. and Stephen R. Kellert), The MIT Press,

Kyttä, M., 2002. Affordances of children's environments in the context of cities, small towns, suburbs and rural, villages in Finland and Belarus, *Journal of Environmental Psychology,*

Kyttä, M., 2003. Children in outdoor contexts: Affordances and independent mobility in the assessment of environmental child friendliness, Doctor of Philosophy, Helsinki

Kyttä, M., 2004. The Extent of children's independent mobility and the number of actualized affordances as criteria for child-friendly environments, *Journal of Environmental* 

Loebach, J., 2004. Designing learning environments for children: An affordance-based approach to providing developmentally appropriate settings, Master of Environmental

Louighan, C., Suina, J., 1997. Congruence, (in: Landscapes for Learning: Creating Outdoor Environments for Children and Youth, Edited by Sharon Stine), John Wiley&Sons, Inc.,

Louv, R., 2008. Last child in the woods: Saving our children from nature-deficit disorder,

Lyle, J., 1997. Ode to the outdoors, (in: Landscapes for Learning: Creating Outdoor Environments for Children and Youth, Edited by Sharon Stine), John Wiley&Sons, Inc.,

Memlük, M.Z., 2012. Urban landscape design, (in: Landscape Planning, Edited by Murat

Moore, R. C., 2002. Plants for play: A plant selection guide for children's outdoor

Moore, R. C., 1991. Streets as playgrounds, (in: Public Streets for Public Use, Edited by Anne Vernez Moudan with a foreword by Donald Appleyard,) Columbia University Press,

Moore, R. C., Goltsman S.M., Iacofano, D.S., 1997. Play for all guidelines: Planning, design and management of outdoor play settings for all children, Second Edition, MIG

University of Tehncology Centre for Urban Regional Studies, Espoo.

Design Studies, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia.

Lynch, K., 1960. The image of the city, Mit Press, Cambridge.

environments, MIG Communications, Berkeley, California.

environmental description, *Children's Environments Quarterly*, 5, 3, 29-37.

London, 117-151.

*Psychology*, 24, 179-198.

New York, 89-135.

New York, 187-229.

New York, 45-62.

Algonquin Books, USA.

Özyavuz) InTech, Croatia, 277-298.

Communications, Berkeley, California.

22, 109-123.


Heft, H., 1988. Affordances of children's environments: A functional approach to environmental description, *Children's Environments Quarterly*, 5, 3, 29-37.

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99–111.

USA.

*Planning,* 48, 83-97.

New York, 1-11.

İstanbul, Turkey.

Press, New York, 13-25.

Bell, S., 2008. Scale in children's experience with the environment, (in: Children and Their Environments, Edited by Christopher Spencer and Mark Blades), Cambridge University

Bixler, R. D., Floyd, M. F., Hammitt, W. E., 2002. Environmental socialization: Quantitative tests of the childhood play hypothesis, *Environment and Behavior*, 34, 6, 795-818. Churchman, A., 2003. Is there a place for children in the city?, Journal of Urban Design, 8, 2,

Clark, C., Uzzell D.L., 2008. The socio-environmental affordances of adolescent's environments, (in: Children and Their Environments, Edited by Christopher Spencer

Clements, R.L., Fiorentino, L., 2004. The child's right to play, Greenwood Publishing Group,

Day, C., Midbjer, A., 2007. Environment and children: Passive lessons from the everyday

Derr, T., 2008. 'Sometimes birds sound like fish': Perspectives on children's place experiences, (in: Children and Their Environments, Edited by Christopher Spencer and

Drskell, D., 2002. Creating better cities with children and youth: A manual for participation,

Erdönmez, M.E., Ak, A., 2005. Açk kamusal kent mekanlarnn toplum ilişkilerindeki

Fjørtoft, I. ve Sageie, J., 2000. The natural environment as a playground for children landscape description and analyses of a natural playscape, *Landscape and Urban* 

Fjørtoft, I., 2004. Landscape as a playscape: The effects of natural environments on children's

Francis, C., 1997. Particular places: School environments over time, (in: Landscapes for Learning: Creating Outdoor Environments for Children and Youth, Edited by Sharon

Francis, C., 1998. Child care outdoor spaces, (in: People Places: Design Guidelines for Urban Open Space, Second Edition, Edited by Clare Cooper Marcus and Carolyn Francis) John

Francis, M., Lorenzo, R., 2002. Seven realms of children's participation, *Journal of* 

Francis, M., 1997. The players, (in: Landscapes for Learning: Creating Outdoor Environments for Children and Youth, Edited by Sharon Stine), John Wiley&Sons, Inc.,

Gür, Ş., Ö., Zorlu, T., 2002. Çocuk mekanlar, 1. Bask, Mas Matbaaclk, YEM Yayn-75,

Heerwagen, J., H., Orians, G., H., 2002. The ecological world of children, (in: Children and Nature: Psychological, Sociocultural, and Evolutionary Investigations, Edited by Peter

play and motor development, *Children, Youth and Environments,* 14, 2, 21-44.

and Mark Blades), Cambridge University Press, New York, 176-195.

Mark Blades), Cambridge University Press, New York, 108-123.

environment, Architectural Press, Oxford.

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Stine), John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New York, 45-87.

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H. Kahn, Jr. and Stephen R. Kellert), The MIT Press, London, 29-63.

Wiley&Sons, New York, 259-310.

*Environmental Psychology*, 22, 157-169.

etkileri, YTÜ Mimarlk Fakültesi e-Dergisi, Cilt 1, Say 1.


Motloch, J.L., 2000. Introduction to landscape design, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, USA.

**Chapter 13** 

© 2013 Çelik, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The most critical changes in the world over the last century have been derived from the variety of environmental problems. Growing environmental problems now affect entire the world. The majority of environmental problems originates in human greed and interference. It is well known that planet Earth is experiencing a so-called environmental crisis (ecological

The environmental crisis is a predicament of inappropriate design-it is a consequence of how cities have been developed, industrialization undertaken, and ecoscapes used. Fundamentally, the problem has been one of inadequate integration of ecological concerns

In many ways, the environmental crisis is a design crisis. It is clear that design has not been given a rich enough context. Design is a hinge that inevitably connects culture and nature through exchanges of materials, flow of energy, and choices of land use. The every world of buildings, artifacts, and domesticated landscape is a design world, one shaped by human

Some environmental problems have arisen from design problems. Design can have a crucial impact upon the environment in many different ways. This is because every design decision is an environmental decision. Design is a consequence of how things are made, and the world has been shaped by the designers. The present forms of everything in the world have been

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Rapid growth of the human population and its associated economic activity,

 The depletion of both non-renewable and renewable resources, and Extensive and intensive damage caused to ecosystems and biodiversity.

**Ecological Landscape Design** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606-1669)

crisis). This crisis is characterized by three major themes:

Filiz Çelik

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55760

*"Choose only one master-Nature"* 

into planning (Shu-Yang et al., 2004).

(Van Der Ryn and Cowan, 1996).

**1. Introduction** 


http://www.whitehutchinson.com/children/articles/outdoor.shtml, 19.12.2012. Wilson, R., 2004. Why children play under the bushes,

http://www.earlychildhood.com/Articles/index.cfm?A=412&FuseAction=Article, 16.12.2004.

**Chapter 13** 

## **Ecological Landscape Design**

Filiz Çelik

324 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Printing Ltd., London.

London, 305-327.

Companies, USA.

16.12.2004.

16.12.2004.

Information Network, September/October, 34-35.

Practice Gothenburg, Sweden. May 29 – June 3.

Thomson Delmar Learning, Canada.

USA.

Motloch, J.L., 2000. Introduction to landscape design, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons,

Onur, B., 2007. Çocuk, tarih ve toplum, 1. Bask, Pelin Ofset, İmge Kitabevi, Ankara, Turkey. Özdemir, A., Ylmaz, O., 2008. Assessment of outdoor school environments and physical activity in Ankara's primary schools, *Journal of Environmental Psychology*, 28, 287–300. Piaget, J., Inhelder, B., 1971. The child's conception of space, Langdon, 4th Edition, Compton

Proshansky, H. M., Ittelson, W., H. ve Rivlin, L., G., 1976. Environmental psychology: People and their physical settings, Second Edition, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, USA. Pyle, R. M., 2002. Eden in a vacant lot: Special places, species, and kids in the neighborhood of life, (in: Children and Nature: Psychological, Sociocultural, and Evolutionary Investigations, Edited by Peter H. Kahn, Jr. and Stephen R. Kellert) The MIT Press,

Shell, E. R., 2001. "Kids don't need equipments, they need opportunities", Lifestyle

Simonic, T., Gostincar, R., Recer, S., Luznik, J., 2005. Design initiatives for children play in urban environment, International Conference for Integrating Urban Knowledge &

Spencer, C., Woolley, H., 2000. Children and the city: a summary of recent environmental

Tai, L., Haque, M.T., McLellan, G.K., Knight, E.J., 2006. Designing outdoor environments for children: Landscaping, schoolyards, gardens, and playgrounds, McGraww-Hill

Taylor, A. F., Kuo, F.E., Is contact with nature for healthy child development? State of evidence, (in: Children and Their Environments, Edited by Christopher Spencer and

VanDerZanden, A.M., Rodie S.N., 2008. Landscape design, Theory and application,

White, R., Stoecklin, V., 1998. Children's outdoor play & learning environments: Returning

http://www.whitehutchinson.com/children/articles/outdoor.shtml, 19.12.2012.

http://www.earlychildhood.com/Articles/index.cfm?A=412&FuseAction=Article,

http://www.whitehutchinson.com/children/articles/playgrndkidslove.shtml,

psychology research, Child: Care, Health and Development, 26, 3, 181-197.

Mark Blades), Cambridge University Press, New York, 124-140.

Vicki, L., Stoecklin, M., 2004. Creating playgrounds kids love,

Wilson, R., 2004. Why children play under the bushes,

to nature, Early Childhood News Magazine, March/April.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55760

*"Choose only one master-Nature"*  Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606-1669)

## **1. Introduction**

The most critical changes in the world over the last century have been derived from the variety of environmental problems. Growing environmental problems now affect entire the world. The majority of environmental problems originates in human greed and interference.

It is well known that planet Earth is experiencing a so-called environmental crisis (ecological crisis). This crisis is characterized by three major themes:


The environmental crisis is a predicament of inappropriate design-it is a consequence of how cities have been developed, industrialization undertaken, and ecoscapes used. Fundamentally, the problem has been one of inadequate integration of ecological concerns into planning (Shu-Yang et al., 2004).

In many ways, the environmental crisis is a design crisis. It is clear that design has not been given a rich enough context. Design is a hinge that inevitably connects culture and nature through exchanges of materials, flow of energy, and choices of land use. The every world of buildings, artifacts, and domesticated landscape is a design world, one shaped by human (Van Der Ryn and Cowan, 1996).

Some environmental problems have arisen from design problems. Design can have a crucial impact upon the environment in many different ways. This is because every design decision is an environmental decision. Design is a consequence of how things are made, and the world has been shaped by the designers. The present forms of everything in the world have been

derived from design. It is clear that design has been previously used only to meet human needs. Unfortunately, in many past situations environmental effects were ignored during the design stage. Design has not been taught in the context of its ecological impact. Many practices in the design field have been done with unsustainable design principles. The environmental problems have boosted the sustainable explorations necessary for protecting ecological system in order to address and find solutions to the problems. Scientists, planners and designers have questioned the effectiveness of design and have suggested incentives as alternatives. At the end of 20th century, the power of design for to solve the problem and the potential of design for sustainability have been noticed; an integration that goes from ecological processes and functions to design has started. Design and its potential have been regarded a creative problem solving activity. While ecological sciences provide the knowledge and guidance, design provides creative solutions for the environmental problems.

Ecological Landscape Design 327

Ecology, in the 100 years since its inception, has increasingly provided the scientific foundation for understanding natural processes, managing environmental resources and achieving sustainable development. By the 1960s, ecology's association with the environmental movement popularized the science and introduced it to the design professions (e.g. landscape architecture, urban design and architecture) (Makhzoumi, 2000). "Ecology" in the profession of landscape architecture and planning can't be understood solely as meaning the relationship between nonhuman life forms and their environment. The term ecology is traditionally used as shorthand for the sum of the biophysical forces that have shaped and continue to shape the physical world. Thus there are other dimensions to be recognized if we are to understand the key nature of ecology: that of process,

The relationship between design and ecology is a very close one, and makes for some unexpected complexities (Papanek, 1995). Ecology explains how the natural world is and how it behaves, and design is also the key intervention point for making sustainability in ecology (Figure 1.). The knowledge gained from ecology can influence landscape design.

In landscape architecture ecology's emphasis on natural processes and the interrelatedness of landscape components influenced outlook and method and prompted an ecological approach to design (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999). The ecological component is crucial in

The typical relationship of designer and scientist presumes that most of what can be known is known. The designer is the creative partner; the scientist is an interactive book. Since the scientific base for ecological design is nascent, the nature of this relationship is flawed.

integration, and humanity (Ahern et al., 2001).

**Figure 1.** The relationship between ecology, sustainability and design

landscape design according to the principles of sustainability.

In a world facing a future characterized both by expanding metropolitan regions and by ecological crisis, it is imperative that we re-think the relationship of urban dwellers to the natural environment. The 21st century is expected to be the first in history in which a majority of humanity lives in cities, and if present trends continue, it may also be the one in which those urban populations inflict irreversible damage on the earth's living systems (Eisensten, 2001).

Designers and design critics are increasingly emphasizing the actual or, potentially, radical nature of an ecological approach to design which implies a new critique-a recognition of the fact that to adopt an ecological approach to design is, by definition, to question and oppose the status quo (Madge, 1997). In this context design has a crucial role to play in achieving sustainability and to provide solutions for environmental problems. In parts of the world dominated by humans, landscape design can have significant and positive environmental effects (Helfand et al., 2006).

Ecological design explicitly addresses the design dimension of the environmental crisis. It is not a style. It is a form of engagement and partnership with nature that is not bound to a particular design profession (Van Der Ryn and Cowan, 1996).

In recent years ecological design has been applied to an increasingly diverse range of technologies and innovative solutions for the management of resources. Ecological technologies have been created for the food sector, waste conversion industries, architecture and landscape design, and to the field of environmental protection and restoration (Todd et al., 2003).

As environmental problems escalate, ecological design in landscape architecture has increasing in academia and practice. Ecological design is an integrative ecologically responsible design discipline. Ecological design has been emerged as a means to model ecological processes and functions, and therefore as a model for sustainability. Today's ecological landscape design movement tends to address design problems.

## **2. The relationship between ecology, sustainability and design**

Ecology, sustainability and design are different fields, but they have been merged together in recent years. This is because human lifestyle is having an increasingly negative impact on the surrounding environments.

Ecology, in the 100 years since its inception, has increasingly provided the scientific foundation for understanding natural processes, managing environmental resources and achieving sustainable development. By the 1960s, ecology's association with the environmental movement popularized the science and introduced it to the design professions (e.g. landscape architecture, urban design and architecture) (Makhzoumi, 2000).

326 Advances in Landscape Architecture

effects (Helfand et al., 2006).

the surrounding environments.

derived from design. It is clear that design has been previously used only to meet human needs. Unfortunately, in many past situations environmental effects were ignored during the design stage. Design has not been taught in the context of its ecological impact. Many practices in the design field have been done with unsustainable design principles. The environmental problems have boosted the sustainable explorations necessary for protecting ecological system in order to address and find solutions to the problems. Scientists, planners and designers have questioned the effectiveness of design and have suggested incentives as alternatives. At the end of 20th century, the power of design for to solve the problem and the potential of design for sustainability have been noticed; an integration that goes from ecological processes and functions to design has started. Design and its potential have been regarded a creative problem solving activity. While ecological sciences provide the knowledge and guidance,

In a world facing a future characterized both by expanding metropolitan regions and by ecological crisis, it is imperative that we re-think the relationship of urban dwellers to the natural environment. The 21st century is expected to be the first in history in which a majority of humanity lives in cities, and if present trends continue, it may also be the one in which those urban populations inflict irreversible damage on the earth's living systems (Eisensten, 2001).

Designers and design critics are increasingly emphasizing the actual or, potentially, radical nature of an ecological approach to design which implies a new critique-a recognition of the fact that to adopt an ecological approach to design is, by definition, to question and oppose the status quo (Madge, 1997). In this context design has a crucial role to play in achieving sustainability and to provide solutions for environmental problems. In parts of the world dominated by humans, landscape design can have significant and positive environmental

Ecological design explicitly addresses the design dimension of the environmental crisis. It is not a style. It is a form of engagement and partnership with nature that is not bound to a

In recent years ecological design has been applied to an increasingly diverse range of technologies and innovative solutions for the management of resources. Ecological technologies have been created for the food sector, waste conversion industries, architecture and landscape

As environmental problems escalate, ecological design in landscape architecture has increasing in academia and practice. Ecological design is an integrative ecologically responsible design discipline. Ecological design has been emerged as a means to model ecological processes and functions, and therefore as a model for sustainability. Today's

Ecology, sustainability and design are different fields, but they have been merged together in recent years. This is because human lifestyle is having an increasingly negative impact on

design, and to the field of environmental protection and restoration (Todd et al., 2003).

ecological landscape design movement tends to address design problems.

**2. The relationship between ecology, sustainability and design** 

design provides creative solutions for the environmental problems.

particular design profession (Van Der Ryn and Cowan, 1996).

"Ecology" in the profession of landscape architecture and planning can't be understood solely as meaning the relationship between nonhuman life forms and their environment. The term ecology is traditionally used as shorthand for the sum of the biophysical forces that have shaped and continue to shape the physical world. Thus there are other dimensions to be recognized if we are to understand the key nature of ecology: that of process, integration, and humanity (Ahern et al., 2001).

The relationship between design and ecology is a very close one, and makes for some unexpected complexities (Papanek, 1995). Ecology explains how the natural world is and how it behaves, and design is also the key intervention point for making sustainability in ecology (Figure 1.). The knowledge gained from ecology can influence landscape design.

**Figure 1.** The relationship between ecology, sustainability and design

In landscape architecture ecology's emphasis on natural processes and the interrelatedness of landscape components influenced outlook and method and prompted an ecological approach to design (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999). The ecological component is crucial in landscape design according to the principles of sustainability.

The typical relationship of designer and scientist presumes that most of what can be known is known. The designer is the creative partner; the scientist is an interactive book. Since the scientific base for ecological design is nascent, the nature of this relationship is flawed. Science and design are complementary ways to generate knowledge (and therefore both are creative endeavors). Scientists solve problems inductively, forming generalized principles from specific observations (Figure 2.). Designers use general principles to solve specific problems deductively. The knowledge available for ecological design would greatly increase if designed landscapes were used as ecological research sites. Designed landscapes that are typical of the surrounding region, with one to a few clear themes and repeated patterns (replication), are potential ecological research sites (Galatowitsch, 1998).

Ecological Landscape Design 329

A goal of ecological design is to help meet this vision of ecological sustainability, by finding ways of manufacturing goods, constructing buildings, and planning more complex enterprises, such as business and industrial parks, while reducing resource consumption

Ecological design strives to achieve an increasing reliance on renewable sources of energy and materials, while maintaining standards of quality of goods and services and reducing overall resource consumption, waste generation, and ecological damage through efficiencies

Ecological design provides a framework for uniting conventional perspectives on design and management with environmental ones, by incorporating the consideration of ecological concerns at relevant spatial and temporal scales. If the principles of ecological design are rigorously applied, important progress will be made towards ecological sustainability (Shu-

Landscape design mostly depends on natural resources, so ecological sustainability is very

There is no verifiable starting point for the current sustainable design movement. It seems to have converged from several different broad ideas concerning our relationship with the natural world. Some of the key figures who have contributed to the discussion include Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux, John Muir, Theodore Roosevelt and Gifford Pinchot, Aldo Leopold, Rachel Carson, and Ian McHarg (Cook and VanDerZanden, 2011).

Sustainability is an ecological term that has been used since the early 1970s to mean: "the capacity of a system to maintain a continuous flow of whatever each part of that system needs for a healthy existence," and when applied to ecosystems containing human beings refers to the limitations imposed by the ability of the biosphere to absorb the effects of human activities. The term sustainable development was first used in the early '80s, but was popularized by the Brundtland Report of 1987. "Sustainable" has become the buzzword of the '90s in the same way "green" was in the '80s, and is equally open to different interpretations and misuse. The Brundtland Report adopted a global perspective on the consumption of energy and resources, and emphasized the imbalance between rich and poor parts of the world, arguing that: "Sustainable development requires that those who are more affluent adopt lifestyles within the planet's ecological means." However, because the report also argued that economic growth or development is still possible as long as it is green growth, this has been interpreted by many to endorse a "business as usual" approach, with just a nod in the direction of environmental protection. This ignores the real meaning of sustainable development, which is enshrined in the widely quoted concept of "futurity": ..."meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations

important. Landscape design contributes to the ecological sustainability.

and avoiding ecological damage to the degree possible (Shu-Yang et al., 2004).

of use, re-use, and recycling.

**4. Sustainable design** 

to meet their own needs."

Yang et al., 2004).

**Figure 2.** Design and ecology are complementary problem-solving techniques (Galatowitsch, 1998)

## **3. Ecological sustainability**

Sustainability is not a single movement or approach. It is varied as the communities and interests currently grappling with the issues it raises. One the one hand, sustainability is the province of global policy makers and environmental experts. One the one hand, sustainability is also the domain of grassroots environmental and social groups, indigenous peoples preserving traditional practices, and people committed to changing their own communities. The environmental educator David W. Orr calls these two approaches *technological sustainability* and *ecological sustainability*. While both are coherent responses to the environmental crisis, they are far apart in their specifics. Technological sustainability, which seems to get most of the airtime, may be characterized this way: "every problem has either a technological answer or a market solution. There are no dilemmas to be avoided, no domains where angels fear to tread." Ecological sustainability is the task of finding alternatives to the practices that got us into trouble in the first place; it is necessary to rethink agriculture, shelter, energy use, urban design, transportation, economics, community pattern, resource use, forestry, the importance of wilderness, and our central values. While the two approaches have important points of contact, including a shared awareness of the extent of the global environmental crisis, they embody two very different visions of a sustainable society (Van Der Ryn and Cowan, 1996).

A goal of ecological design is to help meet this vision of ecological sustainability, by finding ways of manufacturing goods, constructing buildings, and planning more complex enterprises, such as business and industrial parks, while reducing resource consumption and avoiding ecological damage to the degree possible (Shu-Yang et al., 2004).

Ecological design strives to achieve an increasing reliance on renewable sources of energy and materials, while maintaining standards of quality of goods and services and reducing overall resource consumption, waste generation, and ecological damage through efficiencies of use, re-use, and recycling.

Ecological design provides a framework for uniting conventional perspectives on design and management with environmental ones, by incorporating the consideration of ecological concerns at relevant spatial and temporal scales. If the principles of ecological design are rigorously applied, important progress will be made towards ecological sustainability (Shu-Yang et al., 2004).

Landscape design mostly depends on natural resources, so ecological sustainability is very important. Landscape design contributes to the ecological sustainability.

## **4. Sustainable design**

328 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**3. Ecological sustainability** 

Science and design are complementary ways to generate knowledge (and therefore both are creative endeavors). Scientists solve problems inductively, forming generalized principles from specific observations (Figure 2.). Designers use general principles to solve specific problems deductively. The knowledge available for ecological design would greatly increase if designed landscapes were used as ecological research sites. Designed landscapes that are typical of the surrounding region, with one to a few clear themes and repeated patterns

**Figure 2.** Design and ecology are complementary problem-solving techniques (Galatowitsch, 1998)

Sustainability is not a single movement or approach. It is varied as the communities and interests currently grappling with the issues it raises. One the one hand, sustainability is the province of global policy makers and environmental experts. One the one hand, sustainability is also the domain of grassroots environmental and social groups, indigenous peoples preserving traditional practices, and people committed to changing their own communities. The environmental educator David W. Orr calls these two approaches *technological sustainability* and *ecological sustainability*. While both are coherent responses to the environmental crisis, they are far apart in their specifics. Technological sustainability, which seems to get most of the airtime, may be characterized this way: "every problem has either a technological answer or a market solution. There are no dilemmas to be avoided, no domains where angels fear to tread." Ecological sustainability is the task of finding alternatives to the practices that got us into trouble in the first place; it is necessary to rethink agriculture, shelter, energy use, urban design, transportation, economics, community pattern, resource use, forestry, the importance of wilderness, and our central values. While the two approaches have important points of contact, including a shared awareness of the extent of the global environmental crisis, they embody two very different

visions of a sustainable society (Van Der Ryn and Cowan, 1996).

(replication), are potential ecological research sites (Galatowitsch, 1998).

There is no verifiable starting point for the current sustainable design movement. It seems to have converged from several different broad ideas concerning our relationship with the natural world. Some of the key figures who have contributed to the discussion include Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux, John Muir, Theodore Roosevelt and Gifford Pinchot, Aldo Leopold, Rachel Carson, and Ian McHarg (Cook and VanDerZanden, 2011).

Sustainability is an ecological term that has been used since the early 1970s to mean: "the capacity of a system to maintain a continuous flow of whatever each part of that system needs for a healthy existence," and when applied to ecosystems containing human beings refers to the limitations imposed by the ability of the biosphere to absorb the effects of human activities. The term sustainable development was first used in the early '80s, but was popularized by the Brundtland Report of 1987. "Sustainable" has become the buzzword of the '90s in the same way "green" was in the '80s, and is equally open to different interpretations and misuse. The Brundtland Report adopted a global perspective on the consumption of energy and resources, and emphasized the imbalance between rich and poor parts of the world, arguing that: "Sustainable development requires that those who are more affluent adopt lifestyles within the planet's ecological means." However, because the report also argued that economic growth or development is still possible as long as it is green growth, this has been interpreted by many to endorse a "business as usual" approach, with just a nod in the direction of environmental protection. This ignores the real meaning of sustainable development, which is enshrined in the widely quoted concept of "futurity": ..."meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."

When applied to design, this not only introduces or reintroduces the ideas of ethical and social responsibility, but also the notion of time and timescale. Thinking about the life cycle of products through time, and considerations about design for recycling, have led to the concept of DfD (Design for Disassembly) followed by the idea of going Beyond recycling towards the design of long-life, durable products. These two concepts are not as contradictory as they sound, as Victor Papanek has recently remarked: "To design durable goods for eventual disassembly may sound like an oxymoron, yet it is profoundly important in a sustainable world. The term "sustainable design" has begun to be used in the last 15 years or so to refer to a broader, longer-term vision of ecological design. At the Centre for Sustainable Design, established at the Surrey Institute of Art and Design in July 1995, sustainable design means "analyzing and changing the 'systems' in which we make, use, and dispose of products," as opposed to more limited, short-term DFE. The ECO2 group makes a similar distinction between "green design, project-based, single issue and relatively shortterm; and sustainable' design, which is system-based, long-term" ethical design. Emma Dewberry and Phillip Goggin have also explored the distinctions between ecological design and sustainable design; arguing that, whereas ecological design can be applied to all products and used as a suitable guide for designing at product level: "The concept of sustainable design, however, is much more complex and moves the interface of design outwards toward societal conditions, development, and ethics.... This suggests changes in design and the role of design, including an inevitable move from a product to a systemsbased approach, from hardware to software, from ownership to service, and will involve concepts such as dematerialization and "a general shift from physiological to psychological needs." Finally, they emphasize the extent to which consumption patterns must change, and refer to the inequality between developed and developing nations, the fact that 20 percent of the world's population consumes %80 of the world's resources and conclude that ecological design does fit into a global move toward sustainability, but has many limitations in this context. This is the point made by Gui Bonsiepe, who has expressed the fear that ecological design will remain the luxury of the affluent countries while "the cost of environmental standards would be shifted onto the shoulders of the Third World." (Madge, 1997).

Ecological Landscape Design 331

Whereas maintaining landscape integrity and designing for sustainability can be seen as the practical objectives of ecological landscape design, the design of creative and meaningful

The following is a palette of terms that in some way define or refer to sustainable design:

Environmental problems become an increasingly important aspect of the designer's work to minimize the risks and to solve the problems. Because of the rapid technological development, environmental problems increase day by day. On the other hand, new technologies often tend to be less dangerous than what they replace, and hence designers may find themselves in the forefront of identifying problems which must be addressed by technology. Sometimes, existing technologies may not be able to provide the solution, and the designer may have to influence the development of a new technological approach. Designers must also follow technological developments in order to be sure of incorporating

Technology has been the principal method by which we intervene on the land and modify the ecosystems to ensure our existence, yet its various manifestations are most often ignored in discussions of the designed landscape. In fact, much of the rationale for this exhibit might be based upon the obfuscation of ecological clarity by technology and the subsequent employment of more benign and expressive techniques for bringing back such clarity. In the ordinary landscape, the instances in which intentional land design aims at a higher, symbolic meaning in some decipherable form are few when compared with the countless millions of ordinary landscape structured by the dominant, operative, contemporary technological paradigms. In one sense, we have covered up our ecosystems with our technologies; we have obscured a degree of innate clarity of the former with the vast

places addresses aesthetic concerns.

 Environmentally oriented design, Ecologically oriented design,

Socially responsible design,

 Green design, Life-cycle design, Dematerialization, Eco-efficiency design, Energy efficient design, and Biodesign (Deniz, 2002).

Environmentally responsible design,

Sustainable product development,

Environmentally sensitive product design,

**5. The role of technology in ecological design** 

the most environmentally advanced technologies (Deniz, 2002).

Ecological design (ecodesign/eco-design),

Design for environment,

Environmental design,

Sustainability can be viewed as the long-term outcome of maintaining landscape integrity. Designing for sustainable landscapes necessitates a holistic and integrative outlook that is based on ecological understanding and awareness of the potentialities and limitations of a given landscape. Such understanding ensures that in accommodating future uses their impact on existing ecosystems and essential ecological processes and biological and landscape diversity is anticipated. This will allow for healthy ecosystems and long-term ecological stability (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999).

Designs that promote sustainable landscapes should be simultaneously aware of local values and resources as well as regional and national ones, as sustainability is the domain of both. Further, achieving landscape sustainability requires patience, humility and a design approach that attends to scale, community, self-reliance, traditional knowledge and the wisdom of nature's own (Van der Ryn and Cowan, 1996).

Whereas maintaining landscape integrity and designing for sustainability can be seen as the practical objectives of ecological landscape design, the design of creative and meaningful places addresses aesthetic concerns.

The following is a palette of terms that in some way define or refer to sustainable design:

Design for environment,

330 Advances in Landscape Architecture

When applied to design, this not only introduces or reintroduces the ideas of ethical and social responsibility, but also the notion of time and timescale. Thinking about the life cycle of products through time, and considerations about design for recycling, have led to the concept of DfD (Design for Disassembly) followed by the idea of going Beyond recycling towards the design of long-life, durable products. These two concepts are not as contradictory as they sound, as Victor Papanek has recently remarked: "To design durable goods for eventual disassembly may sound like an oxymoron, yet it is profoundly important in a sustainable world. The term "sustainable design" has begun to be used in the last 15 years or so to refer to a broader, longer-term vision of ecological design. At the Centre for Sustainable Design, established at the Surrey Institute of Art and Design in July 1995, sustainable design means "analyzing and changing the 'systems' in which we make, use, and dispose of products," as opposed to more limited, short-term DFE. The ECO2 group makes a similar distinction between "green design, project-based, single issue and relatively shortterm; and sustainable' design, which is system-based, long-term" ethical design. Emma Dewberry and Phillip Goggin have also explored the distinctions between ecological design and sustainable design; arguing that, whereas ecological design can be applied to all products and used as a suitable guide for designing at product level: "The concept of sustainable design, however, is much more complex and moves the interface of design outwards toward societal conditions, development, and ethics.... This suggests changes in design and the role of design, including an inevitable move from a product to a systemsbased approach, from hardware to software, from ownership to service, and will involve concepts such as dematerialization and "a general shift from physiological to psychological needs." Finally, they emphasize the extent to which consumption patterns must change, and refer to the inequality between developed and developing nations, the fact that 20 percent of the world's population consumes %80 of the world's resources and conclude that ecological design does fit into a global move toward sustainability, but has many limitations in this context. This is the point made by Gui Bonsiepe, who has expressed the fear that ecological design will remain the luxury of the affluent countries while "the cost of environmental

standards would be shifted onto the shoulders of the Third World." (Madge, 1997).

ecological stability (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999).

wisdom of nature's own (Van der Ryn and Cowan, 1996).

Sustainability can be viewed as the long-term outcome of maintaining landscape integrity. Designing for sustainable landscapes necessitates a holistic and integrative outlook that is based on ecological understanding and awareness of the potentialities and limitations of a given landscape. Such understanding ensures that in accommodating future uses their impact on existing ecosystems and essential ecological processes and biological and landscape diversity is anticipated. This will allow for healthy ecosystems and long-term

Designs that promote sustainable landscapes should be simultaneously aware of local values and resources as well as regional and national ones, as sustainability is the domain of both. Further, achieving landscape sustainability requires patience, humility and a design approach that attends to scale, community, self-reliance, traditional knowledge and the


## **5. The role of technology in ecological design**

Environmental problems become an increasingly important aspect of the designer's work to minimize the risks and to solve the problems. Because of the rapid technological development, environmental problems increase day by day. On the other hand, new technologies often tend to be less dangerous than what they replace, and hence designers may find themselves in the forefront of identifying problems which must be addressed by technology. Sometimes, existing technologies may not be able to provide the solution, and the designer may have to influence the development of a new technological approach. Designers must also follow technological developments in order to be sure of incorporating the most environmentally advanced technologies (Deniz, 2002).

