**Application of Geographical Information System to the Analysis of Urban Green Areas in Urban Development Plans – A Case Study of Zonguldak, Turkey**

Yasar Bahri Ergen and Mustafa Ergen

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55752

## **1. Introduction**

One of the most rapidly growing applications of remotely sensed data is the derivation of landscape pattern metrics for the assessment of land use condition and landscape dynamics (Betts et al., 2003; Colombo et al., 2004; Egbert et al., 2002; Griffith et al., 2003; Hansen et al., 2001; Imbernon and Branthomme, 2001; Ji et al., 2008; Millington et al., 2003; Santiago et al., 2007; Yu and Ng, 2006). The characteristics of green areas are generally analyzed with raster data by many scholars. In contrast with common practice, this study used vector data instead of raster data in the analysis of urban green areas in the study area. The fact that study analyzed urban development plans was the underlying reason that vector data was primarily used for this research. Geographical Information System (GIS) is one of the most useful methods for analyzing land use. All land uses for an urban development plan were considered and comparisons were made based on relative percentage of whole area. The data was derived from digitized data from an urban development. Urban green area proportion in the current city development condition was determined. Active and passive green areas were determined from an urban development plan and were prepared for analysis of trends of land use condition in the city. GIS was used as an analytical tool for this approach.

GIS data has significant utility in analysis of urban green areas in city development (Ji et al., 2008). Land use offers critical guidance to identify current landscape characteristics in urban areas. The study explored urban green areas associated with landscape features in urban areas and effectively supported an analysis of urban green area characteristics. Urban green areas can prove to be valid and useful characteristics for general landscape analysis of an urban environment.

© 2013 Ergen and Ergen, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The fact that urban green areas improve the livability of cities has made them the focus of a great deal of attention. Urban areas completely transform the landscape into which they spread, leading to the development of entirely new land uses (Busck et al., 2006). Identification of urban green areas and developed areas are essential for monitoring and assessment of ecological consequences of changes in land use (Shi et al., 2008). The defined characteristics of urban green areas put emphasis on approaches to urban development that take urban land use patterns into consideration.

Application of Geographical Information System to the Analysis of

Urban Green Areas in Urban Development Plans – A Case Study of Zonguldak, Turkey 727

**Figure 1.** Location of Zonguldak City in Turkey, (The Figure is prepared by Mustafa ERGEN, 2009)

Source: http://www.loadtr.com/397588- zonguldak\_haritas%C4%B1\_6.htm and

**Figure 2.** Zonuguldak Port Area, Source: Mustafa Ergen, 2007 (Author`s own image)

http://www.mapsofworld.com/turkey/maps/turkey-outline-map.jpg,

The spatial characteristics of urban areas are the most important elements of urban green areas analysis. There are many reasons to analyze urban green areas in urban development. The most important reason is to understand long-term interactions between humans and nature (Bi et al, 2011). The natural environment is under pressure from the human impacts involved in urban development processes. Urban development decisions have considerable impact in shaping current urban green areas in cities. There is no need to prove that land use is one of the important elements for analyzing urban green areas in urban development plans.

This research intended to investigate the development direction of land use with regards to urban green areas in cities. GIS technologies and analysis of proportional land use were used in this study (Bi et al, 2011). These methods were implemented on Zonguldak city as a case study. Urban green areas were determined for Zonguldak city in the urban development plan in an effort to understand current land use conditions in the city.

Consequently, the study emphasized urban landscape characteristics through the analysis of urban green areas in urban development plans. The study focused on ecological characteristics of urban areas and provided a potential approach for analyzing landscape features. The study will lead to identification land use trends and aid land use management in these areas (Bi et al, 2011).

## **2. Area description1**

Located in the Western Black Sea region of Turkey, Zonguldak has an area of 8625 km2, covering 1.1% of Turkey's total land area (Figure-1) (ANONYMOUS, 2006). Zonguldak generally consists of inclined terrain due to its natural topography. Mountains in the Western Black Sea region run parallel to the coast in Zonguldak, rising sharply from the sea to elevations of up to 1976 meters (ANONYMOUS, 2006). This high mountain system provides a block between the sea and the Central Anatolian Plateaus (ANONYMOUS, 2006).

The discovery of coal in Zonguldak led to a population explosion in the region. Zonguldak was transformed from a village to a city on account of the resulting rapid economic development. In 1899, the Zonguldak coal harbor (Figure-2) was built as the hub of coal transportation in the city (ANONYMOUS, 2006). New coal washers, new employee houses and power plants steadily increased industrial productivity in Zonguldak. Zonguldak has suffered from the effects of this rapid urbanization.

<sup>1</sup> This part of article is developed from Mustafa ERGEN`s PhD dissertation

Application of Geographical Information System to the Analysis of Urban Green Areas in Urban Development Plans – A Case Study of Zonguldak, Turkey 727

726 Advances in Landscape Architecture

in these areas (Bi et al, 2011).

suffered from the effects of this rapid urbanization.

<sup>1</sup> This part of article is developed from Mustafa ERGEN`s PhD dissertation

**2. Area description1**

take urban land use patterns into consideration.

The fact that urban green areas improve the livability of cities has made them the focus of a great deal of attention. Urban areas completely transform the landscape into which they spread, leading to the development of entirely new land uses (Busck et al., 2006). Identification of urban green areas and developed areas are essential for monitoring and assessment of ecological consequences of changes in land use (Shi et al., 2008). The defined characteristics of urban green areas put emphasis on approaches to urban development that

The spatial characteristics of urban areas are the most important elements of urban green areas analysis. There are many reasons to analyze urban green areas in urban development. The most important reason is to understand long-term interactions between humans and nature (Bi et al, 2011). The natural environment is under pressure from the human impacts involved in urban development processes. Urban development decisions have considerable impact in shaping current urban green areas in cities. There is no need to prove that land use is one of

This research intended to investigate the development direction of land use with regards to urban green areas in cities. GIS technologies and analysis of proportional land use were used in this study (Bi et al, 2011). These methods were implemented on Zonguldak city as a case study. Urban green areas were determined for Zonguldak city in the urban

Consequently, the study emphasized urban landscape characteristics through the analysis of urban green areas in urban development plans. The study focused on ecological characteristics of urban areas and provided a potential approach for analyzing landscape features. The study will lead to identification land use trends and aid land use management

Located in the Western Black Sea region of Turkey, Zonguldak has an area of 8625 km2, covering 1.1% of Turkey's total land area (Figure-1) (ANONYMOUS, 2006). Zonguldak generally consists of inclined terrain due to its natural topography. Mountains in the Western Black Sea region run parallel to the coast in Zonguldak, rising sharply from the sea to elevations of up to 1976 meters (ANONYMOUS, 2006). This high mountain system provides a block between the sea and the Central Anatolian Plateaus (ANONYMOUS, 2006).

The discovery of coal in Zonguldak led to a population explosion in the region. Zonguldak was transformed from a village to a city on account of the resulting rapid economic development. In 1899, the Zonguldak coal harbor (Figure-2) was built as the hub of coal transportation in the city (ANONYMOUS, 2006). New coal washers, new employee houses and power plants steadily increased industrial productivity in Zonguldak. Zonguldak has

the important elements for analyzing urban green areas in urban development plans.

development plan in an effort to understand current land use conditions in the city.

**Figure 1.** Location of Zonguldak City in Turkey, (The Figure is prepared by Mustafa ERGEN, 2009) Source: http://www.loadtr.com/397588- zonguldak\_haritas%C4%B1\_6.htm and http://www.mapsofworld.com/turkey/maps/turkey-outline-map.jpg,

**Figure 2.** Zonuguldak Port Area, Source: Mustafa Ergen, 2007 (Author`s own image)

The form and structure of Zonguldak is shaped by the coal mining industry. After the onset coal mining in the city, additional exploration accelerated the process of Zonguldak`s urbanization (Figure-3). This rapid development has had an influence on natural areas and Application of Geographical Information System to the Analysis of

Urban Green Areas in Urban Development Plans – A Case Study of Zonguldak, Turkey 729

every part of the urban area. In its history of urbanization, Zonguldak reached its greatest development during this period. There have been many regulations to attempt mitigate this unhealthy and fast urbanization. However, there was no effective approach to urban green

The first settlements during this growth period were formed around the port of Zonguldak, and Uzulmez, Kozlu, Asma mines in the city (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The problem of settlement areas in the city has grown in parallel with the increasing coal mining activity (Figure-4). This has had far-reaching effects on planning and urban green areas structure.

As Zonguldak city is located between the sea and mountains, its topographical properties put obstacles in the way of is development in the city. Urbanization began on flat terrain in the basin. Because attempts have been made to construct primarily on the flat terrain of Zonguldak, urban development has been concentrated in certain areas (Figure-5). This led to a problematic and unhealthy development in the early stages of urbanization in Zonguldak.

 **Figure 5.** General View of City Center and Port Area in Zonguldak, Source: Mustafa ERGEN, 2007

GIS is an important tool for analyzing urban green areas (Irwin, 2003). Urban green areas are currently a crucial issue in city development, now more than ever. GIS can be used to define the proportion of urban green areas in a city. These urban green areas analyses can be compared among each other and to other land uses such that an analysis can show how

The inclusion of urban green areas is crucial for creating livable places in cities. GIS measures various aspects of land use patterns, including topography, shapes of land use areas and future direction of development of the cities (Irwin, 2003). This study used percentage of areas calculation and arithmetic mean calculation for analyzing green areas that gives us a broad picture of green areas condition in a city development. Percentage of land use can make clear

urban green areas can be designed and improved in urban developments.

area and land use planning during the growth of the city.

(Author`s own images)

**3. Research method** 

**Figure 3.** The View of Zonuguldak City, Source: Mustafa ERGEN, 2007 (Author`s own image)

**Figure 4.** Development Planning Map, Source: Zonguldak Municipality, 2006

every part of the urban area. In its history of urbanization, Zonguldak reached its greatest development during this period. There have been many regulations to attempt mitigate this unhealthy and fast urbanization. However, there was no effective approach to urban green area and land use planning during the growth of the city.

The first settlements during this growth period were formed around the port of Zonguldak, and Uzulmez, Kozlu, Asma mines in the city (ANONYMOUS, 2006). The problem of settlement areas in the city has grown in parallel with the increasing coal mining activity (Figure-4). This has had far-reaching effects on planning and urban green areas structure.

As Zonguldak city is located between the sea and mountains, its topographical properties put obstacles in the way of is development in the city. Urbanization began on flat terrain in the basin. Because attempts have been made to construct primarily on the flat terrain of Zonguldak, urban development has been concentrated in certain areas (Figure-5). This led to a problematic and unhealthy development in the early stages of urbanization in Zonguldak.

**Figure 5.** General View of City Center and Port Area in Zonguldak, Source: Mustafa ERGEN, 2007 (Author`s own images)

## **3. Research method**

728 Advances in Landscape Architecture

The form and structure of Zonguldak is shaped by the coal mining industry. After the onset coal mining in the city, additional exploration accelerated the process of Zonguldak`s urbanization (Figure-3). This rapid development has had an influence on natural areas and

**Figure 3.** The View of Zonuguldak City, Source: Mustafa ERGEN, 2007 (Author`s own image)

**Figure 4.** Development Planning Map, Source: Zonguldak Municipality, 2006

GIS is an important tool for analyzing urban green areas (Irwin, 2003). Urban green areas are currently a crucial issue in city development, now more than ever. GIS can be used to define the proportion of urban green areas in a city. These urban green areas analyses can be compared among each other and to other land uses such that an analysis can show how urban green areas can be designed and improved in urban developments.

The inclusion of urban green areas is crucial for creating livable places in cities. GIS measures various aspects of land use patterns, including topography, shapes of land use areas and future direction of development of the cities (Irwin, 2003). This study used percentage of areas calculation and arithmetic mean calculation for analyzing green areas that gives us a broad picture of green areas condition in a city development. Percentage of land use can make clear explanation of land use tendencies and arithmetic means can help to determine central tendency for land uses. Arithmetic mean was calculated using the below formula:

Application of Geographical Information System to the Analysis of

Urban Green Areas in Urban Development Plans – A Case Study of Zonguldak, Turkey 731

The methodology was composed of three major phases; data preparation, analysis and conclusion. Data preparation included the following steps; data was converted from another program to GIS. The plan was projected for calculation in the correct units. All land uses were determined by urban green areas analysis. The data was transmitted to an excel file. The analysis converted land use measurements to arithmetic mean and the proportion of land use was determined for each use. In the he conclusion, the results were used to formulate some development strategies for Zonguldak city. The flow chart of the

Urban green areas were subdivided into Garden, Copse, Park, Forest and Graveyard lands. The areas of urban green areas were obtained from area calculations in ArcGIS. It should be noted that both urban green areas and the other land uses can be analyzed for understanding current development direction in city. The active and passive green areas were compared to one another and to the other land use areas in the analysis. The method showed that the topography of Zonguldak is the main obstacle for new development in the city. It is very important that green zones should be determined for the sustainable growth. This will offer a new direction for the city's future development. The land use map was created by ArcGIS software in this study (Figure-6). The comparison data between urban

The urban green areas were derived by urban development plans and calculated from the same map for analysis of land usage. Forest lands and copse lands border the city

As can be seen from the table, the other land uses grow along with total area. On the contrary, park land is underrepresented. The table shows that Copse land, Garden land and Forest land are the reasons for this situation. These lands compose most green areas in the city. This shows that the city does not have many recreational opportunities. It means that urban development has not included many recreational opportunities but that has still

The urban land use shows that urban green areas are dominant areas in land use. That means Zonguldak is a city with high much potential for urban green areas development. The topography is the most important reason of this situation in the city. There are not many appropriate places to settle in the city and around the city. This condition makes green areas planning in the city easier. The analysis shows that urban green areas in Zonguldak are mostly passive green areas. Although the city currently has many green areas, few of those are useful.

From the figure, it is apparent that green areas are the dominant characteristic land use in Zonguldak. It is obvious that Zonguldak has much potential for urban green areas development. Copse land and garden land are the main types of green areas in Zonguldak. The figure shows that park land is one of the less frequent land uses in the city. The reason

The topography allows neither settlements nor recreational opportunities.

methodology below details the phases step by step.

green areas and the other land uses were acquired from this map.

development, largely due to the topography of the region.

included enough green areas in the city.

**4. Results and conclusions** 

$$AM = 1/n \sum\_{i=1}^{n} ai = \frac{a\_1}{a\_n} + \frac{a\_2}{a\_n} \cdots \frac{a\_n}{a\_n}$$

This study used percentage of land use and arithmetic mean to analyze urban green areas in Zonguldak city. The method measured current land use condition in terms of area calculation in the cities.

The data obtained through the digitized data of the urban development plan helped to determine the state of the urban green areas and the characteristics of the whole city. One reason for choosing to analyze percentage of land uses is that the investigation considered whole area for urban green areas. The second reason is that it gives a wide range of analysis options via the arithmetic mean for Zonguldak city.

**Figure 6.** Flow chart of methodology

The methodology was composed of three major phases; data preparation, analysis and conclusion. Data preparation included the following steps; data was converted from another program to GIS. The plan was projected for calculation in the correct units. All land uses were determined by urban green areas analysis. The data was transmitted to an excel file. The analysis converted land use measurements to arithmetic mean and the proportion of land use was determined for each use. In the he conclusion, the results were used to formulate some development strategies for Zonguldak city. The flow chart of the methodology below details the phases step by step.

## **4. Results and conclusions**

730 Advances in Landscape Architecture

calculation in the cities.

**Figure 6.** Flow chart of methodology

options via the arithmetic mean for Zonguldak city.

explanation of land use tendencies and arithmetic means can help to determine central

1

*a a <sup>a</sup> AM n ai*

This study used percentage of land use and arithmetic mean to analyze urban green areas in Zonguldak city. The method measured current land use condition in terms of area

The data obtained through the digitized data of the urban development plan helped to determine the state of the urban green areas and the characteristics of the whole city. One reason for choosing to analyze percentage of land uses is that the investigation considered whole area for urban green areas. The second reason is that it gives a wide range of analysis

1 2

 *aa a* 

1 / *<sup>n</sup> <sup>n</sup> i nn n*

tendency for land uses. Arithmetic mean was calculated using the below formula:

Urban green areas were subdivided into Garden, Copse, Park, Forest and Graveyard lands. The areas of urban green areas were obtained from area calculations in ArcGIS. It should be noted that both urban green areas and the other land uses can be analyzed for understanding current development direction in city. The active and passive green areas were compared to one another and to the other land use areas in the analysis. The method showed that the topography of Zonguldak is the main obstacle for new development in the city. It is very important that green zones should be determined for the sustainable growth. This will offer a new direction for the city's future development. The land use map was created by ArcGIS software in this study (Figure-6). The comparison data between urban green areas and the other land uses were acquired from this map.

The urban green areas were derived by urban development plans and calculated from the same map for analysis of land usage. Forest lands and copse lands border the city development, largely due to the topography of the region.

As can be seen from the table, the other land uses grow along with total area. On the contrary, park land is underrepresented. The table shows that Copse land, Garden land and Forest land are the reasons for this situation. These lands compose most green areas in the city. This shows that the city does not have many recreational opportunities. It means that urban development has not included many recreational opportunities but that has still included enough green areas in the city.

The urban land use shows that urban green areas are dominant areas in land use. That means Zonguldak is a city with high much potential for urban green areas development. The topography is the most important reason of this situation in the city. There are not many appropriate places to settle in the city and around the city. This condition makes green areas planning in the city easier. The analysis shows that urban green areas in Zonguldak are mostly passive green areas. Although the city currently has many green areas, few of those are useful. The topography allows neither settlements nor recreational opportunities.

From the figure, it is apparent that green areas are the dominant characteristic land use in Zonguldak. It is obvious that Zonguldak has much potential for urban green areas development. Copse land and garden land are the main types of green areas in Zonguldak. The figure shows that park land is one of the less frequent land uses in the city. The reason

is behind it that there are not adequate areas in which to design park land in the city because of the rough topography. Although the topography might not be amenable to the design of recreational opportunities, urban green areas could be the most important element of planning for Zonguldak. The figure also shows that garden land provides some degree of interaction with green areas to the people, but these are also not useful areas and are mostly converted from copse land and forest land. That means that the city does not have enough recreational opportunities in reality, such that while Zonguldak may maintain adequate ecological characteristics, it may not give an option for recreational uses.

Application of Geographical Information System to the Analysis of

Garden Land Park Land Copse Land Forest Land Graveyard Land The Other Land Use

Urban Green Areas in Urban Development Plans – A Case Study of Zonguldak, Turkey 733

Land Uses Total Area m² Copse Land 13125850,04

Graveyard Land 149400,47 Garden Land 8033057,98 Park Land 17373,96 Forest Land 6173642,26

The Other Land Use 5137810,08

Percentage of Area

Copse Land Garden Land Park Land Forest Land Graveyard

Land

The Other Land Use

Arithmetic Mean

**Table 1.** Land Uses Total Areas

**Figure 8.** Proportion of Land Use Condition

0,00 50,00 100,00 150,00 200,00 250,00 300,00 350,00 400,00 450,00

**Figure 9.** Arithmetic Mean of Land Uses

**Figure 7.** Zonguldak City Current Land Use Condition Depends on Urban Development Plan, Source: Anonymous, 2006 (Basic map was prepared by Modül Planlama Harita Bilgisayar İnşaat ve Ticaret Ltd. Şti with another program for Zonguldak Municipality. The map was converted and was prepared by Mustafa ERGEN for analyzing urban green areas).

Application of Geographical Information System to the Analysis of Urban Green Areas in Urban Development Plans – A Case Study of Zonguldak, Turkey 733


732 Advances in Landscape Architecture

is behind it that there are not adequate areas in which to design park land in the city because of the rough topography. Although the topography might not be amenable to the design of recreational opportunities, urban green areas could be the most important element of planning for Zonguldak. The figure also shows that garden land provides some degree of interaction with green areas to the people, but these are also not useful areas and are mostly converted from copse land and forest land. That means that the city does not have enough recreational opportunities in reality, such that while Zonguldak may maintain adequate

**Figure 7.** Zonguldak City Current Land Use Condition Depends on Urban Development Plan, Source: Anonymous, 2006 (Basic map was prepared by Modül Planlama Harita Bilgisayar İnşaat ve Ticaret Ltd. Şti with another program for Zonguldak Municipality. The map was converted and was prepared by

Mustafa ERGEN for analyzing urban green areas).

ecological characteristics, it may not give an option for recreational uses.

Percentage of Area

**Figure 9.** Arithmetic Mean of Land Uses

It can be seen from the figure that forest land dominates the other land uses. This demonstrates that the city has adequate green areas. The figure also shows that the other land uses do not have much representation in the city. There are many reasons behind this; the most important reason mentioned above is the topographic obstacle. We may claim that development costs might be another reason for this situation. The study concludes with an obvious approach to defining several strategies for the future development of Zonguldak;

Application of Geographical Information System to the Analysis of

Urban Green Areas in Urban Development Plans – A Case Study of Zonguldak, Turkey 735

Bi, H., Gao, L., Ren, Y. and Cui, Z., 2011, "Spatial and Temporal Change of Landscape Pattern in the Hilly-Gully Region of Loss Plateau", 2011 2nd International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology, IPCBEE vol. 6 (2011) copy right IACSIT Press, Singapore, volume 2, p. 10-15, Available at www.ipcbee.com/vol6/no2/3-F10079.pdf,

Busck, A. G., Kristensen, S. P., Praestholm, S., Reenberg, A. and Primdahl, J., 2006, "Land System Changes in the Context of Urbanisation: Examples from the Peri-Urban Area of Greater Copnehagen", Danish Journal of Geography 106(2), p. 21-34, Available at

Colombo, S., Chica-Olmo, M., Abarca, F. and Eva, H., 2004, "Variographic Analysis of Tropical Forest Cover from Multi-Scale Remotely Sensed Imagery", ISPRS Journal of

Egbert, S. L., Park, S., Price K. P., Lee, R. Y., Wu, J. and Nellis, M. D., 2002, "Using Conservation Reserve Program Maps Derived from Satellite Imagery to Characterize Landscape Structure, Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 37 (1-3), p. 141-156 Griffith, J. A., Stehman, S. V., Sohl, L. T. and Loveland, T. R., 2003, "Detecting Trends in Landscape Pattern Metrics over a 20-Year Period Using a Sampling-Based Monitoring

Hansen, M. J., Franklin, S. E., Woudsma, C. G. and Peterson, M., 2001, "Caribou Habitat Mapping and Fragmentation Analysis Using Landsat MSS, TM and GIS Data in the North Columbia Mountains, British Columbia, Canada, Remote Sensing of

Imbernon, J., Branthomme, A., 2001, "Characterization of Landscape Pattern of Deforestation in Tropical Rain Forests", International Journal of Remote Sensing 22 (9),

Irwin, G. E., 2003, "Using GIS to Model Patterns of Urban-Rural Land Use Change", Ohio Geospatial Technology Conference for Agriculture and Natural Resources Holiday Inn

geospatial.osu.edu/conference/proceedings/papers/irwin\_pap.pdf, [Cited 7.12.2012] Ji, J., Yuanyuan, C., Wunian, Y. and Yanyan, K., "Analysis and Evaluation on Landscape Pattern of Songpan County with Remote Sensing and GIS", The International Archieves of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Science Vil. XXXVII,

htpp://www.isprs.org/proceddings/XXXVII/congress/8\_pdf/11\_WG-VIII-11/25.pdf,

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of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 62, p. 201-216

Millington, A. C., Velez-Liendo, X. M. and Bradely, A. V., 2003, "Scale Dependence in Multitemprol Mapping of Forest Fragmentation in Bolivia: Implacations for Explaining Temprol Trends in Landscape Ecology and Applications to Biodiversity Conservation,

Santiago, S., Sandra C., 2007, "Scaling Functions for Landscape Pattern Metrics Derived from Remotely Sensed: Are Their Subpixel Estimates Really Accurate?", ISPRS Journal

Programme, International Journal of Remote Sensing 24 (1), p. 175-181

Wothington, Columbus, Ohio March 24-26, 2003, Available at

Part B8, Beijing, p. 1143-1148, Available at

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rdgs.dk/djg/pdfs/106/2/03.pdf, [Cited 9.12.2012]

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 58 (5-6), p. 330-341


Consequently, this study proves that green areas are the characteristic land use in Zonguldak. Other land uses use up all the flat terrain in the city. There is no way to sprawl and develop to the other places in city development. The study showed that rough topography is main obstacle for development in Zonguldak.