Technology has been the principal method by which we intervene on the land and modify the ecosystems to ensure our existence, yet its various manifestations are most often ignored in discussions of the designed landscape. In fact, much of the rationale for this exhibit might be based upon the obfuscation of ecological clarity by technology and the subsequent employment of more benign and expressive techniques for bringing back such clarity. In the ordinary landscape, the instances in which intentional land design aims at a higher, symbolic meaning in some decipherable form are few when compared with the countless millions of ordinary landscape structured by the dominant, operative, contemporary technological paradigms. In one sense, we have covered up our ecosystems with our technologies; we have obscured a degree of innate clarity of the former with the vast complexities of the latter. While science and technology have made it possible to comprehend deeper levels of ecosystem knowledge, they have also enabled the physical cover-up and subsequent concealment of dimensions of the landscape once readily accessible to more primal peoples. With technological hegemony, our ecosystems have gained little and lost a lot (Thayer Jr., 1998).

Ecological Landscape Design 333

dimensions of ecology have come to imply the ability to think broadly, to search for patterns that connect and to observe nature with insight. Alternatively, ecological knowledge allows a comprehensive understanding of landscape as the outcome of interacting natural and cultural evolutionary processes which account for pattern, diversity, sustainability and

To date, however, ecological design has been principally concerned with the realistic emulation of ecological form, function, and, where possible, process. As an outgrowth of, and to some degree, a fusion between landscape architecture, ecology, environmental planning, and the building science aspects of architecture, there is a distinctive functional emphasis in the discipline. Ironically, artistic elements and visual aesthetics have not been a priority in a discipline that bears the label of "design." I would attribute this principally to the dominance of landscape architecture in influencing ecological design, itself (until recently) a discipline characterized by a schism between garden design and horticulture in one domain, and technical ecologists concerned with ecological restoration and reconstruction in the other. This remediative, reactive "applied ecology" practice of landscape architecture along with related environmental professions have understandably been the progenitors of the new discipline of ecological design, largely (and

Motivated by environmental values, landscape architects became increasingly knowledgeable about ecological principles and systems (Meyer, 2000). Ecology, the study of interactions between organisms and their environments, has long been a compelling theme for faculty, practitioners, and students of landscape design and planning. Frederick Law Olmsted's visionary public designs, Jens Jensen's native plantings, May Watt's observations of vernacular landscapes, and Ian McHarg's book, Design with Nature, are all milestones of ecological thinking in landscape design and planning (Johnson and Hill, 2001). McHarg (1969), Spirn (1984) and Hough (1995) played seminal roles in applying theories and principles of ecological landscape design to urban areas (Özgüner et al., 2007). lan McHarg who, perhaps more than any other, popularized ecology in landscape architecture. Patrick Geddes is the initiator of an ecological approach in design and planning and because he offered an integrative view of the environment that embraced urban design, landscape design and planning. John Tillman Lyle offers a comprehensive approach embracing theory,

In the late 1860's Frederick Law Olmstead supported the idea that landscape architects were stewards of the land. Olmstead's designed landscapes borrowed aesthetically from the picturesque but he was overtly conscious of ecological processes playing a critical role in the

The early influence of ecology can be traced to the work of late nineteenth century visionary biologist Patrick Geddes, the conceptual initiator of an ecological approach to urban and landscape design and landscape planning. Patrick Geddes had a clear, overall conceptual strategy for improving the manmade environment and for advocating a sympathetic coexistence with the natural environment. In his 'biological principles of economics' he came closest to the present day concept of sustainability (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999).

understandably) as a response to global environmental crises (Lister, 2005).

practice and method (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999).

function and design of landscape spaces (Ware, 2004).

stability (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999).

This raises the whole issue of the relationship between design and the "Appropriate Technology" (AT) movement in the last twenty to thirty years. Schumacher (1973) coined the term "intermediate technology" to signify "technology of production by the masses, making use of the best of modern knowledge and experience, conducive to decentralization, compatible with the laws of ecology, gentle in its use of scarce resources, and designed to serve the human person instead of making him the servant of machines". The central tenet of appropriate technology is that a technology should be designed to be compatible with its local setting. Examples of current projects that are generally classified as appropriate technology include passive solar design, active solar collectors for heating and cooling, small windmills to provide electricity, roof-top gardens and hydroponic greenhouses, permaculture, and worker-managed craft industries. There is general agreement, however, that the main goal of the appropriate technology movement is to enhance the self reliance of people on local level. Characteristics of self reliant communities that appropriate technology can help facilitate include: low resource usage coupled with the extensive recycling; preference for renewable over nonrenewable resources; emphasis on environmental harmony; emphasis on small-scale industries; and a high degree of social cohesion and sense of community (Roseland, 1997).

## **6. Emerge of ecological landscape design**

Landscape architecture is a multi-disciplinary field, incorporating aspects of; botany, horticulture, the fine arts, architecture, industrial design, geology and the earth sciences, environmental psychology, geography, and ecology.

Landscape architecture has ecological thinking at the core of its legacy (Mozingo, 1997). As a result of a trend favoring ecological perspectives in design, significant changes have occurred in the landscape architecture profession in recent decades through the move to integrate ecological perspectives (Hooper et al., 2008).

Thinking ecologically about design is certainly not a "new" idea. Since ancient times "designers" looked to nature for "solutions" to their common problems; they saw nature as the perfect model to follow. Even though, in recent times, an increase in ecological education and environmental awareness is apparent among design professionals, there is still the need to better understand the expression of ecology through design (Lomba-Ortiz, 2003). In the face of the environmental problems new approaches to reconciling the divide between ecology and design have been explored in landscape architecture.

Since the 1960s, ecology has increasingly influenced the design professions, providing for a holistic and dynamic outlook on nature, environment and landscape. The different dimensions of ecology have come to imply the ability to think broadly, to search for patterns that connect and to observe nature with insight. Alternatively, ecological knowledge allows a comprehensive understanding of landscape as the outcome of interacting natural and cultural evolutionary processes which account for pattern, diversity, sustainability and stability (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999).

332 Advances in Landscape Architecture

gained little and lost a lot (Thayer Jr., 1998).

of community (Roseland, 1997).

**6. Emerge of ecological landscape design** 

environmental psychology, geography, and ecology.

integrate ecological perspectives (Hooper et al., 2008).

ecology and design have been explored in landscape architecture.

complexities of the latter. While science and technology have made it possible to comprehend deeper levels of ecosystem knowledge, they have also enabled the physical cover-up and subsequent concealment of dimensions of the landscape once readily accessible to more primal peoples. With technological hegemony, our ecosystems have

This raises the whole issue of the relationship between design and the "Appropriate Technology" (AT) movement in the last twenty to thirty years. Schumacher (1973) coined the term "intermediate technology" to signify "technology of production by the masses, making use of the best of modern knowledge and experience, conducive to decentralization, compatible with the laws of ecology, gentle in its use of scarce resources, and designed to serve the human person instead of making him the servant of machines". The central tenet of appropriate technology is that a technology should be designed to be compatible with its local setting. Examples of current projects that are generally classified as appropriate technology include passive solar design, active solar collectors for heating and cooling, small windmills to provide electricity, roof-top gardens and hydroponic greenhouses, permaculture, and worker-managed craft industries. There is general agreement, however, that the main goal of the appropriate technology movement is to enhance the self reliance of people on local level. Characteristics of self reliant communities that appropriate technology can help facilitate include: low resource usage coupled with the extensive recycling; preference for renewable over nonrenewable resources; emphasis on environmental harmony; emphasis on small-scale industries; and a high degree of social cohesion and sense

Landscape architecture is a multi-disciplinary field, incorporating aspects of; botany, horticulture, the fine arts, architecture, industrial design, geology and the earth sciences,

Landscape architecture has ecological thinking at the core of its legacy (Mozingo, 1997). As a result of a trend favoring ecological perspectives in design, significant changes have occurred in the landscape architecture profession in recent decades through the move to

Thinking ecologically about design is certainly not a "new" idea. Since ancient times "designers" looked to nature for "solutions" to their common problems; they saw nature as the perfect model to follow. Even though, in recent times, an increase in ecological education and environmental awareness is apparent among design professionals, there is still the need to better understand the expression of ecology through design (Lomba-Ortiz, 2003). In the face of the environmental problems new approaches to reconciling the divide between

Since the 1960s, ecology has increasingly influenced the design professions, providing for a holistic and dynamic outlook on nature, environment and landscape. The different To date, however, ecological design has been principally concerned with the realistic emulation of ecological form, function, and, where possible, process. As an outgrowth of, and to some degree, a fusion between landscape architecture, ecology, environmental planning, and the building science aspects of architecture, there is a distinctive functional emphasis in the discipline. Ironically, artistic elements and visual aesthetics have not been a priority in a discipline that bears the label of "design." I would attribute this principally to the dominance of landscape architecture in influencing ecological design, itself (until recently) a discipline characterized by a schism between garden design and horticulture in one domain, and technical ecologists concerned with ecological restoration and reconstruction in the other. This remediative, reactive "applied ecology" practice of landscape architecture along with related environmental professions have understandably been the progenitors of the new discipline of ecological design, largely (and understandably) as a response to global environmental crises (Lister, 2005).

Motivated by environmental values, landscape architects became increasingly knowledgeable about ecological principles and systems (Meyer, 2000). Ecology, the study of interactions between organisms and their environments, has long been a compelling theme for faculty, practitioners, and students of landscape design and planning. Frederick Law Olmsted's visionary public designs, Jens Jensen's native plantings, May Watt's observations of vernacular landscapes, and Ian McHarg's book, Design with Nature, are all milestones of ecological thinking in landscape design and planning (Johnson and Hill, 2001). McHarg (1969), Spirn (1984) and Hough (1995) played seminal roles in applying theories and principles of ecological landscape design to urban areas (Özgüner et al., 2007). lan McHarg who, perhaps more than any other, popularized ecology in landscape architecture. Patrick Geddes is the initiator of an ecological approach in design and planning and because he offered an integrative view of the environment that embraced urban design, landscape design and planning. John Tillman Lyle offers a comprehensive approach embracing theory, practice and method (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999).

In the late 1860's Frederick Law Olmstead supported the idea that landscape architects were stewards of the land. Olmstead's designed landscapes borrowed aesthetically from the picturesque but he was overtly conscious of ecological processes playing a critical role in the function and design of landscape spaces (Ware, 2004).

The early influence of ecology can be traced to the work of late nineteenth century visionary biologist Patrick Geddes, the conceptual initiator of an ecological approach to urban and landscape design and landscape planning. Patrick Geddes had a clear, overall conceptual strategy for improving the manmade environment and for advocating a sympathetic coexistence with the natural environment. In his 'biological principles of economics' he came closest to the present day concept of sustainability (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999).

Ecological thinking was only resumed with the publication of lan McHarg's (1969) 'Design with Nature'. The significance of McHarg's work, however, lies elsewhere, namely in introducing ecological understanding to the profession. McHarg believed that ecology had the potential to emancipate landscape architects from the static scenic images of ornamental horticulture by steering them away from arbitrary and capricious designs (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999). Ian McHarg's work fore grounded much of the early sustainable design discussions of the 1970's and into the 1980's. Carl Steinz's, Fred Steiner's, and Rob Thayer's earliest work was a critique of McHarg's methods (Ware, 2004).

Ecological Landscape Design 335

time now with many of its principles synthesized by the current "green" movement in

Ecological design is an emerging interdisciplinary field of study and practice. In fact, many would argue that it is a transdisciplinary field, concerned with the creation of entirely new applications that may emerge from its progenitor disciplines or arise from a synthesis of several. Influenced principally by ecology, the environmental sciences, environmental planning, architecture, and landscape studies, ecological design is one of several rapidly evolving (theoretical and practical) approaches to more sustainable, humane, and environmentally responsible development. As such, it may also be considered a critical approach to navigating the interface between culture and nature. In the broadest sense, ecological design emerges from the interdependent and dynamic relationship between

Van Der Ryn and Cowan (1996) described ecological design as a hinge that connects culture and nature, allowing humans to adapt and integrate nature's processes with human creations. In modern industrialized societies, human culture and nature are perceived and treated as separate realms, yet their interface offers fertile ground for the creation of new, hybridized natural/cultural ecologies and the rehabilitation and re(dis)covery of others. Ecological design is inspired by the nexus of these worlds and the urgent need to blur the boundary between them; it seizes on the creative tensions between them and, as such, may offer opportunities for and insights to a re(dis)covered place of "living lightly" with the land

By the beginning of the 21st century, ecological design had emerged as an expression of a sustainability world-view, which seeks to integrate the human enterprise with a sustainable harvest of resources, while ensuring that stresses caused to natural ecosystems are within the bounds of viability. If this can be achieved, the integrity of both the human economy and of natural ecosystems can be maintained. As such, ecological design is an all-encompassing

The construction of buildings in a manner that decreases resource use and

 The integration of these various activities within ecologically planned mutualisms, such as industrial and business parks, which are designed to maintain high production while

Landscape architects continue to speculate how we can design with the materials of nature and not have the result be confused for nature itself (Ware, 2004). Beth Meyer asserts, 'to some it might seem odd that landscape architects looked toward art and design theory and practice when seeking direction about folding ecological principles and environmental values into their creative processes. But this simultaneous look to art as well as science and

design (Lomba-Ortiz, 2003).

ecology and decision making.

concept, as it deals with the sustainability of:

The enterprises of families, neighborhoods, and cities;

The organic production of foods and other renewable resources;

reducing the use of resources and minimizing waste; and The maintenance of indigenous biodiversity (Shu-Yang et al., 2004).

environmental damage to the degree possible; The manufacturing of certifiably green products;

(Lister, 2007).

John Tillman Lyle's (1985) 'Design for Human Ecosystems' is a comprehensive integration of ecological concepts and landscape design. The term human ecosystems is proposed by Lyle to signify the totality of the landscape at hand as a warning against a strongly visual notion of landscape assessment and as a reminder that the landscape needs to be evaluated as the outcome of natural and cultural processes. Lyle argues the necessity of making full use of ecological understanding in the process of designing ecosystems; only then can "we shape ecosystems that manage to fulfill all their inherent potentials for contributing to human purposes, that are sustainable, and that support nonhuman communities as well".

Three aspects of Lyle's (1985) work are of direct relevance in establishing the conceptual foundation for ecological design. The first is that he attempts to tackle the complexity of design method and offers a critical investigation of the design process in the context of ecosystem, its function, structure and ecological (rather than economic) rationality. The second is that he includes 'management' as an integral part of ecosystem design, arguing that ecosystems like any organic entity have a variable future and as such, their design should be probabilistic; it is difficult to predict the changes that will take place. The implication here is that design is an ongoing process and that the final product of design is only one stage in this process; it should not be the objective. It also implies that design is interactive because it takes into account future change resulting from the designed system's interaction with its environment. A third aspect of Lyle's work is that he breaches the professional categorization of landscape architecture and landscape planning. The terms 'landscape design' and 'landscape planning' are often used interchangeably, however, uses 'design' as giving form to physical phenomena 'to represent such activity at every scale'. In this he follows others (Steinitz, 1979 and McHarg, 1969) who refer to the regional planning scale while using 'design'. Lyle viewed landscape planning's focus on the rational as inevitably excluding the intuitive (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999).

More recently, designers such as Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright, among many others, have attempted, with some degree of success, to address ecological issues through their designs. "Green Architecture," "Alternative Architecture," "Sustainable Design," and "Ecological Design," are some of the terms commonly used today to describe a special expression of design that takes as its primary driving force nature's processes. Van Der Ryn and Cowan (Ecological Design, 1996) defined this form of expression as "any form of design that minimizes environmentally destructive impacts by integrating itself with living processes." A "new" movement among design professionals has been developing for some time now with many of its principles synthesized by the current "green" movement in design (Lomba-Ortiz, 2003).

Ecological design is an emerging interdisciplinary field of study and practice. In fact, many would argue that it is a transdisciplinary field, concerned with the creation of entirely new applications that may emerge from its progenitor disciplines or arise from a synthesis of several. Influenced principally by ecology, the environmental sciences, environmental planning, architecture, and landscape studies, ecological design is one of several rapidly evolving (theoretical and practical) approaches to more sustainable, humane, and environmentally responsible development. As such, it may also be considered a critical approach to navigating the interface between culture and nature. In the broadest sense, ecological design emerges from the interdependent and dynamic relationship between ecology and decision making.

Van Der Ryn and Cowan (1996) described ecological design as a hinge that connects culture and nature, allowing humans to adapt and integrate nature's processes with human creations. In modern industrialized societies, human culture and nature are perceived and treated as separate realms, yet their interface offers fertile ground for the creation of new, hybridized natural/cultural ecologies and the rehabilitation and re(dis)covery of others. Ecological design is inspired by the nexus of these worlds and the urgent need to blur the boundary between them; it seizes on the creative tensions between them and, as such, may offer opportunities for and insights to a re(dis)covered place of "living lightly" with the land (Lister, 2007).

By the beginning of the 21st century, ecological design had emerged as an expression of a sustainability world-view, which seeks to integrate the human enterprise with a sustainable harvest of resources, while ensuring that stresses caused to natural ecosystems are within the bounds of viability. If this can be achieved, the integrity of both the human economy and of natural ecosystems can be maintained. As such, ecological design is an all-encompassing concept, as it deals with the sustainability of:


334 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Ecological thinking was only resumed with the publication of lan McHarg's (1969) 'Design with Nature'. The significance of McHarg's work, however, lies elsewhere, namely in introducing ecological understanding to the profession. McHarg believed that ecology had the potential to emancipate landscape architects from the static scenic images of ornamental horticulture by steering them away from arbitrary and capricious designs (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999). Ian McHarg's work fore grounded much of the early sustainable design discussions of the 1970's and into the 1980's. Carl Steinz's, Fred Steiner's, and Rob Thayer's

John Tillman Lyle's (1985) 'Design for Human Ecosystems' is a comprehensive integration of ecological concepts and landscape design. The term human ecosystems is proposed by Lyle to signify the totality of the landscape at hand as a warning against a strongly visual notion of landscape assessment and as a reminder that the landscape needs to be evaluated as the outcome of natural and cultural processes. Lyle argues the necessity of making full use of ecological understanding in the process of designing ecosystems; only then can "we shape ecosystems that manage to fulfill all their inherent potentials for contributing to human purposes, that are sustainable, and that support nonhuman communities as well".

Three aspects of Lyle's (1985) work are of direct relevance in establishing the conceptual foundation for ecological design. The first is that he attempts to tackle the complexity of design method and offers a critical investigation of the design process in the context of ecosystem, its function, structure and ecological (rather than economic) rationality. The second is that he includes 'management' as an integral part of ecosystem design, arguing that ecosystems like any organic entity have a variable future and as such, their design should be probabilistic; it is difficult to predict the changes that will take place. The implication here is that design is an ongoing process and that the final product of design is only one stage in this process; it should not be the objective. It also implies that design is interactive because it takes into account future change resulting from the designed system's interaction with its environment. A third aspect of Lyle's work is that he breaches the professional categorization of landscape architecture and landscape planning. The terms 'landscape design' and 'landscape planning' are often used interchangeably, however, uses 'design' as giving form to physical phenomena 'to represent such activity at every scale'. In this he follows others (Steinitz, 1979 and McHarg, 1969) who refer to the regional planning scale while using 'design'. Lyle viewed landscape planning's focus on the rational as

More recently, designers such as Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright, among many others, have attempted, with some degree of success, to address ecological issues through their designs. "Green Architecture," "Alternative Architecture," "Sustainable Design," and "Ecological Design," are some of the terms commonly used today to describe a special expression of design that takes as its primary driving force nature's processes. Van Der Ryn and Cowan (Ecological Design, 1996) defined this form of expression as "any form of design that minimizes environmentally destructive impacts by integrating itself with living processes." A "new" movement among design professionals has been developing for some

earliest work was a critique of McHarg's methods (Ware, 2004).

inevitably excluding the intuitive (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999).


Landscape architects continue to speculate how we can design with the materials of nature and not have the result be confused for nature itself (Ware, 2004). Beth Meyer asserts, 'to some it might seem odd that landscape architects looked toward art and design theory and practice when seeking direction about folding ecological principles and environmental values into their creative processes. But this simultaneous look to art as well as science and to theories of site specificity and phenomenology as well as ecology was critical to the successful integration of environmentalism into landscape architectural design.' (Meyer, 2002).

Ecological Landscape Design 337

The first is a holistic approach to landscape understanding, integrating abiotic, biotic and cultural landscape components. The second is a dynamic approach in which landscape is investigated along two continuums: a spatial one, i.e. movement between a larger scale and a local one; and a temporal one representing the evolutionary historical development of the landscape. The third is ecological landscape design's responsiveness to the constraints and opportunities of context whether natural, cultural or a combination of both. Responsiveness also dictates an anticipatory approach that considers the impact of the design on existing ecosystems and resources. Finally, ecological landscape design is intuitive, encompassing not only the rationality of the outer world but also the neglected 'intangible relationships' of the inner world. This intuitive approach embraces a new definition of creativity that departs from the formal, i.e. object-centered, appearance-oriented aesthetics to a phenomenological participatory aesthetics where the emphasis is on the totality of human experience of the

Reviewing ecology's interaction with the environmental design professions reveals a wide range of concepts, solutions and approaches (Figure 4.). The contributions in architecture and the urban landscape design include practical strategies (e.g. energy conservation, ecological networks) and design solutions to specific problems (e.g. earth-sheltered architecture and bioclimatic design). The interaction of ecology and landscape architecture has been more extensive, leading to a holistic approach to landscape design. All the contributions, however, find inspiration in nature and aim to shape man's environment

Ecological landscape design integrates input from landscape ecology and design, both of which are seen as providing parallel and complementary, albeit different methodological approaches. The analytic and descriptive nature of landscape ecology, the science, provides for a holistic understanding of existing landscapes, while the intuitive and creative problemsolving capabilities of design prescribe alternative courses for future landscape

In the different steps of the design process a lot of information has been needed to analyze and evaluate ecological processes and functions. Thus ecological design has been

Over the past 20 years landscape architecture has re-invested in ecologically driven design.

object (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999).

sustainably and 'beautifully'.

development (Makhzoumi, 2000).

 Re-Use/Re-programming Eco-Revelatory Design

 Intertwining Ecologies Constructed Ecologies

The Art of Landscape Function

Simulated 'natural' Attractions

interdisciplinary field of study and practice.

Ware (2004) investigates the following typologies: Interpretation and Environmental Education Environmental Remediation/Re-vegetation

## **7. Ecological landscape design**

Ecological landscape design is based on an ecological understanding of landscape which ensures a holistic, dynamic, responsive and intuitive approach (Figure 3.). It is holistic because it simultaneously considers past and present as well as local and regional landscape patterns and processes. It is responsive because it develops from a realization of the constraints and opportunities of context whether natural, cultural or a combination of both. Ecological landscape design is guided by three fundamental, mutually inclusive objectives: the maintenance of landscape integrity; promoting landscape sustainability; and reinforcing the natural and cultural spirit of place. Ecological landscape design engages the designer's rational, intellectual, emotional and creative capabilities (Makhzoumi and Pungetti, 1999).

Ecological design develops out of two areas of inquiry. On the one hand, it is the outcome of ecology's interface with the environmental design professions. Despite the differing perspectives and focus of interest, a number of common concepts have been outlined. On the other hand, ecological landscape design also utilizes fundamental ecological. Input from these two areas of inquiry forms the foundation for ecological landscape design which is here seen as integrating four overlapping attributes (Figure 3.).

**Figure 3.** Framework for ecological landscape design, drawing on concepts from ecology (left) and ecological design (right)

The first is a holistic approach to landscape understanding, integrating abiotic, biotic and cultural landscape components. The second is a dynamic approach in which landscape is investigated along two continuums: a spatial one, i.e. movement between a larger scale and a local one; and a temporal one representing the evolutionary historical development of the landscape. The third is ecological landscape design's responsiveness to the constraints and opportunities of context whether natural, cultural or a combination of both. Responsiveness also dictates an anticipatory approach that considers the impact of the design on existing ecosystems and resources. Finally, ecological landscape design is intuitive, encompassing not only the rationality of the outer world but also the neglected 'intangible relationships' of the inner world. This intuitive approach embraces a new definition of creativity that departs from the formal, i.e. object-centered, appearance-oriented aesthetics to a phenomenological participatory aesthetics where the emphasis is on the totality of human experience of the object (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999).

Reviewing ecology's interaction with the environmental design professions reveals a wide range of concepts, solutions and approaches (Figure 4.). The contributions in architecture and the urban landscape design include practical strategies (e.g. energy conservation, ecological networks) and design solutions to specific problems (e.g. earth-sheltered architecture and bioclimatic design). The interaction of ecology and landscape architecture has been more extensive, leading to a holistic approach to landscape design. All the contributions, however, find inspiration in nature and aim to shape man's environment sustainably and 'beautifully'.

Ecological landscape design integrates input from landscape ecology and design, both of which are seen as providing parallel and complementary, albeit different methodological approaches. The analytic and descriptive nature of landscape ecology, the science, provides for a holistic understanding of existing landscapes, while the intuitive and creative problemsolving capabilities of design prescribe alternative courses for future landscape development (Makhzoumi, 2000).

In the different steps of the design process a lot of information has been needed to analyze and evaluate ecological processes and functions. Thus ecological design has been interdisciplinary field of study and practice.

Over the past 20 years landscape architecture has re-invested in ecologically driven design. Ware (2004) investigates the following typologies:


336 Advances in Landscape Architecture

ecological design (right)

**7. Ecological landscape design** 

2002).

to theories of site specificity and phenomenology as well as ecology was critical to the successful integration of environmentalism into landscape architectural design.' (Meyer,

Ecological landscape design is based on an ecological understanding of landscape which ensures a holistic, dynamic, responsive and intuitive approach (Figure 3.). It is holistic because it simultaneously considers past and present as well as local and regional landscape patterns and processes. It is responsive because it develops from a realization of the constraints and opportunities of context whether natural, cultural or a combination of both. Ecological landscape design is guided by three fundamental, mutually inclusive objectives: the maintenance of landscape integrity; promoting landscape sustainability; and reinforcing the natural and cultural spirit of place. Ecological landscape design engages the designer's rational, intellectual, emotional and creative capabilities (Makhzoumi and Pungetti, 1999).

Ecological design develops out of two areas of inquiry. On the one hand, it is the outcome of ecology's interface with the environmental design professions. Despite the differing perspectives and focus of interest, a number of common concepts have been outlined. On the other hand, ecological landscape design also utilizes fundamental ecological. Input from these two areas of inquiry forms the foundation for ecological landscape design which is

**Figure 3.** Framework for ecological landscape design, drawing on concepts from ecology (left) and

here seen as integrating four overlapping attributes (Figure 3.).


The typological framework aims to illustrate and differentiate current methods of approaching ecological design in landscape architecture. The eight categories include a critical reflection as to how the work itself may not be addressing much of the dynamic, ecological processes that the projects are predicated upon (Ware, 2004).

Ecological Landscape Design 339

strategies that are aimed at one or two of these components or interactions, in reality have the potential to affect them all. Landscape designs that acknowledge and work with the connections between the social, biological, physical, and built components of the system are much less likely to produce unintended negative consequences, and are more likely to contribute to ecological sustainability. Furthermore, enhanced quality of urban life depends on all components of the urban ecosystem, not just some of them (Cadenasso and Pickett,

**Principles Summary of Implication for Landscape Design**

functions.

ecologically motivated landscape design and management

Cities are ecosystems Design affects all four components of human ecosystems. Cities are heterogeneous Design should enhance heterogeneity, and its ecological

Cities are dynamic Design must accommodate internal and external changes projects can experience.

social and natural processes.

should be maintained or restored.

**Table 1.** A brief summary of the general implications of each of the five principles of urban ecology for

The second principle suggests that interactions and transfers among patches within the urban matrix are affected by landscape design and management. Urban landscape design should carefully consider the heterogeneity and its role in maintaining desirable functions such as biodiversity, storm water retention, microclimate mitigation, and carbon sequestration. The interaction between a particular landscape project and adjacent patches of similar or contrasting landscape structure can enhance the function and value of individual projects. This may mean paying particular attention to the boundaries between

The third principle means that landscape designs should accommodate change. Natural disturbances, extreme climate events, shifting economic investment or disinvestment, the maturation of households, and the aging of or renovation of infrastructure are but some of the examples of the kinds of dynamism that landscape designs and management will have to respond to. Persistent equilibrium in cities is unlikely. Designs that plan for successional changes in vegetation have redundancies in the face of disturbance, or that encourage use by

The fourth principle suggests that both of these major categories must be addressed as landscape design goals. A design that satisfies only obvious social criteria, such as recreation or efficiency of commerce, misses an opportunity to contribute to ecosystem services that

contrasts within or between projects to enhance or protect from exchanges.

different age groups may be more resilient in changing cities.

Design should recognize and plan for feedbacks between

Remnant ecological processes yielding ecological services

2008)

cities

cities

Human and natural processes interact in

Ecological processes remain important in

**Figure 4.** The interface of ecology with architecture, landscape architecture and urban landscape design (Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999)

## **7.1. Principles of ecological landscape design**

The main ecological principles concerning cities are that:


The first three principles address the structure of cities and the change in structure through time. The remaining two principles focus on ecological processes in cities (Table 1.).

The first principle suggests that landscape design theory and management practice must address all the components of such systems. Urban ecosystems include four broad kinds of components (organisms, a physical setting and conditions, social structures, and the built environment) all interacting with one another. Landscape designs and management strategies that are aimed at one or two of these components or interactions, in reality have the potential to affect them all. Landscape designs that acknowledge and work with the connections between the social, biological, physical, and built components of the system are much less likely to produce unintended negative consequences, and are more likely to contribute to ecological sustainability. Furthermore, enhanced quality of urban life depends on all components of the urban ecosystem, not just some of them (Cadenasso and Pickett, 2008)

338 Advances in Landscape Architecture

(Makhzuomi and Pungetti, 1999)

Cities are ecosystems;

Cities are dynamic;

Cities are spatially heterogeneous;

**7.1. Principles of ecological landscape design** 

The main ecological principles concerning cities are that:

Human and natural processes interact in cities; and

Ecological processes are still at work and are important in cities.

The typological framework aims to illustrate and differentiate current methods of approaching ecological design in landscape architecture. The eight categories include a critical reflection as to how the work itself may not be addressing much of the dynamic,

**Figure 4.** The interface of ecology with architecture, landscape architecture and urban landscape design

The first three principles address the structure of cities and the change in structure through

The first principle suggests that landscape design theory and management practice must address all the components of such systems. Urban ecosystems include four broad kinds of components (organisms, a physical setting and conditions, social structures, and the built environment) all interacting with one another. Landscape designs and management

time. The remaining two principles focus on ecological processes in cities (Table 1.).

ecological processes that the projects are predicated upon (Ware, 2004).


**Table 1.** A brief summary of the general implications of each of the five principles of urban ecology for ecologically motivated landscape design and management

The second principle suggests that interactions and transfers among patches within the urban matrix are affected by landscape design and management. Urban landscape design should carefully consider the heterogeneity and its role in maintaining desirable functions such as biodiversity, storm water retention, microclimate mitigation, and carbon sequestration. The interaction between a particular landscape project and adjacent patches of similar or contrasting landscape structure can enhance the function and value of individual projects. This may mean paying particular attention to the boundaries between contrasts within or between projects to enhance or protect from exchanges.

The third principle means that landscape designs should accommodate change. Natural disturbances, extreme climate events, shifting economic investment or disinvestment, the maturation of households, and the aging of or renovation of infrastructure are but some of the examples of the kinds of dynamism that landscape designs and management will have to respond to. Persistent equilibrium in cities is unlikely. Designs that plan for successional changes in vegetation have redundancies in the face of disturbance, or that encourage use by different age groups may be more resilient in changing cities.

The fourth principle suggests that both of these major categories must be addressed as landscape design goals. A design that satisfies only obvious social criteria, such as recreation or efficiency of commerce, misses an opportunity to contribute to ecosystem services that may ultimately have great social value. All landscape designs and management schemes should be judged for their ability to contribute to both social and ecological goods and services, and to reduce both social and ecological risks and vulnerabilities.

Ecological Landscape Design 341

the work not just of experts, but of entire communities. The fifth principle tells us that effective design transforms awareness by providing ongoing possibilities for learning and participation. Taken together, these five principles help us to think about the integration of

Ecological design grows from an intimate, detailed knowledge

Nature's living processes offer opportunities to design using natural cycles, natural waste, and regeneration as part of the

By tracing the environmental impacts of a design, we can

discover the more ecologically sound options.

**Principles Summary of Implication for Landscape Design**

total design.

Everyone is a designer Listen to every voice in the design process.

of the place and its nuances.

Make nature visible Make sure natural cycles and processes are visible to bring the designed environment back to life.

The West Davis Pond in Davis, California, is exemplary of the new landscape space of ecological design. The subdivision of a single family and low-rise apartment neighborhood required capacity improvement of an existing storm-water-treatment settling pond. This prosaic infrastructure requirement innovatively integrates a constructed habitat for numerous over-wintering migratory birds and resident wildlife whose wetland habitats

The pond had pre-existing development on three sides: an arterial roadway edged by backyard fences, a long edge of directly adjacent backyard fences, and warehouse commercial uses. On the fourth side, the project developers and their team of engineers, environmental scientists, and landscape architects conceived of the pond as integral to the open space of the new development. In lieu of a more typical suburban park, between the housing and the pond, a bike path, part of a famous city-wide system, incorporates two pond overlooks and a constructed arroyo channel as a children's play area. Between the manicured, exotic landscape of the housing and the habitat planting of the pond, transitional "native planting" envelopes the bike path, overlooks, and play area (Figure 5.). Most of the species are not native to this part of California, and many are unhealthy or

As one of the first storm-water-treatment wildlife ponds in the Central Valley, and one of the first wetland restoration projects within an urban context, the project is laudable in ways-it is based on sound ecological science, it achieves its clearly stated ecological goals, it

ecology and design.