The forest and copse land creates a green belt condition in city, especially in the south, south-east and east parts. This is the reason that they are also obstacles for new developments in the city. There is no clear strategy for new development to suggest. However, it introduces crucial development options in regards to urban greenery. The urban green areas are the only the option for the new developments for Zonguldak. Possible basic development approaches might be eco-tourism, recreational opportunities or open air museum.

## **Author details**

Yasar Bahri Ergen and Mustafa Ergen

*Amasya University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Amasya, Turkey* 

## **5. References**

Anonymous, 2006, "Zonguldak Belediyesi Genel Yaklaşm Raporu", Modül Planlama Harita Bilgisayar İnşaat ve Ticaret Ltd. Şti., Ankara

Betts, M. G., Franklin, S. E. and Taylor, R. G., 2003, "Interpretation of Landscape Pattern and Habitat Change for Local Indicator Species Using Satellite Imagery and Geographic Information System Data in New Brunsick, Canada, Canadian Forest Research 33 (10), p. 1821-1831

Bi, H., Gao, L., Ren, Y. and Cui, Z., 2011, "Spatial and Temporal Change of Landscape Pattern in the Hilly-Gully Region of Loss Plateau", 2011 2nd International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology, IPCBEE vol. 6 (2011) copy right IACSIT Press, Singapore, volume 2, p. 10-15, Available at www.ipcbee.com/vol6/no2/3-F10079.pdf, [Cited 7.12.2012]

734 Advances in Landscape Architecture

as Eco-tourism.

museum.

*Turkey* 

**Author details** 

**5. References** 

p. 1821-1831

Yasar Bahri Ergen and Mustafa Ergen

Bilgisayar İnşaat ve Ticaret Ltd. Şti., Ankara

development in city.

development strategies.

topography is main obstacle for development in Zonguldak.

It can be seen from the figure that forest land dominates the other land uses. This demonstrates that the city has adequate green areas. The figure also shows that the other land uses do not have much representation in the city. There are many reasons behind this; the most important reason mentioned above is the topographic obstacle. We may claim that development costs might be another reason for this situation. The study concludes with an obvious approach to defining several strategies for the future development of Zonguldak; The planning development should take the difficult topography into consideration. The potential development option must be defined for future development goals such

 Achieving new development emphasizes new structures and developments in the city. The green potential provides new opportunities for city development such as ecological

Eco-city development elements should be taken into consideration for new

Consequently, this study proves that green areas are the characteristic land use in Zonguldak. Other land uses use up all the flat terrain in the city. There is no way to sprawl and develop to the other places in city development. The study showed that rough

The forest and copse land creates a green belt condition in city, especially in the south, south-east and east parts. This is the reason that they are also obstacles for new developments in the city. There is no clear strategy for new development to suggest. However, it introduces crucial development options in regards to urban greenery. The urban green areas are the only the option for the new developments for Zonguldak. Possible basic development approaches might be eco-tourism, recreational opportunities or open air

*Amasya University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Amasya,* 

Anonymous, 2006, "Zonguldak Belediyesi Genel Yaklaşm Raporu", Modül Planlama Harita

Betts, M. G., Franklin, S. E. and Taylor, R. G., 2003, "Interpretation of Landscape Pattern and Habitat Change for Local Indicator Species Using Satellite Imagery and Geographic Information System Data in New Brunsick, Canada, Canadian Forest Research 33 (10),


 htpp://www.isprs.org/proceddings/XXXVII/congress/8\_pdf/11\_WG-VIII-11/25.pdf, [Cited 6.11.2011]


Shi, Y., Xiao, J. and Shen, Y., 2008, "Landscape Pattern Change and Associated Environmental Implications in Haihe River Basin, China, p. 569-573, Available at http://www.isprs.org/proceedings/XXXVII/congress/6b\_pdf/28.pdf, [Cited 14.10.2011]

**Section 6** 

**Socio-Cultural Landscape** 

Yu, X., Ng, C., 2006, "An Integrated Evaluation of Landscape Change Using Remote Sensing and Landscape Metrics: A Case Study of Panyu, Guangzhou", International Journal of Remote Sensing 27 (6), 1075-1092

#### **References of images**

Anonymous, 2006, "Zonguldak Belediyesi Genel Yaklaşm Raporu", Modül Planlama Harita Bilgisayar İnşaat ve Ticaret Ltd. Şti., Ankara

Zonguldak Municipality, 2006, "The Image was acquired by Zonguldak Municipality"



 http://www.mapsofworld.com/turkey/maps/turkey-outline-map.jpg, [Cited 8 December 2011]

**Section 6** 

## **Socio-Cultural Landscape**

736 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**References of images** 

2011]

Remote Sensing 27 (6), 1075-1092

Bilgisayar İnşaat ve Ticaret Ltd. Şti., Ankara


Shi, Y., Xiao, J. and Shen, Y., 2008, "Landscape Pattern Change and Associated Environmental Implications in Haihe River Basin, China, p. 569-573, Available at http://www.isprs.org/proceedings/XXXVII/congress/6b\_pdf/28.pdf, [Cited 14.10.2011] Yu, X., Ng, C., 2006, "An Integrated Evaluation of Landscape Change Using Remote Sensing and Landscape Metrics: A Case Study of Panyu, Guangzhou", International Journal of

Anonymous, 2006, "Zonguldak Belediyesi Genel Yaklaşm Raporu", Modül Planlama Harita

http://www.mapsofworld.com/turkey/maps/turkey-outline-map.jpg, [Cited 8 December

Zonguldak Municipality, 2006, "The Image was acquired by Zonguldak Municipality" --------, --------, "Zonguldak Haritasi", Available at http://www.loadtr.com/397588-

zonguldak\_haritas%C4%B1\_6.htm, [Cited 8 December 2011]

**Chapter 29** 

© 2013 Kaymaz, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Identity has always been a popular research subject for various disciplines, such as psychology, philosophy, sociology, human geography and anthropology. However, urbanization and globalization processes, which have caused a rapid change on our environments, have brought the concept of identity on the agenda of planners and designers in the last few decades. The major concern of the identity related research is on the

Urbanization and globalization are obviously two major phenomena that affect our social, economic, cultural lives as well as our physical environment. Despite the broad context of the issues related to these two processes, it wouldn't be untrue to say the major global concern that has arisen from urbanization and globalization, is the sustainability of the environment. On the other hand current studies on sustainability of the urban environments mainly focus on factors like water, air, energy, and transport while urban identity is

The end of the last century faced a rapid and dramatic increase in urban population worldwide, mainly because of immigration. Today more than half of the world's population lives in urban areas. According to United Nation's (UN) 2011 revision of *World Urbanization Prospects*, the population living in urban environments is expected to increase from 3.6 billion (2011) to 6.3 million by 2050 [2]. Therefore it seems that the urban environments will continue to grow in order to accommodate more inhabitants. Consequently, both natural and cultural landscape resources will continue to be under pressure in and around urban settlements. Besides the ecological sustainability issues, expansion of urban areas, increasing urban population and deterioration of both natural and cultural resources raise the concerns

Today's cities are considerably multi-cultural and heterogeneous, more than ever. The influence of neo-liberalism and globalization is very prominent on the development of

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Urban Landscapes and Identity** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Isil Kaymaz

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55754

sustainability of place identity.

receiving attention rarely [1].

on image and identity of urban landscapes.

**1. Introduction** 

## **Urban Landscapes and Identity**

Isil Kaymaz

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55754

## **1. Introduction**

Identity has always been a popular research subject for various disciplines, such as psychology, philosophy, sociology, human geography and anthropology. However, urbanization and globalization processes, which have caused a rapid change on our environments, have brought the concept of identity on the agenda of planners and designers in the last few decades. The major concern of the identity related research is on the sustainability of place identity.

Urbanization and globalization are obviously two major phenomena that affect our social, economic, cultural lives as well as our physical environment. Despite the broad context of the issues related to these two processes, it wouldn't be untrue to say the major global concern that has arisen from urbanization and globalization, is the sustainability of the environment. On the other hand current studies on sustainability of the urban environments mainly focus on factors like water, air, energy, and transport while urban identity is receiving attention rarely [1].

The end of the last century faced a rapid and dramatic increase in urban population worldwide, mainly because of immigration. Today more than half of the world's population lives in urban areas. According to United Nation's (UN) 2011 revision of *World Urbanization Prospects*, the population living in urban environments is expected to increase from 3.6 billion (2011) to 6.3 million by 2050 [2]. Therefore it seems that the urban environments will continue to grow in order to accommodate more inhabitants. Consequently, both natural and cultural landscape resources will continue to be under pressure in and around urban settlements. Besides the ecological sustainability issues, expansion of urban areas, increasing urban population and deterioration of both natural and cultural resources raise the concerns on image and identity of urban landscapes.

Today's cities are considerably multi-cultural and heterogeneous, more than ever. The influence of neo-liberalism and globalization is very prominent on the development of

© 2013 Kaymaz, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

urban areas and this consequently affects identity of urban environments. Hence, management and conservation of local heritage and values have become an important aspect in urban design and planning.

Urban Landscapes and Identity 741

and district centres) [6]. However, urbanization patterns are not the same in different parts of Turkey. Işk argues that industry, tourism (in Mediterranean region), and terror incidents (in Eastern and South-eastern Anatolia regions) are the major influences on the urbanization patterns of the Turkish cities [7]. As a result, identities of different urban spaces in Turkey change and develop in different directions and rates, which deepen "national identity" crisis

Following a brief introduction on the concept of identity within the literature, this chapter will focus on the relationship between place identity and urban landscape. Concepts related to place identity, such as place attachment will also be discussed and some identity relevant

The concept of identity has a broad context. The term is more common in social sciences and it has been employed to describe the "uniqueness" of a person or a thing from very different perspectives and purposes, such as personal identity, political identity, ethnic identity, social identity and place identity. The word identity comes from the Latin "*identitas*" and is defined as "*the fact of being who or what a person or thing is*" in the Oxford English Dictionary [8]. According to Gleason the use of the word dates back to 16th century and until the mid of

As Fearon points out "even though everyone knows how to use the word properly in everyday discourse, it proves quite difficult to give a short and adequate summary statement that captures the range of its present meanings" [10]. The diverse use of the concept makes it even harder to define and explain. Definition of identity has been subject to mainly sociological studies in the last few decades. However, some previous definition attempts might provide some clues to understand the basics of the identity concept, before

According to Wendt "*identities are relatively stable, role-specific understandings and expectations about self*" [9]. Castells defines identity as "people's source of meaning and experience" [11]. On the other hand Katzenstein points out that identity is evolving images of self and other and is mutually constructed [10]. In the encyclopaedic dictionary of "Urban Planning" (printed in Turkish) Ocakç and Türk defines identity as the expression of distinguishing features of a being which are unique to it [12]. They also emphasize that since uniqueness of something can only be understood through its relationship with others, "being in relation"

Erik H. Erikson, German psychologist and psychoanalyst, is one of the well-known sociologists who had a particular interest in identity. Erikson believed that while identity is shaped by the individual's experiences and tasks throughout the life cycle, it is also influenced by the social interaction [9]. On the other hand, Jenkins claims that identity is a person's capacity to know "who is who" and "what is what"; hence the concept of identity involves a comparison between things and individuals [13]. Furthermore, according to Hall, individuals assume different identities at different times and within different contexts [14].

1950's identity is used to describe "the unity of the self" by the philosophers [9].

in terms of spatial, social and political aspects.

examples from Turkish cities will be provided.

moving to next section; spatial dimension of identity.

is the central form of activity which produces identity.

**2. The concept of identity** 

Place identity is an important dimension of social and cultural life in urban areas and continuity of place identity is strongly linked to place attachment and sense of belonging. In environmental psychology, it is assumed that people intrinsically strive to develop a sense of belonging to a place. Place attachment and sense of belonging are crucial in order to establish an emotional and cognitive bond with a place, which leads to the feeling of security and sense of community. Thus, identity of a place is more than just the physical appearance, but also involves a "meaning" for the individual and the community.

Republic of Turkey is a relatively young, developing and transcontinental country which is located on mostly Anatolian peninsula. Due to its geographical context and history, modern Turkey is a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic society. Turkey's lands hosted many great civilizations such as Byzantine Empire, Seljuk Empire and Ottoman Empire; thus were shaped under the influence of many cultures. The traces of those civilizations can still be seen in the form of current settlements, in various parts of Turkey. However, Turkey's rich diversity of both cultural and natural assets has been difficult to manage and conserve, especially due to urbanization and globalization processes.

The westernization efforts during the late Ottoman Empire period continued after Republic of Turkey was established in 1923. The controlled and planned development of urban areas in the first decades of the Republic created new identities in urban areas. For instance after Ankara's proclamation as the capital city of the Republic of Turkey, which had been a small degraded and insignificant Anatolian town, it was aimed to construct Ankara as a model city for modern Turkey [3]. Besides new governmental, cultural, financial and educational buildings, and open and green spaces for recreation and leisure were constructed. All these new developments changed life-styles, as well as the perceived urban identity. However, in 1950's urbanization process gained a dramatic increase, mainly because of immigration, and expansion of urban areas subsequently became uncontrollable, not only in Ankara but across the country. Furthermore economic fluctuations and political instability had deteriorating effects on the urban environment.

One of the significant impacts on Turkish urban landscape has been the emergence of shopping malls as an urban landscape element after 1990's. On the other hand, a recent study showed that leisure time spent in shopping malls has increased in the last decade while open space use has decreased [4]. Such changes in urban environment are often due to changing lifestyles which is an important factor in identity of urban spaces. According to Erkip; "*shopping malls are the most important additions to urban life in Turkey in terms of civilization, modernity, and the democratization of consumption patterns. Their impact does not seem to be limited to the field of consumption only, as they form a new identity combining global and the local*" [5].

According to the latest census data of Turkish Statistical Institute, Turkey has a population of over 74 million, and 77% of the total population lives in urban environments (provinces and district centres) [6]. However, urbanization patterns are not the same in different parts of Turkey. Işk argues that industry, tourism (in Mediterranean region), and terror incidents (in Eastern and South-eastern Anatolia regions) are the major influences on the urbanization patterns of the Turkish cities [7]. As a result, identities of different urban spaces in Turkey change and develop in different directions and rates, which deepen "national identity" crisis in terms of spatial, social and political aspects.

Following a brief introduction on the concept of identity within the literature, this chapter will focus on the relationship between place identity and urban landscape. Concepts related to place identity, such as place attachment will also be discussed and some identity relevant examples from Turkish cities will be provided.

## **2. The concept of identity**

740 Advances in Landscape Architecture

aspect in urban design and planning.

urban areas and this consequently affects identity of urban environments. Hence, management and conservation of local heritage and values have become an important

Place identity is an important dimension of social and cultural life in urban areas and continuity of place identity is strongly linked to place attachment and sense of belonging. In environmental psychology, it is assumed that people intrinsically strive to develop a sense of belonging to a place. Place attachment and sense of belonging are crucial in order to establish an emotional and cognitive bond with a place, which leads to the feeling of security and sense of community. Thus, identity of a place is more than just the physical

Republic of Turkey is a relatively young, developing and transcontinental country which is located on mostly Anatolian peninsula. Due to its geographical context and history, modern Turkey is a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic society. Turkey's lands hosted many great civilizations such as Byzantine Empire, Seljuk Empire and Ottoman Empire; thus were shaped under the influence of many cultures. The traces of those civilizations can still be seen in the form of current settlements, in various parts of Turkey. However, Turkey's rich diversity of both cultural and natural assets has been difficult to manage and conserve,

The westernization efforts during the late Ottoman Empire period continued after Republic of Turkey was established in 1923. The controlled and planned development of urban areas in the first decades of the Republic created new identities in urban areas. For instance after Ankara's proclamation as the capital city of the Republic of Turkey, which had been a small degraded and insignificant Anatolian town, it was aimed to construct Ankara as a model city for modern Turkey [3]. Besides new governmental, cultural, financial and educational buildings, and open and green spaces for recreation and leisure were constructed. All these new developments changed life-styles, as well as the perceived urban identity. However, in 1950's urbanization process gained a dramatic increase, mainly because of immigration, and expansion of urban areas subsequently became uncontrollable, not only in Ankara but across the country. Furthermore economic fluctuations and political instability had

One of the significant impacts on Turkish urban landscape has been the emergence of shopping malls as an urban landscape element after 1990's. On the other hand, a recent study showed that leisure time spent in shopping malls has increased in the last decade while open space use has decreased [4]. Such changes in urban environment are often due to changing lifestyles which is an important factor in identity of urban spaces. According to Erkip; "*shopping malls are the most important additions to urban life in Turkey in terms of civilization, modernity, and the democratization of consumption patterns. Their impact does not seem to be limited to the field of consumption only, as they form a new identity combining global and the* 

According to the latest census data of Turkish Statistical Institute, Turkey has a population of over 74 million, and 77% of the total population lives in urban environments (provinces

appearance, but also involves a "meaning" for the individual and the community.

especially due to urbanization and globalization processes.

deteriorating effects on the urban environment.

*local*" [5].

The concept of identity has a broad context. The term is more common in social sciences and it has been employed to describe the "uniqueness" of a person or a thing from very different perspectives and purposes, such as personal identity, political identity, ethnic identity, social identity and place identity. The word identity comes from the Latin "*identitas*" and is defined as "*the fact of being who or what a person or thing is*" in the Oxford English Dictionary [8]. According to Gleason the use of the word dates back to 16th century and until the mid of 1950's identity is used to describe "the unity of the self" by the philosophers [9].

As Fearon points out "even though everyone knows how to use the word properly in everyday discourse, it proves quite difficult to give a short and adequate summary statement that captures the range of its present meanings" [10]. The diverse use of the concept makes it even harder to define and explain. Definition of identity has been subject to mainly sociological studies in the last few decades. However, some previous definition attempts might provide some clues to understand the basics of the identity concept, before moving to next section; spatial dimension of identity.

According to Wendt "*identities are relatively stable, role-specific understandings and expectations about self*" [9]. Castells defines identity as "people's source of meaning and experience" [11]. On the other hand Katzenstein points out that identity is evolving images of self and other and is mutually constructed [10]. In the encyclopaedic dictionary of "Urban Planning" (printed in Turkish) Ocakç and Türk defines identity as the expression of distinguishing features of a being which are unique to it [12]. They also emphasize that since uniqueness of something can only be understood through its relationship with others, "being in relation" is the central form of activity which produces identity.

Erik H. Erikson, German psychologist and psychoanalyst, is one of the well-known sociologists who had a particular interest in identity. Erikson believed that while identity is shaped by the individual's experiences and tasks throughout the life cycle, it is also influenced by the social interaction [9]. On the other hand, Jenkins claims that identity is a person's capacity to know "who is who" and "what is what"; hence the concept of identity involves a comparison between things and individuals [13]. Furthermore, according to Hall, individuals assume different identities at different times and within different contexts [14].

This chapter does not aim to identify the concept of identity. However, given the examples of definitions, some aspects of the identity can be described as follow:

Urban Landscapes and Identity 743

human and the physical environment. However there is no consensus on definitions of these concepts, especially how place identity and place attachment is related to each other [18, 20]. Both place identity and place attachment concepts have been regarded as being components of personal identity, while Stedman recognizes place attachment as an objective dimension

The emotional bonding between people and places has been defined as place attachment by Altman and Low in their work "Place Attachment" (1992) [21]. However, according to Chow and Healey (2008), place attachment is a more complex and multifaceted phenomenon which involves the interplay of not only affect and emotions, but also knowledge and beliefs, and behaviours and actions in reference to a place [20]. Scannell and Gifford (2010) defines place attachment as: "*a bond between an individual or group and a place that can vary in terms of spatial level, degree of specificity, and social or physical features of the place,* 

*and is manifested through affective, cognitive, and behavioural psychological processes*" [22].

Milligan (1998) states that an emotional bond with a place is formed by the meaning given to a place by the individual, as a result of his interaction with the place (Inalhan and Finch). People have feelings about places as well as beliefs and memories and they act certain ways in different places [17]. According to Riley (1992), place attachment may be primarily associated with meanings and experiences which often involve relationship with other

People's affective and cognitive responses to a place are occurred through experiencing the place. Experience is the key action in development of human-place bond. The intensity, duration, content and result of the experience may influence the individual's perception of a place. For instance, "home" is generally associated with the emotions of safety and comfort. Sayings like "there is no place like home" or "home sweet home" display the universal

The degree of attachment to a particular place depends on its ability to meet our physiological and psychological needs. Place attachment is often assumed to develop in a long period of time. However, it can also be disrupted very quickly [19].Furthermore, a person can be attached to a place either emotionally or functionally. Altman and Low (1992)

On the other hand, Scannell and Gifford (2010) propose a framework for place attachment

1. The person dimension: Who is attached? To what extent is the attachment based on

attempted to define theoretical typologies of place attachment [23]. These are [23, 24]:

perception of "home" as a place with positive emotions and meanings.

1. Genealogical attachment (formed through ancestors, family heritage)

4. Cosmological bonding (through spiritual or mythological relationship)

2. Economic bonding (material ownership, working, etc.)

3. Attachment via loss or destruction of a place

5. Bonding through religious or cultural activities. 6. Narratives (stories, place-naming, legends etc.)

which consists of three dimensions [22] (Figure 1):

individually and collectively held meanings?

for measuring the sense of place [17].

people [19].


Although the characteristics of identity concept given above might not be complete and absolute, they might be useful when integrating the concept into spatial planning and design in terms of place identity which is the subject of next section.

## **3. Place attachment and place identity**

Identity is often perceived to be linked to the concepts of language, culture, minority/majority, dissimilarity, self/other, individuality and sense of belonging [13]. On the other hand "place identity" is relatively a more recent concept recognized in spatial planning and design. Moreover, it is also more difficult to explain and define place identity since "place" itself is a complicated concept.

Although space and place are often used interchangeably in Turkish language, these two words have different meanings and content in English and academic literature in environmental psychology. In his book "Space and Place: The perspective of experience", geographer Yi-Fu Tuan suggests that "place is security" and "space is freedom" [15]. He also states that "space is an abstract term for a complex set of ideas" and "place and objects define space, giving it a geometric personality".

We need space to realize the activities that are essential for our survival. But when we assign a meaning to a space, it becomes a "place". As Halpenny puts it "place is a spatial location that is assigned meanings and values by society and individuals" [16]. Therefore meaning is a symbolic tool that links an individual with the physical environment. According to Relph, place is result of the interaction between its 3 components; physical setting, activity and meaning [17].

In environmental psychology research, many agree that development of emotional bonds with places is a prerequisite of psychological balance [18]. A sense of belonging is necessary for psychological well-being which is developed by relationships with the environment [19]. Hence, what should concern planners and designers is to understand how people and places interact and how they form a bond. That is necessary to create liveable places.

There have been many attempts to explain and define the bond between people and their physical settings in many different ways. Place identity, place attachment, and sense of place are some of the concepts that involve the relationship of humankind and his environment. All these concepts refer to the affective and cognitive relationship between human and the physical environment. However there is no consensus on definitions of these concepts, especially how place identity and place attachment is related to each other [18, 20]. Both place identity and place attachment concepts have been regarded as being components of personal identity, while Stedman recognizes place attachment as an objective dimension for measuring the sense of place [17].

The emotional bonding between people and places has been defined as place attachment by Altman and Low in their work "Place Attachment" (1992) [21]. However, according to Chow and Healey (2008), place attachment is a more complex and multifaceted phenomenon which involves the interplay of not only affect and emotions, but also knowledge and beliefs, and behaviours and actions in reference to a place [20]. Scannell and Gifford (2010) defines place attachment as: "*a bond between an individual or group and a place that can vary in terms of spatial level, degree of specificity, and social or physical features of the place, and is manifested through affective, cognitive, and behavioural psychological processes*" [22].

Milligan (1998) states that an emotional bond with a place is formed by the meaning given to a place by the individual, as a result of his interaction with the place (Inalhan and Finch). People have feelings about places as well as beliefs and memories and they act certain ways in different places [17]. According to Riley (1992), place attachment may be primarily associated with meanings and experiences which often involve relationship with other people [19].

People's affective and cognitive responses to a place are occurred through experiencing the place. Experience is the key action in development of human-place bond. The intensity, duration, content and result of the experience may influence the individual's perception of a place. For instance, "home" is generally associated with the emotions of safety and comfort. Sayings like "there is no place like home" or "home sweet home" display the universal perception of "home" as a place with positive emotions and meanings.