Solutions grow from

Design with nature

Ecological accounting informs design

**Table 2.** Principles of ecological design

*7.2.1. The West Davis Pond* 

**7.2. Examples of ecological landscape design** 

have largely been destroyed in the Central Valley.

place

dying.

The fifth principle means that landscape designs and management practices have the opportunity to preserve and promote those basic biological processes upon which human health and well-being depend. It will be important to provide for these functions even in areas beyond the large green parcels usually targeted for this kind of benefit. The control of water flow and infiltration, the retention of limiting and hence potentially polluting nutrients, the sequestration of carbon dioxide, the neutralization of toxics, the maintenance of soil respiration, the production of biomass, the amelioration of climate extremes, the mitigation of natural disturbance, and the preservation of biodiversity, are but some of the processes that can exist in various places in designed systems. Landscape designs and management protocols can be purposefully planned so as to maintain, or in some cases restore, as many of these kinds of natural processes as possible throughout the urban matrix. As such, landscape design and management can provide creative new ways to insinuate ecological processes in cities (Cadenasso and Pickett, 2008).

Ecologically designed urban landscapes are ones that can use both ecological processes and human values as form-giving elements. In addition to their many environmental benefits, these landscapes -which include systems such as energy efficient buildings, storm water infiltration, sewage treatment wetlands, and urban forests- can also contribute to local cultures of sustainability that, like all cultures, both shape and are shaped by the built and designed environment. If they are to do so, however, their designers must think clearly about the experience of the users of the urban landscape, and particularly about the meanings and lessons that they derive from their surroundings. The ways that people learn from and respond to the urban environment are critical to the prospects for sustainability, if for no other reason than that for most of us, it is the landscape of the city that helps to shape our view of nature and our relation to it (Eisenstein, 2001).

Ecological landscape designs fall into four categories:


Van Der Ryn and Cowan (1996) have pointed out principles of ecological design Table 2.. The first principle grounds the design in the details of place. In the words of Wendell Berry, we need to ask, "What is here? What will nature permit us to do here? What will nature help us to do here?" The The second principle provides criteria for evaluating the ecological impacts of a given design. The third principle suggests that these impacts can be minimized by working in partnership with nature. The fourth principle implies that ecological design is the work not just of experts, but of entire communities. The fifth principle tells us that effective design transforms awareness by providing ongoing possibilities for learning and participation. Taken together, these five principles help us to think about the integration of ecology and design.


**Table 2.** Principles of ecological design

## **7.2. Examples of ecological landscape design**

### *7.2.1. The West Davis Pond*

340 Advances in Landscape Architecture

may ultimately have great social value. All landscape designs and management schemes should be judged for their ability to contribute to both social and ecological goods and

The fifth principle means that landscape designs and management practices have the opportunity to preserve and promote those basic biological processes upon which human health and well-being depend. It will be important to provide for these functions even in areas beyond the large green parcels usually targeted for this kind of benefit. The control of water flow and infiltration, the retention of limiting and hence potentially polluting nutrients, the sequestration of carbon dioxide, the neutralization of toxics, the maintenance of soil respiration, the production of biomass, the amelioration of climate extremes, the mitigation of natural disturbance, and the preservation of biodiversity, are but some of the processes that can exist in various places in designed systems. Landscape designs and management protocols can be purposefully planned so as to maintain, or in some cases restore, as many of these kinds of natural processes as possible throughout the urban matrix. As such, landscape design and management can provide creative new ways to insinuate

Ecologically designed urban landscapes are ones that can use both ecological processes and human values as form-giving elements. In addition to their many environmental benefits, these landscapes -which include systems such as energy efficient buildings, storm water infiltration, sewage treatment wetlands, and urban forests- can also contribute to local cultures of sustainability that, like all cultures, both shape and are shaped by the built and designed environment. If they are to do so, however, their designers must think clearly about the experience of the users of the urban landscape, and particularly about the meanings and lessons that they derive from their surroundings. The ways that people learn from and respond to the urban environment are critical to the prospects for sustainability, if for no other reason than that for most of us, it is the landscape of the city that helps to shape

3. Intensification of ecological processes to mitigate potential or existing ecological

4. Environmental interventions which reduce nonrenewable resource consumption

Van Der Ryn and Cowan (1996) have pointed out principles of ecological design Table 2.. The first principle grounds the design in the details of place. In the words of Wendell Berry, we need to ask, "What is here? What will nature permit us to do here? What will nature help us to do here?" The The second principle provides criteria for evaluating the ecological impacts of a given design. The third principle suggests that these impacts can be minimized by working in partnership with nature. The fourth principle implies that ecological design is

services, and to reduce both social and ecological risks and vulnerabilities.

ecological processes in cities (Cadenasso and Pickett, 2008).

our view of nature and our relation to it (Eisenstein, 2001).

1. Preservation of existing, functioning ecological systems;

2. Enhancement or re-establishment of degraded ecological systems;

Ecological landscape designs fall into four categories:

degradation; and

(Mozingo, 1997).

The West Davis Pond in Davis, California, is exemplary of the new landscape space of ecological design. The subdivision of a single family and low-rise apartment neighborhood required capacity improvement of an existing storm-water-treatment settling pond. This prosaic infrastructure requirement innovatively integrates a constructed habitat for numerous over-wintering migratory birds and resident wildlife whose wetland habitats have largely been destroyed in the Central Valley.

The pond had pre-existing development on three sides: an arterial roadway edged by backyard fences, a long edge of directly adjacent backyard fences, and warehouse commercial uses. On the fourth side, the project developers and their team of engineers, environmental scientists, and landscape architects conceived of the pond as integral to the open space of the new development. In lieu of a more typical suburban park, between the housing and the pond, a bike path, part of a famous city-wide system, incorporates two pond overlooks and a constructed arroyo channel as a children's play area. Between the manicured, exotic landscape of the housing and the habitat planting of the pond, transitional "native planting" envelopes the bike path, overlooks, and play area (Figure 5.). Most of the species are not native to this part of California, and many are unhealthy or dying.

As one of the first storm-water-treatment wildlife ponds in the Central Valley, and one of the first wetland restoration projects within an urban context, the project is laudable in ways-it is based on sound ecological science, it achieves its clearly stated ecological goals, it is innovative, and it manifests strong community support. The project was done with conscience, care, and the considerable risk that precedents always entail (Mozingo, 1997).

How it looked in 2007 How it looked in 2010

Ecological Landscape Design 343

The Pond is enclosed by a security fence and is designated a "Wildlife Preserve" and "Sensitive Habitat Area" by the City of Davis. Native trees and shrubs grow on the slopes

The Glenn W. Daniel King Estate Park encompasses eighty acres of a north-south ridge overlooking the East Bay Hills and an expansive panorama of the San Francisco Bay. The park is the largest open space and only urban wild land west of Interstate 580, the city's social and physical divide. The Glenn W. Daniel King Estate Park is not blueprint for a park constructed as a single project. Rather, it is a guide for a sustained effort to bring to fruition a park that is ecologically healthy and well integrated into the social life of its community (Figure 6.). The park lies within a home owning, middle-class, primarily African American neighborhood considerably integrated with European American, Latino and Asian

around the Pond and provide habitat for a diversity of wildlife (Anonymous, 2012).

**Figure 6.** The Glenn W. Daniel King Estate Park Master plan (Mozingo et al., 1998)

A partnership ethic respects both cultural diversity and biodiversity. In the hills above Oakland, California, a culturally diverse middle-class neighborhood consisting of a majority of African Americana along with many European, Asian, and Latin Americans worked in partnership with the each other and with landscape architect Louise Mozingo of the University of California, Berkeley. The goal was to restore biodiversity to the oak groves from which the city derived its name and ecological heritage. Together they devised a plan to develop the neighborhood's The Glenn W. Daniel King Estate Park to benefit from the

*7.2.2. The Glenn W. Daniel King Estate Park* 

American residents (Mozingo et al., 1998).

Bike path Birding walks

Early fall at the pond

**Figure 5.** The West Davis Pond (Anonymous, 2012)

The West Davis Pond is a new kind of ecologically integrated project, with measurable ecological benefits that we want to increasingly infiltrate into the landscape. The Pond is an enhanced wetland wildlife habitat, while its primary purpose is to retain storm water runoff and help prevent flooding. In the dry months, water is provided by a supplementary well. The Pond is enclosed by a security fence and is designated a "Wildlife Preserve" and "Sensitive Habitat Area" by the City of Davis. Native trees and shrubs grow on the slopes around the Pond and provide habitat for a diversity of wildlife (Anonymous, 2012).

## *7.2.2. The Glenn W. Daniel King Estate Park*

342 Advances in Landscape Architecture

is innovative, and it manifests strong community support. The project was done with conscience, care, and the considerable risk that precedents always entail (Mozingo, 1997).

Bike path Birding walks

How it looked in 2007 How it looked in 2010

Early fall at the pond

The West Davis Pond is a new kind of ecologically integrated project, with measurable ecological benefits that we want to increasingly infiltrate into the landscape. The Pond is an enhanced wetland wildlife habitat, while its primary purpose is to retain storm water runoff and help prevent flooding. In the dry months, water is provided by a supplementary well.

**Figure 5.** The West Davis Pond (Anonymous, 2012)

The Glenn W. Daniel King Estate Park encompasses eighty acres of a north-south ridge overlooking the East Bay Hills and an expansive panorama of the San Francisco Bay. The park is the largest open space and only urban wild land west of Interstate 580, the city's social and physical divide. The Glenn W. Daniel King Estate Park is not blueprint for a park constructed as a single project. Rather, it is a guide for a sustained effort to bring to fruition a park that is ecologically healthy and well integrated into the social life of its community (Figure 6.). The park lies within a home owning, middle-class, primarily African American neighborhood considerably integrated with European American, Latino and Asian American residents (Mozingo et al., 1998).

**Figure 6.** The Glenn W. Daniel King Estate Park Master plan (Mozingo et al., 1998)

A partnership ethic respects both cultural diversity and biodiversity. In the hills above Oakland, California, a culturally diverse middle-class neighborhood consisting of a majority of African Americana along with many European, Asian, and Latin Americans worked in partnership with the each other and with landscape architect Louise Mozingo of the University of California, Berkeley. The goal was to restore biodiversity to the oak groves from which the city derived its name and ecological heritage. Together they devised a plan to develop the neighborhood's The Glenn W. Daniel King Estate Park to benefit from the

diversity of perennials grasses, oak savannahs, and brushy chaparral indigenous to the area. At the same time, they revamped hiking trails, added a recreation center, and increased security. The resulting master plan provided "a template for how communities can become active partners in the fulfillment of their own environmental visions" (Merchant, 2004).

Ecological Landscape Design 345

adjoining blocks. Each linear park segment is distinct in character but related to the next, creating a park of diversity and unity. To anchor this space with an element of regional glacial geology, a large 700-ton bedrock outcrop of native Muskoka granite was taken apart along natural crevices, moved 150 miles south, and reconstructed on site. Immense yet inviting, the outcrop has a wonderful tactile surface for sitting and absorbs warmth on cool sunny days. Moveable tables and chairs next to the boulder offer a nice contrast of

The park has become a local landmark. While small in size, Yorkville's park has played an important role in the revitalization of the neighborhood since its completion in 1994. The neighborhood has continued its redevelopment with several new high-rise buildings rising along the edge or near the park. Recently, the park underwent some restoration work, but its original design integrity as a distillation of regional ecology, along with its role as a neighborhood connection point, remain as strong as ever. The park is owned and maintained by the City of Toronto Department of Parks, Forestry and Recreation. The Bloor-Yorkville Business Improvement Area takes an active role in the management and

In 1999, the Parc Downsview Park announced an International Design Competition in attempt to turn Downsview Park into an urban park, and potentially one of the largest ones

permanence and flexibility (Figure 8.).

**Figure 8.** Village of Yorkville Park

*7.2.4. Downsview Park* 

programming of the park (Anonymous, 2012a).

## *7.2.3. Village of Yorkville Park*

The idea of this urban park dates back to the late 1950s when a block of Victorian-era row houses was demolished along Cumberland Street to allow for the construction of the Bloor Danforth subway line. The park sits at the cusp of two neighborhoods: the small-scale old Yorkville neighborhood with its late 19th and early 20th century row houses, and the highrise commercial core that has built up along the Bloor Street corridor since the subway opened. For years, this highly visible site remained a parking lot. Activist neighbors fought to build a public place to bring the neighborhood together rather than to divide it. Finally, in 1991, the City of Toronto Department of Parks, Forestry and Recreation announced an international design competition (Figure 7.).

**Figure 7.** Village of Yorkville Park landscape schematic design (Anonymous, 2012a)

The community wanted a park that reflected the scale and context of the neighborhood, incorporated the native ecology of the surrounding region, and made connections with the circulation of local streets and a system of midblock passageways. The design strategy for the competition was to design the park to express the Victorian style of collecting. In this case, "collecting" landscapes of Ontario -pine groves, prairies, marshes, orchards, alder woods, rock outcroppings and so on -and arranging them in the pattern of the nineteenth century row houses.

The park design creates a series of linear subdivisions with contextual alignments to the building lot lines across the street and connections to mid-block passageways in the adjoining blocks. Each linear park segment is distinct in character but related to the next, creating a park of diversity and unity. To anchor this space with an element of regional glacial geology, a large 700-ton bedrock outcrop of native Muskoka granite was taken apart along natural crevices, moved 150 miles south, and reconstructed on site. Immense yet inviting, the outcrop has a wonderful tactile surface for sitting and absorbs warmth on cool sunny days. Moveable tables and chairs next to the boulder offer a nice contrast of permanence and flexibility (Figure 8.).

**Figure 8.** Village of Yorkville Park

344 Advances in Landscape Architecture

*7.2.3. Village of Yorkville Park* 

century row houses.

international design competition (Figure 7.).

diversity of perennials grasses, oak savannahs, and brushy chaparral indigenous to the area. At the same time, they revamped hiking trails, added a recreation center, and increased security. The resulting master plan provided "a template for how communities can become active partners in the fulfillment of their own environmental visions" (Merchant, 2004).

The idea of this urban park dates back to the late 1950s when a block of Victorian-era row houses was demolished along Cumberland Street to allow for the construction of the Bloor Danforth subway line. The park sits at the cusp of two neighborhoods: the small-scale old Yorkville neighborhood with its late 19th and early 20th century row houses, and the highrise commercial core that has built up along the Bloor Street corridor since the subway opened. For years, this highly visible site remained a parking lot. Activist neighbors fought to build a public place to bring the neighborhood together rather than to divide it. Finally, in 1991, the City of Toronto Department of Parks, Forestry and Recreation announced an

**Figure 7.** Village of Yorkville Park landscape schematic design (Anonymous, 2012a)

The community wanted a park that reflected the scale and context of the neighborhood, incorporated the native ecology of the surrounding region, and made connections with the circulation of local streets and a system of midblock passageways. The design strategy for the competition was to design the park to express the Victorian style of collecting. In this case, "collecting" landscapes of Ontario -pine groves, prairies, marshes, orchards, alder woods, rock outcroppings and so on -and arranging them in the pattern of the nineteenth

The park design creates a series of linear subdivisions with contextual alignments to the building lot lines across the street and connections to mid-block passageways in the The park has become a local landmark. While small in size, Yorkville's park has played an important role in the revitalization of the neighborhood since its completion in 1994. The neighborhood has continued its redevelopment with several new high-rise buildings rising along the edge or near the park. Recently, the park underwent some restoration work, but its original design integrity as a distillation of regional ecology, along with its role as a neighborhood connection point, remain as strong as ever. The park is owned and maintained by the City of Toronto Department of Parks, Forestry and Recreation. The Bloor-Yorkville Business Improvement Area takes an active role in the management and programming of the park (Anonymous, 2012a).

## *7.2.4. Downsview Park*

In 1999, the Parc Downsview Park announced an International Design Competition in attempt to turn Downsview Park into an urban park, and potentially one of the largest ones in the world, in which Bruce Mau Design, Rem Koolhaas, Oleson Worland, and Petra Blaisse submitted the winning design scheme, known as "Tree City." Parc Downsview Park has since come up with a new plan to construct commercial and residential developments instead (Anonymous, 2012b). This 320-acre federal park will provide natural and formal garden environments, offering both passive and active recreation while promoting such themes as environmental sustainability, new ecologies, and the rich heritage of the site. Contributors to this volume analyze the entries of the competition finalists and consider a range of issues raised by the competition, including landscape architecture, geography, landscape ecology, and contemporary urbanism (Czerniac, 2002).

Ecological Landscape Design 347

**Figure 10.** Recreational, educational and cultural amenities in the Downsview Park (Anonymous,

2012d)

Downsview Park is designed to support environmental, social and economic sustainability. The vision for the park is the creation of a recreational space incorporating expansive open space areas, as well as the repurposing of an inventory of historic aviation-related buildings to create a year-round setting (Figure 9.). Downsview Park is a model development demonstrating sustainable practices in its design, construction, operation and maintenance. It is intended to be a recreational, educational and cultural amenity for all Canadians (Figure 10.); a diverse, healthy and livable community for its occupants, visitors and neighbors; and an educational demonstration project of international significance. In addition to creating a unique park on the majority of the lands, portions of the property will be developed to facilitate creating and maintaining Downsview Park. More than \$20 million has been spent to date on construction, improvements to infrastructure and renovations of older buildings. The investment that Downsview Park is making in the public realm will have a significant impact well beyond its 231.5 hectares (572 acres) -job creation, increased real estate values, social and cultural engagement and numerous environmental benefits are all a direct result of the work being performed in the creation of the Park (Anonymous, 2012c).

**Figure 9.** Downsview Park (Anonymous, 2012b)

in the world, in which Bruce Mau Design, Rem Koolhaas, Oleson Worland, and Petra Blaisse submitted the winning design scheme, known as "Tree City." Parc Downsview Park has since come up with a new plan to construct commercial and residential developments instead (Anonymous, 2012b). This 320-acre federal park will provide natural and formal garden environments, offering both passive and active recreation while promoting such themes as environmental sustainability, new ecologies, and the rich heritage of the site. Contributors to this volume analyze the entries of the competition finalists and consider a range of issues raised by the competition, including landscape architecture, geography,

Downsview Park is designed to support environmental, social and economic sustainability. The vision for the park is the creation of a recreational space incorporating expansive open space areas, as well as the repurposing of an inventory of historic aviation-related buildings to create a year-round setting (Figure 9.). Downsview Park is a model development demonstrating sustainable practices in its design, construction, operation and maintenance. It is intended to be a recreational, educational and cultural amenity for all Canadians (Figure 10.); a diverse, healthy and livable community for its occupants, visitors and neighbors; and an educational demonstration project of international significance. In addition to creating a unique park on the majority of the lands, portions of the property will be developed to facilitate creating and maintaining Downsview Park. More than \$20 million has been spent to date on construction, improvements to infrastructure and renovations of older buildings. The investment that Downsview Park is making in the public realm will have a significant impact well beyond its 231.5 hectares (572 acres) -job creation, increased real estate values, social and cultural engagement and numerous environmental benefits are all a direct result

landscape ecology, and contemporary urbanism (Czerniac, 2002).

of the work being performed in the creation of the Park (Anonymous, 2012c).

**Figure 9.** Downsview Park (Anonymous, 2012b)

**Figure 10.** Recreational, educational and cultural amenities in the Downsview Park (Anonymous, 2012d)

## **Author details**

Filiz Çelik

*Selçuk University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Konya, Turkey* 

## **8. References**

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Johnson, B. R. and Hill, K. 2001. Ecology and Design Frameworks for Learning, Island Press,

Lister, N. M. 2007. Sustainable Large Parks: Ecological Design or Designer Ecology?. In: J. Czerniak & G. Hargreaves (eds.), Large Parks. Princeton NJ: Princeton Architectural

Lister, N. M. 2005. Industrial Ecology as Ecological Design: Opportunities for Re(dis)covery, In R. Coté, J. Tansey and A. Dale (eds). Linking Industry and Ecology: A Question of

Lomba-Ortiz, E. A., 2003. Questioning Ecological Design: A Deep Ecology Perspective. Ecotecture, http://www.ecotecture.com/library\_eco/appropriate\_tech/lomba-ortiz\_

Madge, P., 1997. Ecological Design: A New Critique. Design Issues, vol: 13, no: 2, A Critical

Makhzoumi, J. M. 2000. Landscape Ecology as a Foundation for Landscape Architecture: Application in Malta. Landscape and Urban Planning, vol: 50 (2000), p. 167-177. Makhzuomi, J. M. and Pungetti, G. 1999. Ecological Landscape Design and Planning, Taylor

Merchant, C., 2004. Reinventing Eden: the Fate of Naturein Western Culture, Taylor &

Meyer, E. K. 2000. The Post-Earth Day Conundrum: Translating Environmental Values into Landscape Design, Environmentalism in Landscape Architecture (Edt: Michel Conan),

Mozingo, L. A., 1997. The Aesthetics of Ecological Design: Seeing Science as Culture,

Mozingo L. A., Baker, A., London, J., Ancel, N., Cheng, I. and Dohi, M. 1998. The Glenn W.

Özgüner, H., Kandle, A. D. and Bisgrove, R. J. 2007. Attitudes of Landscape Professionals Towards Naturalistic Versus Formal Urban Landscapes in the UK. Landscape and

Papanek, V. 1995. The Green Imperative, Ecology and Ethics in Design and Architecture.

Shu-Yang, F., Freedman, B. and Cote, R. (2004). Principles and Practice of Ecological Design.

Thayer Jr., R. L. 1998. Landscape as an Ecologically Revealing Language. Landscape Journal,

Todd, J., Brown, E. J. G. and Wells, E., 2003. Ecological Design Applied. Ecological

Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, vol: 22, p. 187-244, USA.

Daniel King Estate Park Master Plan. Landscape Journal, vol: 17, p.12-14.

Roseland, M., 1997. Dimensions of the Eco-city. Cities, vol: 14, no: 4, p. 197-2002.

Environmental Review, vol: 12, p. 97–112, doi: 10.1139/A04-005, Canada.

Van Der Ryn, S. and Cowan S. 1996. Ecological Design. ISBN: 1-55963-389-1, USA.

ISBN: 1-55963-813-3, USA.

Design. Vancouver: UBC Press, pp. 15-28.

& Francis, ISBN-13: 978-0419232506, USA.

Landscape Journal, Spring 97, vol: 1, p. 46-59.

Franchis Books, Inc., p. 238, USA.

Urban Planning, vol: 81, p.34–45.

vol: 17, isuue: 2, p. 118- 129.

Engineering, vol: 20, p. 421–440.

Thames and Hudson, p. 256, London.

questioningeco.html (accessed 04 December 2012).

Condition: Design and Its Criticism (Summer, 1997), p. 44-54.

McHarg, I. L. 1969. Design with Nature, Natural History Press, New York.

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Johnson, B. R. and Hill, K. 2001. Ecology and Design Frameworks for Learning, Island Press, ISBN: 1-55963-813-3, USA.

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*Selçuk University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Konya,* 

Learning, Island Press, ISBN: 1-55963-813-3, USA.

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Francisco Planning and Urban Research Association,

Journal, Fall 98, vol: 17, no: 2, p. 99-107.

Construction, and Maintenance, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., USA.

Institute of Technology. Master Thesis on Industrial Design, Turkey.

Ahern, J., France, R., Hough, M., Burley, J., Turner, W., Schmidt, S., Hulse, D., Badenhope, J. and Jones, G. 2001. Integration Ecology "across" the Curriculum of Landscape Architecture. B. R. Johnson and K. Hill (eds). Ecology and Design Frameworks for

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Cadenasso, M. L. and Pickett. S. T. A., 2008. Urban Principles for Ecological Landscape Design and Management: Scientific Fundamentals. Cities and the Environment, vol:

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**Author details** 

**8. References** 

2012).

2012).

2012).

2012).

1(2), p.16.

229–240.

27, p. 127-141.

22 November 2012).

Filiz Çelik

*Turkey* 


Ware, S., 2004. The Nature of Design, 2004 AILA Nationla Conference (200 MILE CITY), Landscape Architecture Online: an online magazin published by the Australian Institute of Landscape Architects, Australia.

**Chapter 14** 

© 2013 Kurtaslan and Brzuszek, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

**Crosby Arboretum (Picayune, Mississippi):** 

"*At the Crosby Arboretum, Picayune, Mississippi, I listened for and found my voice...*"

Arboretums are living plant museums where mainly the taxa of trees and other wood-like plants of known origin and age, each of which are gathered in a correct and careful manner for the purposes of scientific research and observation, are cultivated, exhibited and

Arboretums are garden abstractions for interpreting the natural landscape. These gardens offer biological and ecological diversity of collections, serve as conservation of soil, water and biological resources, demonstration of environmentally responsible landscape design,

Being of vital importance for the protection of the nature in the present day urban life, arboretums at the same time have important roles in terms of esthetical and recreational aspects. In addition to providing scientific data regarding plants, arboretums also assume the function of presenting their natural beauties, esthetical qualities (size, form, texture, line

The functions of arboretums, whose formation on the earth dates back centuries ago, shows variety. These functions are giving information to all the students from elementary and secondary education to the university level and to the local community primarily about wood-like plants and secondly if they desire, about herbaceous plants, introducing these plants in their habitats and contributing to the development of a consciousness of protecting the environment. Besides, other functions of arboretums can be listed as introducing the natural, endemic and exotic plants from all corners of the world without having to go on

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and color characteristics) and introducing rich species of plants [2].

**A Natural World for All** 

Banu Ozturk Kurtaslan and Robert Brzuszek

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

introduced in suitable selected habitats [1].

and restoration of degraded landscapes.

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55815

Edward L. Blake Jr.

**1. Introduction** 

## **Crosby Arboretum (Picayune, Mississippi): A Natural World for All**

Banu Ozturk Kurtaslan and Robert Brzuszek

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55815

"*At the Crosby Arboretum, Picayune, Mississippi, I listened for and found my voice...*" Edward L. Blake Jr.

## **1. Introduction**

350 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Institute of Landscape Architects, Australia.

Ware, S., 2004. The Nature of Design, 2004 AILA Nationla Conference (200 MILE CITY), Landscape Architecture Online: an online magazin published by the Australian

> Arboretums are living plant museums where mainly the taxa of trees and other wood-like plants of known origin and age, each of which are gathered in a correct and careful manner for the purposes of scientific research and observation, are cultivated, exhibited and introduced in suitable selected habitats [1].

> Arboretums are garden abstractions for interpreting the natural landscape. These gardens offer biological and ecological diversity of collections, serve as conservation of soil, water and biological resources, demonstration of environmentally responsible landscape design, and restoration of degraded landscapes.

> Being of vital importance for the protection of the nature in the present day urban life, arboretums at the same time have important roles in terms of esthetical and recreational aspects. In addition to providing scientific data regarding plants, arboretums also assume the function of presenting their natural beauties, esthetical qualities (size, form, texture, line and color characteristics) and introducing rich species of plants [2].

> The functions of arboretums, whose formation on the earth dates back centuries ago, shows variety. These functions are giving information to all the students from elementary and secondary education to the university level and to the local community primarily about wood-like plants and secondly if they desire, about herbaceous plants, introducing these plants in their habitats and contributing to the development of a consciousness of protecting the environment. Besides, other functions of arboretums can be listed as introducing the natural, endemic and exotic plants from all corners of the world without having to go on

long and expensive trips through gathering them as climate allows, giving people the opportunity to select the plants with esthetical value, taking endangered species under preservation, conducting studies on the adaptation of the species of foreign origin to the country. Furthermore, the functions of special-purpose arboretums will certainly be different. Arboretums that are organized to maintain the cultivation of a limited number of species can be given as an example to such places [3].

Crosby Arboretum (Picayune, Mississippi): A Natural World for All 353

An example of early ecological design and planning, "Crosby Arboretum is one of the substantial ecological design works in terms of contributions on the urban/nature context and the development of natural settings in cities. It was established in 1978 as a living memorial to L.O. Crosby Jr., a prominent Mississippi timber owner and philantropist. The idea of his immediate family was to create an arboretum and form a board of directors to fully explore the concept of ecological design. The Crosby family donated a 26-ha (64-acre) site on which to establish the arboretum. The primarily wetland site was formerly a working strawberry farm in the 1940s, complete with drainage ditches and old farm roads, that had

The arboretum purchased and leased nearby lands containing pristine examples of local native plant communities, realizing that nearby natural plant communities would become important research models for the exhibit design of the arboretum, as well as to fulfill the preservation aspect of their mission statement. So it was designed by abstracting the natural habitats of plants and animals, within the Pearl River Basin. The Pearl River is a 444-mile long major watershed in west Mississippi that Arboretum lands lie within. Each exhibit illustrates a combination of past human influences and natural succession that reveals the drama and beauty of the regional flora. During a 10-y period, 11 sites comprising more than 685 ha (1700 ac) would become the satellite natural areas of the arboretum, and they were systematically inventoried by biologists. Detailed topographical surveys were conducted on the mostly flat site, and subtle moisture gradients and drainage areas were recorded [10].

The mission of the arboretum is preserving, protecting, and displaying plants native to the Pearl River Drainage Basin ecosystem, providing environmental and botanical research

The Crosby Arboretum is a not-for-profit institution dedicated to educating the public about

Preserving, protecting, and displaying plants native to the Pearl River Drainage Basin in

The arboretum located in Picayune, Mississippi is administered by the Mississippi State University Extension (Figure 1). These lands provides habitats for 300 native plant species

With increasing value being placed on our natural heritage, The Crosby Arboretum is the premier native plant conservatory in the southeast United States. The Arboretum has expanded to become a resource for education in the region and the world. Today, it provides for the protection of the region's biological diversity and also a place for the public's enjoyment of plant species native to the Pearl River Drainage Basin of south-central Mississippi and Louisiana. People can study and learn about plants and plant products so that they may use them to their best advantage and ensure their continuous propagation in

opportunities, and offering cultural, scientific, and recreational programs [11].

 Providing environmental and horticultural research opportunities Offering cultural, educational, scientific, and recreational programs

(http://www.crosbyarboretum.msstate.edu/pages/mission.php)

and animals, some of which are endangered or threatened.

their environment by:

Mississippi and Louisiana

been converted to a pine plantation shortly thereafter " [10].

In the beginning, botanical gardens and arboretums were generally created for the introduction and production of newly discovered plants. Big botanical gardens, such as Arnold Arboretum or Kew Botanical Garden in London, collect plant species from all around the world and maintain the affluence of these species by developing and reproducing them. In recent times, this function has become of secondary importance. This is because the number of newly discovered plants is not as much as it was in the 19th century. However, there are still travels for discovering new species [4].

The functions of arboretums can be summarized as follows:


It is a necessity that arboretums are planned and designed through an ecological approach in order that they can perform their assumed ecological functions. In landscape architecture, "ecological design" is one of the significant aplication of sustainibility. According to Van der Ryn and Cowan (1996) ecological design is "any form of design that minimizes environmentally destructive impacts by integrating itself with living processes." Ecological design can apply to many design systems such as architecture, agriculture, engineering and many other fields. In the scope of this chapter, which is about an arboretum, ecological design is an important concept in terms of "sustainable landscape design" [5] [6] [7].

In the XIX century ecological awarenes was reflected to modern urban landscape design and planning by theorists and practitioners. For instance Frederic Law Olmsted produced projects such as Central Park (New York), Emerald Necklace (Boston) and other national parks, and was a pioneer of landscape architecture. This ecological sensitivity continued with Jens Jensen, Ian Mc Harg, Anne Winston Spirn and Michael Hough [8] [9].

An example of early ecological design and planning, "Crosby Arboretum is one of the substantial ecological design works in terms of contributions on the urban/nature context and the development of natural settings in cities. It was established in 1978 as a living memorial to L.O. Crosby Jr., a prominent Mississippi timber owner and philantropist. The idea of his immediate family was to create an arboretum and form a board of directors to fully explore the concept of ecological design. The Crosby family donated a 26-ha (64-acre) site on which to establish the arboretum. The primarily wetland site was formerly a working strawberry farm in the 1940s, complete with drainage ditches and old farm roads, that had been converted to a pine plantation shortly thereafter " [10].

352 Advances in Landscape Architecture

recreation,

species can be given as an example to such places [3].

century. However, there are still travels for discovering new species [4].

The functions of arboretums can be summarized as follows:

particles or are taken away through the wind [4].

such as housing, commerce and industry,


long and expensive trips through gathering them as climate allows, giving people the opportunity to select the plants with esthetical value, taking endangered species under preservation, conducting studies on the adaptation of the species of foreign origin to the country. Furthermore, the functions of special-purpose arboretums will certainly be different. Arboretums that are organized to maintain the cultivation of a limited number of

In the beginning, botanical gardens and arboretums were generally created for the introduction and production of newly discovered plants. Big botanical gardens, such as Arnold Arboretum or Kew Botanical Garden in London, collect plant species from all around the world and maintain the affluence of these species by developing and reproducing them. In recent times, this function has become of secondary importance. This is because the number of newly discovered plants is not as much as it was in the 19th




It is a necessity that arboretums are planned and designed through an ecological approach in order that they can perform their assumed ecological functions. In landscape architecture, "ecological design" is one of the significant aplication of sustainibility. According to Van der Ryn and Cowan (1996) ecological design is "any form of design that minimizes environmentally destructive impacts by integrating itself with living processes." Ecological design can apply to many design systems such as architecture, agriculture, engineering and many other fields. In the scope of this chapter, which is about an arboretum, ecological

design is an important concept in terms of "sustainable landscape design" [5] [6] [7].

with Jens Jensen, Ian Mc Harg, Anne Winston Spirn and Michael Hough [8] [9].