The degree of attachment to a particular place depends on its ability to meet our physiological and psychological needs. Place attachment is often assumed to develop in a long period of time. However, it can also be disrupted very quickly [19].Furthermore, a person can be attached to a place either emotionally or functionally. Altman and Low (1992) attempted to define theoretical typologies of place attachment [23]. These are [23, 24]:


742 Advances in Landscape Architecture

dynamic phenomenon.

Identity involves interaction with others.

**3. Place attachment and place identity** 

since "place" itself is a complicated concept.

define space, giving it a geometric personality".

meaning [17].

This chapter does not aim to identify the concept of identity. However, given the examples

Identity is never a stable construct; on the contrary it is a continuously evolving and

Although the characteristics of identity concept given above might not be complete and absolute, they might be useful when integrating the concept into spatial planning and

Identity is often perceived to be linked to the concepts of language, culture, minority/majority, dissimilarity, self/other, individuality and sense of belonging [13]. On the other hand "place identity" is relatively a more recent concept recognized in spatial planning and design. Moreover, it is also more difficult to explain and define place identity

Although space and place are often used interchangeably in Turkish language, these two words have different meanings and content in English and academic literature in environmental psychology. In his book "Space and Place: The perspective of experience", geographer Yi-Fu Tuan suggests that "place is security" and "space is freedom" [15]. He also states that "space is an abstract term for a complex set of ideas" and "place and objects

We need space to realize the activities that are essential for our survival. But when we assign a meaning to a space, it becomes a "place". As Halpenny puts it "place is a spatial location that is assigned meanings and values by society and individuals" [16]. Therefore meaning is a symbolic tool that links an individual with the physical environment. According to Relph, place is result of the interaction between its 3 components; physical setting, activity and

In environmental psychology research, many agree that development of emotional bonds with places is a prerequisite of psychological balance [18]. A sense of belonging is necessary for psychological well-being which is developed by relationships with the environment [19]. Hence, what should concern planners and designers is to understand how people and

There have been many attempts to explain and define the bond between people and their physical settings in many different ways. Place identity, place attachment, and sense of place are some of the concepts that involve the relationship of humankind and his environment. All these concepts refer to the affective and cognitive relationship between

places interact and how they form a bond. That is necessary to create liveable places.

of definitions, some aspects of the identity can be described as follow: Uniqueness of a thing or a person is central to the identity concept. Identity requires comparison between things of individuals.

design in terms of place identity which is the subject of next section.

Meaning and experience play an important role in perception of the identity.


On the other hand, Scannell and Gifford (2010) propose a framework for place attachment which consists of three dimensions [22] (Figure 1):

1. The person dimension: Who is attached? To what extent is the attachment based on individually and collectively held meanings?

2. Psychological process: How are affect, cognition, and behaviour manifested in the attachment?

Urban Landscapes and Identity 745

As expressed before, the relationship between place attachment and place identity is still controversial among researchers. Some researchers consider place identity as a dimension of place attachment; while some others suggest that place identity is necessary for the formation of place attachment [18]. There are also researchers who assume place identity

The term "place identity" has a duality in its meaning. In spatial planning and design, place identity is generally linked to the place itself. It refers to the distinctiveness of uniqueness of a place which is a result of the interaction between its physical features and its users. For instance Stobbelaar and Pedroli (2011) use the term "landscape identity" and they point out that the concept lacks clarity and not well- defined [25]. They define landscape identity as the perceived uniqueness of a place. Moreover they assert that perceiving has both personal and social dimension and uniqueness is based on the interaction between the physical

On the contrary, in psychology "place identity" concept is a "personal" issue and linked to self-identity. One of the well-known works on place identity in psychology field is Proshansky's "The city and self-identity". In his work Proshansky (1978) defines place

"*those dimensions of self that define the individual's personal identity in relation to the physical environment by means of a complex pattern of conscious and unconscious ideas, beliefs, preferences,* 

In summary, Proshansky's definition proposes that physical environments influence selfidentity as a result of the interaction between a person and a place. One of the well-known examples of how place affects one's identification of self is expressions like "New Yorker" or "Londoner". Similar to place attachment, place identity may also occur at different levels and scales of places; such as "European" at the continental level or "East ender" at the neighbourhood level or "Turkish" at the country level. In this respect, place identity

While Proshansky promotes "place identity" as a separate concept, Twigger-Ross and Uzzell (1996) suggest that all aspects of identity have place-related implications and place should not be considered as a separate part of the identity [27]. They also comment that

Place is not merely important in developing and maintaining self identity, but it also has a significant effect on human well-being and behaviour [17]. There is a two-way relationship between a person and a place. While place influences self identity, people also tend to create, change or maintain their physical surroundings in the way which reflect themselves.

So far basic approaches to place attachment and place identity have been presented in this section. Next section will focus on development, maintenance of and current issues on the

place attachment can function to support or develop aspects of identity.

Hence, the physical environment is a reflection of the identity of its users.

identity of urban landscapes from the perspective of urban planning and design.

*feelings, values, goals, and behavioural tendencies and skills relevant to this environment*".

and place attachment are two separate concepts.

environment and social factors.

overlaps with social identity.

identity as [26]:

3. The place dimension: What is the attachment to? What is the nature of this place?

According to Scannell and Gifford, place attachment can occur at both the individual and group levels. Personal memories and experiences influence the degree of place attachment at the individual level. On the other hand, place attachment is built through shared historical experiences and symbolic meanings of a place [22].

Their second dimension of psychological process involves three components: (i) affect (emotional connection), (ii) cognition (memories, beliefs, meaning and knowledge), and (iii) behaviour (attachment is expressed through actions).

**Figure 1.** Scannell and Gifford's tripartite model of place attachment (Reprinted from Journal of Environmental Pschology, 30/1, Scannel L. and Gifford R., Defining place attachment: A tripartite organizing framework,1-10, 2010, with permission from Elsevier).

Place attachment has different scopes and scales in terms of place as a physical setting. Therefore the place dimension of the framework has been divided into two levels by the authors: social and physical place (natural and built) attachment. They stress out that physical characteristics of a place can be central to attachment; nevertheless "*people are attached to places that facilitate social relationships and group identity*".

Place attachment is influenced by many factors such as socio-demographic characteristics, environmental factors (type of involvement, familiarity to a place, activities in a place etc.), past experiences, culture, psychological factors, biological factors, and place itself [17, 23].Place attachment is also linked to environment friendly behaviour [16]. It is assumed that people, who develop positive meanings and emotions to a place, tend to protect and care for that particular place.

As expressed before, the relationship between place attachment and place identity is still controversial among researchers. Some researchers consider place identity as a dimension of place attachment; while some others suggest that place identity is necessary for the formation of place attachment [18]. There are also researchers who assume place identity and place attachment are two separate concepts.

744 Advances in Landscape Architecture

attachment?

2. Psychological process: How are affect, cognition, and behaviour manifested in the

According to Scannell and Gifford, place attachment can occur at both the individual and group levels. Personal memories and experiences influence the degree of place attachment at the individual level. On the other hand, place attachment is built through shared

Their second dimension of psychological process involves three components: (i) affect (emotional connection), (ii) cognition (memories, beliefs, meaning and knowledge), and (iii)

**Figure 1.** Scannell and Gifford's tripartite model of place attachment (Reprinted from Journal of Environmental Pschology, 30/1, Scannel L. and Gifford R., Defining place attachment: A tripartite

Place attachment has different scopes and scales in terms of place as a physical setting. Therefore the place dimension of the framework has been divided into two levels by the authors: social and physical place (natural and built) attachment. They stress out that physical characteristics of a place can be central to attachment; nevertheless "*people are* 

Place attachment is influenced by many factors such as socio-demographic characteristics, environmental factors (type of involvement, familiarity to a place, activities in a place etc.), past experiences, culture, psychological factors, biological factors, and place itself [17, 23].Place attachment is also linked to environment friendly behaviour [16]. It is assumed that people, who develop positive meanings and emotions to a place, tend to protect and

organizing framework,1-10, 2010, with permission from Elsevier).

care for that particular place.

*attached to places that facilitate social relationships and group identity*".

3. The place dimension: What is the attachment to? What is the nature of this place?

historical experiences and symbolic meanings of a place [22].

behaviour (attachment is expressed through actions).

The term "place identity" has a duality in its meaning. In spatial planning and design, place identity is generally linked to the place itself. It refers to the distinctiveness of uniqueness of a place which is a result of the interaction between its physical features and its users. For instance Stobbelaar and Pedroli (2011) use the term "landscape identity" and they point out that the concept lacks clarity and not well- defined [25]. They define landscape identity as the perceived uniqueness of a place. Moreover they assert that perceiving has both personal and social dimension and uniqueness is based on the interaction between the physical environment and social factors.

On the contrary, in psychology "place identity" concept is a "personal" issue and linked to self-identity. One of the well-known works on place identity in psychology field is Proshansky's "The city and self-identity". In his work Proshansky (1978) defines place identity as [26]:

"*those dimensions of self that define the individual's personal identity in relation to the physical environment by means of a complex pattern of conscious and unconscious ideas, beliefs, preferences, feelings, values, goals, and behavioural tendencies and skills relevant to this environment*".

In summary, Proshansky's definition proposes that physical environments influence selfidentity as a result of the interaction between a person and a place. One of the well-known examples of how place affects one's identification of self is expressions like "New Yorker" or "Londoner". Similar to place attachment, place identity may also occur at different levels and scales of places; such as "European" at the continental level or "East ender" at the neighbourhood level or "Turkish" at the country level. In this respect, place identity overlaps with social identity.

While Proshansky promotes "place identity" as a separate concept, Twigger-Ross and Uzzell (1996) suggest that all aspects of identity have place-related implications and place should not be considered as a separate part of the identity [27]. They also comment that place attachment can function to support or develop aspects of identity.

Place is not merely important in developing and maintaining self identity, but it also has a significant effect on human well-being and behaviour [17]. There is a two-way relationship between a person and a place. While place influences self identity, people also tend to create, change or maintain their physical surroundings in the way which reflect themselves. Hence, the physical environment is a reflection of the identity of its users.

So far basic approaches to place attachment and place identity have been presented in this section. Next section will focus on development, maintenance of and current issues on the identity of urban landscapes from the perspective of urban planning and design.

## **4. Urban landscape and identity**

Landscape is a dynamic phenomenon which is shaped by both natural and cultural forces. Thus, change is an inherent character of any landscape. Changes in landscape may not always happen as a result of planned actions, but may also be an unexpected effect [28]. Although change of the environments does not necessarily have to result in negative ways, it is a process that is often perceived in negative terms. The magnitude and speed of the change that has been faced since the 20th century is dramatic and environmental problems it has caused is apparent and alarming. Besides current landscape changes are characterized by the loss of diversity, coherence and identity of the existing landscapes [29].

Urban Landscapes and Identity 747

quality of life in cities. However, urbanization processes in developed and developing countries do not necessarily shape cities and towns the same. In most of the developing countries, planned development of urban areas cannot always "catch" the population increase rates (mainly caused by immigration from rural areas) due to insufficient development and management strategies, as well as funding. Therefore, in contrast to mostly planned urban expansion in developed countries, developing countries face with low quality environments such as slums and squatter housings. This not only affects the quality of physical environment and image of the city, but also leads to fragmentation of social coherence and social identity. As Antrop (2004) summarizes; "urbanization is primarily a complex of functional changes, followed by morphological and structural

Cities are not only physical constructs, but also involve social structures. The citizens are the fundamental elements of cities that keep it alive and functioning. There is a mutual relationship between a city's physical characteristics and its citizens. While the physical dimension of a city (buildings, open and green spaces, streets etc.) is shaped and formed under the influence of its citizens, it also shapes its citizens life-styles and social identity throughout the time. Cities are thus cultural heritages. As Stephenson puts it culture and

From a psychological perspective Göregenli (2005) asserts that urban identity or urban identities are a result of complex relationships between individual self, place identity and urban environments [23]. Cities are a product of continuous interaction between the physical environment and social life; their image reflects the communities' experiences, beliefs and values. Consequently identity of an urban place is the total of both physical and

Meaning and sense of belonging are central to perceived urban identity. According to Lalli developing sense of belonging to a city requires coherence in urbanization process [23]. Unfortunately, today's cities are shaped under international influences and it is quite difficult to define planning and design forms which are necessary to maintain the local

According to Lynch, identity is part of the image of a city. Although the image of a city is not necessarily the same as its identity [34], it is the physical and most instant perceived reflection of its identity. In his work "The Image of the City", Lynch (1960) defines three components of an environmental image as; (i) identity, (ii) structure and (iii) meaning [35]. The first two are more related to physical structure of the city, but meaning involves more difficult processes between the individual and the city. According to Lynch, identification of an object is the first step for a workable image. He points out that individuality or oneness, spatial or pattern relation of the object to the observer and to other objects, and finally

Lynch defines paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks are the five elements of a city image. He especially focuses on the legibility of the cityscape and asserts that the overall

practical or emotional meaning are the requirements of a workable image.

identity are not merely about social relationships, but also spatial [32].

social distinctive features that is unique to it [12].

ones" [31].

identity [33].

The major forces of landscape change can be defined as [28]:


On the other hand, Antrop (2006) is more specific and definite when defining the driving sources [30]. According to him the main driving forces of landscape change are [30]:


Landscape change is a continuous and rather complex process. Dealing with it requires a multidisciplinary approach. The above factors are all in some extent linked to each other. However, landscapes are considerably complex systems where it is often difficult to understand how driving forces interact and influence each other. This section will focus on the effects of two major driving forces of landscape change on urban landscape identity; urbanization and globalization.

Urbanization has been one of the significant phenomena which has dramatically changed our physical and social environments since the second half of the last century. Antrop (2004) defines urbanization as "*a complex process that transforms the rural or natural landscapes into urban and industrial ones forming star-shaped spatial patterns controlled by the physical conditions of the site and its accessibility by transportation routes*" [31]. Certainly, improvements in transportation and increased mobility have led to expansion of urban areas, as well as the transformation of rural areas into urban ones. Terms like urban sprawl, urban fringe and suburbanization emerged in relation to urbanization process.

Urbanization process is mainly about industrialization and economic activities. People prefer living in urban areas rather than rural areas because they hope to achieve a better quality of life in cities. However, urbanization processes in developed and developing countries do not necessarily shape cities and towns the same. In most of the developing countries, planned development of urban areas cannot always "catch" the population increase rates (mainly caused by immigration from rural areas) due to insufficient development and management strategies, as well as funding. Therefore, in contrast to mostly planned urban expansion in developed countries, developing countries face with low quality environments such as slums and squatter housings. This not only affects the quality of physical environment and image of the city, but also leads to fragmentation of social coherence and social identity. As Antrop (2004) summarizes; "urbanization is primarily a complex of functional changes, followed by morphological and structural ones" [31].

746 Advances in Landscape Architecture

globalization etc.)

natural disasters) 5. Cultural driving forces

2. Urbanization process

urbanization and globalization.

4. Calamities

etc.)

**4. Urban landscape and identity**

Landscape is a dynamic phenomenon which is shaped by both natural and cultural forces. Thus, change is an inherent character of any landscape. Changes in landscape may not always happen as a result of planned actions, but may also be an unexpected effect [28]. Although change of the environments does not necessarily have to result in negative ways, it is a process that is often perceived in negative terms. The magnitude and speed of the change that has been faced since the 20th century is dramatic and environmental problems it has caused is apparent and alarming. Besides current landscape changes are characterized

1. Socioeconomic driving forces (primarily economic factors; market economy,

3. Technological driving forces (information technology, developments in transportation

4. Natural driving forces (changes in climate, topography, soil characteristics etc. and

On the other hand, Antrop (2006) is more specific and definite when defining the driving

Landscape change is a continuous and rather complex process. Dealing with it requires a multidisciplinary approach. The above factors are all in some extent linked to each other. However, landscapes are considerably complex systems where it is often difficult to understand how driving forces interact and influence each other. This section will focus on the effects of two major driving forces of landscape change on urban landscape identity;

Urbanization has been one of the significant phenomena which has dramatically changed our physical and social environments since the second half of the last century. Antrop (2004) defines urbanization as "*a complex process that transforms the rural or natural landscapes into urban and industrial ones forming star-shaped spatial patterns controlled by the physical conditions of the site and its accessibility by transportation routes*" [31]. Certainly, improvements in transportation and increased mobility have led to expansion of urban areas, as well as the transformation of rural areas into urban ones. Terms like urban sprawl, urban fringe and

Urbanization process is mainly about industrialization and economic activities. People prefer living in urban areas rather than rural areas because they hope to achieve a better

sources [30]. According to him the main driving forces of landscape change are [30]:

by the loss of diversity, coherence and identity of the existing landscapes [29].

The major forces of landscape change can be defined as [28]:

1. Mobility patterns related to accessibility of places

3. Decisions affecting large areas that overrule local decisions

suburbanization emerged in relation to urbanization process.

2. Political driving forces (political programs, laws, policies etc.)

Cities are not only physical constructs, but also involve social structures. The citizens are the fundamental elements of cities that keep it alive and functioning. There is a mutual relationship between a city's physical characteristics and its citizens. While the physical dimension of a city (buildings, open and green spaces, streets etc.) is shaped and formed under the influence of its citizens, it also shapes its citizens life-styles and social identity throughout the time. Cities are thus cultural heritages. As Stephenson puts it culture and identity are not merely about social relationships, but also spatial [32].

From a psychological perspective Göregenli (2005) asserts that urban identity or urban identities are a result of complex relationships between individual self, place identity and urban environments [23]. Cities are a product of continuous interaction between the physical environment and social life; their image reflects the communities' experiences, beliefs and values. Consequently identity of an urban place is the total of both physical and social distinctive features that is unique to it [12].

Meaning and sense of belonging are central to perceived urban identity. According to Lalli developing sense of belonging to a city requires coherence in urbanization process [23]. Unfortunately, today's cities are shaped under international influences and it is quite difficult to define planning and design forms which are necessary to maintain the local identity [33].

According to Lynch, identity is part of the image of a city. Although the image of a city is not necessarily the same as its identity [34], it is the physical and most instant perceived reflection of its identity. In his work "The Image of the City", Lynch (1960) defines three components of an environmental image as; (i) identity, (ii) structure and (iii) meaning [35]. The first two are more related to physical structure of the city, but meaning involves more difficult processes between the individual and the city. According to Lynch, identification of an object is the first step for a workable image. He points out that individuality or oneness, spatial or pattern relation of the object to the observer and to other objects, and finally practical or emotional meaning are the requirements of a workable image.

Lynch defines paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks are the five elements of a city image. He especially focuses on the legibility of the cityscape and asserts that the overall pattern of all city image elements determines the legibility of a city. Hence, a city's identity depends on the easiness of identifying the image which is a result of the way how its elements are composed of and interact with each other. Obviously, how human experience influences a city's image and identity is missing in Lynch's approach. Although he admits meaning is necessary for a workable image, his work basically focuses on the physical construction of the city. However, even though he is often criticized for neglecting the social dimension in his work, his work is still influencing and popular in urban planning and design.

Urban Landscapes and Identity 749

Built heritage is definitely one of the most important aspect of the authenticity and subsequently identity of an urban environment. Cities are formed and develop throughout the time. They constantly change, develop and transform. Built heritage is the most apparent reflection of this change. It might also include symbolic meanings for the citizens and visitors, often because of the significant historical events associated with it. Buildings and structures of a city tell a story of past with meanings and cultural values involved. Therefore, built heritage is assumed to be a distinct indicator of urban identity and thus conservation of the built heritage is one of the major concerns in sustainability of urban identity. Certainly, it is impossible and senseless to protect all the "old" buildings and structures. Cities are growing faster than expected and overcapacity; hence "empty lands" are scarce and precious. It is often needed to restructure and reorganize the existing built environment. Recently some researchers have argued that urban conservation practices create morphologically standardized urban landscapes and do not contribute to place identity at all [38]. So identity concerns bring the question of "what to protect". Actually, recent research show that not only historical buildings but also contemporary and newer structures and buildings are as well associated with the city's image and identity by its

For instance Gospodini's (2004) research on place identity was conducted in Bilbao where urban landscape is formed by the combination of modern and historical architecture [38]. The findings of the research showed that both innovative design and built heritage contribute to the image and identity of the city equally, as perceived by the citizens and tourists. The Guggenheim Museum (Figure 2) in Bilbao is one of the significant examples of how innovative design schemes can contribute to urban identity. In Gospodini's research Guggenheim Museum was highly rated as a unique and distinct feature of the Bilbao's

citizens and visitors.

urban identity by both the inhabitants and the tourists.

**Figure 2.** Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao.

On the other hand according to Relph, identity of a place is strongly linked to the existence of authentic sense of place [36]. Sense of place is about a person's understanding of a place; hence it involves (i) experience and (ii) a subjective dimension. Therefore the composition and characteristics of physical components of the built environment affect the sense of place perceived and interpreted by people. Rogan et al. defined three variables of sense of place; legibility, perception of and preference for the visual environment and the compatibility of the activities with human purposes [17].

Legibility is a concept that is often linked to the identity of an urban space. So what determines the legibility of a place? According to Lynch visibility, coherence and clarity are the factors that determine the degree of legibility and should be taken into account in forming the city [35]. On the other hand, these characteristics may not be sufficient alone for creating legible cities. According to Carr et al. (1992) a meaningful space has to be comfortable enough to allow an experience with it to occur and positive meanings can be created by positive connections to people [37]. Relph argues that ignoring the meanings attached to places creates inauthentic places and damage authentic ones [17]. He names this transformation as *placelessness*. Placelessness has become an important concern for the sustainability of the urban environments these days.

Although urbanization has some negative impacts on sustainability of the environment, what really raises the concerns on identity of urban areas is globalization process, which also influences the context of urbanization worldwide. In social sciences, globalization is studied primarily in context of economics. Since economical activities are basic to the functioning of a city, globalized economy's "global production and consumption" patterns play an important role in the change of urban environments, making them a product of "global culture". Homogenization of urban landscapes is an apparent and concerning effect of globalization process. Global brands are everywhere, not only selling or presenting or serving their products, but they also bring their unique architectural patterns, signboards etc. to wherever they open their branches. One can easily recognize a McDonalds shop or HSBC branch any city in the world. What is more concerning is the change of life-styles and thus cultural homogenization which global brands cause.

On the other hand what defines a city lays in its citizens' and visitors' minds. A city's identity is what the insiders (citizens) and outsiders (visitors) perceive, feel and remember about it. Unfortunately, what globalization causes on the image of cities through homogenization is often irreversible.

Built heritage is definitely one of the most important aspect of the authenticity and subsequently identity of an urban environment. Cities are formed and develop throughout the time. They constantly change, develop and transform. Built heritage is the most apparent reflection of this change. It might also include symbolic meanings for the citizens and visitors, often because of the significant historical events associated with it. Buildings and structures of a city tell a story of past with meanings and cultural values involved. Therefore, built heritage is assumed to be a distinct indicator of urban identity and thus conservation of the built heritage is one of the major concerns in sustainability of urban identity. Certainly, it is impossible and senseless to protect all the "old" buildings and structures. Cities are growing faster than expected and overcapacity; hence "empty lands" are scarce and precious. It is often needed to restructure and reorganize the existing built environment. Recently some researchers have argued that urban conservation practices create morphologically standardized urban landscapes and do not contribute to place identity at all [38]. So identity concerns bring the question of "what to protect". Actually, recent research show that not only historical buildings but also contemporary and newer structures and buildings are as well associated with the city's image and identity by its citizens and visitors.

For instance Gospodini's (2004) research on place identity was conducted in Bilbao where urban landscape is formed by the combination of modern and historical architecture [38]. The findings of the research showed that both innovative design and built heritage contribute to the image and identity of the city equally, as perceived by the citizens and tourists. The Guggenheim Museum (Figure 2) in Bilbao is one of the significant examples of how innovative design schemes can contribute to urban identity. In Gospodini's research Guggenheim Museum was highly rated as a unique and distinct feature of the Bilbao's urban identity by both the inhabitants and the tourists.