In the XIX century ecological awarenes was reflected to modern urban landscape design and planning by theorists and practitioners. For instance Frederic Law Olmsted produced projects such as Central Park (New York), Emerald Necklace (Boston) and other national parks, and was a pioneer of landscape architecture. This ecological sensitivity continued The arboretum purchased and leased nearby lands containing pristine examples of local native plant communities, realizing that nearby natural plant communities would become important research models for the exhibit design of the arboretum, as well as to fulfill the preservation aspect of their mission statement. So it was designed by abstracting the natural habitats of plants and animals, within the Pearl River Basin. The Pearl River is a 444-mile long major watershed in west Mississippi that Arboretum lands lie within. Each exhibit illustrates a combination of past human influences and natural succession that reveals the drama and beauty of the regional flora. During a 10-y period, 11 sites comprising more than 685 ha (1700 ac) would become the satellite natural areas of the arboretum, and they were systematically inventoried by biologists. Detailed topographical surveys were conducted on the mostly flat site, and subtle moisture gradients and drainage areas were recorded [10].

The mission of the arboretum is preserving, protecting, and displaying plants native to the Pearl River Drainage Basin ecosystem, providing environmental and botanical research opportunities, and offering cultural, scientific, and recreational programs [11].

The Crosby Arboretum is a not-for-profit institution dedicated to educating the public about their environment by:


(http://www.crosbyarboretum.msstate.edu/pages/mission.php)

The arboretum located in Picayune, Mississippi is administered by the Mississippi State University Extension (Figure 1). These lands provides habitats for 300 native plant species and animals, some of which are endangered or threatened.

With increasing value being placed on our natural heritage, The Crosby Arboretum is the premier native plant conservatory in the southeast United States. The Arboretum has expanded to become a resource for education in the region and the world. Today, it provides for the protection of the region's biological diversity and also a place for the public's enjoyment of plant species native to the Pearl River Drainage Basin of south-central Mississippi and Louisiana. People can study and learn about plants and plant products so that they may use them to their best advantage and ensure their continuous propagation in

Crosby Arboretum (Picayune, Mississippi): A Natural World for All 355

The Arboretum was designed to be an evolving landscape that abstracts the natural habitats of plants and animals within the Pearl River Basin. Each exhibit illustrates a combination of past human influences and natural succession that reveals the drama and beauty of the regional flora. The pond, slough, pathways, bridges, landscape features and pavilion weave

together into a seamless whole, fortifying each other's presence (Figure 2).

**Figure 2.** Crosby Arboretum trails and other uses

(http://www.crosbyarboretum.msstate.edu/pages/map.php)

**Figure 1.** Location of the Crosby Arboretum.

the future. Aesthetic, agricultural, scientific, and industrial contributions of native plant species and ecosystems can be examined in a real-life setting at the Arboretum.

The arboretum has a 104-acre Native Plant Center and it serves as the focus of Arboretum activities and development. The Pinecote Pavilion and the Piney Woods Lake at the arboretum display native water plants in their natural setting. The Pinecote Pavilion and the many wooden bridges that complement the lake were designed by award-winning architect Fay Jones, of Fayetteville, Arkansas to enhance the artistic and functional aspects of the Arboretum.

#### (http://www.crosbyarboretum.msstate.edu/pages/about.php)

The Crosby Aboretum has 6000 visitors annually. Pinecote, the name of the Arboretum site, was designed to weave the activities and needs of human into an evolving living mosaic of "woodland, aquatic and pine savanna" habitats. This 64 acre former strawberry farm and pine plantation is being transformed to display and interpret the native plant communities found in our natural areas.

The Arboretum was designed to be an evolving landscape that abstracts the natural habitats of plants and animals within the Pearl River Basin. Each exhibit illustrates a combination of past human influences and natural succession that reveals the drama and beauty of the regional flora. The pond, slough, pathways, bridges, landscape features and pavilion weave together into a seamless whole, fortifying each other's presence (Figure 2).

354 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 1.** Location of the Crosby Arboretum.

Arboretum.

found in our natural areas.

the future. Aesthetic, agricultural, scientific, and industrial contributions of native plant

The arboretum has a 104-acre Native Plant Center and it serves as the focus of Arboretum activities and development. The Pinecote Pavilion and the Piney Woods Lake at the arboretum display native water plants in their natural setting. The Pinecote Pavilion and the many wooden bridges that complement the lake were designed by award-winning architect Fay Jones, of Fayetteville, Arkansas to enhance the artistic and functional aspects of the

The Crosby Aboretum has 6000 visitors annually. Pinecote, the name of the Arboretum site, was designed to weave the activities and needs of human into an evolving living mosaic of "woodland, aquatic and pine savanna" habitats. This 64 acre former strawberry farm and pine plantation is being transformed to display and interpret the native plant communities

species and ecosystems can be examined in a real-life setting at the Arboretum.

(http://www.crosbyarboretum.msstate.edu/pages/about.php)

**Figure 2.** Crosby Arboretum trails and other uses (http://www.crosbyarboretum.msstate.edu/pages/map.php)

The Crosby Arboretum Master Plan was completed in 1994. The Schematic Master Plan outlined the following design principles to the Arboretum's Interpretive Center (Pinecote) site development:

Crosby Arboretum (Picayune, Mississippi): A Natural World for All 357

**2. The ecological significance of the Arboretum** 

**Figure 3.** Precribed fires at te arboretum

The Crosby Arboretum is preserving existing ecosystems in its natural areas and at the Interpretive Center site. [14][15] [16]. The designers enabled the site to "express itself" by introducing periodic fire to maintain the savanna exhibit (fire is an important component of the Piney Woods ecosystem) and it displays native plants within the context of regionally occurring native plant communities (Figure 3) [10] [17]. The arboretum is an environmental intervention and it is the first truly regenerative arboretum in the U.S. because the entire site, and all of its sites are based solely upon the environment [18] [19]. With these qualities, Crosby Arboretum is involved in four ecological landscape design categories which were determined by Mozingo (1997) [20]: "preservation of existing, functioning ecological systems; enhancement or re-establishment of degraded ecological systems; intensification of ecological processes to mitigate potential or existing ecological degradation; and

environmental interventions which reduce nonrenewable resource consumption."

The assemblages of carefully selected and protected lands nurtures the species of indigenous trees, shrubs, wildflowers, and grasses. Together with the rare, or endangered species of plants and wildlife throughout the Arboretum's preserves, unusual plants have their place as well. The Arboretum protects and manages several pitcher plant bogs both on site and within the natural areas. Edible, poisonous, and aromatic plants, too, are found at the Arboretum. As the seasons unfold their splendor, the Arboretum provides a clear,

While constituting the master plan of the arboretum; through observation and research, first the staff uncovered the wet, mesic and dry zones of the site and their associated plants. This information guided the form of Pinecote's master plan (awarded an honour award by the

unobstructed view of the variety and beauty of our natural resources.


Andropogon Associates Ltd articulated the design at Pinecote as "a new synthesis of the artistic values of drama and beauty, with the scientific values of correct relationships between plant and plant and plant and place. This design is based on 3 premises:


"In spring 2011, a graduate class in the department of landscape architecture at Mississippi State University, was assigned by one of the authors (Brzuszek) the task of conducting the research and to develop the conceptual designs for the Forested Stream exhibit. The semester-long project included studying the research literature for small streams and stream restoration; site visits to small streams near the Arboretum site to measure and map their wetland configurations; study the plant species and spatial configurations of small stream corridors; to host a design charrette to consider possible conceptual designs; and the resolution of conceptual ideas into a proposed exhibit design. To fund the exhibit construction, a federal grant was applied for and awarded through the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation's 5-Star Grant. The grant awarded \$38,870 with a complementary match by the Crosby Arboretum and its partners, and the period required construction of the exhibit to be completed by June 2013" [12]. The small stream swamp exhibit covers approximately four acres and connects the Gum Pond in the northern part of the site to the Slough and Beaver Pond to the south. This wetland exhibit improves habitat for fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds that are indigenous to the Pearl River Drainage Basin. The forested stream channel offers a unique opportunity to teach visitors about the importance of forested wetlands by demonstrating the value of its function [10]. Dead Tiger Creek, a natural stream which is near the arboretum, served as a reference site to closely examine the regional features of water corridors. The class studied vegetative patterns and aquatic habitats to aid in understanding the dynamics of small stream swamp forests. With collective effort, the class created field sketches and detailed notes on various characteristics of the creek. Reviewing this information provided vital intelligence and was relevant to future implementation of the Crosby Arboretum exhibit [13].

## **2. The ecological significance of the Arboretum**

356 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Displaying habitats as well as flora

site development:

The Crosby Arboretum Master Plan was completed in 1994. The Schematic Master Plan outlined the following design principles to the Arboretum's Interpretive Center (Pinecote)

Interpreting how perceptions of landscape by industry, agriculture, and forestry have

Andropogon Associates Ltd articulated the design at Pinecote as "a new synthesis of the artistic values of drama and beauty, with the scientific values of correct relationships

2. The site design at Pinecote will accurately reflect the major natural processes of the site.

"In spring 2011, a graduate class in the department of landscape architecture at Mississippi State University, was assigned by one of the authors (Brzuszek) the task of conducting the research and to develop the conceptual designs for the Forested Stream exhibit. The semester-long project included studying the research literature for small streams and stream restoration; site visits to small streams near the Arboretum site to measure and map their wetland configurations; study the plant species and spatial configurations of small stream corridors; to host a design charrette to consider possible conceptual designs; and the resolution of conceptual ideas into a proposed exhibit design. To fund the exhibit construction, a federal grant was applied for and awarded through the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation's 5-Star Grant. The grant awarded \$38,870 with a complementary match by the Crosby Arboretum and its partners, and the period required construction of the exhibit to be completed by June 2013" [12]. The small stream swamp exhibit covers approximately four acres and connects the Gum Pond in the northern part of the site to the Slough and Beaver Pond to the south. This wetland exhibit improves habitat for fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds that are indigenous to the Pearl River Drainage Basin. The forested stream channel offers a unique opportunity to teach visitors about the importance of forested wetlands by demonstrating the value of its function [10]. Dead Tiger Creek, a natural stream which is near the arboretum, served as a reference site to closely examine the regional features of water corridors. The class studied vegetative patterns and aquatic habitats to aid in understanding the dynamics of small stream swamp forests. With collective effort, the class created field sketches and detailed notes on various characteristics of the creek. Reviewing this information provided vital intelligence and was relevant to

Creating displays that enhance the character of the native landscape

resulted in changes in landscape appearance and land use patterns

Developing a holistic approach to interpreting what we see

1. The Pinecote site will be treated as an entire coherent unit.

future implementation of the Crosby Arboretum exhibit [13].

3. Planting design should reflect Plant Community Structure." [10].

 Focusing on doing a few things well and emphasizing quality Interpreting the role of fire as a major determinant of landscape form Displaying the arboretum landscape as a process rather than product

Fostering a sense of place appropriate to the Piney Woods region of Mississippi

Encouraging a synthesis to develop between the arts, sciences, and humanities

between plant and plant and plant and place. This design is based on 3 premises:

The Crosby Arboretum is preserving existing ecosystems in its natural areas and at the Interpretive Center site. [14][15] [16]. The designers enabled the site to "express itself" by introducing periodic fire to maintain the savanna exhibit (fire is an important component of the Piney Woods ecosystem) and it displays native plants within the context of regionally occurring native plant communities (Figure 3) [10] [17]. The arboretum is an environmental intervention and it is the first truly regenerative arboretum in the U.S. because the entire site, and all of its sites are based solely upon the environment [18] [19]. With these qualities, Crosby Arboretum is involved in four ecological landscape design categories which were determined by Mozingo (1997) [20]: "preservation of existing, functioning ecological systems; enhancement or re-establishment of degraded ecological systems; intensification of ecological processes to mitigate potential or existing ecological degradation; and environmental interventions which reduce nonrenewable resource consumption."

**Figure 3.** Precribed fires at te arboretum

The assemblages of carefully selected and protected lands nurtures the species of indigenous trees, shrubs, wildflowers, and grasses. Together with the rare, or endangered species of plants and wildlife throughout the Arboretum's preserves, unusual plants have their place as well. The Arboretum protects and manages several pitcher plant bogs both on site and within the natural areas. Edible, poisonous, and aromatic plants, too, are found at the Arboretum. As the seasons unfold their splendor, the Arboretum provides a clear, unobstructed view of the variety and beauty of our natural resources.

While constituting the master plan of the arboretum; through observation and research, first the staff uncovered the wet, mesic and dry zones of the site and their associated plants. This information guided the form of Pinecote's master plan (awarded an honour award by the

American Society of Landscape Architects in 1992). At the Arboretum, each exhibit is modeled after natural habitats found and oriented at appropriate locations. Predominant plant species found in these habitats are then planted among the existing vegetation structure of Pinecote. These "introduced" species are located with scientific accuracy and designer's eye so that visitors have an opportunity to understand the process that shape plant communities as well as to experience the heightened drama and beauty of the Piney Woods.

Crosby Arboretum (Picayune, Mississippi): A Natural World for All 359

After the completion of Beaver Pond, the success of the pond was demonstrated when beavers moved in and cut down every *Taxodium* tree that had been freshly planted along the pond's margin. Since then a fence has been constructed along the drainage outlet to reduce

The Mississippi River system alone drains more than 40 percent of the United States and portions of southern Canada. The original plant community of Pinecote was essentially wetland in character, a wet pine savanna. *Pinus palustris* once dominated the dry rises of the site, supported with a understory of *Aristida, Andropogon* and a host of wild flowers. Even after row-cropping in the 1930s, mant native wetland plants such as *Sarracenia alata*, *Ericaulon decangulare* and *Habenaria ciliaris* reappeared at Pinecote, sustained by periodic fires set for forestry purposes. These wetland species continue to survive today and their

locations form the basis for the design of Pinecote's plant displays [21].

**Figure 5.** Beaver Pond Exhibit area (Photo :Banu Ozturk Kurtaslan, 2011).

In its early years, The Crosby Arboretum conducted biological surveys for all of the plants that existed on site. In order to do this, Arboretum managers had the property surveyed and established permanent reference markers across the site. These reference markers would framework the entire site into a grid of one hundred foot square plots that could then be

the number of problem animal species (Figure 5).

The Pearl River Basin is at the hearth of the Arboretum's mission, which is to interpret, promote and preserve the native plant communities along its boundaries. Pinecote has no irrigation lines or other artificial life support systems, thus existing site hydrology plays a crucial role in the survival and management of all plant community exhibits. So from this standpoint, it paid attention to the water related designs in the arboretum constituting process. The Master Plan identifies the construction of four main wetland exhibits that are based upon regional water features. These include;


**Figure 4.** Gum Pond Exhibit area (Photo :Banu Ozturk Kurtaslan, 2011).

After the completion of Beaver Pond, the success of the pond was demonstrated when beavers moved in and cut down every *Taxodium* tree that had been freshly planted along the pond's margin. Since then a fence has been constructed along the drainage outlet to reduce the number of problem animal species (Figure 5).

358 Advances in Landscape Architecture

based upon regional water features. These include;


of tupelo gum trees (*Nyssa sylvatica* var. *biflora*), (Figure 4) and

**Figure 4.** Gum Pond Exhibit area (Photo :Banu Ozturk Kurtaslan, 2011).

locallly-occurring beaver ponds;

Woods.

American Society of Landscape Architects in 1992). At the Arboretum, each exhibit is modeled after natural habitats found and oriented at appropriate locations. Predominant plant species found in these habitats are then planted among the existing vegetation structure of Pinecote. These "introduced" species are located with scientific accuracy and designer's eye so that visitors have an opportunity to understand the process that shape plant communities as well as to experience the heightened drama and beauty of the Piney

The Pearl River Basin is at the hearth of the Arboretum's mission, which is to interpret, promote and preserve the native plant communities along its boundaries. Pinecote has no irrigation lines or other artificial life support systems, thus existing site hydrology plays a crucial role in the survival and management of all plant community exhibits. So from this standpoint, it paid attention to the water related designs in the arboretum constituting process. The Master Plan identifies the construction of four main wetland exhibits that are




The Mississippi River system alone drains more than 40 percent of the United States and portions of southern Canada. The original plant community of Pinecote was essentially wetland in character, a wet pine savanna. *Pinus palustris* once dominated the dry rises of the site, supported with a understory of *Aristida, Andropogon* and a host of wild flowers. Even after row-cropping in the 1930s, mant native wetland plants such as *Sarracenia alata*, *Ericaulon decangulare* and *Habenaria ciliaris* reappeared at Pinecote, sustained by periodic fires set for forestry purposes. These wetland species continue to survive today and their locations form the basis for the design of Pinecote's plant displays [21].

**Figure 5.** Beaver Pond Exhibit area (Photo :Banu Ozturk Kurtaslan, 2011).

In its early years, The Crosby Arboretum conducted biological surveys for all of the plants that existed on site. In order to do this, Arboretum managers had the property surveyed and established permanent reference markers across the site. These reference markers would framework the entire site into a grid of one hundred foot square plots that could then be individually studied. Brass stakes were tamped into the ground at each corner of each grid section. At the top of each stake, a brass plate was stamped with the unique identifiers for that location. In addition to becoming permanent reference markers for subsequent floristic surveys, the brass markers became key alignment points for the locations of structures at the arboretum's Master Plan [12].

Crosby Arboretum (Picayune, Mississippi): A Natural World for All 361

Shade, Partshade Moist

Sun, Shade, Part-shade Dry

Shade, Part-

Shade, Part-

Shade, Partshade Moist

Sun, Shade,

Sun, Shade, Part-shade Dry

Shade, Part-

Part-shade Wet, Moist

shade Moist, Dry

shade Moist, Dry

shade Wet, Moist

Grass/Grasslike

**Scientific Name Common Name Duration Habit Sun Water** 

chinkapin, Chinquapin Perennial Shrub Part-shade Dry

jasmine, Curlflower Perennial Vine Sun, Part-shade Wet, Moist

mayhaw Perennial Tree Part-shade Wet

Southern swamp lily, String lily Perennial Shrub Part-shade Wet

Palo colorado Perennial Tree Part-shade Wet

Grass/Grasslike Sun

Musclewood, Ironwood Perennial Tree

willow Perennial Shrub

*Chamaecrista fasciculata* Partridge pea, Sleepingplant, Sensitive plant Annual Herb Sun, Part-shade Moist, Dry *Chamaecrista fasciculata* Partridge pea, Sleepingplant, Sensitive plant Annual Herb Sun, Part-shade Moist, Dry

*Chionanthus virginicus* White fringetree, Fringe tree Perennial Tree Part-shade Moist *Chrysopsis mariana* Maryland goldenaster, Maryland golden-aster Perennial Herb Sun Wet

sweet Perennial Shrub

*Cliftonia monophylla* Buckwheat tree, Buckwheat bush Perennial Shrub Sun Wet

*Crataegus marshallii* Parsley hawthorn Perennial Tree Part-shade Dry

*Diospyros virginiana* Common persimmon, Eastern persimmon Perennial Tree Part-shade Dry

*Eriocaulon compressum* Flattened pipewort, Hat pins Perennial Herb Part-shade Wet

*Carex glaucescens* Southern waxy sedge Perennial

American hornbeam, Blue beech,

*Carpinus caroliniana* 

*Castanea pumila* 

*Clematis crispa* 

*Clethra alnifolia* 

*Crataegus opaca* 

*Crinum americanum* 

*Cyrilla racemiflora* 

*Cnidoscolus urens var.* 

*Cephalanthus occidentalis* 

*Carphephorus odoratissimus* Vanillaleaf, Vanilla Plant Perennial Herb

*Carya glabra* Pignut hickory Perennial Tree

*Ceanothus americanus* New Jersey tea, Redroot Perennial Shrub

*Cercis canadensis* Eastern redbud, Redbud Perennial Tree

*Chaptalia tomentosa* Woolly sunbonnets Perennial Herb

*Cirsium muticum* Swamp thistle Biennial Herb *Cleistes divaricata* Rosebud orchid Perennial Herb

*stimulosus* Finger rot, Tread Softly Perennial Herb *Coreopsis lanceolata* Lanceleaf coreopsis, Lanceleaf tickseed, Perennial Herb

*Coreopsis linifolia* Texas tickseed Perennial Herb *Cornus florida* Flowering dogwood, Virginia dogwood Perennial Tree

Mayhaw, Riverflat hawthorn, Western

Crinum lily, Seven sisters, Swamp lily,

*Croton capitatus* Hogwort Annual Herb *Cuscuta pentagona* Fiveangled dodder Annual Vine

*Diodia teres* Poorjoe Annual Herb

*Drosera brevifolia* Dwarf sundew, Spatulate-leaved sundew Perennial Herb *Drosera capillaris* Pink sundew Annual Herb

*Erigeron vernus* Early whitetop fleabane Perennial Herb

*Eleocharis ovata* Ovate spikerush Annual

Swamp titi, Titi, Leatherwood, Swamp cyrilla,

*Drosera intermedia* Spoonleaf sundew Perennial Herb Sun

*Erigeron philadelphicus* Philadelphia fleabane, Fleabane daisy Biennial Herb Part-shade

Swamp leatherflower, Curly clematis, Blue

Coastal sweet pepperbush, Clethra, Summer

Common buttonbush, Buttonbush, Button

Chinkapin, Allegheny chinquapin, Allegheny-

**Scientific Name Common Name Duration Habit Sun Water**  *Acalypha gracilen* Slender threeseed mercury Annual Herb *Acer barbatum*  Southern sugar maple, Florida maple, Caddo maple Perennial Tree Part-shade Dry *Acer rubrum* Red maple, Scarlet maple Perennial Tree Sun, Part-shade Moist *Acer rubrum var. drummondii*  Drummond's maple, Drummond red maple, Swamp maple Perennial Tree Part shade Wet, moist *Aesculus pavia*  Scarlet Buckeye, Red buckeye, Firecracker plant Perennial Shrub,Tree Part shade Wet, moist *Agalinis fasciculata* Beach false foxglove Annual Herb *Agalinis purpurea*  Purple false foxglove, Purple gerardia, Gerardia Annual Herb Sun, Shade, Part-shade Wet, Moist *Agalinis tenuifolia* Slenderleaf false foxglove Annual Herb *Aletris aurea*  Golden colicroot, Colicroot, Star grass, Yellow colic root Perennial Herb *Aletris farinosa* White colicroot, Colic root, Unicorn root Perennial Herb Sun Moist, Dry *Alnus serrulata*  Hazel alder, Brookside alder, Tag alder, Common alder Perennial Shrub Sun, Shade, Part-shade Wet, Moist *Amelanchier arborea*  Common serviceberry, Downy serviceberry, Shadbush, Juneberry Perennial Shrub Sun, Shade, Part-shade Dry *Amorpha fruticosa*  Indigo bush, False indigo bush, False indigo, Desert false indigo Perennial Shrub Sun, Part-shade Moist *Andropogon virginicus* Broomsedge bluestem, Broom-sedge Perennial Grass/Grasslike Part-shade Moist *Aralia spinosa*  Devil's walkingstick, Devil's walking-stick, Prickly Ash, Hercules Perennial Tree Part-shade Moist *Arundinaria gigantea* Giant cane Perennial Grass/Grasslike Part-shade Wet *Asclepias lanceolata*  Fewflower milkweed, Few-flower milkweed, Red milkweed Perennial Herb Sun Wet *Asclepias longifolia* Longleaf milkweed Perennial Herb *Baccharis halimifolia*  Groundseltree, Sea-myrtle, Consumptionweed, Eastern baccharis, Groundsel, Groundsel bush, Salt marsh-elder, Salt bush, Florida groundsel bush Perennial Shrub Part-shade Wet *Baccharis halimifolia Balduina uniflora* Oneflower honeycombhead Perennial Herb *Bartonia paniculata* Twining screwstem Annual Vine *Betula nigra* River birch Perennial Tree Part-shade Moist *Bidens aristosa* Bearded beggarticks, Tickseed sunflower Annual Herb *Buchnera americana* American bluehearts, Bluehearts Annual Herb Sun Moist *Callicarpa americana* American beautyberry, French mulberry Perennial Shrub Part-shade Moist *Calopogon pallidus* Pale grasspink Perennial Herb *Calopogon tuberosus* Tuberous grasspink, Grass pink Perennial Herb *Canna flaccida* Bandanna of the Everglades, Golden canna Perennial Herb Sun Wet

On the Table 1, the list of the rich plant species can be seen.


arboretum's Master Plan [12].

*Acer barbatum* 

*Acer rubrum var. drummondii* 

*Aesculus pavia* 

*Agalinis purpurea* 

*Aletris aurea* 

*Alnus serrulata* 

*Amelanchier arborea* 

*Amorpha fruticosa* 

*Aralia spinosa* 

*Asclepias lanceolata* 

*Baccharis halimifolia* 

*Baccharis halimifolia* 

On the Table 1, the list of the rich plant species can be seen.

*Acalypha gracilen* Slender threeseed mercury Annual Herb

Southern sugar maple, Florida maple, Caddo

Drummond's maple, Drummond red maple,

Scarlet Buckeye, Red buckeye, Firecracker

*Agalinis fasciculata* Beach false foxglove Annual Herb

Purple false foxglove, Purple gerardia,

*Agalinis tenuifolia* Slenderleaf false foxglove Annual Herb

Hazel alder, Brookside alder, Tag alder,

Common serviceberry, Downy serviceberry,

Indigo bush, False indigo bush, False indigo,

Devil's walkingstick, Devil's walking-stick,

Fewflower milkweed, Few-flower milkweed,

*Asclepias longifolia* Longleaf milkweed Perennial Herb

*Balduina uniflora* Oneflower honeycombhead Perennial Herb *Bartonia paniculata* Twining screwstem Annual Vine

*Bidens aristosa* Bearded beggarticks, Tickseed sunflower Annual Herb

*Calopogon pallidus* Pale grasspink Perennial Herb *Calopogon tuberosus* Tuberous grasspink, Grass pink Perennial Herb

*Andropogon virginicus* Broomsedge bluestem, Broom-sedge Perennial

*Arundinaria gigantea* Giant cane Perennial

Groundseltree, Sea-myrtle, Consumptionweed, Eastern baccharis, Groundsel, Groundsel bush, Salt marsh-elder,

Golden colicroot, Colicroot, Star grass, Yellow

individually studied. Brass stakes were tamped into the ground at each corner of each grid section. At the top of each stake, a brass plate was stamped with the unique identifiers for that location. In addition to becoming permanent reference markers for subsequent floristic surveys, the brass markers became key alignment points for the locations of structures at the

**Scientific Name Common Name Duration Habit Sun Water** 

*Acer rubrum* Red maple, Scarlet maple Perennial Tree Sun, Part-shade Moist

Gerardia Annual Herb

colic root Perennial Herb

Common alder Perennial Shrub

Shadbush, Juneberry Perennial Shrub

*Betula nigra* River birch Perennial Tree Part-shade Moist

*Buchnera americana* American bluehearts, Bluehearts Annual Herb Sun Moist *Callicarpa americana* American beautyberry, French mulberry Perennial Shrub Part-shade Moist

*Canna flaccida* Bandanna of the Everglades, Golden canna Perennial Herb Sun Wet

*Aletris farinosa* White colicroot, Colic root, Unicorn root Perennial Herb Sun Moist, Dry

maple Perennial Tree Part-shade Dry

Swamp maple Perennial Tree Part shade Wet, moist

plant Perennial Shrub,Tree Part shade Wet, moist

Desert false indigo Perennial Shrub Sun, Part-shade Moist

Prickly Ash, Hercules Perennial Tree Part-shade Moist

Red milkweed Perennial Herb Sun Wet

Salt bush, Florida groundsel bush Perennial Shrub Part-shade Wet

Grass/Grass-

Grass/Grass-

Sun, Shade,

Sun, Shade,

Sun, Shade, Part-shade Dry

like Part-shade Moist

like Part-shade Wet

Part-shade Wet, Moist

Part-shade Wet, Moist


Crosby Arboretum (Picayune, Mississippi): A Natural World for All 363

Grass/Grass-

Grass/Grass-

like Part-shade

like Sun Wet, Moist

Shade, Partshade Moist

Sun, Shade, Part-shade Moist

Sun, Shade,

Sun, Shade,

Shade, Partshade Moist

Sun, Shade,

Sun, Shade, Part-shade Wet

Sun, Shade, Part-shade Moist

Part-shade Wet, Moist

Part-shade Moist, Dry

Part-shade Wet, Moist

**Scientific Name Common Name Duration Habit Sun Water**  *Iris fulva* Copper iris, Red iris Perennial Herb Sun, Part-shade Wet, Moist *Iris virginica* Virginia iris, Great Blue Flag Perennial Herb Sun Wet *Itea virginica* Virginia sweetspire, Tassel-white Perennial Shrub Part-shade Moist

*Kalmia latifolia* Mountain laurel, Calico bush Perennial Shrub Part-shade Moist *Lachnanthes caroliana* Carolina redroot, Paint root Perennial Herb Sun, Part-Shade Moist

*Lilium catesbaei* Pine lily, Southern red lily, Catesby's lily Perennial Herb Part-shade Wet, Moist *Liquidambar styraciflua* Sweetgum, American sweetgum Perennial Tree Part-shade Moist

willow, Water-primrose Perennial Herb Sun

Staggerbush Perennial Shrub

*Magnolia virginiana* Sweetbay, Sweetbay magnolia, Swampbay Perennial Tree Part-shade Moist *Malus angustifolia* Southern crabapple, Wild crabapple Perennial Tree Part-shade Moist *Mikania scandens* Climbing hempvine, Climbing hempweed Perennial Vine Shade Wet *Morella cerifera* Wax myrtle, Southern bayberry, Candleberry Perennial Shrub Sun, Part-shade Wet, Moist

water lily, Fragrant water lily, White water lily Perennial Herb

*Nymphoides aquatica* Big floatingheart, Floating hearts Perennial Herb Part-shade Wet *Nyssa ogeche* Ogeechee tupelo, Ogeechee lime Perennial Tree Part-shade Wet

*Orontium aquaticum* Goldenclub Perennial Herb Part-shade Wet *Osmanthus americanus* Devilwood, Wild olive Perennial Tree Part-shade Moist

*Magnolia macrophylla* Bigleaf magnolia Perennial Tree Part-shade

*Nothoscordum bivalve* Crow poison, Crowpoison, False garlic Perennial Herb Sun

Yellow pond-lily, Cow lily, Spatter dock,

American white waterlily, American white water-lily, Fragrant white water lily, White

*Nyssa sylvatica* Blackgum, Black tupelo, Sourgum, Tupelo Perennial Tree

clover Perennial Herb Sun Dry

blazing star, Button snakeroot Perennial Herb Sun Dry

blazing star Perennial Herb Sun Moist

gayfeather Perennial Herb Sun Dry

bay Perennial Tree Part-shade Dry

Yellow cow lily Perennial Herb Part-shade Wet

*Juncus effusus* Common rush, Soft Rush Perennial

*Juncus tenuis* Poverty rush, Path rush Perennial

Roundhead lespedeza, Roundhead bush-

*Leucothoe axillaris* Coastal doghobble, Coast leucothoe Perennial Shrub

Tall blazing star, Tall gayfeather, Rough

Blazing star, Scaly blazing star, Scaly

*Liriodendron tulipifera* Tuliptree, Tulip poplar Perennial Tree

*Lobelia cardinalis* Cardinal flower Perennial Herb

*Lobelia floridana* Florida lobelia Perennial Herb *Lobelia puberula* Downy lobelia Perennial Herb *Lobelia spicata* Palespike lobelia, Pale-spike lobelia Perennial Herb

Creeping water-primrose, Floating primrose-

Southern magnolia, Evergreen magnolia, Bull

Fetterbush lyonia, Shinyleaf, Fetterbush,

*Magnolia acuminata* Cucumbertree, Cucumber tree Perennial Tree

Dense blazing star, Dense gayfeather, Marsh

*Lespedeza capitata* 

*Liatris aspera* 

*Liatris spicata* 

*Liatris squarrosa* 

*Ludwigia peploides* 

*Magnolia grandiflora* 

*Lyonia lucida* 

*Nuphar lutea* 

*Nymphaea odorata* 


*Euonymus americanus* 

*Eupatoriadelphus fistulosus* 

*Gelsemium sempervirens* 

*Halesia diptera* 

*Hibiscus aculeatus* 

*Hibiscus lasiocarpos* 

*Hypoxis hirsuta* 

*Ilex decidua* 

*Ilex verticillata* 

*Illicium floridanum* 

*Ipomoea pandurata* 

**Scientific Name Common Name Duration Habit Sun Water** 

*Erythrina herbacea* Coralbean, Cherokee bean, Red cardinal Perennial Shrub Sun, Part-shade Dry

heart, Wahoo Perennial Shrub Part-shade Moist

trumpetflower, Poor man's rope Perennial Vine Sun, Part-shade Moist

snowdrop tree Perennial Shrub, Tree Part-shade Dry

hibiscus Perennial Herb Sun, Part-shade Moist

Wooly Rose-mallow Perennial Shrub Sun Wet

Holly, Winterberry, Deciduous yaupon Perennial Shrub Sun, Part-shade Moist

Joe-pye weed, Joe-pye weed Perennial Herb Sun Wet, Moist

Sun, Shade,

Shade, Partshade Moist

Shade, Partshade Moist

Shade, Part-

Sun, Shade, Part-shade Dry

Sun, Shade,

Sun, Shade, Part-shade

Sun, Shade,

Sun, Shade, Part-shade Moist

Part-shade Wet, Dry

Part-shade Moist, Dry

Wet, Moist, Dry

shade Moist, Dry

Part-shade Wet, Moist

*Eriocaulon decangulare* Tenangle pipewort, Pipewort Perennial Herb Sun

*Galium tinctorium* Stiff marsh bedstraw Perennial Herb Part-shade *Gaylussacia dumosa* Dwarf huckleberry Perennial Shrub Part-shade

*Gordonia lasianthus* Gordonia, Loblolly bay Perennial Shrub Sun Moist

*Helianthus angustifolius* Swamp sunflower Perennial Herb Part-shade Wet

*Hydrangea quercifolia* Oakleaf hydrangea, Oak-leaf hydrangea Perennial Shrub Shade Moist

*Hypericum crux-andreae* St. Peterswort Perennial Subshrub Part-shade *Hypericum gentianoides* Orangegrass, Pineweed Annual Herb Part-shade

Yellow star-grass Perennial Herb

alder Perennial Tree

potato Perennial Herb

*Ilex amelanchier* Sarvis holly, Swamp holly Perennial Shrub Part-shade Wet *Ilex coriacea* Large gallberry, Bay-gall bush, Ink-berry holly Perennial Shrub Part-shade Moist

*Ilex glabra* Inkberry, Gallberry Perennial Shrub Part-shade Wet, Moist *Ilex myrtifolia* Myrtle dahoon, Myrtle leaf holly, Myrtle holly Perennial Shrub Part-shade Moist

Stinkbush Perennial Shrub Part-shade

American strawberry-bush, Strawberry bush, Brook euonymus, Hearts-a-burstin, Bursting-

Trumpetweed, Queen of the meadow, Hollow

Carolina jessamine, Yellow jessamine, Evening

Two-wing silverbell, Silver bell, Two-winged silverbell, Snowdrop tree, American

*Eupatorium capillifolium* Dog Fennel, Dogfennel Perennial Herb *Eupatorium perfoliatum* Common boneset Perennial Herb

*Eupatorium rotundifolium* Roundleaf thoroughwort Perennial Herb *Fagus grandifolia* American beech Perennial Tree

*Geranium maculatum* Spotted geranium, Wild geranium, Cranesbill Perennial Herb

*Hamamelis virginiana* Witch hazel, American witch hazel Perennial Tree

*Helenium vernale* Savannah sneezeweed Perennial Herb

Comfortroot, Big thicket hibiscus, Pineland

Rose-mallow, Rosemallow, Woolly mallow,

*Hypericum gymnanthum* Claspingleaf St. Johnswort Perennial Herb *Hypericum tetrapetalum* Fourpetal St. Johnswort Perennial Subshrub

Common goldstar, Eastern yellow star-grass,

Possumhaw, Possumhaw Holly, Deciduous

*Ilex opaca* American holly, Christmas holly Perennial Tree

Common winterberry, Michigan holly, Black

*Ilex vomitoria* Yaupon, Yaupon holly, Cassina Perennial Shrub, Tree

Florida anisetree, Florida anise, Anise tree,

Man of the earth, Wild Potato, Wild sweet


Crosby Arboretum (Picayune, Mississippi): A Natural World for All 365

**Scientific Name Common Name Duration Habit Sun Water**  *Quercus nigra* Water oak Perennial Tree Part-shade Wet

*Quercus phellos* Willow oak Perennial Tree Part-shade Moist *Quercus virginiana* Coastal live oak, Southern live oak, Live oak Perennial Tree Sun, Part-shade Moist

*Rhapidophyllum hystrix* Needle palm, Blue palmetto Perennial Shrub Part-shade

meadowbeauty Perennial Herb

*Rhexia virginica* Meadow beauty, Handsome Harry Perennial Herb Part-shade Wet *Rhododendron austrinum* Orange azalea, Florida azalea, Yellow azalea Perennial Shrub Part-shade Dry

*Rubus trivialis* Dewberry, Southern dewberry Perennial Herb Sun, Part-shade Moist, Dry

Brown-eyed Susan Annual Herb

meadow-beauty, Meadow beauty Perennial Herb Part-shade Moist

azalea, Southern pinxterflower Perennial Shrub Part-shade Dry

sumac Perennial Shrub Sun Dry

Prairie rose-gentian, Prairie sabatia Annual Herb Part-shade Dry

blue sage, Blue sage Perennial Herb Part-shade Dry

Large Skullcap, Tall Skullcap Perennial Herb Sun Wet

blue-eyed-grass, Bermuda blue-eyed grass, Perennial Herb Sun, Part-shade Wet, Moist

trumpet, Yellow trumpets Perennial Herb Wet

Grass/Grass-

Grass/Grasslike Sun

Grass/Grasslike

like Sun, Part-shade Wet

Sun, Shade,

Sun, Shade,

Sun, Shade,

Sun, Shade, Part-shade Moist

Shade, Part-

like Sun Wet

Grass/Grass-

Sun, Shade,Part-

Part-shade Moist, Dry

Part-shade Moist, Dry

Part-shade Wet, Moist

shade Moist,Dry

shade Wet, Moist

*Quercus pagoda* Cherrybark oak Perennial Tree

*Rhexia alifanus* Savannah meadowbeauty Perennial Herb

Maryland meadowbeauty, Maryland

*Rhexia petiolata* Fringed meadowbeauty Perennial Herb

Mountain azalea, Wild azalea, Honeysuckle azalea, Piedmont azalea, Sweet azalea, Hoary

Winged sumac, Shining sumac, Flameleaf

Shortbristle horned beaksedge, Horned

*Rubus argutus* Sawtooth blackberry Perennial Shrub

*Sabal minor* Dwarf palmetto, Palmetto, Bush palmetto Perennial Shrub

*Sabatia brachiata* Narrowleaf rose gentian Biennial Herb

Texas star, Rose gentian, Meadow pink,

*Sagittaria graminea* Grassy arrowhead, Grass-leaf arrowhead Perennial Herb *Salix nigra* Black willow, Gulf black willow Perennial Tree

*Salvia lyrata* Lyreleaf sage, Cancer weed Perennial Herb

*Saururus cernuus* Lizard's tail, Lizard's-tail, Breast weed Perennial Herb

Woolgrass, Cottongrass bulrush, Marsh

Helmet-flower, Rough Skullcap, Common

Narrowleaf blue-eyed grass, Narrow-leaf

bulrush, Teddybear paws Perennial

*Serenoa repens* Saw palmetto Perennial Shrub Part-shade

Flycatcher, Yellow pitcher plant, Yellow

*Sarracenia psittacina* Parrot pitcherplant Perennial Subshrub *Sassafras albidum* Sassafras Perennial Tree

Pitcher sage, Big blue sage, Azure sage, Giant

Black-eyed Susan, Common black-eyed Susan,

*Rhynchospora glomerata* Clustered beaksedge, Cluster Beak-rush Perennial

Starrush whitetop, Star sedge, White-topped

sedge, Whitetop sedge Perennial

Beakrush Perennial

Yellow meadow beauty, Yellow

*Rhexia lutea* 

*Rhexia mariana* 

*Rhododendron canescens* 

*Rhynchospora colorata* 

*Rhynchospora corniculata* 

*Rhus copallinum* 

*Rudbeckia hirta* 

*Sabatia campestris* 

*Salvia azurea* 

*Sarracenia alata* 

*Scirpus cyperinus* 

*Scutellaria integrifolia* 

*Sisyrinchium angustifolium* 


*Peltandra virginica* 

*Physostegia virginiana* 

*Pogonia ophioglossoides* 

*Polygala ramosa* 

*Pteridium aquilinum* 

*Quercus alba* 

*Quercus incana* 

*Quercus laurifolia* 

*Polypremum procumbens* Juniper leaf

*Pinus taeda* 

**Scientific Name Common Name Duration Habit Sun Water** 

*Oxalis stricta* Common yellow oxalis, Yellow Wood-sorrel Perennial Herb Sun Dry

*Persea borbonia* Redbay, Red bay Perennial Tree Part-shade Moist

*Phlox pilosa* Downy phlox, Prairie phlox, Fragrant phlox Perennial Herb Sun, Part-shade Dry *Photinia pyrifolia* Red chokeberry, Red chokecherry Perennial Shrub Sun Moist

dragonhead Perennial Herb

*Pinguicula lutea* Yellow butterwort Perennial Herb Sun Moist *Pinus elliottii* Slash pine Perennial Tree Part-shade Moist *Pinus glabra* Spruce pine Perennial Tree Part-shade Moist *Pinus palustris* Longleaf pine, Georgia pine Perennial Tree Sun Dry

*Polygala incarnata* Procession flower Annual Herb Sun Dry

milkwort Annual Herb

*Pontederia cordata* Pickerelweed, Pickerel Weed Perennial Herb Sun, Part-shade Wet, Moist *Prunus angustifolia* Chickasaw plum, Sandhill plum Perennial Tree Sun, Part-shade Dry

bracken, Bracken Perennial Herb, Fern

Ridge White Oak, Forked-leaf White Oak Perennial Tree

*Quercus falcata* Southern red oak, Spanish oak Perennial Tree Part-shade Dry

*Quercus marilandica* Blackjack oak, Barren oak, black oak, jack oak Perennial Tree Part-shade Dry *Quercus michauxii* Swamp chestnut oak, Basket oak, Cow oak Perennial Tree Part-shade Moist

Green arrow-arum Perennial Herb Part-shade Wet

Rosemary pine Perennial Tree Part-shade Dry

mouth orchid, Snakemouth Moist Perennial Herb Sun Wet,

Annual, Perennial Herb

oak, Cinnamon oak, Shin oak, Turkey oak Perennial Shrub, Tree Part-shade Dry

obtuse oak Perennial Tree Part-shade

Sun, Shade,

like Sun, Part-shade Moist, Dry

like Part-shade Moist

Sun, Shade, Part-shade Moist

Sun, Shade,

Shade, Partshade

Sun, Shade,

Part-shade Moist, Dry

Part-shade Moist, Dry

Wet, Moist, Dry

Grass/Grass-

Grass/Grass-

Part-shade Wet, Moist

*Osmunda cinnamomea* Cinnamon fern Perennial Herb, Fern

Green arrow arum, Tuckahoe, Arrow arum,

*Persea palustris* Swamp bay Perennial Shrub, Tree

Fall obedient plant, Obedient plant, False

Loblolly pine, Old field pine, Bull pine,

*Pluchea foetida* Stinking camphorweed Perennial Herb

*Polygala cruciata* Candy root, Drumheads Annual Herb

*Polygala lutea* Candy Weed, Orange milkwort Biennial Herb *Polygala mariana* Maryland milkwort Annual Herb *Polygala nana* Candyroot Annual Herb

*Prunus serotina* Black cherry, Rum cherry Perennial Tree

*Ptilimnium capillaceum* Herbwilliam Annual Herb *Pyrrhopappus carolinianus* Carolina desert-chicory Annual Herb

White oak, Northern white oak, Stave Oak,

Bluejack oak, Sandjack oak, Upland willow

Laurel oak, Swamp laurel oak, Darlington oak, diamond-leaf oak, laurel-leaf oak, water oak,

Western bracken fern, Bracken fern, Western

Low pinebarren milkwort, Yellow savannah

Beard flower, Rose pogonia orchid, Snake-

*Oxypolis filiformis* Water cowbane Perennial Herb

*Panicum virgatum* Switchgrass, Wand panic grass Perennial

*Paspalum plicatulum* Brownseed paspale, Brownseed paspalum Perennial


Crosby Arboretum (Picayune, Mississippi): A Natural World for All 367

The wildlife patterns at the arboretum as below:

**Animals:** 

Opposum (sign) Raccoon (sign) Skunk (sign) Fox (sign)

Coyote (reported from neighbours)

Feral (& pet) dogs & cats

Rat (spp. unknown) Mice (spp. unknown) Shrew (spp. unknown) Rat snake (spp. unknown) Diamond-Backed water snake

Copperhead Snake Water Moccasin Snake

Garter Snake Box Turtle

**Birds:** 

Turkey Woodcock

Starling

**Other:** 

Waterfowl Bobwhite Quail

Great Blue Heron Little Blue Heron Kingfisher Red-tailed Hawk English Sparrow

Mourning Dove Bobwhite quail Mockingbird Robin

Brown Thrasher

Insects *ad infinitum*

Red-Headed Woodpecker

Crayfish (probably more than one species)

Rabbit Beaver Muscrat

Squirrel

**Table 1.** The list of the plant species at the Crosby Arboretum (http://www.wildflower.org/collections/printable.php?collection=Organization\_817) The wildlife patterns at the arboretum as below:

#### **Animals:**

366 Advances in Landscape Architecture

*Smilax pumila* 

*Smilax smallii* 

*Solidago altissima* 

*Solidago gigantea* 

*Solidago rugosa* 

*Spiranthes cernua* 

*Styrax americanus* 

*Symplocos tinctoria* 

*Taxodium distichum* 

*Wisteria frutescens* 

*Woodwardia areolata* 

*Xyris ambigua* 

Blue-eyed grass

Sarsaparilla vine, Wild sarsaparilla, Dwarf

Tall Goldenrod, Late goldenrod, Canadian

Giant goldenrod, Smooth goldenrod, Tall

*Solidago odora var. odora* Anisescented goldenrod Perennial Herb *Solidago patula* Roundleaf goldenrod Perennial Herb

> Wrinkleleaf goldenrod, Wrinkle-leaf goldenrod, Rough-leaved goldenrod,

Rough-stemmed goldenrod, Roughstem

Nodding lady's tresses, Ladies' tresses,

*Spiranthes praecox* Greenvein lady's tresses Perennial Herb

*Stylosanthes biflora* Sidebeak pencilflower Perennial Herb

American snowbell, American snowbells,

Horsesugar, Common sweetleaf, Sweetleaf,

Bald cypress, Baldcypress, Common bald

*Vaccinium elliottii* Elliott's blueberry Perennial Shrub *Viburnum nudum* Possumhaw viburnum, Possumhaw Perennial Shrub

*Viola septemloba* Southern coastal violet Perennial Herb

American wisteria, Texas wisteria, Kentucky

Netted chainfern, Chain fern, Netted chain

Coastal plain yelloweyed grass, Coastalplain

(http://www.wildflower.org/collections/printable.php?collection=Organization\_817)

*Xyris difformis* Bog yelloweyed grass Perennial Herb *Zigadenus glaberrimus* Camas, Sandbog deathcamas Perennial Herb

**Table 1.** The list of the plant species at the Crosby Arboretum

*Toxicodendron radicans* Eastern poison ivy, Poison ivy, Poison oak Perennial Shrub, Vine

Roughleaf goldenrod,

Lanceleaf greenbrier, Southern smilax,

**Scientific Name Common Name Duration Habit Sun Water** 

*Smilax laurifolia* Laurel greenbriar, Laurel greenbrier Perennial Vine Part-shade Wet

goldenrod, Canada goldenrod Perennial Herb

*Stokesia laevis* Stokes aster Perennial Herb Sun, Part-shade Moist

*Taxodium ascendens* Pond cypress Perennial Tree Sun Moist

*Ulmus alata* Winged elm Perennial Tree Part-shade Dry *Vaccinium arboreum* Farkleberry, Tree sparkleberry, Sparkleberry Perennial Tree Part-shade Dry *Vaccinium darrowii* Darrow's blueberry, Evergreen blueberry Perennial Shrub Part-shade Moist

*Vitis rotundifolia* Muscadine, Scuppernong grape Perennial Vine Part-shade Moist

fern Perennial Herb, Fern

*Woodwardia virginica* Virginia chain fern, Virginia chainfern Perennial Herb, Fern Part-shade Wet, Moist

wisteria Perennial Vine

yelloweyed grass Perennial Herb

smilax, Dwarf greenbrier Perennial Vine Part-shade Dry

Jacksonvine, Jacksonbrier Perennial Vine Sun, Part-shade Moist

goldenrod Perennial Herb Sun Wet

Nodding ladies' tresses orchid Perennial Herb Sun Moist

American silverbells, Big-leaf snowbell, Storax Perennial Tree Part-shade Wet

Yellowwood Perennial Tree Part-shade Wet

cypress, Southern bald cypress Perennial Tree Sun, Part-shade Moist

goldenrod, Late goldenrod, Early goldenrod Perennial Herb Part-shade

Shade, Partshade Moist

Sun, Shade,

Shade, Partshade Moist

Sun, Shade,

Sun, Shade, Part-shade Moist

Shade, Part-

Part-shade Wet, Moist

shade Wet, Moist

Part-shade Wet, Moist

Rabbit Beaver Muscrat Opposum (sign) Raccoon (sign) Skunk (sign) Fox (sign) Coyote (reported from neighbours) Feral (& pet) dogs & cats Squirrel Rat (spp. unknown) Mice (spp. unknown) Shrew (spp. unknown) Rat snake (spp. unknown) Diamond-Backed water snake Copperhead Snake Water Moccasin Snake Garter Snake Box Turtle

#### **Birds:**

Waterfowl Bobwhite Quail Turkey Woodcock Great Blue Heron Little Blue Heron Kingfisher Red-tailed Hawk English Sparrow Starling Red-Headed Woodpecker Mourning Dove Bobwhite quail Mockingbird Robin Brown Thrasher

#### **Other:**

Crayfish (probably more than one species) Insects *ad infinitum*

## **3. The esthetic significance of the arboretum**

Gardener William Robinson (1838-1935) was one of the first to abstract nature in garden designs. Within natural environments, Robinson was very sensitive to landscape design characteristics, including vegetation colors, forms, and textures. Robinson advocated studying the spatial composition of a natural landscape in his book *The Wild Garden* by observing how boundaries of a space were contained by the trees and shrubs. Similarly, Winston Spirn (1984) and further stipulates that landscape architects play a role in creating "conspicuous expression and visible interpretation" of landscape, and that the use of artistic interpretation plays an important role. Spirn states that "the current understanding of nature and culture as comprising interwoven processes that exhibit a complex, underlying order which holds across vast scales of space and time, not only demands a new aesthetic, new forms, and new modes of design, construction, and cultivation, but also prompts a fresh appreciation for the forms of the past and the processes by which they were created." Calling for a new design aesthetic meant its acceptance and embracement by the general public was needed as well.

Crosby Arboretum (Picayune, Mississippi): A Natural World for All 369

experience for the viewer, as straight streams provide a distant vanishing point and meandering streams create a sense of mystery as to what is around the next bend. Like this, many natural features such as tree trunks in a dense forest create a sense of "rhythm," as a design principal. In a forested system, a creek becomes a contrast as it is a different material from the surrounding vegetation, rocks or soil. But it also serves importantly as a rhythmic item which literally flows from one part of the landscape scene to the next. The "size" of a landscape element in proportion to its surrounding features is an important principle of design. Small creek systems not only need to serve their hydrological role, but also serve their aesthetic parameters. The design principles such as line, rhythm, and scale are permanent features for small creeks and streams but many of these can be temporal in nature. However, in the fall season "colors" can change to brightly colored reds and oranges for deciduous trees and shrubs. Seasonal changes affect the qualities of other design criteria, especially spatial formations and scale. When leaves fall in the winter months the spatial dynamics of the landscapes change from dense layers of shrub and ground vegetation to an open landscape type. The surrounding land is more easily viewed and the ground plane is much more apparent. "Scale" also changes in winter months, and a small stream channel

Mozingo (1997) [20] writes that "examining ecological design in tandem with landscapes of notable aesthetic quality elucidates tbe difficulties in reconciling their conception of visibility, temporality, reiterated form, expression and metaphor." She neatly summarizes their premises into these 5 clearly defined principles. She stipulates that ecological landscapes have inherent social acceptance problems on their own accord and must become an accepted icon or symbol by the general public to become broadly accepted. In the study of Brzuszek and Clark (2009) [10], for the Crosby Arboretum visitors, a questionnaire was designed by deriving from Mozingo's principles. It aimed to examine some qualities of Crosby arboretum such as visibility, care, orderliness, human presence, meaning were analyzed for the correlation between their value and perception for each. According to the

1. Believe that a landscape should blend into its surrounding environment and see this at

2. Believe that a landscape should appear cared for and find Crosby to be well cared for; 3. Believe that landscapes need not be necessarily orderly in their appearance and find

4. Are somewhat neutral on the question of having human forms of expression in the

5. Place high value on the need for meaning in the landscape and give Crosby high marks. Crosby Arboretum's project designers merged a symbiotic interplay between the vegetation patterns and physical processes of the arboretum site with the patterns and processes found in local plant communities. Selecting its local watershed as its genius loci, the landscape exhibits of Pinecote (the public interpretive center of the arboretum) are designed to be "compressed, dramatic expressions of the natural features common to the Piney Woods of the Deep South" [11]. To accomplish this, project designers, Andropogon Associates Ltd.

becomes even smaller in the greater landscape [12].

Crosby to be somewhat too orderly;

landscape but detected a modest presence at Crosby; and

results, visitors;

Crosby;

In recent years, considerable debate within the design profession about aesthetics and values of ecological design, particularly for urban systems. On one hand, landscape architects are challenged to develop more ecologically sensitive projects, while one the other hand, they are drawing on the richly established tradition of visually aesthetic design. According to Mozingo (1997) [20] ecological designers must consider cultural needs and to incorporate current perceptions of aesthetics and beauty.

As it is mentioned above, there are some water exhibits in the Crosby Arboretum. For ecosystems that feature riparian or wetland systems, water is an important element in ecological design interpretation. It's surface, color, form, reflectiveness or movement are landscape elements in terms of bio-physical perspectives. With its aesthetic quality and the image and symbol that it offers [12]. It creates a sense of a place. I is often used to symbolize things in iterature. Water is a universal symbol of change and is often present at turning points in a story. Since water is often sign of life many times water represents life. Fresh water can represent good health and bad water symbolizes bad health. Water can also mean "purity and cleansing" (http:// symbolis.wikia.com/wiki/Water). For developing the relationships of people with water, every form of land use must be based upon a clear understanding of the relationships of the water within the physical characteristics unique to each place [23].

Art elements and principles can be found near natural small streams. While there is some degree of presence of all of design principles (balance, proportion, rhythm, emphasis, and unity) and elements (point, line, form, shape and space, movement, color, pattern, and texture) found within areas of small streams, the artistic elements such as line and rhythm dominate this landscape type more strongly than others. "Line" is one of the more apparent design elements of a channelized water system. Most small streams have a clearly defined bank edge where the water travels. Stream lines which are horizontal features, contrast strongly vertical lines of adjacent mature trees. These line forms create a different emotional experience for the viewer, as straight streams provide a distant vanishing point and meandering streams create a sense of mystery as to what is around the next bend. Like this, many natural features such as tree trunks in a dense forest create a sense of "rhythm," as a design principal. In a forested system, a creek becomes a contrast as it is a different material from the surrounding vegetation, rocks or soil. But it also serves importantly as a rhythmic item which literally flows from one part of the landscape scene to the next. The "size" of a landscape element in proportion to its surrounding features is an important principle of design. Small creek systems not only need to serve their hydrological role, but also serve their aesthetic parameters. The design principles such as line, rhythm, and scale are permanent features for small creeks and streams but many of these can be temporal in nature. However, in the fall season "colors" can change to brightly colored reds and oranges for deciduous trees and shrubs. Seasonal changes affect the qualities of other design criteria, especially spatial formations and scale. When leaves fall in the winter months the spatial dynamics of the landscapes change from dense layers of shrub and ground vegetation to an open landscape type. The surrounding land is more easily viewed and the ground plane is much more apparent. "Scale" also changes in winter months, and a small stream channel becomes even smaller in the greater landscape [12].

368 Advances in Landscape Architecture

public was needed as well.

each place [23].

**3. The esthetic significance of the arboretum** 

incorporate current perceptions of aesthetics and beauty.

Gardener William Robinson (1838-1935) was one of the first to abstract nature in garden designs. Within natural environments, Robinson was very sensitive to landscape design characteristics, including vegetation colors, forms, and textures. Robinson advocated studying the spatial composition of a natural landscape in his book *The Wild Garden* by observing how boundaries of a space were contained by the trees and shrubs. Similarly, Winston Spirn (1984) and further stipulates that landscape architects play a role in creating "conspicuous expression and visible interpretation" of landscape, and that the use of artistic interpretation plays an important role. Spirn states that "the current understanding of nature and culture as comprising interwoven processes that exhibit a complex, underlying order which holds across vast scales of space and time, not only demands a new aesthetic, new forms, and new modes of design, construction, and cultivation, but also prompts a fresh appreciation for the forms of the past and the processes by which they were created." Calling for a new design aesthetic meant its acceptance and embracement by the general

In recent years, considerable debate within the design profession about aesthetics and values of ecological design, particularly for urban systems. On one hand, landscape architects are challenged to develop more ecologically sensitive projects, while one the other hand, they are drawing on the richly established tradition of visually aesthetic design. According to Mozingo (1997) [20] ecological designers must consider cultural needs and to

As it is mentioned above, there are some water exhibits in the Crosby Arboretum. For ecosystems that feature riparian or wetland systems, water is an important element in ecological design interpretation. It's surface, color, form, reflectiveness or movement are landscape elements in terms of bio-physical perspectives. With its aesthetic quality and the image and symbol that it offers [12]. It creates a sense of a place. I is often used to symbolize things in iterature. Water is a universal symbol of change and is often present at turning points in a story. Since water is often sign of life many times water represents life. Fresh water can represent good health and bad water symbolizes bad health. Water can also mean "purity and cleansing" (http:// symbolis.wikia.com/wiki/Water). For developing the relationships of people with water, every form of land use must be based upon a clear understanding of the relationships of the water within the physical characteristics unique to

Art elements and principles can be found near natural small streams. While there is some degree of presence of all of design principles (balance, proportion, rhythm, emphasis, and unity) and elements (point, line, form, shape and space, movement, color, pattern, and texture) found within areas of small streams, the artistic elements such as line and rhythm dominate this landscape type more strongly than others. "Line" is one of the more apparent design elements of a channelized water system. Most small streams have a clearly defined bank edge where the water travels. Stream lines which are horizontal features, contrast strongly vertical lines of adjacent mature trees. These line forms create a different emotional Mozingo (1997) [20] writes that "examining ecological design in tandem with landscapes of notable aesthetic quality elucidates tbe difficulties in reconciling their conception of visibility, temporality, reiterated form, expression and metaphor." She neatly summarizes their premises into these 5 clearly defined principles. She stipulates that ecological landscapes have inherent social acceptance problems on their own accord and must become an accepted icon or symbol by the general public to become broadly accepted. In the study of Brzuszek and Clark (2009) [10], for the Crosby Arboretum visitors, a questionnaire was designed by deriving from Mozingo's principles. It aimed to examine some qualities of Crosby arboretum such as visibility, care, orderliness, human presence, meaning were analyzed for the correlation between their value and perception for each. According to the results, visitors;


Crosby Arboretum's project designers merged a symbiotic interplay between the vegetation patterns and physical processes of the arboretum site with the patterns and processes found in local plant communities. Selecting its local watershed as its genius loci, the landscape exhibits of Pinecote (the public interpretive center of the arboretum) are designed to be "compressed, dramatic expressions of the natural features common to the Piney Woods of the Deep South" [11]. To accomplish this, project designers, Andropogon Associates Ltd. and Edward L. Blake Jr., merged a symbiotic interplay between the site's vegetation patterns and physical processes with natural patterns found in local plant communities [10].

Crosby Arboretum (Picayune, Mississippi): A Natural World for All 371

are combined with the other attractive activities and events which are for every age groups

The variety and richness of flora and fauna living together in different habitats at arboretums provides dynamic tools and resources creating great opportunities for crosscurricular learning. Knowing an outdoor site and identifying the resources available are important to insure the success of this type of program. Nature teaches many lessons about diversity and learning to live together and science helps people investigate questions [24]. The Crosby Arboretum is dedicated to educating the public about their environment as well. Pinecote, serves as the arboretum's public interpretive center. It provide environmental and botanical research opportunities and offer cultural, scientific and recreational programs. The Crosby Arboretum offers a continual schedule of programs and events designed to educate the public about their environment, and to celebrate nature. A festival called "Piney Woods Heritage Festival" is organized at the arboretum each November. Quarterly native plant sales are held. The Arboretum also offers guided and self-guided tours. So that people can observe the threatened or endangered species of plants and wildlife are present at

Arboretum website, entry signage and interpretive trail information prepares visitors to the exhibition of native plants in respective plant communities, by setting this tone, visitors understand the context of the facility and better appreciate the educational mission [10]. So, ecologically designed facilities conveys their purpose in promotional literature and interpretive signage this way, the inherent value of those landscapes is conveyed to the

Central to the arboretum's educational mission was the decision to display native plants in representative plant communities suitable to the site. The Schematic Master Plan outlined the some design principles and almost all the principles serve the educational mission.

At the arboretum, trail systems throughout the site allow visitors to experience more than 50 naturally occurring and human-created regional plant habitats. As the Master Plan stipulates, "Pinecote, a place where the land expresses itself, is the exhibit. Its Master Plan is the organizing framework for the needs and actions off all who use its landscape. This interplay between man and the land organizes the thematic composition of Pinecote's landscape exhibits" [21] [10]. On the walking journey at The Crosby Arboretum the visitor could experience and learn about Gulf Coast landscape. They can take a stroll around the Pond Journey to discover the diversity of life in wetland habitats, visit the South Savanna Exhibit to see carnivorous pitcher plants, and enjoy the wonder of the Pinecote Pavilion, a Mississippi Landmark. Interpretative signs along the trails describe the flora, fauna and

At Crosby, the Pavilion is a gathering place. This simple, open building marks a place to be used for many activities. It is a starting point for nature walks, for talks and discussions about important things in the environment and natural world, a place for exhibits and artistic performance, and a setting for social gatherings. (http://www.crosbyarboretum. msstate.edu/pages/pinecote.php). However, a new education building, designed by

visitors. This is an important point for ecologically designed facilities [12].

cultural history of the Piney Woods region of Mississippi (Figure 6).

succesful results.

throughout the Arboretum's preserves.

While analyzing the aesthetic qualities of the Crosby Arboretum, it is useful to take a look at the design principles of Pinecote Pavilion: Pinecote Pavilion is recognized by the Mississippi Department of Archives and History as a Mississippi Landmark (http://www.crosbyarboretum.msstate.edu/ pages/pinecote.php). Euine Fay Jones (1921- 2004), the architect of Pinecote Pavilion described the architectural qualities and design principles of the pavilion by this means: "Architecturally, the Pavilion is a symmetrical shed, resting on a base of earth-toned brick, surrounded by earth, water, and trees. The brick pattern expresses the basic building module—the composition and arrangement of all the vertical columns. The all-wood structure is built of indigenous material, native pine, and is fastened together with nails, dowels, and metal connections. There is complete exposure of every construction element, all visible from within and without. Every framing member, every beam, brace, and connection is absolutely necessary to achieve structural stability. The building is ordered by a geometric theme—a step-edged pattern that defines the outline of the base and the roof's outer edges. Many smaller elements, for lighting and display, are shaped and detailed to reflect and reinforce the characteristic geometry—to build a strong relationship of each part to the whole and to achieve organic unity. As the vertical supports rise from the brick pavement, there is a spreading-out of structural members and a progressively thinning-out of roof decking toward the edges of the hovering roof. There is a transition in the sheltering overhead arrangement, accented by a central skylight, from close and dense to open and fragile. This is analogous to the organic unfolding or blossoming of so many forms of botanical growth. The imbricated pattern of wood shingles also emulate and recall many of natures' surfaces—the bark of trees and the wings of birds. All wood is stained and the metal painted in colors that harmonize with the earth and plants. Nothing has been added to the structure as mere decoration. Ornamentation or decorative enrichment will come from the ever-changing patterns of light and shadows that play on the closely-spaced structural elements as the sun and moon move across the sky. Time of day and seasonal changes will modify the shadows that frame the light and will keep the spaces in and around the Pavilion vital and alive, continuously enhancing the poetics of revealed construction."

E. Fay Jones, FAIA, of Fayetteville, Arkansas, designed all of Pinecote's original buildings. His modest but stunning Pinecote Pavilion won an Honor Award from the American Institute of Architects (AIA) in 1990. That same year, the AIA recognized Fay Jones with its highest individual honor, the Gold Medal. (http://www.crosbyarboretum.msstate.edu/ pages/visitors.php)

## **4. The recreational significance of the arboretum**

Green areas stand out with their qualities of meeting the recreational needs of the people, both in the city and its vicinity. Especially, arboretums serve various recreational opportunities which are related to education and nature conservation. When these activities are combined with the other attractive activities and events which are for every age groups succesful results.