**Figure 2.** Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao.

748 Advances in Landscape Architecture

the activities with human purposes [17].

sustainability of the urban environments these days.

thus cultural homogenization which global brands cause.

homogenization is often irreversible.

design.

pattern of all city image elements determines the legibility of a city. Hence, a city's identity depends on the easiness of identifying the image which is a result of the way how its elements are composed of and interact with each other. Obviously, how human experience influences a city's image and identity is missing in Lynch's approach. Although he admits meaning is necessary for a workable image, his work basically focuses on the physical construction of the city. However, even though he is often criticized for neglecting the social dimension in his work, his work is still influencing and popular in urban planning and

On the other hand according to Relph, identity of a place is strongly linked to the existence of authentic sense of place [36]. Sense of place is about a person's understanding of a place; hence it involves (i) experience and (ii) a subjective dimension. Therefore the composition and characteristics of physical components of the built environment affect the sense of place perceived and interpreted by people. Rogan et al. defined three variables of sense of place; legibility, perception of and preference for the visual environment and the compatibility of

Legibility is a concept that is often linked to the identity of an urban space. So what determines the legibility of a place? According to Lynch visibility, coherence and clarity are the factors that determine the degree of legibility and should be taken into account in forming the city [35]. On the other hand, these characteristics may not be sufficient alone for creating legible cities. According to Carr et al. (1992) a meaningful space has to be comfortable enough to allow an experience with it to occur and positive meanings can be created by positive connections to people [37]. Relph argues that ignoring the meanings attached to places creates inauthentic places and damage authentic ones [17]. He names this transformation as *placelessness*. Placelessness has become an important concern for the

Although urbanization has some negative impacts on sustainability of the environment, what really raises the concerns on identity of urban areas is globalization process, which also influences the context of urbanization worldwide. In social sciences, globalization is studied primarily in context of economics. Since economical activities are basic to the functioning of a city, globalized economy's "global production and consumption" patterns play an important role in the change of urban environments, making them a product of "global culture". Homogenization of urban landscapes is an apparent and concerning effect of globalization process. Global brands are everywhere, not only selling or presenting or serving their products, but they also bring their unique architectural patterns, signboards etc. to wherever they open their branches. One can easily recognize a McDonalds shop or HSBC branch any city in the world. What is more concerning is the change of life-styles and

On the other hand what defines a city lays in its citizens' and visitors' minds. A city's identity is what the insiders (citizens) and outsiders (visitors) perceive, feel and remember about it. Unfortunately, what globalization causes on the image of cities through Another significant impact on urban identity is the decline in public realm. Public spaces are crucial parts of a city where social, cultural and economic activities take place. Therefore they are the heart of the cities. Public spaces bring citizens together, providing them with opportunities for relaxing, recreation, socializing, gathering, performing arts, sports activities, public art and cultural activities. In summary they liven up the city life and create a sense of community. However, public spaces decrease or lose their importance in many contemporary cities, mainly due to changing life-styles where people spend most of their time in virtual environments. But how does this affect identity of urban environments? Firstly, public spaces are where social interaction and activities occur. Secondly, public spaces are where individuals and groups experience the city most freely. Thirdly, they provide spaces where people can express themselves and be themselves. Finally, they benefit mental and physical health through the opportunities they offer, that are mentioned above. Therefore, they play an important role in developing and maintaining both selfidentity and place-identity. The loss of public spaces will not only damage social cohesion, but also reduce the quality of life of an individual.

Urban Landscapes and Identity 751

been shaped and formed under the influence of different physical, natural, social, cultural and economic conditions. In regions where urbanization process is relatively slower, local unique characteristics can still be seen in towns. In some towns, local landscape and built heritage is used as marketing products to attract tourists. Although tourism activities (especially mass tourism) cause irreversible impacts on local environment and resources and sometimes lead to loss of diversity and identity, there are examples where local character

The major problem in maintaining identity of urban environments in Turkey is the lack of awareness and sensitivity of national and local authorities. The most deteriorating actions on urban identity of Turkish cities have been decided and implemented by governmental organizations and local municipalities through urban renewal and urban transformation

Due to the migration from rural to urban areas In Turkey, housing developments cover 95% of the total building production [39]. TOKİ is currently the leading and the only legal authorization in development of new housing projects throughout the country. The total number of TOKİ's housing projects as announced on TOKI's web page is; "in 81 cities, 800 towns, with 2522 worksites, 560866 housing units" [40]. This might seem a huge number, and it is indeed. But how does TOKİ manage with so many housing projects in terms of local identity and character? The answer is quite a disappointment; the body simply ignores these issues. It rather works like a housing "factory". In fact, their vision statement is solely based on economy and financing, rather than basic principles of urban planning and design;

Prevent real estate speculation that might use low-quality materials in the construction

Create financial opportunities to finance social housing projects such as innovative

Bursa branch of the Chamber of Architects of Turkey organized a photography competition on the negative impacts of TOKİ projects in Bursa in 2011. The photographs submitted to the competition revealed the disharmony and incoherence of the housing projects within the

The main threat caused by TOKİ is the standardization and homogenization of urban landscapes throughout Turkey. Although TOKİ claims that it will pay more attention to the Turkish architectural styles in its new development projects, Gür discusses that TOKİ's

 Produce housing for regions in Turkey where the private sector is not active, Offer low and middle income groups the opportunity to finance their own homes, Offer rural housing opportunities that decrease the pressure on the migration to urban

Collaborate with local municipalities to create urban renewal projects and

projects. Below some of the recent and significant examples are presented.

**Housing projects of TOKİ (Housing Development Administration of Turkey)** 

still exists (Figure 3).

"TOKİ's vision for the future strives to:

of low-margin housing,

city's existing character (Figure 4).

areas,

Create a model framework for quality low-cost housing,

income-sharing projects with the private sector" [40].

It is hard to know how the progress of current urbanization trends will exactly shape our lives and our environments in the future. However, we can only predict the possible outcomes and so far it is only concerning.

#### **Identity issues in Turkish cities**

The characteristics of landscapes in Turkey significantly vary between its regions. For instance while Black Sea region's landscape is characterized by the plateaus, meadows, tea farms/gardens and wooden houses, landscape in Aegean region of Turkey is dominated by olive trees, maquis and stone houses. Similarly, the settlements in different regions have

**Figure 3.** Local architectural identity in Göreme, Cappadocia region, Turkey.

been shaped and formed under the influence of different physical, natural, social, cultural and economic conditions. In regions where urbanization process is relatively slower, local unique characteristics can still be seen in towns. In some towns, local landscape and built heritage is used as marketing products to attract tourists. Although tourism activities (especially mass tourism) cause irreversible impacts on local environment and resources and sometimes lead to loss of diversity and identity, there are examples where local character still exists (Figure 3).

The major problem in maintaining identity of urban environments in Turkey is the lack of awareness and sensitivity of national and local authorities. The most deteriorating actions on urban identity of Turkish cities have been decided and implemented by governmental organizations and local municipalities through urban renewal and urban transformation projects. Below some of the recent and significant examples are presented.

### **Housing projects of TOKİ (Housing Development Administration of Turkey)**

Due to the migration from rural to urban areas In Turkey, housing developments cover 95% of the total building production [39]. TOKİ is currently the leading and the only legal authorization in development of new housing projects throughout the country. The total number of TOKİ's housing projects as announced on TOKI's web page is; "in 81 cities, 800 towns, with 2522 worksites, 560866 housing units" [40]. This might seem a huge number, and it is indeed. But how does TOKİ manage with so many housing projects in terms of local identity and character? The answer is quite a disappointment; the body simply ignores these issues. It rather works like a housing "factory". In fact, their vision statement is solely based on economy and financing, rather than basic principles of urban planning and design;

"TOKİ's vision for the future strives to:

750 Advances in Landscape Architecture

but also reduce the quality of life of an individual.

outcomes and so far it is only concerning.

**Identity issues in Turkish cities** 

Another significant impact on urban identity is the decline in public realm. Public spaces are crucial parts of a city where social, cultural and economic activities take place. Therefore they are the heart of the cities. Public spaces bring citizens together, providing them with opportunities for relaxing, recreation, socializing, gathering, performing arts, sports activities, public art and cultural activities. In summary they liven up the city life and create a sense of community. However, public spaces decrease or lose their importance in many contemporary cities, mainly due to changing life-styles where people spend most of their time in virtual environments. But how does this affect identity of urban environments? Firstly, public spaces are where social interaction and activities occur. Secondly, public spaces are where individuals and groups experience the city most freely. Thirdly, they provide spaces where people can express themselves and be themselves. Finally, they benefit mental and physical health through the opportunities they offer, that are mentioned above. Therefore, they play an important role in developing and maintaining both selfidentity and place-identity. The loss of public spaces will not only damage social cohesion,

It is hard to know how the progress of current urbanization trends will exactly shape our lives and our environments in the future. However, we can only predict the possible

The characteristics of landscapes in Turkey significantly vary between its regions. For instance while Black Sea region's landscape is characterized by the plateaus, meadows, tea farms/gardens and wooden houses, landscape in Aegean region of Turkey is dominated by olive trees, maquis and stone houses. Similarly, the settlements in different regions have

**Figure 3.** Local architectural identity in Göreme, Cappadocia region, Turkey.


Bursa branch of the Chamber of Architects of Turkey organized a photography competition on the negative impacts of TOKİ projects in Bursa in 2011. The photographs submitted to the competition revealed the disharmony and incoherence of the housing projects within the city's existing character (Figure 4).

The main threat caused by TOKİ is the standardization and homogenization of urban landscapes throughout Turkey. Although TOKİ claims that it will pay more attention to the Turkish architectural styles in its new development projects, Gür discusses that TOKİ's

"Ottoman" and "Seljuk" style architecture approaches in its projects will only be "characterless imitations" as long as TOKİ continues with projects which are unfamiliar with Anatolian culture in terms of site selection, organization of neighbourhoods, accommodation characteristics and social and cultural services.

Urban Landscapes and Identity 753

tools for the municipalities for the last decade. However, similar to many other attempts on the built environment, these projects have always been controversial and have received serious criticism from academicians and professional organizations. This is mainly due to the fact that urban renewal or urban transformation projects in Turkey often ignores the social, economic and cultural dimensions and based on merely the physical transformation of the environment. The *gecekondus* are replaced by TOKİ's apartment blocks, transforming the city into homogenized units as explained before. In Figure 6, the urban transformation project (by TOKİ) on North Ankara is presented. Such projects do not contribute to the social and cultural aspects of the city and moreover they are unsustainable and not incoherence with the Ankara's identity envisaged when the

**Figure 5.** The current emblem of Ankara is on the left and the former is on the right [42].

Traffic is one of the other significant issues in Ankara which affects the urban quality of life. Because of the community life styles and lack of sufficient public transportation systems, traffic is a growing problem for Ankara. Besides urban expansion policies which ignored the transportation dimension has worsen the situation. Moreover, most of the governmental organizations and ministries have been moved out of the city centre and because of the lack of public transportation to these units, individual car use has been increased, especially during the peak hours. Although traffic is a common issue for many metropolitan cities, what damaged urban image and human experience in Ankara has been the construction of underground roads within the city centre which ignored the pedestrian movement and focused on vehicle traffic flow (Figure 7). The initial aim was to relieve the vehicle traffic within the city. However, building more roads underground did not solve the problem, but seriously harmed the city image. As stated before, people and social activity are necessary for the vitality of a city. Moreover, identity is developed by experiencing the environment. People experience the city best by walking and by using the public spaces. If vehicle traffic becomes the prominent priority, the city might lose its

Republic was first established.

basic function and vitality.

**Figure 4.** TOKİ housing projects in Bursa [41] (Left: 2nd Prize Winner- Photo by Egemen Ergin, Right: Photo by Bülent Suberk).

#### **Ankara**

As explained previously in the introduction of this chapter, Ankara is the first planned city of the modern Turkey, and the prescribed identity for Ankara was a modern republican capital city. Like other metropolitan areas in Turkey, Ankara's urban environment has been affected by the impacts of immigration, uncontrolled and unplanned urbanization and globalization since 1950's. However the most destructive actions on its identity have been taken in the last two decades by the Metropolitan Municipality of Ankara.

Although it is not directly linked to identity of the urban landscape, one of the most controversial attempts to manipulate Ankara's identity was the change of Ankara's city emblem by the Metropolitan Municipality of Ankara. Ankara's old emblem was formerly the Hittite Sun which took its roots from the fact that Ankara's history goes back to Hittites. In 1995 Metropolitan Municipality of Ankara took a decision to change the emblem of the city. The new emblem was the combination of Kocatepe Mosque (construction completed in 1987) and Atakule Shopping Mall (opened in 1989). Figure 5 shows the current and the old emblem of the city.