370 Advances in Landscape Architecture

construction."

pages/visitors.php)

and Edward L. Blake Jr., merged a symbiotic interplay between the site's vegetation patterns

While analyzing the aesthetic qualities of the Crosby Arboretum, it is useful to take a look at the design principles of Pinecote Pavilion: Pinecote Pavilion is recognized by the Mississippi Department of Archives and History as a Mississippi Landmark (http://www.crosbyarboretum.msstate.edu/ pages/pinecote.php). Euine Fay Jones (1921- 2004), the architect of Pinecote Pavilion described the architectural qualities and design principles of the pavilion by this means: "Architecturally, the Pavilion is a symmetrical shed, resting on a base of earth-toned brick, surrounded by earth, water, and trees. The brick pattern expresses the basic building module—the composition and arrangement of all the vertical columns. The all-wood structure is built of indigenous material, native pine, and is fastened together with nails, dowels, and metal connections. There is complete exposure of every construction element, all visible from within and without. Every framing member, every beam, brace, and connection is absolutely necessary to achieve structural stability. The building is ordered by a geometric theme—a step-edged pattern that defines the outline of the base and the roof's outer edges. Many smaller elements, for lighting and display, are shaped and detailed to reflect and reinforce the characteristic geometry—to build a strong relationship of each part to the whole and to achieve organic unity. As the vertical supports rise from the brick pavement, there is a spreading-out of structural members and a progressively thinning-out of roof decking toward the edges of the hovering roof. There is a transition in the sheltering overhead arrangement, accented by a central skylight, from close and dense to open and fragile. This is analogous to the organic unfolding or blossoming of so many forms of botanical growth. The imbricated pattern of wood shingles also emulate and recall many of natures' surfaces—the bark of trees and the wings of birds. All wood is stained and the metal painted in colors that harmonize with the earth and plants. Nothing has been added to the structure as mere decoration. Ornamentation or decorative enrichment will come from the ever-changing patterns of light and shadows that play on the closely-spaced structural elements as the sun and moon move across the sky. Time of day and seasonal changes will modify the shadows that frame the light and will keep the spaces in and around the Pavilion vital and alive, continuously enhancing the poetics of revealed

E. Fay Jones, FAIA, of Fayetteville, Arkansas, designed all of Pinecote's original buildings. His modest but stunning Pinecote Pavilion won an Honor Award from the American Institute of Architects (AIA) in 1990. That same year, the AIA recognized Fay Jones with its highest individual honor, the Gold Medal. (http://www.crosbyarboretum.msstate.edu/

Green areas stand out with their qualities of meeting the recreational needs of the people, both in the city and its vicinity. Especially, arboretums serve various recreational opportunities which are related to education and nature conservation. When these activities

**4. The recreational significance of the arboretum** 

and physical processes with natural patterns found in local plant communities [10].

The variety and richness of flora and fauna living together in different habitats at arboretums provides dynamic tools and resources creating great opportunities for crosscurricular learning. Knowing an outdoor site and identifying the resources available are important to insure the success of this type of program. Nature teaches many lessons about diversity and learning to live together and science helps people investigate questions [24]. The Crosby Arboretum is dedicated to educating the public about their environment as well. Pinecote, serves as the arboretum's public interpretive center. It provide environmental and botanical research opportunities and offer cultural, scientific and recreational programs. The Crosby Arboretum offers a continual schedule of programs and events designed to educate the public about their environment, and to celebrate nature. A festival called "Piney Woods Heritage Festival" is organized at the arboretum each November. Quarterly native plant sales are held. The Arboretum also offers guided and self-guided tours. So that people can observe the threatened or endangered species of plants and wildlife are present at throughout the Arboretum's preserves.

Arboretum website, entry signage and interpretive trail information prepares visitors to the exhibition of native plants in respective plant communities, by setting this tone, visitors understand the context of the facility and better appreciate the educational mission [10]. So, ecologically designed facilities conveys their purpose in promotional literature and interpretive signage this way, the inherent value of those landscapes is conveyed to the visitors. This is an important point for ecologically designed facilities [12].

Central to the arboretum's educational mission was the decision to display native plants in representative plant communities suitable to the site. The Schematic Master Plan outlined the some design principles and almost all the principles serve the educational mission.

At the arboretum, trail systems throughout the site allow visitors to experience more than 50 naturally occurring and human-created regional plant habitats. As the Master Plan stipulates, "Pinecote, a place where the land expresses itself, is the exhibit. Its Master Plan is the organizing framework for the needs and actions off all who use its landscape. This interplay between man and the land organizes the thematic composition of Pinecote's landscape exhibits" [21] [10]. On the walking journey at The Crosby Arboretum the visitor could experience and learn about Gulf Coast landscape. They can take a stroll around the Pond Journey to discover the diversity of life in wetland habitats, visit the South Savanna Exhibit to see carnivorous pitcher plants, and enjoy the wonder of the Pinecote Pavilion, a Mississippi Landmark. Interpretative signs along the trails describe the flora, fauna and cultural history of the Piney Woods region of Mississippi (Figure 6).

At Crosby, the Pavilion is a gathering place. This simple, open building marks a place to be used for many activities. It is a starting point for nature walks, for talks and discussions about important things in the environment and natural world, a place for exhibits and artistic performance, and a setting for social gatherings. (http://www.crosbyarboretum. msstate.edu/pages/pinecote.php). However, a new education building, designed by Mississippi architect Tom Howorth, at the arboretum is being built for educational activities (Figure 7).

Crosby Arboretum (Picayune, Mississippi): A Natural World for All 373




**Figure 8.** A concert as part of Piney Woods Heritage Festival

opportunity to observe and handle wild birds.

birds and wildlife to your backyard.



**WINTER 2012:** 






migratory species and organisms' winter adaptations, into the classroom.

## **Some of the recreational events at Crosby Arboretum (2012):**

#### **Special events:**


**Figure 6.** Some views from South Savanna Exhibit (Photos: Banu Ozturk Kurtaslan, 2011).

**Figure 7.** New Education Center building (http://www.crosbyarboretum.msstate.edu/pages/visitors.php)




**Figure 7.** New Education Center building

(http://www.crosbyarboretum.msstate.edu/pages/visitors.php)


(Figure 7).

**Special events:** 

Mississippi architect Tom Howorth, at the arboretum is being built for educational activities

**Figure 6.** Some views from South Savanna Exhibit (Photos: Banu Ozturk Kurtaslan, 2011).

**Some of the recreational events at Crosby Arboretum (2012):** 


**Figure 8.** A concert as part of Piney Woods Heritage Festival

#### **WINTER 2012:**



Crosby Arboretum (Picayune, Mississippi): A Natural World for All 375












Mississippi Museum of Natural Science Educational Outreach Biologist.

the region will be discussed, including uses in the home landscape.

these habitats and how to use them in your home landscape.

many of the thirty species of orchids native to the Gulf Coast. - "**Walking with Kim":** A walk while enjoying the great outdoors.

coastal habitat, get to know native azaleas.

recycled materials (Figure 10).

Suited to ages 7 and up.

dazzling creations.

Alabama (Figure 11).

memories.

**FALL 2012** 

Educational Outreach Biologist.


**SUMMER 2012** 

**Figure 9.** Forge day at the arboretum

#### **SPRING 2012:**


## **SUMMER 2012**

374 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Crosby Arboretum.

**Figure 9.** Forge day at the arboretum

**SPRING 2012:** 

be served. - **Spring plant sale**

venomous spiders will be conducted.








involved in activities that promote environmental learning and stewardship.

withstand a wildfire without the aid of firefighting resources on scene.

wildlife in a field day open to area K-12 schools and homeschool groups.

Garden featuring authors of *One Writer's Garden: Eudora Welty's Home Place.* 


#### **FALL 2012**


Crosby Arboretum (Picayune, Mississippi): A Natural World for All 377

**Figure 11.** A wiew from "mushroom walk" activity

**Figure 12.** Yoga class at Pinecote Pavillion

**Figure 10.** Decorating a clay pot for Mother's Day (http://www.crosbyarboretum.msstate.edu/pdf/2011%20Crosby%20Summer%202011\_WE Bsmall.pdf)


**Figure 11.** A wiew from "mushroom walk" activity

**Figure 10.** Decorating a clay pot for Mother's Day


20 persons must call to pre-register for an arrival time).

Bsmall.pdf)



basket-making, and more.



(http://www.crosbyarboretum.msstate.edu/pdf/2011%20Crosby%20Summer%202011\_WE




think not what to think about environmental issues." For early childhood.

**Figure 12.** Yoga class at Pinecote Pavillion


Crosby Arboretum (Picayune, Mississippi): A Natural World for All 379

*Selcuk University Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

[1] Yaltirik, F., 1969. Canli ve Kurutulmus Bitki Muzeleri (Arboretum, Botanik Bahcesi, Herbaryum), Istanbul Universitesi Orman Fakultesi Dergisi, Seri B, !9. Cilt, Sayi:1. [2] Sertkaya, S. 1997. Bartin Orman Fakultesi Arboretumu'nun Kurulmasina Yönelik Bir Arastirma. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Zonguldak Karaelmas Universitesi Peyzaj Mimarligi

[3] Francis, J. K., 1989. The Luquillo Experimental Forest Arboretum. United States Department of Agricultry, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station, pp. 1-8.

[4] Sat, B., 2002. Doga Koruma ve Cevre Egitimi Acisindan Arboretumlarin Islevleri ve Ataturk Arboretumu. Istanbul Universitesi Peyzaj Mimarligi Bolumu. Istanbul. [5] McHarg, I., 1969. Design with Nature. Doubleday/Natural History Press, Garden City,

[6] Mozingo, L. 1997. The Esthetics of Ecological Design: Seeing science as a culture.

[7] Van der Ryan, S., and Cowan, S., 1996. Ecological Design. Island Pres. Washington D.C.

[8] Spirn, A.W., 1984. The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design. Basic Books,

[10] Brzuszek, B. and Clark, J., 2009. The Crosby Arboretum. Native Plants. 10:2. Summer.

[12] Brzuszek, B. 2012. Interview. The Curator of Pinecote, Crosby Arboretum. Mississippi

[13] Anonymus 2011. Crosby Arboretum-The Small Stream Swamp Forest Exhibit Master Plan. Booklet by the graduate class in the department of landscape architecture at

[14] Brzuszek, R., 2010. Artful Disturbance in The Piney Woods Landscape-The Crosby Arboretum.New Directions in American Landscape. Power Point Presentation.

[15] Templeton, K. and Templeton, B., 2009. Crosby Arboretum: A Celebration of Nature. The Crosby Arboretum- Mississippi State University Extension Service. Quarterly News

[9] Hough, M., 1995. Cities and Natural Process. Routledge, New York.

[11] Anonymus, 1984. Crosby Arboretum Quarterly News Journal. Vol. 2.1

State University Landscape Architecture Department. Starkville, USA.

*Mississippi State University, Department of Landscape Architeture, USA* 

**Author details** 

Robert Brzuszek

**6. References** 

USA.

NY.

1996. pp. 200.

New York.

Anabilim Dali Zonguldak.

Landscape Journal. 16 (2): 46-59.

Mississippi State University. Starkville.

Connecticut College, Connecticut.

Journal. Spring 2009. pp. 8-9. USA.

Banu Ozturk Kurtaslan

In addition to these activities and events, every Friday arboretum volunteers meet. Volunteering presents very important contributions for the arboretum (Figure 14).

**Figure 13.** Joyce Applegate's Pearl River Community College botany class planted swamp gum trees on February 16, 2011 as volunteer

(http://www.crosbyarboretum.msstate.edu/pdf/2011%20Crosby%20Spring%202011\_Web.pdf)

## **5. Conclusions**

Crosby Arboretum is a public garden that has constituted with the efforts of ecological design. The ecological, recreational and esthesic values has been attracting a number of people both from its own site and the world. Especially, Pinecote's aquatic displays serves visitors to Southern Mississippi a rich taste of the diversity of ife that resides here. The displays in the arboretum are designed to educate visitors with lots of activities and events. The goal of the arboretum staff is try to show the importance of these environmental processes both in natural areas and around all human development. So the unique sense of the place is preserved and celebrated with all other people. Crosby is fulfilling its missions of "preserving, protecting, and displaying plants native to the Pearl River Drainage Basin ecosystem, providing environmental and botanical research opportunities, and offering cultural, scientific, and recreational programs" with a succesful planninng, design and management.

## **Author details**

378 Advances in Landscape Architecture

on February 16, 2011 as volunteer

**5. Conclusions** 

management.


program times on the grounds as part of their visit.


In addition to these activities and events, every Friday arboretum volunteers meet.

**Figure 13.** Joyce Applegate's Pearl River Community College botany class planted swamp gum trees

Crosby Arboretum is a public garden that has constituted with the efforts of ecological design. The ecological, recreational and esthesic values has been attracting a number of people both from its own site and the world. Especially, Pinecote's aquatic displays serves visitors to Southern Mississippi a rich taste of the diversity of ife that resides here. The displays in the arboretum are designed to educate visitors with lots of activities and events. The goal of the arboretum staff is try to show the importance of these environmental processes both in natural areas and around all human development. So the unique sense of the place is preserved and celebrated with all other people. Crosby is fulfilling its missions of "preserving, protecting, and displaying plants native to the Pearl River Drainage Basin ecosystem, providing environmental and botanical research opportunities, and offering cultural, scientific, and recreational programs" with a succesful planninng, design and

(http://www.crosbyarboretum.msstate.edu/pdf/2011%20Crosby%20Spring%202011\_Web.pdf)

Volunteering presents very important contributions for the arboretum (Figure 14).

#### Banu Ozturk Kurtaslan

*Selcuk University Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

#### Robert Brzuszek

*Mississippi State University, Department of Landscape Architeture, USA* 

## **6. References**


[16] Randall L. Meador, 2010. The Crosby Arboretum- Mississippi State University Extention Service. Quarterly News Journal. Spring.24.2. MSU Masters of Landscape Architecture student and civil engineer, Neel Schaffer, Inc.

**Chapter 15** 

© 2013 Yücel, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Hospital Outdoor Landscape Design** 

Among public institutions, the large buildings and complicated intervening and surrounding areas of hospitals usually tend to be seen by the public as removed from the urban context, as spaces to be feared, which one only accesses in emergencies or out of necessity. However, this psychological perception of their distance and separation can be

With a growing understanding of the importance of the physical environment for the quality of hospital care and the health and safety of patients and staff, the outdoor spaces of hospitals are beginning to be considered, particularly in scenic and more green areas, as a productive complement to the interior areas which are reserved for patient treatment and

As a result of this new, holistic approach to medicine which entails alleviating the fears and disorientation of patients that may hinder medical treatment, the hospital has come to be seen today as a necessarily comforting and stress-free environment, created with a broader,

This means that the outdoor as well as the indoor spaces of hospitals are understood as crucial to patients' physical, psychological and social recuperation and wellness [1, 3, 4, 5, 6]: appropriately designed active and passive hospital landscapes enhance patients' interaction with nature and so reduce stress, facilitating interaction with others in ways compatible

Research shows that rehabilitative structures and procedures enhance both the physical endurance and the physical well-being of patients. Interaction with a natural environment

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

patient-oriented sense that encompasses both master planning and landscaping [2].

with and complementary to those found in the urban environment [7, 4].

**1.1. Benefits of natural environments within hospitals** 

decreased by today's more hospitable approaches to their content and design [1].

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Gökçen Firdevs Yücel

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55766

have traditionally been prioritized.

**1. Introduction** 

**Physical benefits** 


## **Hospital Outdoor Landscape Design**

## Gökçen Firdevs Yücel

380 Advances in Landscape Architecture

November 1991.

New York.

45-48.

Landscape Journal. 16 (2): 46-59.

Quarterly News Journal. October 1994.

[16] Randall L. Meador, 2010. The Crosby Arboretum- Mississippi State University Extention Service. Quarterly News Journal. Spring.24.2. MSU Masters of Landscape

[17] Anonymus, 2006. The Crosby Arboretum- Mississippi State University Extension

[18] Brzuszek, R., 2011. Interview. The Curator of Pinecote, Crosby Arboretum. Mississippi

[19] American Society of Landscape Architects, 1991. Landscape Architecture Magazine,

[20] Mozingo, L., 1997. The Esthetics of Ecological Design: Seeing science as a culture.

[21] Brzuszek, R., 1994. Celebrating Water at the Crosby Arboretum. Crosby Arboretum

[22] Spirn, A.W., 1984. The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design. Basic Books,

[23] Patchett,J. M. And Wilhelm, G.S. Conservation Design Forum, Inc. James M. Patchett &

[24] Betz, S. 2004. Kids, Gardens and Art. A Natural Connection. The Herbarist. Issue 70.pp

Architecture student and civil engineer, Neel Schaffer, Inc.

Gerould S. Wilhelm. Conservation Design Forum, Inc. USA.

Service. Quarterly News Journal. Spring 2006. pp. 223-229. USA.

State University Landscape Architecture Department. Starkville, USA.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55766

## **1. Introduction**

Among public institutions, the large buildings and complicated intervening and surrounding areas of hospitals usually tend to be seen by the public as removed from the urban context, as spaces to be feared, which one only accesses in emergencies or out of necessity. However, this psychological perception of their distance and separation can be decreased by today's more hospitable approaches to their content and design [1].

With a growing understanding of the importance of the physical environment for the quality of hospital care and the health and safety of patients and staff, the outdoor spaces of hospitals are beginning to be considered, particularly in scenic and more green areas, as a productive complement to the interior areas which are reserved for patient treatment and have traditionally been prioritized.

As a result of this new, holistic approach to medicine which entails alleviating the fears and disorientation of patients that may hinder medical treatment, the hospital has come to be seen today as a necessarily comforting and stress-free environment, created with a broader, patient-oriented sense that encompasses both master planning and landscaping [2].

This means that the outdoor as well as the indoor spaces of hospitals are understood as crucial to patients' physical, psychological and social recuperation and wellness [1, 3, 4, 5, 6]: appropriately designed active and passive hospital landscapes enhance patients' interaction with nature and so reduce stress, facilitating interaction with others in ways compatible with and complementary to those found in the urban environment [7, 4].

## **1.1. Benefits of natural environments within hospitals**

## **Physical benefits**

Research shows that rehabilitative structures and procedures enhance both the physical endurance and the physical well-being of patients. Interaction with a natural environment

has a positive effect on patients' feeling of well-being, which in turn has a salutary effect on their physical health. In addition to anecdotal evidence, there are theoretical and practical studies illustrating the positive effects of interaction with nature on blood pressure, cholesterol levels and stress-reduction [8, 9, 10, 11, 12]: a study by Robert Ulrich concluded that patients recovering from operations were discharged earlier, took fewer analgesics and were evaluated less negatively by nurses when they had windows in their rooms overlooking nature, compared to patients in similar rooms facing brick walls [7, 13]; and a study of the home environment similarly found that a living context with windows overlooking a natural scene produced "micro-restorative experiences" that enhanced a sense of well-being, as against a context with views of built elements [9].

Hospital Outdoor Landscape Design 383

*2.1.2. Landscaped setbacks* 

*2.1.3. Front porches* 

*2.1.4. Entry gardens* 

*2.1.5. Courtyards* 

of 4.27m [17].

*2.1.6. Plazas* 

*2.1.7. Roof terraces* 

*2.1.8. Roof gardens* 

selecting their location [3].

entrances.

and serve to separate the hospital building from the street.

These are usually planted areas in front of the main entrance, which are visually pleasant

These may include overhangs or porch roofs, an area where vehicles can pick up or drop off passengers, sitting areas, signs with directions, a mailbox, telephone booth, bus stop, etc.

These are visually pleasant green spaces designed like gardens and located near hospital

Courtyards are the central and most often used spaces in a hospital building complex, because of their proximity to the dining area; they tend to be used more by visitors and patients if they are easily visible, and should be sufficiently large to prevent overcrowding [1]. Courtyard features may include landscaped tree-shaded areas, water features, flowerbeds and moveable seats; for reasons of privacy and security as well as aesthetics, they may be fenced around (especially if designed for care of the mentally ill) up to a height

These outdoor areas, which are typically paved and furnished, should allow easy access to wheelchairs, walkers and crutches. They should include shade from flowering trees or spreading evergreens, and at least a quarter of the trees should be above the minimum specified size. A plaza should have shaded seating areas decorated with plants, colored shrubs and ground cover, and perhaps a water feature. Because these areas are largely

A roof terrace is usually a long, narrow balcony occupying one side of the roof of a hospital building. The elements it is comprised of (plants and seating) and the surface finish are designed to minimize observation from from higher buildings overlooking it. Roof terraces are sometimes too exposed to wind, heat or shade, and for this reason care must be taken in

Gardens located on roofs are visually attractive, enabling patients to look out from their rooms and have a comforting view of grass, paving stones, benches and people, rather than

paved, landscaping and gardening maintenance costs are low.

#### **Psychological benefits**

Being able to choose between having privacy and interacting socially may assist in the process of recovery of patients, for most of whom the rigid regulation of time and activity in the hospital can have negative psychological effects, such as loss of self-esteem or the feeling of control, and a resulting increase in stress.

Research shows that high blood pressure and heart activity caused by stress can be decreased if patients are exposed to natural scenes, because such scenes engage them, draw their focus away from themselves and disturbing thoughts, and so contribute to their recovery [5, 14, 8]. Research conducted in London by the Bow Centre has used flower and cutting gardens for horticultural therapy; patients are overwhelmingly in favor of welldesigned hospital landscapes, because of their positive psychological effects and the chance to pass time there [15].

#### **Social benefits**

Everyone, regardless of age or ailment, needs recreation and social support; participation in social activities may also be the only means of family and community interaction and integration, and of sharing similar experiences, for the physically disabled. Studies have shown that patients with strong social support networks typically experience less stress and better health, as well as better recovery and survival rates for various conditions, than those who are isolated [8]. Social support improves immune functions and moods, and results in better compliance with treatment [16].

Natural environments in health care facilities contribute to social integration by providing spaces for social interaction and support; evidence indicates that they significantly help increase access to social support for patients, families, and staff [3].

## **2. Outdoor hospital spaces**

## **2.1. Typology of outdoor spaces in hospitals**

#### *2.1.1. Landscaped grounds*

Green areas between buildings, primarily used for waiting and eating in, link the architecture with walking paths; however, they may be expensive to maintain.

## *2.1.2. Landscaped setbacks*

These are usually planted areas in front of the main entrance, which are visually pleasant and serve to separate the hospital building from the street.

## *2.1.3. Front porches*

382 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Psychological benefits** 

to pass time there [15].

**Social benefits** 

of control, and a resulting increase in stress.

better compliance with treatment [16].

**2. Outdoor hospital spaces** 

*2.1.1. Landscaped grounds* 

**2.1. Typology of outdoor spaces in hospitals** 

has a positive effect on patients' feeling of well-being, which in turn has a salutary effect on their physical health. In addition to anecdotal evidence, there are theoretical and practical studies illustrating the positive effects of interaction with nature on blood pressure, cholesterol levels and stress-reduction [8, 9, 10, 11, 12]: a study by Robert Ulrich concluded that patients recovering from operations were discharged earlier, took fewer analgesics and were evaluated less negatively by nurses when they had windows in their rooms overlooking nature, compared to patients in similar rooms facing brick walls [7, 13]; and a study of the home environment similarly found that a living context with windows overlooking a natural scene produced "micro-restorative experiences" that enhanced a sense

Being able to choose between having privacy and interacting socially may assist in the process of recovery of patients, for most of whom the rigid regulation of time and activity in the hospital can have negative psychological effects, such as loss of self-esteem or the feeling

Research shows that high blood pressure and heart activity caused by stress can be decreased if patients are exposed to natural scenes, because such scenes engage them, draw their focus away from themselves and disturbing thoughts, and so contribute to their recovery [5, 14, 8]. Research conducted in London by the Bow Centre has used flower and cutting gardens for horticultural therapy; patients are overwhelmingly in favor of welldesigned hospital landscapes, because of their positive psychological effects and the chance

Everyone, regardless of age or ailment, needs recreation and social support; participation in social activities may also be the only means of family and community interaction and integration, and of sharing similar experiences, for the physically disabled. Studies have shown that patients with strong social support networks typically experience less stress and better health, as well as better recovery and survival rates for various conditions, than those who are isolated [8]. Social support improves immune functions and moods, and results in

Natural environments in health care facilities contribute to social integration by providing spaces for social interaction and support; evidence indicates that they significantly help

Green areas between buildings, primarily used for waiting and eating in, link the

architecture with walking paths; however, they may be expensive to maintain.

increase access to social support for patients, families, and staff [3].

of well-being, as against a context with views of built elements [9].

These may include overhangs or porch roofs, an area where vehicles can pick up or drop off passengers, sitting areas, signs with directions, a mailbox, telephone booth, bus stop, etc.

## *2.1.4. Entry gardens*

These are visually pleasant green spaces designed like gardens and located near hospital entrances.

## *2.1.5. Courtyards*

Courtyards are the central and most often used spaces in a hospital building complex, because of their proximity to the dining area; they tend to be used more by visitors and patients if they are easily visible, and should be sufficiently large to prevent overcrowding [1]. Courtyard features may include landscaped tree-shaded areas, water features, flowerbeds and moveable seats; for reasons of privacy and security as well as aesthetics, they may be fenced around (especially if designed for care of the mentally ill) up to a height of 4.27m [17].

#### *2.1.6. Plazas*

These outdoor areas, which are typically paved and furnished, should allow easy access to wheelchairs, walkers and crutches. They should include shade from flowering trees or spreading evergreens, and at least a quarter of the trees should be above the minimum specified size. A plaza should have shaded seating areas decorated with plants, colored shrubs and ground cover, and perhaps a water feature. Because these areas are largely paved, landscaping and gardening maintenance costs are low.

### *2.1.7. Roof terraces*

A roof terrace is usually a long, narrow balcony occupying one side of the roof of a hospital building. The elements it is comprised of (plants and seating) and the surface finish are designed to minimize observation from from higher buildings overlooking it. Roof terraces are sometimes too exposed to wind, heat or shade, and for this reason care must be taken in selecting their location [3].

## *2.1.8. Roof gardens*

Gardens located on roofs are visually attractive, enabling patients to look out from their rooms and have a comforting view of grass, paving stones, benches and people, rather than roofing material or medical equipment. Depending on how much planting material is used and to what depth, green roofs generally weigh between 6.82kg and 22.73kg per square foot. They are a practical and sustainable way of regulating the quantity and speed of run-off, as they retain 70-90% of the rainwater that falls on them in the summer, and 35-40% of the precipitation in winter [18]. Roof gardens enable major energy savings that will more than compensate, in time, for the costs of building, structure, waterproofing, and landscape maintenance; and they also minimize the environmental impact of a health care facility.

Hospital Outdoor Landscape Design 385

appeal to the different senses are ideal (although strongly scented flowers and other scents

*Minimize ambiguity:* Complex or mysterious settings that provide a challenge might be of interest to the healthy, but research shows show that abstract design may be contraindicated for patients who are ill or undergoing stress. For this reason, the use of abstract art

This type of small, enclosed, quiet garden is designed with a central focal point to help patients (often a single patient at any given time, depending on the size) concentrate and relax as part of the healing process. It is a space for quiet contemplation, removed from distractions and private – that is, not visible from other indoor spaces. Meditation gardens are labeled as such and purpose-designed, and their layout is usually simple and minimalist, comprising, for example, a circle representing life, a square symbolizing order, or symbols such as the Celtic knot, which represents travel [3]. They usually have a lawn and/or a comfortable seating area with a focal point, typically a water feature, to encourage meditation. The vegetation should provide cool colors such as violets, blues and greens,

Some health care facilities with limited space and budgets feature a small, enclosed garden that can be seen but not entered. Such gardens cost little to maintain, provide some green space, flowers, perhaps a water feature, and they can be seen from sheltered indoor seating areas; however, the elements of nature they provide are removed from the senses, as they

In this variation on a viewing garden, the green space can actually be entered from a corridor or waiting room: because it has limited space and seating, it remains a quiet area which does not disturb the privacy of any nearby rooms or offices, and also provides a comforting view for people waiting or passing by in the corridor. The main disadvantage is that people using the space may feel a lack of privacy, as they can be watched by others [3].

A healing garden can be developed to a new dimension if herbs, fruit plants and vegetables are grown together with the usual planted vegetation in an easily accessible space. This "edible garden" should be simple and balanced, but designed in a repeating pattern with wandering paths demarcating public and private spaces [27]. The vegetation would favor annuals over perennials; and the garden could feature a large number and variety of plants, such as, for

example, Nasturtium spp., the flowers of which are beautiful and can also be eaten.

may be unsuitable, and design should focus on clearly identifiable elements.

should be avoided for chemotherapy patients) [23].

rather than bright, warm or contrasting colors [26].

cannot be approached smelled, heard or touched.

*2.1.12. The viewing/walk-in garden* 

*2.1.10. Meditation gardens* 

*2.1.11. Viewing gardens* 

*2.1.13. Edible gardens* 

## *2.1.9. Healing gardens*

Gardens which serve as safe and meditative environments for healing and recuperation date back to the medieval period, and have traditionally been features of hospitals, hospices, rehabilitation centers, and nursing homes [19]. The wide range of activities related to healing gardens may be passive or active: looking at the garden from a window, sitting, eating reading, doing paperwork or taking a nap in the garden, prayer and meditation, walking to a preferred spot, gardening, exercise and sports, and children's play [20]. The gardens are conducive to stress relief, relieving physical symptoms, and enhancing the feeling of well-being of hospital staff and patients.

Successful healing gardens make use of certain fundamental design principles [21]:

*Enhance feelings of control:* People should be aware that there is a garden and be able to find, enter and use its space. The garden should have private areas which cannot be seen from overlooking windows, and different kinds of spaces so users can feel they are making choices; if users are also consulted in designing the garden, this will also add to their feeling of control. All or some of the five senses can be chosen as focal stimuli in the garden's construction [22].

*Have a prevalence of green material and areas:* Patients' sense of well-being is enhanced by soft landscapes, so plant material should be dominant and hardscaping reduced to a minimum: trees, shrubs and flowers should make up about 70% of the garden, with 30% in walkways and plazas [23].

*Encourage exercise:* Designs should provide easy access and independence, as well as stressreducing structural elements such as walking paths for patients to encourage exercise, and play areas for children [24].

*Provide positive distractions:* Stress levels among patients have been shown to decrease when they are in the presence of plants, flowers, and water features as well as when they are engaged in gardening. In the Child and Adolescent Mental Health Unit at Great Ormond Street Hospital, growing vegetables has been seen to have therapeutic value for young people with eating disorders; and, as mentioned earlier, flower and cutting gardens are being utilized for horticultural therapy at London's Bow Centre [25].

*Minimize intrusions:* Gardens should be designed to minimize negative factors like urban noise, smoke, and artificial lighting, in favor of natural lighting and sounds. Gardens that appeal to the different senses are ideal (although strongly scented flowers and other scents should be avoided for chemotherapy patients) [23].

*Minimize ambiguity:* Complex or mysterious settings that provide a challenge might be of interest to the healthy, but research shows show that abstract design may be contraindicated for patients who are ill or undergoing stress. For this reason, the use of abstract art may be unsuitable, and design should focus on clearly identifiable elements.

## *2.1.10. Meditation gardens*

384 Advances in Landscape Architecture

*2.1.9. Healing gardens* 

construction [22].

and plazas [23].

play areas for children [24].

feeling of well-being of hospital staff and patients.

roofing material or medical equipment. Depending on how much planting material is used and to what depth, green roofs generally weigh between 6.82kg and 22.73kg per square foot. They are a practical and sustainable way of regulating the quantity and speed of run-off, as they retain 70-90% of the rainwater that falls on them in the summer, and 35-40% of the precipitation in winter [18]. Roof gardens enable major energy savings that will more than compensate, in time, for the costs of building, structure, waterproofing, and landscape maintenance; and they also minimize the environmental impact of a health care facility.

Gardens which serve as safe and meditative environments for healing and recuperation date back to the medieval period, and have traditionally been features of hospitals, hospices, rehabilitation centers, and nursing homes [19]. The wide range of activities related to healing gardens may be passive or active: looking at the garden from a window, sitting, eating reading, doing paperwork or taking a nap in the garden, prayer and meditation, walking to a preferred spot, gardening, exercise and sports, and children's play [20]. The gardens are conducive to stress relief, relieving physical symptoms, and enhancing the

Successful healing gardens make use of certain fundamental design principles [21]:

*Enhance feelings of control:* People should be aware that there is a garden and be able to find, enter and use its space. The garden should have private areas which cannot be seen from overlooking windows, and different kinds of spaces so users can feel they are making choices; if users are also consulted in designing the garden, this will also add to their feeling of control. All or some of the five senses can be chosen as focal stimuli in the garden's

*Have a prevalence of green material and areas:* Patients' sense of well-being is enhanced by soft landscapes, so plant material should be dominant and hardscaping reduced to a minimum: trees, shrubs and flowers should make up about 70% of the garden, with 30% in walkways

*Encourage exercise:* Designs should provide easy access and independence, as well as stressreducing structural elements such as walking paths for patients to encourage exercise, and

*Provide positive distractions:* Stress levels among patients have been shown to decrease when they are in the presence of plants, flowers, and water features as well as when they are engaged in gardening. In the Child and Adolescent Mental Health Unit at Great Ormond Street Hospital, growing vegetables has been seen to have therapeutic value for young people with eating disorders; and, as mentioned earlier, flower and cutting gardens are

*Minimize intrusions:* Gardens should be designed to minimize negative factors like urban noise, smoke, and artificial lighting, in favor of natural lighting and sounds. Gardens that

being utilized for horticultural therapy at London's Bow Centre [25].

This type of small, enclosed, quiet garden is designed with a central focal point to help patients (often a single patient at any given time, depending on the size) concentrate and relax as part of the healing process. It is a space for quiet contemplation, removed from distractions and private – that is, not visible from other indoor spaces. Meditation gardens are labeled as such and purpose-designed, and their layout is usually simple and minimalist, comprising, for example, a circle representing life, a square symbolizing order, or symbols such as the Celtic knot, which represents travel [3]. They usually have a lawn and/or a comfortable seating area with a focal point, typically a water feature, to encourage meditation. The vegetation should provide cool colors such as violets, blues and greens, rather than bright, warm or contrasting colors [26].

## *2.1.11. Viewing gardens*

Some health care facilities with limited space and budgets feature a small, enclosed garden that can be seen but not entered. Such gardens cost little to maintain, provide some green space, flowers, perhaps a water feature, and they can be seen from sheltered indoor seating areas; however, the elements of nature they provide are removed from the senses, as they cannot be approached smelled, heard or touched.

## *2.1.12. The viewing/walk-in garden*

In this variation on a viewing garden, the green space can actually be entered from a corridor or waiting room: because it has limited space and seating, it remains a quiet area which does not disturb the privacy of any nearby rooms or offices, and also provides a comforting view for people waiting or passing by in the corridor. The main disadvantage is that people using the space may feel a lack of privacy, as they can be watched by others [3].

## *2.1.13. Edible gardens*

A healing garden can be developed to a new dimension if herbs, fruit plants and vegetables are grown together with the usual planted vegetation in an easily accessible space. This "edible garden" should be simple and balanced, but designed in a repeating pattern with wandering paths demarcating public and private spaces [27]. The vegetation would favor annuals over perennials; and the garden could feature a large number and variety of plants, such as, for example, Nasturtium spp., the flowers of which are beautiful and can also be eaten.

## **2.2. User groups**

## *2.2.1. Patients*

The health-care environment should be designed taking into account patients' psychological as well as physical needs, disabilities, and duration of stay [28]; long-term inpatients or outpatients will have more varied requirements than short-term ones, and their holistic treatment will be enhanced by access to gardens, sheltered outdoor plazas, common social areas, and reading resource areas [29]. In addition, patients undergoing different kinds of treatment may use these areas for different purposes: for example, othopedics patients may need to use walking aids in the gardens; facilities for seniors may need handrails and more shaded areas; physical therapy patients may need to tend to plants at different heights; and psychiatric patients may need "memory cues" and planted areas which minimize the risk of injury.

Hospital Outdoor Landscape Design 387

age or disability, and that they facilitate certain activities. Within the garden, visitors follow internal circulation routes, typically between walls, but occasionally crossing open spaces. Paths help people to find their way in hospitals, and differentiating them can help patients

The more a garden is visible and people are aware of it, the more its activity areas and paths will be preferred. At least one outdoor space should be visible or its location clearly indicated from the main entrance [34]. Patients' rooms should have views of the garden so

Research shows that a feeling of lack of control can lead to or aggravate depression, passivity, elevated blood pressure, and decreased immune system operation [9]. A sense of control in the garden can be enhanced by getting users involved in its design; and different types of spaces and layouts can enable them to make their own choices – for example, a variety of pathways, of types of nooks where they can sit, of furniture (if some is moveable),

Patients often feel both physically and psychologically vulnerable in hospitals, and a feeling of security should be provided. This includes sufficient lighting and public telephones in isolated areas so people can call for help, and other facilities and design elements in the garden that make them feel safe. Broadly speaking, there should be a feeling of enclosure but without the feeling that one is being watched. Features should include handrails and seating at frequent intervals, particularly near the entrance, to assist the elderly, the disabled or mobility-impaired, and an avoidance of paving materials like asphalt that reflect a strong

As hospital patients are often sensitive to temperature (burn patients, for example, generally have to keep out of direct sunlight), options such as sunny and shady areas should be provided [8], as well as seating shielded from breeze by plants or structures. Various medications require patients taking them to avoid sunlight; some patients might be afraid of catching a chill if they go outdoors. Others patients have trouble getting up on their feet, so the garden should have garden seats with arms and backs, and also benches one can sprawl

Research on four hospital gardens showed that users were disturbed by sounds of machines like air conditioners and traffic noise; areas to be used as garden spaces should be planned in advance, away from traffic, parking areas, delivery driveways, and helicopter landing pads [20]. A garden designed for therapeutic purposes should be quiet and removed from

and visitors find their way [33].

they can enjoy it even if they are unable to visit it [35].

or of views, ranging from close to distant [36].

**Visibility** 

**Feeling of Control** 

**Feeling of Security** 

**Physiological comfort** 

glare [5].

or lie on.

**Quiet** 

## *2.2.2. Visitors*

A supportive and distractive environment is also essential for people visiting friends or relatives in the health-care facility, because while visiting patients can be salutary, it may also be emotionally draining [30].

## *2.2.3. Staff*

Outdoor spaces are especially important for health-care staff, who spend most of their time in the facility, and need designated and accessible areas removed from their daily activities, where they can wander, collect themselves, and adjust to the stress of their work [31]. While administrative staff tend to have the most free time to use outdoor spaces, as they typically have a one-hour lunch and regular breaks [1], nurses are the staff who have to keep patients constantly in view and help them go outdoors. However, nurses generally do not have time to stay with patients outside, and cannot leave them alone, so their responsibilities, as well as the distances from nursing stations to the outdoor spaces, have a negative effect on the use of these spaces by both patients and nurses.

## **3. Outdoor design criteria for hospitals**

When creating a garden for a health-care facility, the focus should be on location, accessibility, patients' requirements and preferences, and the design elements to be included [32]. The garden should have opportunities for mobility and exercise, present a choice between social and solitary spaces, and facilitate beneficial distraction and direct or indirect interaction with nature [8].

#### **Accessibility**

This is an essential requirement, both within the hospital and in its environment. Gardens may be designed and set up attractively, but people need to be aware that they exist, that they are easily accessible through entrances and paths and useable regardless of people's age or disability, and that they facilitate certain activities. Within the garden, visitors follow internal circulation routes, typically between walls, but occasionally crossing open spaces. Paths help people to find their way in hospitals, and differentiating them can help patients and visitors find their way [33].

#### **Visibility**

386 Advances in Landscape Architecture

The health-care environment should be designed taking into account patients' psychological as well as physical needs, disabilities, and duration of stay [28]; long-term inpatients or outpatients will have more varied requirements than short-term ones, and their holistic treatment will be enhanced by access to gardens, sheltered outdoor plazas, common social areas, and reading resource areas [29]. In addition, patients undergoing different kinds of treatment may use these areas for different purposes: for example, othopedics patients may need to use walking aids in the gardens; facilities for seniors may need handrails and more shaded areas; physical therapy patients may need to tend to plants at different heights; and psychiatric patients may need "memory cues" and planted areas which minimize the risk of

A supportive and distractive environment is also essential for people visiting friends or relatives in the health-care facility, because while visiting patients can be salutary, it may

Outdoor spaces are especially important for health-care staff, who spend most of their time in the facility, and need designated and accessible areas removed from their daily activities, where they can wander, collect themselves, and adjust to the stress of their work [31]. While administrative staff tend to have the most free time to use outdoor spaces, as they typically have a one-hour lunch and regular breaks [1], nurses are the staff who have to keep patients constantly in view and help them go outdoors. However, nurses generally do not have time to stay with patients outside, and cannot leave them alone, so their responsibilities, as well as the distances from nursing stations to the outdoor spaces, have a negative effect on the

When creating a garden for a health-care facility, the focus should be on location, accessibility, patients' requirements and preferences, and the design elements to be included [32]. The garden should have opportunities for mobility and exercise, present a choice between social and solitary spaces, and facilitate beneficial distraction and direct or indirect

This is an essential requirement, both within the hospital and in its environment. Gardens may be designed and set up attractively, but people need to be aware that they exist, that they are easily accessible through entrances and paths and useable regardless of people's

**2.2. User groups** 

*2.2.1. Patients* 

injury.

*2.2.2. Visitors* 

*2.2.3. Staff* 

also be emotionally draining [30].

use of these spaces by both patients and nurses.

**3. Outdoor design criteria for hospitals** 

interaction with nature [8].

**Accessibility** 

The more a garden is visible and people are aware of it, the more its activity areas and paths will be preferred. At least one outdoor space should be visible or its location clearly indicated from the main entrance [34]. Patients' rooms should have views of the garden so they can enjoy it even if they are unable to visit it [35].

### **Feeling of Control**

Research shows that a feeling of lack of control can lead to or aggravate depression, passivity, elevated blood pressure, and decreased immune system operation [9]. A sense of control in the garden can be enhanced by getting users involved in its design; and different types of spaces and layouts can enable them to make their own choices – for example, a variety of pathways, of types of nooks where they can sit, of furniture (if some is moveable), or of views, ranging from close to distant [36].

#### **Feeling of Security**

Patients often feel both physically and psychologically vulnerable in hospitals, and a feeling of security should be provided. This includes sufficient lighting and public telephones in isolated areas so people can call for help, and other facilities and design elements in the garden that make them feel safe. Broadly speaking, there should be a feeling of enclosure but without the feeling that one is being watched. Features should include handrails and seating at frequent intervals, particularly near the entrance, to assist the elderly, the disabled or mobility-impaired, and an avoidance of paving materials like asphalt that reflect a strong glare [5].

#### **Physiological comfort**

As hospital patients are often sensitive to temperature (burn patients, for example, generally have to keep out of direct sunlight), options such as sunny and shady areas should be provided [8], as well as seating shielded from breeze by plants or structures. Various medications require patients taking them to avoid sunlight; some patients might be afraid of catching a chill if they go outdoors. Others patients have trouble getting up on their feet, so the garden should have garden seats with arms and backs, and also benches one can sprawl or lie on.

#### **Quiet**

Research on four hospital gardens showed that users were disturbed by sounds of machines like air conditioners and traffic noise; areas to be used as garden spaces should be planned in advance, away from traffic, parking areas, delivery driveways, and helicopter landing pads [20]. A garden designed for therapeutic purposes should be quiet and removed from

sounds inside the hospital, which range from public announcements, to television sets to catering trolleys and gurneys; visitors to the garden should feel calm, and be able to hear reassuring sounds such as birdsong, wind chimes, or flowing water.

Hospital Outdoor Landscape Design 389

the visually impaired, different kinds of surfacing materials can be helpful, and tactile

Parking areas should be sufficient to accommodate staff and employees, and parking should ideally be reserved for staff at the back of the hospital so they do not have to deal with heavy traffic when they come to work [40]. Parking for patients, especially those with disabilities should be as close as possible to the entrance [6]. Patients and visitors unfamiliar with the hospital may easily be confused if parking space is difficult to find; this can be solved by using directional signs that can be altered or moved as conditions change [41].

Large hospital or medical complexes should be organized within a clear circulation hierarchy: main roads, shopping streets, neighborhood streets and service alleys. Each of these, as well as intersections and destinations, should be indicated by a consistent system of spatial cues [33]. This circulation in the health-care facility should be independent of public roadways, and public (nonsecured) and private (secured) zones should be distinct, preferably with patient intake and outdoor recreational areas in the private zone. Traffic circulation should be organized so that individuals and ambulances can directly access

The main circulation routes should be clearly indicated, for example by giving easily understood names to the main corridors like "Hospital Street" or "Blue Corridor" (here the walls and floor should be predominantly blue in color); or having colored lines along the walls or floor to designate main routes; or using lighting along a route [42]. Primary routes should be accessible to everyone; however, some people will prefer to experience the natural

Minor walkways should be at least 1.5m wide, with drainage that will get rid of rainwater quickly. One-way traffic routes should be at least 1.5m wide to allow for the turning circle of a wheelchair; while two-way traffic routes should be at least 2.1m wide. There is a risk of tripping if the edges of a path are raised [26]; and handrails or balustrades and wheelchair barriers will preclude people's falling where surface levels change, or from entering uneven

In the garden, clear links with different facilities and direct routes are essential. Right-angled corners in paths should be avoided, and slopes designed as follows: a walkway's slope should not exceed 5% (i.e. 30.48cm of rise for a length of 6.1m); cross slopes should not exceed 2% (30.48cm of rise for a length of 15.24m). Where the slope does exceed 1/20, there should be a support railing to preclude slipping. The surfaces of paths should be firm, smooth and level, and provide traction; they should reflect the context, with "softer" materials used for informal settings. Paving surfaces should be smooth enough to be used by wheelchairs and gurneys [3]; but grooved paving may be unsuitable for them. Different

environment unmodified and will not expect easy access everywhere [25].

elements should indicate thresholds [39].

*3.1.2. Parking areas* 

*3.1.3. Paths* 

emergency facilities [29].

ground beside paths and paved areas.

## **Familiarity**

Hospitals may cause stress for patients and their families, as they are unfamiliar environments, and they can be made more comforting and familiar if they include aspects of nature [37]. People working in hospitals similarly experience stress, and need to have access to familiar and relaxing garden settings. The aesthetic of the health-care environment should therefore be based on this fundamental need and provide spaces on a human or domestic scale as well as familiar-looking plants and furniture; this is particularly important in facilities for Alzheimer's patients and the terminally ill.

#### **Flexibility**

Exterior spaces should attract people, invite them in and engage them; they should be designed based on when (i.e. at what times and in what weather conditions) by whom (i.e. what groups), and how they are currently used (for example, for a lunch break, exercise, or socializing), and also on how their usage may be shaped in the future*.* To maintain interest and year-round interaction, for instance, they should be studied to see how they are used in different seasons, and then designed with different seasonal blooms and colors and different weather conditions taken into account.

#### **Sustainability**

Resources should be allocated intelligently when designing outdoor spaces: every material used does not have to be green, and some hard surfaces like concrete can help prevent storm water run-off. Wild grasses and Sedum spp. create ground cover which reduces domestic grass, decreasing the cost of maintaining lawns. Xeriscaping (designing with low water-use plants) together with native vegetation also helps reduce water use and maintenance. Nature trails enable users to have exercise, education and a natural aesthetic at a minimal cost; and solar-powered lights and water features that recycle rainwater can also be costeffective and sustainable.

## **3.1. Hard landscape design**

#### *3.1.1. Gateways and entrances*

Gateways and entrances welcome people on arrival and provide cues for them to find their way around the site; they can perform this function if a comprehensive network of connecting paths is planned, specified, and followed up to ensure they are properly constructed [25]. The main entrance should be accessed logically by the most direct path, and the entry way to the outdoor space should have no ramps or steps [1]. Landscaping, artwork and detailing can prioritize the main access points and create a sense of place, and benches should be available for people arriving or waiting for rides to sit on [38]. Entrances must be sufficiently wide to accommodate people with special mobility requirements; for the visually impaired, different kinds of surfacing materials can be helpful, and tactile elements should indicate thresholds [39].

### *3.1.2. Parking areas*

388 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Familiarity** 

**Flexibility** 

**Sustainability** 

effective and sustainable.

**3.1. Hard landscape design** 

*3.1.1. Gateways and entrances* 

sounds inside the hospital, which range from public announcements, to television sets to catering trolleys and gurneys; visitors to the garden should feel calm, and be able to hear

Hospitals may cause stress for patients and their families, as they are unfamiliar environments, and they can be made more comforting and familiar if they include aspects of nature [37]. People working in hospitals similarly experience stress, and need to have access to familiar and relaxing garden settings. The aesthetic of the health-care environment should therefore be based on this fundamental need and provide spaces on a human or domestic scale as well as familiar-looking plants and furniture; this is particularly important in

Exterior spaces should attract people, invite them in and engage them; they should be designed based on when (i.e. at what times and in what weather conditions) by whom (i.e. what groups), and how they are currently used (for example, for a lunch break, exercise, or socializing), and also on how their usage may be shaped in the future*.* To maintain interest and year-round interaction, for instance, they should be studied to see how they are used in different seasons, and then designed with different seasonal blooms and colors and different

Resources should be allocated intelligently when designing outdoor spaces: every material used does not have to be green, and some hard surfaces like concrete can help prevent storm water run-off. Wild grasses and Sedum spp. create ground cover which reduces domestic grass, decreasing the cost of maintaining lawns. Xeriscaping (designing with low water-use plants) together with native vegetation also helps reduce water use and maintenance. Nature trails enable users to have exercise, education and a natural aesthetic at a minimal cost; and solar-powered lights and water features that recycle rainwater can also be cost-

Gateways and entrances welcome people on arrival and provide cues for them to find their way around the site; they can perform this function if a comprehensive network of connecting paths is planned, specified, and followed up to ensure they are properly constructed [25]. The main entrance should be accessed logically by the most direct path, and the entry way to the outdoor space should have no ramps or steps [1]. Landscaping, artwork and detailing can prioritize the main access points and create a sense of place, and benches should be available for people arriving or waiting for rides to sit on [38]. Entrances must be sufficiently wide to accommodate people with special mobility requirements; for

reassuring sounds such as birdsong, wind chimes, or flowing water.

facilities for Alzheimer's patients and the terminally ill.

weather conditions taken into account.

Parking areas should be sufficient to accommodate staff and employees, and parking should ideally be reserved for staff at the back of the hospital so they do not have to deal with heavy traffic when they come to work [40]. Parking for patients, especially those with disabilities should be as close as possible to the entrance [6]. Patients and visitors unfamiliar with the hospital may easily be confused if parking space is difficult to find; this can be solved by using directional signs that can be altered or moved as conditions change [41].

### *3.1.3. Paths*

Large hospital or medical complexes should be organized within a clear circulation hierarchy: main roads, shopping streets, neighborhood streets and service alleys. Each of these, as well as intersections and destinations, should be indicated by a consistent system of spatial cues [33]. This circulation in the health-care facility should be independent of public roadways, and public (nonsecured) and private (secured) zones should be distinct, preferably with patient intake and outdoor recreational areas in the private zone. Traffic circulation should be organized so that individuals and ambulances can directly access emergency facilities [29].

The main circulation routes should be clearly indicated, for example by giving easily understood names to the main corridors like "Hospital Street" or "Blue Corridor" (here the walls and floor should be predominantly blue in color); or having colored lines along the walls or floor to designate main routes; or using lighting along a route [42]. Primary routes should be accessible to everyone; however, some people will prefer to experience the natural environment unmodified and will not expect easy access everywhere [25].

Minor walkways should be at least 1.5m wide, with drainage that will get rid of rainwater quickly. One-way traffic routes should be at least 1.5m wide to allow for the turning circle of a wheelchair; while two-way traffic routes should be at least 2.1m wide. There is a risk of tripping if the edges of a path are raised [26]; and handrails or balustrades and wheelchair barriers will preclude people's falling where surface levels change, or from entering uneven ground beside paths and paved areas.

In the garden, clear links with different facilities and direct routes are essential. Right-angled corners in paths should be avoided, and slopes designed as follows: a walkway's slope should not exceed 5% (i.e. 30.48cm of rise for a length of 6.1m); cross slopes should not exceed 2% (30.48cm of rise for a length of 15.24m). Where the slope does exceed 1/20, there should be a support railing to preclude slipping. The surfaces of paths should be firm, smooth and level, and provide traction; they should reflect the context, with "softer" materials used for informal settings. Paving surfaces should be smooth enough to be used by wheelchairs and gurneys [3]; but grooved paving may be unsuitable for them. Different

materials have different pros and cons: concrete is suitable, but costly; asphalt absorbs and radiates heat, and may be too hot in the summer; decomposed granite may be suitable for wheelchairs, but is not for users of crutches. More recently developed rubberized paving materials are firm enough to support wheelchairs, and also absorb the force of a fall.

Hospital Outdoor Landscape Design 391

her emotional state. For example, abstract art might be seen as interesting by a relaxed person, but as frightening or threatening by a person in a state of anxiety [8]. As the hospital environment tends to increase stress, artworks, sculptures and other design elements should provide an unambiguously positive message; complex or abstract art is therefore not

Appropriate artworks can create an engaging focal point for a hospital space. In terms of genre, Ulrich has shown that postoperative patients preferred representational pictures, which tend to incorporate the subdued colors of nature, as opposed to abstract art, which often features unexpected color combinations; another study found that people in a state of anxiety prefer less saturated colors [46]. The artworks should therefore be selected with

Hearing water running in a fountain, or seeing fish in a pond or sunlight reflecting on water, can be meaningful for a patient [44]; the sound of running water in particular can mask other noises which negatively affect the therapeutic value of a space. Such sights and sounds

Water should be available, close to the garden site, and in a paved area to prevent muddying. The spigot should be 61-91.5cm above ground, and hand levers (not round spigot handles) and snap connectors should be used. Soaker hoses and mulch can decrease the water requirements of the garden. "Bubble" fountains may be appropriate, as they are

This term refers to free-standing elements such as seating, litter bins, lighting and signs, which should be selected to meet the needs of users. Furniture should be anchored to concrete pads or too heavy to be moved, and in cases where there is a risk of users running

Seating should be available where people would actually want to use it, typically enclosed and towards the back, facing an attractive view or focal point, and not obstructing people on the path. Comfortable, movable, and varied seating can increase usage of the garden, especially by hospital staff; there should be benches and chairs for individuals, and more social seating arrangements for groups [38]. Social seating arrangements (right-angled or centripetal benches, or movable chairs) should be conveniently located near the garden entrance, where they are most likely to be used by staff for short breaks [3]. In addition to semiprivate areas there should be some benches arranged in a line rather than in a group,

create sensory focal points for garden spaces which attract all ages and abilities.

tactile and make use of shallow water, raising fewer health and safety issues.

away, it should not be placed near fences or walls [32].

suitable for this kind of setting.

these effects in mind.

*3.1.8. Site furniture* 

*3.1.8.1. Seating* 

facing a view or circulation area.

*3.1.7. Water* 

Outdoor areas should be designed so they can be used throughout the year; snow- or icemelting devices should be in place for walkways during the winter.

## *3.1.4. Children's gardens*

Children are usually discouraged from moving around in hospital environments lest they disturb the health-care workers or patients; there should be spaces set apart for them where they can move as freely as they need or wish to [43], as they need to engage in imaginative play regardless of the condition of their health. Children need to feel they can create and make changes by interacting with their environment and moving objects and parts; as a result, flexible play areas should be designed to stimulate their imaginations [44] and give them the pleasure and therapeutic benefit of creative activity.

A children's area might, in addition to using primary colors and providing climbing structures, include a path maze, a chalkboard masonry wall, child-sized sculptures, or a miniature bridge traversing a faux rock stream, which can also be crossed on stepping stones. Routes should be stable and made of surfaces like decomposed granite, asphalt, wooden boardwalk, resilient mats, and concrete, to resist slipping. There might be platforms so children in wheelchairs can safely move onto and off play structures; and sand play areas may be made available at different heights, so they can be used on the ground or from a wheelchair [45].

### *3.1.5. Dining areas*

Because the dining area is used by more people than any other hospital area, there are more potential outdoor space users in it; having an outdoor space near the dining area is essential [1]. There should be tables in the space for eating, reading, and writing activities, and to serve as territorial markers, as people rarely intrude on a table that is being used. Shade and semiprivate group spaces can also be provided by umbrella tables with chairs.

### *3.1.6. Art*

Artworks form part of the healing environment, and works of art in health-care facilities featuring images of nature have been linked with stress relief in diverse groups of people. In hospital spaces which can easily be accessed, artworks which create inviting, habitable spaces should be incorporated into the design.

The type of artwork used is also important; it should have what Niedenthal et al. (1994) describe as "emotional congruence", which means that when confronted with a collection of environmental stimuli, the viewer will tend to focus on the parts that correspond to his or her emotional state. For example, abstract art might be seen as interesting by a relaxed person, but as frightening or threatening by a person in a state of anxiety [8]. As the hospital environment tends to increase stress, artworks, sculptures and other design elements should provide an unambiguously positive message; complex or abstract art is therefore not suitable for this kind of setting.

Appropriate artworks can create an engaging focal point for a hospital space. In terms of genre, Ulrich has shown that postoperative patients preferred representational pictures, which tend to incorporate the subdued colors of nature, as opposed to abstract art, which often features unexpected color combinations; another study found that people in a state of anxiety prefer less saturated colors [46]. The artworks should therefore be selected with these effects in mind.

## *3.1.7. Water*

390 Advances in Landscape Architecture

*3.1.4. Children's gardens* 

wheelchair [45].

*3.1.6. Art* 

*3.1.5. Dining areas* 

materials have different pros and cons: concrete is suitable, but costly; asphalt absorbs and radiates heat, and may be too hot in the summer; decomposed granite may be suitable for wheelchairs, but is not for users of crutches. More recently developed rubberized paving

Outdoor areas should be designed so they can be used throughout the year; snow- or ice-

Children are usually discouraged from moving around in hospital environments lest they disturb the health-care workers or patients; there should be spaces set apart for them where they can move as freely as they need or wish to [43], as they need to engage in imaginative play regardless of the condition of their health. Children need to feel they can create and make changes by interacting with their environment and moving objects and parts; as a result, flexible play areas should be designed to stimulate their imaginations [44] and give

A children's area might, in addition to using primary colors and providing climbing structures, include a path maze, a chalkboard masonry wall, child-sized sculptures, or a miniature bridge traversing a faux rock stream, which can also be crossed on stepping stones. Routes should be stable and made of surfaces like decomposed granite, asphalt, wooden boardwalk, resilient mats, and concrete, to resist slipping. There might be platforms so children in wheelchairs can safely move onto and off play structures; and sand play areas may be made available at different heights, so they can be used on the ground or from a

Because the dining area is used by more people than any other hospital area, there are more potential outdoor space users in it; having an outdoor space near the dining area is essential [1]. There should be tables in the space for eating, reading, and writing activities, and to serve as territorial markers, as people rarely intrude on a table that is being used. Shade and

Artworks form part of the healing environment, and works of art in health-care facilities featuring images of nature have been linked with stress relief in diverse groups of people. In hospital spaces which can easily be accessed, artworks which create inviting, habitable

The type of artwork used is also important; it should have what Niedenthal et al. (1994) describe as "emotional congruence", which means that when confronted with a collection of environmental stimuli, the viewer will tend to focus on the parts that correspond to his or

semiprivate group spaces can also be provided by umbrella tables with chairs.

spaces should be incorporated into the design.

materials are firm enough to support wheelchairs, and also absorb the force of a fall.

melting devices should be in place for walkways during the winter.

them the pleasure and therapeutic benefit of creative activity.

Hearing water running in a fountain, or seeing fish in a pond or sunlight reflecting on water, can be meaningful for a patient [44]; the sound of running water in particular can mask other noises which negatively affect the therapeutic value of a space. Such sights and sounds create sensory focal points for garden spaces which attract all ages and abilities.

Water should be available, close to the garden site, and in a paved area to prevent muddying. The spigot should be 61-91.5cm above ground, and hand levers (not round spigot handles) and snap connectors should be used. Soaker hoses and mulch can decrease the water requirements of the garden. "Bubble" fountains may be appropriate, as they are tactile and make use of shallow water, raising fewer health and safety issues.

## *3.1.8. Site furniture*

This term refers to free-standing elements such as seating, litter bins, lighting and signs, which should be selected to meet the needs of users. Furniture should be anchored to concrete pads or too heavy to be moved, and in cases where there is a risk of users running away, it should not be placed near fences or walls [32].

#### *3.1.8.1. Seating*

Seating should be available where people would actually want to use it, typically enclosed and towards the back, facing an attractive view or focal point, and not obstructing people on the path. Comfortable, movable, and varied seating can increase usage of the garden, especially by hospital staff; there should be benches and chairs for individuals, and more social seating arrangements for groups [38]. Social seating arrangements (right-angled or centripetal benches, or movable chairs) should be conveniently located near the garden entrance, where they are most likely to be used by staff for short breaks [3]. In addition to semiprivate areas there should be some benches arranged in a line rather than in a group, facing a view or circulation area.

Benches are usually situated at rest places or corridors with an exterior view [44]. Space should be left beside a seat to accommodate a wheelchair or electric scooter. Raised features can help wheelchair users and people who cannot easily bend down, and should attract others as well, for example if the edge can serve as an informal seat. The thinnest construction materials should be used as long as they are stable, to increase the area of the garden: seating ledges should be 20-45cm wide, and the sides may range from 45cm high for a child, to 60cm for a visitor sitting by a bed, to 75cm or more for those who cannot bend easily.

Hospital Outdoor Landscape Design 393

As noted earlier, plants which require little water beyond the establishment period and can tolerate the urban environment and climate changes should take precedence in hospital garden planning. Other types of vegetation with varied densities should be used to connect greenways and wildlife corridors; and native vegetation should be mixed with compatible new plants in such a way as to sustain both. Native trees are particularly useful as they attract local wildlife: plant species that attract butterflies bring an atmosphere of gentleness; while additional features (fountains or birdbaths, a bird feeder, trees appropriate for roosting or nesting) may be used to attract birds, which stimulate the senses with their

A dark woodland environment might feel oppressive, so open, sunny glades and generous paths are preferable for the health-care environment: they help wild flowers to grow, and enhance the sensory aspects of nature [25]. Seasonally changing flowering trees, shrubs and perennials bring a comforting awareness of life's rhythms and cycles; and using vegetation that provides contrast and harmony through textures, forms, colors and arrangements

Large canopy trees create shade in summer and provide shelter in winter; they can help modify the local climate and reduce the air temperature. Trees with foliage that moves in the breeze attract the gaze to patterns of colors, shadows, light, and movement, providing a soothing and meditative experience [3]. In mental health facilities with high security, trees can soften and screen off the sight of security fences, and can also be planted in areas that patients can access under supervision. Shrubs should be trimmed to emphasize their natural form, so the space looks well cared for and sends the implied message that patients are also

For all users of the garden, including the partially sighted, scented and brightly coloured flowers and leaves provide an attractive sensory experience. The olfactory sense is closely associated with memories and feelings, so scents can suddenly stimulate memories and responses, aiding those with memory loss. Sensory stimulation is particularly important for the visually impaired and for patients with reduced cognitive function, and this can be assisted by plants that are colorful throughout the year, are scented (e.g. Lavandula spp. and Echinacea spp.), and have tactile qualities (e.g. Festuca caesia). Fruit trees can be good for

The edible garden is a useful concept, particularly if the produce can be used in the facility's kitchens. Long-term residents will be able to experience the seasonal development of the garden, and patients in day centers will be able to participate in tending the garden at any time of the year; an activities program might focus on food-growing – for example, eating fruit crumble, or painting berries [25]. Planting an orchard also puts a site which is only

Precautions should be taken in planting to ensure that there are no hazardous or thorny plants, especially in gardens for children or psychiatric patients, and also no plants that

**3.2. Planting design** 

well cared for.

colors and sounds and raise people's morale.

smaller spaces, and offer seasonal attractions.

available for a short time to good use.

draws people's attention and and focus away from themselves [8].

Seats can be artworks in themselves. The material used should not retain heat or cold, so concrete, aluminium and steel should not be used: wood or hard plastic are preferable. Moveable chairs can be rearranged depending on the sun or shade, and to adjust the size of the seated group. In general, seats should have arm and back support, but their height and depth, as well as their supporting structure, will affect their usefulness to people with special needs, and this should be taken into consideration [25].

#### *3.1.8.2. Signage*

Being able to choose whether or not to follow or avoid a route that might have rough paths is essential; appropriate, approachable and welcoming signs are a must. Site signage should indicate, among other things, directional or one-way traffic, restrictions, parking, deliveries, patient entry points, entrances to facilities, and so on [32]. Tactile signs should be fixed at a height of 150cm (120cm for children) [45]. Other sensory indictors, such as audible water features and wind chimes may also be used to assist wayfinding for the visually impaired in the garden.

#### *3.1.8.3. Lighting*

The primary purpose of lighting is to enhance safety and security. Exterior lighting deters thieves or vandals; while lights on stairs, walkways or approach roads both increase safety from attackers and help prevent accidental falls. Parking areas, entrance and service roads, and also isolated or dark areas need to be clearly defined and lit; bollards or bulkheads are usually used for this purpose. Lighting along pedestrian routes should be mounted at a height where faces can be seen and recognized, and any entrances, intersections or hazards such as changes in path level, should be indicated by beacons. An added therapeutical benefit of night-time lighting is that it enables safe use of the space at night, and viewing of the garden from indoors [3].

#### *3.1.8.4. Receptacles*

The locations of trash containers should be considered as an essential element of health-care facility planning, as they allow for easy disposal of food and paper products outdoors. The number of receptacles required depends on the population density and the activity level in an area, as well as how often they are emptied; overflowing litter bins indicate a need either for more of them or for more frequent service. There should be litter containers at all transition areas such as doors, building entries, parking access points and social and pedestrian spaces. To provide a less disturbing environment, receptacles should be placed at least 3.6m away from where people tend to socialize [38].

## **3.2. Planting design**

392 Advances in Landscape Architecture

*3.1.8.2. Signage* 

the garden.

*3.1.8.3. Lighting* 

the garden from indoors [3].

least 3.6m away from where people tend to socialize [38].

*3.1.8.4. Receptacles* 

Benches are usually situated at rest places or corridors with an exterior view [44]. Space should be left beside a seat to accommodate a wheelchair or electric scooter. Raised features can help wheelchair users and people who cannot easily bend down, and should attract others as well, for example if the edge can serve as an informal seat. The thinnest construction materials should be used as long as they are stable, to increase the area of the garden: seating ledges should be 20-45cm wide, and the sides may range from 45cm high for a child, to 60cm for a

Seats can be artworks in themselves. The material used should not retain heat or cold, so concrete, aluminium and steel should not be used: wood or hard plastic are preferable. Moveable chairs can be rearranged depending on the sun or shade, and to adjust the size of the seated group. In general, seats should have arm and back support, but their height and depth, as well as their supporting structure, will affect their usefulness to people with

Being able to choose whether or not to follow or avoid a route that might have rough paths is essential; appropriate, approachable and welcoming signs are a must. Site signage should indicate, among other things, directional or one-way traffic, restrictions, parking, deliveries, patient entry points, entrances to facilities, and so on [32]. Tactile signs should be fixed at a height of 150cm (120cm for children) [45]. Other sensory indictors, such as audible water features and wind chimes may also be used to assist wayfinding for the visually impaired in

The primary purpose of lighting is to enhance safety and security. Exterior lighting deters thieves or vandals; while lights on stairs, walkways or approach roads both increase safety from attackers and help prevent accidental falls. Parking areas, entrance and service roads, and also isolated or dark areas need to be clearly defined and lit; bollards or bulkheads are usually used for this purpose. Lighting along pedestrian routes should be mounted at a height where faces can be seen and recognized, and any entrances, intersections or hazards such as changes in path level, should be indicated by beacons. An added therapeutical benefit of night-time lighting is that it enables safe use of the space at night, and viewing of

The locations of trash containers should be considered as an essential element of health-care facility planning, as they allow for easy disposal of food and paper products outdoors. The number of receptacles required depends on the population density and the activity level in an area, as well as how often they are emptied; overflowing litter bins indicate a need either for more of them or for more frequent service. There should be litter containers at all transition areas such as doors, building entries, parking access points and social and pedestrian spaces. To provide a less disturbing environment, receptacles should be placed at

visitor sitting by a bed, to 75cm or more for those who cannot bend easily.

special needs, and this should be taken into consideration [25].

As noted earlier, plants which require little water beyond the establishment period and can tolerate the urban environment and climate changes should take precedence in hospital garden planning. Other types of vegetation with varied densities should be used to connect greenways and wildlife corridors; and native vegetation should be mixed with compatible new plants in such a way as to sustain both. Native trees are particularly useful as they attract local wildlife: plant species that attract butterflies bring an atmosphere of gentleness; while additional features (fountains or birdbaths, a bird feeder, trees appropriate for roosting or nesting) may be used to attract birds, which stimulate the senses with their colors and sounds and raise people's morale.

A dark woodland environment might feel oppressive, so open, sunny glades and generous paths are preferable for the health-care environment: they help wild flowers to grow, and enhance the sensory aspects of nature [25]. Seasonally changing flowering trees, shrubs and perennials bring a comforting awareness of life's rhythms and cycles; and using vegetation that provides contrast and harmony through textures, forms, colors and arrangements draws people's attention and and focus away from themselves [8].

Large canopy trees create shade in summer and provide shelter in winter; they can help modify the local climate and reduce the air temperature. Trees with foliage that moves in the breeze attract the gaze to patterns of colors, shadows, light, and movement, providing a soothing and meditative experience [3]. In mental health facilities with high security, trees can soften and screen off the sight of security fences, and can also be planted in areas that patients can access under supervision. Shrubs should be trimmed to emphasize their natural form, so the space looks well cared for and sends the implied message that patients are also well cared for.

For all users of the garden, including the partially sighted, scented and brightly coloured flowers and leaves provide an attractive sensory experience. The olfactory sense is closely associated with memories and feelings, so scents can suddenly stimulate memories and responses, aiding those with memory loss. Sensory stimulation is particularly important for the visually impaired and for patients with reduced cognitive function, and this can be assisted by plants that are colorful throughout the year, are scented (e.g. Lavandula spp. and Echinacea spp.), and have tactile qualities (e.g. Festuca caesia). Fruit trees can be good for smaller spaces, and offer seasonal attractions.

The edible garden is a useful concept, particularly if the produce can be used in the facility's kitchens. Long-term residents will be able to experience the seasonal development of the garden, and patients in day centers will be able to participate in tending the garden at any time of the year; an activities program might focus on food-growing – for example, eating fruit crumble, or painting berries [25]. Planting an orchard also puts a site which is only available for a short time to good use.

Precautions should be taken in planting to ensure that there are no hazardous or thorny plants, especially in gardens for children or psychiatric patients, and also no plants that

drop slippery fruit or leaves that might constitute a hazard [39]. Low shrubs and dense, dark vegetated "walls" that obscure the view should not be planted near sidewalks; instead, these areas should be planted with year-round screens whose appearance is softened by varied deciduous plants and open spaces.

Hospital Outdoor Landscape Design 395

environments reduces anger, anxiety and pain and induces relaxation. Research also shows that "positive distractions" can reduce stress [7, 4, 45, 49], and their visual forms include gardens, scenic views and artwork, which play a critical role in modern hospital design: gardens, fountains, fish tanks, rooftop gardens, and water features provide patients, staff and visitors with restorative experiences of nature. Sensory stimulation through design elements or atmospheric features like labyrinths and reflecting pools, seasonal vegetation that attracts birds, and found objects of art and other elements of surprise and delight, also

Green areas outside hospitals are today seen as both beneficial and necessary, and specialized gardens have now been designed to meet the needs of particular patient groups such as children, cancer patients, those undergoing rehabilitation, burn patients, the elderly and Alzheimer's patients, among others. In order to afford the greatest therapeutic benefits, the health-care garden should have a broad variety of vegetation, including seasonal flowering species, plants that attract small, safe fauna (birds, squirrels, butterflies), and leaves or grasses that move in the breeze. There should be views open to the sky and clouds, and if possible to the horizon; reflecting pools with fish or water lilies; and moving water

The benefits of gardens in health-care facilities may be limited by various factors. The first of these is lack of information on a garden's location, accessibility and purpose: hospital staff should be educated as to its purpose and users, and on how to make use of it in patient and family care; and continual feedback to staff from users is essential. To ensure that patients and their visitors are aware of the garden and can access it, colorful brochures with pictures, information, and maps should be distributed, and posters about it put up in frequented areas such as elevators [14]. Other limiting factors may include lack of sensitivity to patients' specific mobility needs; disturbing sensory stimuli (e.g. noise and allergic pollens); lack of facilities for competing user needs (such as the wish to smoke or the desire for fresh air); and

It is vital that the garden be easily maintainable, to inspire confidence in patients that they are being well taken care of by the staff. Water-efficient, low-maintenance landscaping should be used, with water conservation achieved by managing storm water runoff in the site. Keeping up and using green spaces around hospitals lowers the costs associated with recovery and also contributes positively to patients' survival chances and quality of life during their stay. Hospitals should landscape and improve their existing green spaces, and then restructure their facilities and patient care practices to provide maximal interaction

Today the requirements of some specific patient groups are being taken into account when planning and designing outdoor hospital spaces [36]; there is now a need for gardens to be designed for other patient groups, such as children with autism, cystic fibrosis or cerebral palsy; patients with schizophrenia or Parkinson's disease; and heart

between patients, visitors, staff and these natural environments.

contribute to positive distraction.

features that can be seen and heard.

ambiguous design elements [32].

surgery patients.

*Elevated gardens* can be designed for the use of patients in wheelchairs; here pots and planters should be raised to a height of at least 61cm and should be accessible from all sides if they exceed this depth. This kind of vertical garden can be used easily by both ambulatory and seated patients.

*Raised planter boxes* can be set up in some areas and looked after by patients in wheelchairs or on motorized scooters; this adds area to the garden at minimal cost. The width of the plant beds should be at most 1.5m if they can be accessed from all sides, or 0.75m if they are used from one side. More area can also be added to the raised bed through the use of structural extensions.

**Table planters** are shallow, soil-filled trays supported on legs. These raised planters, which are the same width as raised planters, need a height of about 70cm of free space below them (including knee clearance) to allow people to sit on chairs and tend them. The soil containers should be 20-25cm deep, so the total height of the structure is about 87.5-92.5cm, with the top of the planter no higher than the rib cage of the seated person [45].

## **3.3. Maintenance of hospital landscape areas**

The site should be well manitained, for therapeutic as well as physical safety reasons [47]. In comparison with patio structures and spaces, shrubs, trees, and flowers are more difficult to maintain, but they provide the most therapeutic benefits. Suitable fertilizing, selective thinning rather than shearing, and the use of seasonal color are important factors conducive to the characteristics of the garden that users prefer [3]; hand weeding, mulching, companion planting, and the proper spacing of plants will decrease the the use of chemical fertilizers. In short, a poorly maintained environment offends their dignity and has a negative effect on the morale of patients.

## **4. Conclusion**

While gardens had been used in the service of health care for centuries, modern medicine, beginning in the early 20th century, disregarded their therapeutic value [48]. In recent years, however, there has been a resurgence of interest in the contribution to healing provided by outdoor garden environments in healthcare facilities. The hours spent in a hospital can be stressful for patients, staff and visitors, and going out into a garden provides an escape; as one patient commented: "It's a good escape from what they put me through. I come out here between appointments... I feel much calmer, less stressed." [5].

Easy access to a natural environment can contribute to stress management and potentially improve health outcomes**:** physiological studies indicate that 3-5 minutes spent in such environments reduces anger, anxiety and pain and induces relaxation. Research also shows that "positive distractions" can reduce stress [7, 4, 45, 49], and their visual forms include gardens, scenic views and artwork, which play a critical role in modern hospital design: gardens, fountains, fish tanks, rooftop gardens, and water features provide patients, staff and visitors with restorative experiences of nature. Sensory stimulation through design elements or atmospheric features like labyrinths and reflecting pools, seasonal vegetation that attracts birds, and found objects of art and other elements of surprise and delight, also contribute to positive distraction.

394 Advances in Landscape Architecture

and seated patients.

structural extensions.

[45].

deciduous plants and open spaces.

**3.3. Maintenance of hospital landscape areas** 

negative effect on the morale of patients.

between appointments... I feel much calmer, less stressed." [5].

**4. Conclusion** 

drop slippery fruit or leaves that might constitute a hazard [39]. Low shrubs and dense, dark vegetated "walls" that obscure the view should not be planted near sidewalks; instead, these areas should be planted with year-round screens whose appearance is softened by varied

*Elevated gardens* can be designed for the use of patients in wheelchairs; here pots and planters should be raised to a height of at least 61cm and should be accessible from all sides if they exceed this depth. This kind of vertical garden can be used easily by both ambulatory

*Raised planter boxes* can be set up in some areas and looked after by patients in wheelchairs or on motorized scooters; this adds area to the garden at minimal cost. The width of the plant beds should be at most 1.5m if they can be accessed from all sides, or 0.75m if they are used from one side. More area can also be added to the raised bed through the use of

**Table planters** are shallow, soil-filled trays supported on legs. These raised planters, which are the same width as raised planters, need a height of about 70cm of free space below them (including knee clearance) to allow people to sit on chairs and tend them. The soil containers should be 20-25cm deep, so the total height of the structure is about 87.5-92.5cm, with the top of the planter no higher than the rib cage of the seated person

The site should be well manitained, for therapeutic as well as physical safety reasons [47]. In comparison with patio structures and spaces, shrubs, trees, and flowers are more difficult to maintain, but they provide the most therapeutic benefits. Suitable fertilizing, selective thinning rather than shearing, and the use of seasonal color are important factors conducive to the characteristics of the garden that users prefer [3]; hand weeding, mulching, companion planting, and the proper spacing of plants will decrease the the use of chemical fertilizers. In short, a poorly maintained environment offends their dignity and has a

While gardens had been used in the service of health care for centuries, modern medicine, beginning in the early 20th century, disregarded their therapeutic value [48]. In recent years, however, there has been a resurgence of interest in the contribution to healing provided by outdoor garden environments in healthcare facilities. The hours spent in a hospital can be stressful for patients, staff and visitors, and going out into a garden provides an escape; as one patient commented: "It's a good escape from what they put me through. I come out here

Easy access to a natural environment can contribute to stress management and potentially improve health outcomes**:** physiological studies indicate that 3-5 minutes spent in such Green areas outside hospitals are today seen as both beneficial and necessary, and specialized gardens have now been designed to meet the needs of particular patient groups such as children, cancer patients, those undergoing rehabilitation, burn patients, the elderly and Alzheimer's patients, among others. In order to afford the greatest therapeutic benefits, the health-care garden should have a broad variety of vegetation, including seasonal flowering species, plants that attract small, safe fauna (birds, squirrels, butterflies), and leaves or grasses that move in the breeze. There should be views open to the sky and clouds, and if possible to the horizon; reflecting pools with fish or water lilies; and moving water features that can be seen and heard.

The benefits of gardens in health-care facilities may be limited by various factors. The first of these is lack of information on a garden's location, accessibility and purpose: hospital staff should be educated as to its purpose and users, and on how to make use of it in patient and family care; and continual feedback to staff from users is essential. To ensure that patients and their visitors are aware of the garden and can access it, colorful brochures with pictures, information, and maps should be distributed, and posters about it put up in frequented areas such as elevators [14]. Other limiting factors may include lack of sensitivity to patients' specific mobility needs; disturbing sensory stimuli (e.g. noise and allergic pollens); lack of facilities for competing user needs (such as the wish to smoke or the desire for fresh air); and ambiguous design elements [32].

It is vital that the garden be easily maintainable, to inspire confidence in patients that they are being well taken care of by the staff. Water-efficient, low-maintenance landscaping should be used, with water conservation achieved by managing storm water runoff in the site. Keeping up and using green spaces around hospitals lowers the costs associated with recovery and also contributes positively to patients' survival chances and quality of life during their stay. Hospitals should landscape and improve their existing green spaces, and then restructure their facilities and patient care practices to provide maximal interaction between patients, visitors, staff and these natural environments.

Today the requirements of some specific patient groups are being taken into account when planning and designing outdoor hospital spaces [36]; there is now a need for gardens to be designed for other patient groups, such as children with autism, cystic fibrosis or cerebral palsy; patients with schizophrenia or Parkinson's disease; and heart surgery patients.

## **Author details**

Gökçen Firdevs Yücel *Architecture Department İstanbul Aydn University, İstanbul, Turkey* 

## **5. References**

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Hospital Outdoor Landscape Design 397

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**Section 3** 

**Urban Landscape** 


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[51] Bruce, Hank and Folk, Tomi Jill. Gardens for the Senses, Gardening as Therapy, Petals

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[35] Piotrowsk, Christine M. Designing Commercial Interiors, Wiley; 2007.

Environmental Sciences and Forestry, Syracuse, New York; 2007.

The Parking Professional Magazine, 2009; October: 33-35.

28th International Public Health Seminar; 2009.

settings, Journal of Perinatology, 2006; 26: 34–37.

of Design's Healing Potential, Wiley; 2011.

Healthcare Facilities, Stationery Office Books; 2nd edition; 2005.

**Chapter 16** 

© 2013 Sisman, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

educational and physical improvements should include drivers.

Walking is the oldest form of human transportation. With the exception of devices to enhance the mobility of the disabled, walking demands no special equipment. Thus, walking is the most affordable and accessible of modes. Walking is clean, easy on the infrastructure, healthy for the individual and integral to community livability. People who walk know their neighbors and their neighborhood. A community that is designed to

Every trip begins and ends as a pedestrian action, so everyone is a pedestrian at regular and various times and places in their lives. Pedestrians can be grouped in a similar manner as cyclists, but the classifications have less effect on facility design. Adult commuters walk daily to work or college, and require reasonably direct routes to keep travel time down. General pedestrians include all people who are walking through shopping and service areas, from home to a friend's house, and typically on short, purposeful trips. They require safe access to multiple services. Special pedestrians include children and those with impairments. This group may require special facilities or assistance when traveling, and facility improvements for these travelers are generally helpful to everyone. No matter what type of pedestrian or purpose of trip, however, all pedestrians have basic needs. Safety is the primary need for pedestrians, who are often the most exposed to the dangers of high speed traffic. A safe system includes designated separate space for pedestrians that is free of potentially dangerous obstacles and keeps the pedestrian visible to other traffic. Width and surface of facilities is important depending on setting. Urban areas should have solid surface walks with adequate room for many users at one time. Only an aware and educated individual will act in a safe manner when presented with the numerous decision points along any given pedestrian route. Information and training programs are essential to any community striving for safe walking conditions. Because automobile traffic is the largest threat to pedestrians, both

**Pedestrian Zones** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

support walking is livable and attractive.

Elif Ebru Sisman

**1. Introduction** 

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55748

## **Pedestrian Zones**

Elif Ebru Sisman

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55748

## **1. Introduction**

Walking is the oldest form of human transportation. With the exception of devices to enhance the mobility of the disabled, walking demands no special equipment. Thus, walking is the most affordable and accessible of modes. Walking is clean, easy on the infrastructure, healthy for the individual and integral to community livability. People who walk know their neighbors and their neighborhood. A community that is designed to support walking is livable and attractive.

Every trip begins and ends as a pedestrian action, so everyone is a pedestrian at regular and various times and places in their lives. Pedestrians can be grouped in a similar manner as cyclists, but the classifications have less effect on facility design. Adult commuters walk daily to work or college, and require reasonably direct routes to keep travel time down. General pedestrians include all people who are walking through shopping and service areas, from home to a friend's house, and typically on short, purposeful trips. They require safe access to multiple services. Special pedestrians include children and those with impairments. This group may require special facilities or assistance when traveling, and facility improvements for these travelers are generally helpful to everyone. No matter what type of pedestrian or purpose of trip, however, all pedestrians have basic needs. Safety is the primary need for pedestrians, who are often the most exposed to the dangers of high speed traffic. A safe system includes designated separate space for pedestrians that is free of potentially dangerous obstacles and keeps the pedestrian visible to other traffic. Width and surface of facilities is important depending on setting. Urban areas should have solid surface walks with adequate room for many users at one time. Only an aware and educated individual will act in a safe manner when presented with the numerous decision points along any given pedestrian route. Information and training programs are essential to any community striving for safe walking conditions. Because automobile traffic is the largest threat to pedestrians, both educational and physical improvements should include drivers.

© 2013 Sisman, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Population and urban living is increasing globally. We have to learn to build new and regenerated sustainable cities to address global issues at a local level.

Pedestrian Zones 403

roadway. Pedestrians are the priority users the area. Automobiles are permitted at all times

Happy and healthy living in towns is related to the extent that town's open green space system is enough for the requirements. Today, pedestrian zones have been achieved to increase rapidly disappearing open space and to provide comfortable and safe circulation

A pedestrian zone is simply an area where vehicles are restricted and reserved for pedestrians who are free to occupy the entire space. The zone entrances and exits are often designated with signage to make all users of the road aware when they are entering or

As pointed out by Rubenstein (1992); three types of pedestrian malls have commonly been implemented in the United States. The first type consists of a traditional pedestrian street designed for exclusive pedestrian use (Full mall) (Figure2). The second type is the shared mall that permits limited automobile use such as one lane of one-way traffic (Semi mall) (Figure3). The third type is the transit mall which accommodates both pedestrian and transit

provided they do not exceed walking speed.

**3. Definition of pedestrian zones** 

**Figure 1.** Pedestrian Zones (Budapest, Hungary)

for pedestrians.

exiting such an area.

use (Figure 4).

Today, people are restrained from walking comfortably around especially in the city centre due to rapid urbanization and increasing vehicle traffic. It is socially, aesthetically and economically important to provide people restrained by the urbanization movements with open spaces that are secure, comfortable, partly or totally cleansed from vehicle traffic. In order to specify the needs and suggestions of people, it is important to incorporate them into the processes of planning and designing pedestrian spaces which target to revitalize the historical urban fabric.

## **2. History of Pedestrianization**

In ancient times, the basic form of transportation was to walk. The relationship between urban design and transportation dates back to ancient times. City design in the ancient cities of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and India stressed the laying out proper roads and triumphal avenues as a key ingredient for good design. Later, Greeks and Roman stressed the importance of laying out adequate roads (Sen, 1999).

Beginning the ancient times, pedestrian zones have been the mark of bustling, prosperous cities. Past civilizations banned vehicular and animal traffic from crowded areas, because of reduce pollution, alleviate congestion in the interests of safety and order, and create aesthetically pleasing urban areas. Until the automobile age, two types of pollution from vehicles were noise and manure (Rosen, 2006).

In the classical age, the order minded Romans used the pedestrian zones to solve design problems throughout their empire. During the middle Ages, Northern Italy was the most heavily urbanized area of Europe, claiming Europe's largest and wealthiest cities (Rosen, 2006). Street design became an integral feature of Roman cities, which had paved streets with elevated sidewalks. Concern for aesthetics of street design resurfaced during the Renaissance in fifteenth century Europe (Sen, 1999). The density of the industrial revolution greatly exacerbated the problems stemming from city life. Some of municipal government prohibited cart and wagons transporting merchandise on selected central streets during most daytime hours (Rosen, 2006).

Since the Second World War, down towns in which automobile access was restricted retained or saw increased activity for more often than downtown areas which were not pedestrianized. The modern pedestrian zone was born in Kassel, Germany, at the close of Second World War. With 80% of the city destroyed, urban planners saw once-in- a-lifetime opportunity.

Over the next few years, most German cities and many in other European countries built pedestrian zones.

The Dutch invented a compromise pedestrian zone for residential areas, known as the woonerf that is popular throughout northern Europe. Cars and pedestrians share the roadway. Pedestrians are the priority users the area. Automobiles are permitted at all times provided they do not exceed walking speed.

## **3. Definition of pedestrian zones**

402 Advances in Landscape Architecture

historical urban fabric.

**2. History of Pedestrianization** 

importance of laying out adequate roads (Sen, 1999).

vehicles were noise and manure (Rosen, 2006).

most daytime hours (Rosen, 2006).

opportunity.

pedestrian zones.

Population and urban living is increasing globally. We have to learn to build new and

Today, people are restrained from walking comfortably around especially in the city centre due to rapid urbanization and increasing vehicle traffic. It is socially, aesthetically and economically important to provide people restrained by the urbanization movements with open spaces that are secure, comfortable, partly or totally cleansed from vehicle traffic. In order to specify the needs and suggestions of people, it is important to incorporate them into the processes of planning and designing pedestrian spaces which target to revitalize the

In ancient times, the basic form of transportation was to walk. The relationship between urban design and transportation dates back to ancient times. City design in the ancient cities of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and India stressed the laying out proper roads and triumphal avenues as a key ingredient for good design. Later, Greeks and Roman stressed the

Beginning the ancient times, pedestrian zones have been the mark of bustling, prosperous cities. Past civilizations banned vehicular and animal traffic from crowded areas, because of reduce pollution, alleviate congestion in the interests of safety and order, and create aesthetically pleasing urban areas. Until the automobile age, two types of pollution from

In the classical age, the order minded Romans used the pedestrian zones to solve design problems throughout their empire. During the middle Ages, Northern Italy was the most heavily urbanized area of Europe, claiming Europe's largest and wealthiest cities (Rosen, 2006). Street design became an integral feature of Roman cities, which had paved streets with elevated sidewalks. Concern for aesthetics of street design resurfaced during the Renaissance in fifteenth century Europe (Sen, 1999). The density of the industrial revolution greatly exacerbated the problems stemming from city life. Some of municipal government prohibited cart and wagons transporting merchandise on selected central streets during

Since the Second World War, down towns in which automobile access was restricted retained or saw increased activity for more often than downtown areas which were not pedestrianized. The modern pedestrian zone was born in Kassel, Germany, at the close of Second World War. With 80% of the city destroyed, urban planners saw once-in- a-lifetime

Over the next few years, most German cities and many in other European countries built

The Dutch invented a compromise pedestrian zone for residential areas, known as the woonerf that is popular throughout northern Europe. Cars and pedestrians share the

regenerated sustainable cities to address global issues at a local level.

Happy and healthy living in towns is related to the extent that town's open green space system is enough for the requirements. Today, pedestrian zones have been achieved to increase rapidly disappearing open space and to provide comfortable and safe circulation for pedestrians.

A pedestrian zone is simply an area where vehicles are restricted and reserved for pedestrians who are free to occupy the entire space. The zone entrances and exits are often designated with signage to make all users of the road aware when they are entering or exiting such an area.

As pointed out by Rubenstein (1992); three types of pedestrian malls have commonly been implemented in the United States. The first type consists of a traditional pedestrian street designed for exclusive pedestrian use (Full mall) (Figure2). The second type is the shared mall that permits limited automobile use such as one lane of one-way traffic (Semi mall) (Figure3). The third type is the transit mall which accommodates both pedestrian and transit use (Figure 4).

**Figure 1.** Pedestrian Zones (Budapest, Hungary)

**Figure 4.** Semi-mall

Ornetzeder et al, 2008).

high rates of walking and cycling.

 Low atmospheric emissions. Low road accident rates.

management).

overspill parking.

Better built environment conditions.

Encouragement of active modes.

Research shows that pedestrian zones have some of characteristics (Melia et al, 2010;

Discouragement of private car and other motorized vehicles (measure of travel demand

The main problem of pedestrian zones is related to parking management. Where parking is not controlled in the surrounding area, this often results in complaints from neighbors about

Landscaping can add value to the aesthetics of the walking environment but they must be placed carefully since high shrubs and trees might also obscure from view (of drivers) the

Characteristics to the development of pedestrian zones were:

The main benefits found for pedestrian zone developments:

**4. Principles for pedestrian facility design** 

more independent movement and active play amongst children

 less land taken for parking and roads - more available green or social space very low levels of car use, resulting in much less traffic on surrounding roads

Pedestrian Zones 405

**Figure 2.** Full mall

**Figure 3.** Transit mall

**Figure 4.** Semi-mall

**Figure 2.** Full mall

**Figure 3.** Transit mall

Research shows that pedestrian zones have some of characteristics (Melia et al, 2010; Ornetzeder et al, 2008).

Characteristics to the development of pedestrian zones were:


The main benefits found for pedestrian zone developments:


The main problem of pedestrian zones is related to parking management. Where parking is not controlled in the surrounding area, this often results in complaints from neighbors about overspill parking.

## **4. Principles for pedestrian facility design**

Landscaping can add value to the aesthetics of the walking environment but they must be placed carefully since high shrubs and trees might also obscure from view (of drivers) the presence of vulnerable road users such as children (O'Flaherty, 1997; IHT, 1997). However, strategically located trees and greenery can be used instead of bollards to act as a marking for the entrance to the pedestrian area. Innovative design concepts can be used to hide roadside utilities from view to form a seating area for pedestrians (KonSULT).

Pedestrian Zones 407

**Figure 6.** Comfortable pedestrian zones (Canakkale, Turkey)

**Figure 7.** The basilica on Szent Istvan Squares ( Budapest, Hungary)

The following design principles represent a set of ideals which should be incorporated, to some degree, into every pedestrian improvement. They are ordered roughly in terms of relative importance (Portland Transportation Office, 1998)

1. The pedestrian system should be safe. Sidewalks, walkways and crossing should be designed to minimize conflicts with motorized and non motorized vehicle traffic, minimize tripping hazards and protruding objects, and promote a reality and perception of personal safety (Figure 5).

**Figure 5.** Safety in pedestrian zone (Canakkale, Turkey)


**Figure 6.** Comfortable pedestrian zones (Canakkale, Turkey)

presence of vulnerable road users such as children (O'Flaherty, 1997; IHT, 1997). However, strategically located trees and greenery can be used instead of bollards to act as a marking for the entrance to the pedestrian area. Innovative design concepts can be used to hide

The following design principles represent a set of ideals which should be incorporated, to some degree, into every pedestrian improvement. They are ordered roughly in terms of

1. The pedestrian system should be safe. Sidewalks, walkways and crossing should be designed to minimize conflicts with motorized and non motorized vehicle traffic, minimize tripping hazards and protruding objects, and promote a reality and

2. The pedestrian system should be accessible to all. Pedestrians of all ages and ability levels need to be able to safely and conveniently travel on foot or with a mobility

5. The pedestrian system should enhance the public realm of the city. The pedestrian system should be designed not only to serve a transportation function, but also to provide public spaces that enhance community, interaction, economic vitality, and the image of the city. Good design should enhance the look and feel of the pedestrian environment. The pedestrian environment includes open spaces such as plazas, courtyards, and squares, as well as the building facades that give shape to the space of the street (Figure 7). Amenities such as street furniture, banners, art, plantings and special paving, along with historical elements and cultural references, should promote a

3. The pedestrian system should provide direct and convenient connections. 4. The pedestrian system should provide comfortable place to walk (Figure 6).

roadside utilities from view to form a seating area for pedestrians (KonSULT).

relative importance (Portland Transportation Office, 1998)

perception of personal safety (Figure 5).

**Figure 5.** Safety in pedestrian zone (Canakkale, Turkey)

device.

sense of place.

**Figure 7.** The basilica on Szent Istvan Squares ( Budapest, Hungary)


Pedestrian Zones 409

Space in the sidewalk corridor for trees planted boulevards, transit shelters, and other

The pedestrian zone should be organized into four distinct subzones that maintain an accessible walking path and organize the placement of elements. The four subzones are the; Kerb Zone, The Planting/Street Furniture Zone, the Through Walk Zone, and the Frontage

Zone (Figure 9). Minimum subzone dimension is given in below Table 1.

street furniture.

**5. Pedestrian zone design** 

**Figure 9.** Subzone of Pedestrian Zone

**Figure 8.** Sidewalk (Budapest, Hungary)

Pedestrian safety, accessibility, mobility and comfort are enhanced by:


 Space in the sidewalk corridor for trees planted boulevards, transit shelters, and other street furniture.

## **5. Pedestrian zone design**

408 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 8.** Sidewalk (Budapest, Hungary)

 Slower traffic speeds Fewer traffic lanes Narrower traffic lanes Shorter street crossing

parking Tighter corner radii

Pedestrian safety, accessibility, mobility and comfort are enhanced by:

Clear visibility between pedestrian and vehicle at intersections

A buffer from traffic provided by winder sidewalks, curbside bike lanes and street

6. Pedestrian improvements should be cost-effective and financially sustainable.

interfere with safety and accessibility (Figure 8).

*7.* The pedestrian environment should be used for many things. The pedestrian environment should be a place where public activities are encouraged. Commercial activities such as dining, vending and advertising may be permitted when they do not

> The pedestrian zone should be organized into four distinct subzones that maintain an accessible walking path and organize the placement of elements. The four subzones are the; Kerb Zone, The Planting/Street Furniture Zone, the Through Walk Zone, and the Frontage Zone (Figure 9). Minimum subzone dimension is given in below Table 1.

**Figure 9.** Subzone of Pedestrian Zone


Pedestrian Zones 411

The width of the footpath is dependent on the location, purpose and expected demand. The operating space for pedestrians with impairments or mobility devices needs to be considered. The minimum and desired width for the pedestrian through-route zones in various situations are summarized below. Wider path widths should be provided where possible, rather than simply designing for the minimum through-route width (Department

 1.2 m is the absolute minimum through-route width allowing passage for a single wheelchair (this minimum width should only be used for a short distance in

 1.8 m is the desired minimum path width (1.5 m absolute minimum) to allow for two wheelchairs to comfortably pass, widened to 2 m near schools and small local shops. 1.54 m wide clearance should be maintained between a bus shelter and the kerb, as specified in the Public Transport Bus Stop Layout Guidelines, where insufficient space

2.4 m desirable minimum through-route width(or higher based on demand) for

 In busy alfresco dining areas such as the central city area, a minimum through-route of 3 m - 4 m should be provided, reduced to 2.5 m in areas with less pedestrian traffic.

The zone is the space at the edge of walkway adjacent to property line. The area that pedestrians naturally tend not to enter, as it may contain retaining walls, fences, pedestrians

The Frontage Zone may also be used as a secondary area for plantings, street furniture and

**Figure 10.** Without a Through Pedestrian Zone, the sidewalk corridor loses its essential function

is available the absolute minimum through route width is 1.2 m.

emerging from buildings, 'window shoppers' or overhanging vegetation.

of Transport, 2012).

**9. Frontage zone** 

social activities.

(Tekirdag,Turkey)

constrained environments).

commercial or shopping environments

**Table 1.** Minimum Subzone dimensions (NZ Transport Agency, 2009)

## **6. Kerb zone**

The zone is comprised of the top of kerb adjacent to the side walk. The kerb used primarily for drainage and discourage motorists from driving onto the pedestrian zone. The zone prevents roadway water run-off entering the footpath. The zone defines the limit of the pedestrian environment.

## **7. The planting/Street furniture zone**

The zone creates a psychological buffer between motorized vehicles and pedestrians. The zone contains trees, signs, street lights, seats and parking meters, bicycle parking and other furniture. Trees benefit from as much space as possible. The minimum width required for tree planting is 4 feet; yet this is not desirable for long term tree health and vitality.

## **8. Through route (or clear width)**

This area should be kept free of obstructions at all times. The area contains the basic sidewalk width or clear area for pedestrian travel and is sized to provide for two directions of pedestrian travel. The area should have a safe and accessible walking surface and free of vertical obstructions and protruding objects (Figure 10,11).

The width of the footpath is dependent on the location, purpose and expected demand. The operating space for pedestrians with impairments or mobility devices needs to be considered. The minimum and desired width for the pedestrian through-route zones in various situations are summarized below. Wider path widths should be provided where possible, rather than simply designing for the minimum through-route width (Department of Transport, 2012).


## **9. Frontage zone**

410 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Location** 

Arterial roads in pedestrian district

Alongside parks, schools and other major

areas outside the CBD

Local roads in

Local roads in

road space

**6. Kerb zone** 

pedestrian environment.

**7. The planting/Street furniture zone** 

**8. Through route (or clear width)** 

vertical obstructions and protruding objects (Figure 10,11).

**Max. Pedestrian flow** 

**Zone** 

Through route

Kerb Planting/Street furniture#

CBD 80 p/min 0.15m 1.2 m 2.4m+ 0.75 m 4.5m

pedestrian district 60 p/min 0.15 m 1.2 m 1.8 m 0.45 m 3.6 m Commercial/industrial

Collector roads 60 p/min 0.15 m 0.9 m 1.8 m 0.15 m 3.0 m

residential areas 50 p/min 0.15 m 0.9 m 1.5 m 0.15 m 2.7 m Absoulute minimum\* 0.15 m 0.0m 1.5 m 0.0 m 1.65 m

\*Only acceptable in existing constrained conditions and where it is not possible to reallocate

The zone is comprised of the top of kerb adjacent to the side walk. The kerb used primarily for drainage and discourage motorists from driving onto the pedestrian zone. The zone prevents roadway water run-off entering the footpath. The zone defines the limit of the

The zone creates a psychological buffer between motorized vehicles and pedestrians. The zone contains trees, signs, street lights, seats and parking meters, bicycle parking and other furniture. Trees benefit from as much space as possible. The minimum width required for

This area should be kept free of obstructions at all times. The area contains the basic sidewalk width or clear area for pedestrian travel and is sized to provide for two directions of pedestrian travel. The area should have a safe and accessible walking surface and free of

tree planting is 4 feet; yet this is not desirable for long term tree health and vitality.