One might argue whether the both emblems symbolize the identity of Ankara. However it is obvious that the latter one does not emphasize the "modern republican city" concept with a mosque and shopping mall in it.

Despite Ankara has struggled with more serious problems which concern quality of life and sustainability of urban environment, the change of the city emblem was only the beginning of Municipality's policies and future actions on the Ankara's urban landscape.

Ankara has suffered the negative impacts of squatter housing or as said in Turkish "gecekondu"s, especially after 1950's because of the high rates of migration. Urban renewal and urban transformation projects have been the most popular and favourite tools for the municipalities for the last decade. However, similar to many other attempts on the built environment, these projects have always been controversial and have received serious criticism from academicians and professional organizations. This is mainly due to the fact that urban renewal or urban transformation projects in Turkey often ignores the social, economic and cultural dimensions and based on merely the physical transformation of the environment. The *gecekondus* are replaced by TOKİ's apartment blocks, transforming the city into homogenized units as explained before. In Figure 6, the urban transformation project (by TOKİ) on North Ankara is presented. Such projects do not contribute to the social and cultural aspects of the city and moreover they are unsustainable and not incoherence with the Ankara's identity envisaged when the Republic was first established.

752 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Photo by Bülent Suberk).

emblem of the city.

mosque and shopping mall in it.

**Ankara** 

"Ottoman" and "Seljuk" style architecture approaches in its projects will only be "characterless imitations" as long as TOKİ continues with projects which are unfamiliar with Anatolian culture in terms of site selection, organization of neighbourhoods,

**Figure 4.** TOKİ housing projects in Bursa [41] (Left: 2nd Prize Winner- Photo by Egemen Ergin, Right:

As explained previously in the introduction of this chapter, Ankara is the first planned city of the modern Turkey, and the prescribed identity for Ankara was a modern republican capital city. Like other metropolitan areas in Turkey, Ankara's urban environment has been affected by the impacts of immigration, uncontrolled and unplanned urbanization and globalization since 1950's. However the most destructive actions on its identity have been

Although it is not directly linked to identity of the urban landscape, one of the most controversial attempts to manipulate Ankara's identity was the change of Ankara's city emblem by the Metropolitan Municipality of Ankara. Ankara's old emblem was formerly the Hittite Sun which took its roots from the fact that Ankara's history goes back to Hittites. In 1995 Metropolitan Municipality of Ankara took a decision to change the emblem of the city. The new emblem was the combination of Kocatepe Mosque (construction completed in 1987) and Atakule Shopping Mall (opened in 1989). Figure 5 shows the current and the old

One might argue whether the both emblems symbolize the identity of Ankara. However it is obvious that the latter one does not emphasize the "modern republican city" concept with a

Despite Ankara has struggled with more serious problems which concern quality of life and sustainability of urban environment, the change of the city emblem was only the beginning

Ankara has suffered the negative impacts of squatter housing or as said in Turkish "gecekondu"s, especially after 1950's because of the high rates of migration. Urban renewal and urban transformation projects have been the most popular and favourite

of Municipality's policies and future actions on the Ankara's urban landscape.

taken in the last two decades by the Metropolitan Municipality of Ankara.

accommodation characteristics and social and cultural services.

**Figure 5.** The current emblem of Ankara is on the left and the former is on the right [42].

Traffic is one of the other significant issues in Ankara which affects the urban quality of life. Because of the community life styles and lack of sufficient public transportation systems, traffic is a growing problem for Ankara. Besides urban expansion policies which ignored the transportation dimension has worsen the situation. Moreover, most of the governmental organizations and ministries have been moved out of the city centre and because of the lack of public transportation to these units, individual car use has been increased, especially during the peak hours. Although traffic is a common issue for many metropolitan cities, what damaged urban image and human experience in Ankara has been the construction of underground roads within the city centre which ignored the pedestrian movement and focused on vehicle traffic flow (Figure 7). The initial aim was to relieve the vehicle traffic within the city. However, building more roads underground did not solve the problem, but seriously harmed the city image. As stated before, people and social activity are necessary for the vitality of a city. Moreover, identity is developed by experiencing the environment. People experience the city best by walking and by using the public spaces. If vehicle traffic becomes the prominent priority, the city might lose its basic function and vitality.

Urban Landscapes and Identity 755

spaces are crucial parts of a city that support social integration and cohesion. They contribute to the overall city image and liven up boring city life and the built environment. They bring different social, ethnic and economic income groups together. They are where communities express themselves by gathering, protesting, etc. Therefore they play an important role in the development and maintenance of urban identity. On the other hand, public spaces have not always been paid the attention they deserved in Ankara. Today Ankara lacks of public squares which are hearts of the cities and where social interaction is the highest. The most famous and historical squares of Ankara, Kzlay and Ulus squares

have become "urban junctions" which have limited pedestrian access and movement.

transformation.

**İstanbul** 

emphasize Republican values and its history.

again lacking of urban identity aspect.

Metropolitan Municipality's website [46].

Ankara is a city shaped by the influences of many civilizations such as Roman Empire, Byzantine Empire, Seljuk Empire, Ottoman Empire and finally the Republic of Turkey. It has its unique topographical features, climate, vegetation and fauna, as well as built environment characteristics. There are too many aspects which can contribute to its identity. Unfortunately, today's Ankara has been losing its values and meanings belonging to its history and local character. What is more concerning is the citizens' inert response to the

Ankara's identity should be reconsidered in urban design and planning in order to

İstanbul is the most well known Turkish city worldwide because of its historical importance, geographical position (as a transition point between two continents, Europe and Asia) and outstanding landscape features. It is also the most crowded city in Turkey with more than 13 million inhabitants. Due to inward migration the city's population have been doubled in the last two decades. Similar to Ankara, İstanbul has been suffering uncontrolled and unplanned urban expansion which led to urban transformation and urban renewal projects,

Haydarpaşa Train Station, constructed in 1908, has always been one of the significant landmarks of İstanbul. It has been frequently included in the opening scenes of Turkish movies, where characters arrive the first time in İstanbul and have the first glimpse of the city while standing on the stairs of Haydarpaşa Station. It has always been one of the "entrance" points to the city and an important part of the city silhouette (Figure 8). However, İstanbul Metropolitan Municipality approved an urban transformation project which will change character of Haydarpaşa Train Station and consequently İstanbul's silhouette forever; "Haydarpaşa Port Project". The project has received many criticisms but it did not prevent taking the project next level. The project will transform this historical and public site to an economy centre based on tourism and commercial activities. Such privatization trends by the authorities in urban design and planning definitely cause irreversible impacts and damages on urban character and identity. However, the government and the Metropolitan Municipality seem to be content with the project. The following paragraphs, which reflect the authorities' opinions, were taken from the İstanbul

**Figure 6.** North Ankara urban transformation project [43].

**Figure 7.** An underground road in Ankara [44].

Today there are more than 20 shopping malls in Ankara, which is the result of rapid growth of market economy globalization and liberalization processes. Besides the consumption based-culture they partially contributed to and supported, shopping malls have been one of the reasons of decline in use of public spaces in Ankara. Oguz and Çakc (2010) have found that people tend to prefer spending their leisure time in shopping malls rather than outdoor public spaces due to the services and facilities shopping malls offer [45]. However, public spaces are crucial parts of a city that support social integration and cohesion. They contribute to the overall city image and liven up boring city life and the built environment. They bring different social, ethnic and economic income groups together. They are where communities express themselves by gathering, protesting, etc. Therefore they play an important role in the development and maintenance of urban identity. On the other hand, public spaces have not always been paid the attention they deserved in Ankara. Today Ankara lacks of public squares which are hearts of the cities and where social interaction is the highest. The most famous and historical squares of Ankara, Kzlay and Ulus squares have become "urban junctions" which have limited pedestrian access and movement.

Ankara is a city shaped by the influences of many civilizations such as Roman Empire, Byzantine Empire, Seljuk Empire, Ottoman Empire and finally the Republic of Turkey. It has its unique topographical features, climate, vegetation and fauna, as well as built environment characteristics. There are too many aspects which can contribute to its identity. Unfortunately, today's Ankara has been losing its values and meanings belonging to its history and local character. What is more concerning is the citizens' inert response to the transformation.

Ankara's identity should be reconsidered in urban design and planning in order to emphasize Republican values and its history.

#### **İstanbul**

754 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 6.** North Ankara urban transformation project [43].

**Figure 7.** An underground road in Ankara [44].

Today there are more than 20 shopping malls in Ankara, which is the result of rapid growth of market economy globalization and liberalization processes. Besides the consumption based-culture they partially contributed to and supported, shopping malls have been one of the reasons of decline in use of public spaces in Ankara. Oguz and Çakc (2010) have found that people tend to prefer spending their leisure time in shopping malls rather than outdoor public spaces due to the services and facilities shopping malls offer [45]. However, public İstanbul is the most well known Turkish city worldwide because of its historical importance, geographical position (as a transition point between two continents, Europe and Asia) and outstanding landscape features. It is also the most crowded city in Turkey with more than 13 million inhabitants. Due to inward migration the city's population have been doubled in the last two decades. Similar to Ankara, İstanbul has been suffering uncontrolled and unplanned urban expansion which led to urban transformation and urban renewal projects, again lacking of urban identity aspect.

Haydarpaşa Train Station, constructed in 1908, has always been one of the significant landmarks of İstanbul. It has been frequently included in the opening scenes of Turkish movies, where characters arrive the first time in İstanbul and have the first glimpse of the city while standing on the stairs of Haydarpaşa Station. It has always been one of the "entrance" points to the city and an important part of the city silhouette (Figure 8). However, İstanbul Metropolitan Municipality approved an urban transformation project which will change character of Haydarpaşa Train Station and consequently İstanbul's silhouette forever; "Haydarpaşa Port Project". The project has received many criticisms but it did not prevent taking the project next level. The project will transform this historical and public site to an economy centre based on tourism and commercial activities. Such privatization trends by the authorities in urban design and planning definitely cause irreversible impacts and damages on urban character and identity. However, the government and the Metropolitan Municipality seem to be content with the project. The following paragraphs, which reflect the authorities' opinions, were taken from the İstanbul Metropolitan Municipality's website [46].

"*The Istanbul Municipal Assembly has approved reconstruction plan for protection of the Haydarpaşa Train Station and Port, paving the way to change the entire appearance of a historical location marked for about a century by one of the architectural symbols of Istanbul's Asian side*.

Urban Landscapes and Identity 757

Haydarpaşa Port Project is not the only project that will change the unique character of İstanbul forever. There are many attempts by the government and the Metropolitan Municipality o change the urban landscape irreversibly. Non-governmental organizations, professional organizations and academicians are the primary opponents of these projects. Regarding these kind of projects in İstanbul, Steele and Shafik well summarize the threat

"*None of these have sufficiently addressed the singular character of Istanbul as a world class city which is stepped in multiple layers of history and tradition. Its most distinctive aspect has always been its silhouette and relationship to the water. By erasing this most important feature, Planners and* 

Urban landscape is a complex structure which is a result of the interaction between human and his environment. It also involves a social dimension, a cultural dimension and an economic dimension. Urban landscapes are formed and shaped mainly under the influence of human activities. Therefore, they inherit communities' values, beliefs, symbolic meanings which occur and change throughout the time. They change as communities change, lifestyles change, and world economy change. Thus, they are the physical reflection of urban

Similar to self identity, urban identity is also flexible and evolving. The change is an inevitable process. However, the question is how to manage the change and urban identity in today's cities which are more multi-cultural and multi-ethnic than ever. Therefore sustainability should not be limited to only natural resources, but should also include urban identity as cultural heritage. Hence there is a need for methodologies of analysis and

The main goal of planners and designers is to create liveable places for people. "Liveability" of a place can be determined through the quality of the environment. On the other hand the quality of a place not only is determined through physical features of an environment, but also involves subjective factors. Thus, social and psychological dimension of the urban environments should be taken into account in planning and design schemes. The mutual relationship between people and their environments should be well understood and interpreted in order to create and maintain liveable places. Unfortunately, it is often too late when we realize the effects of our actions that lead to loss of coherence, diversity and change. While we put all the blame on globalization and urbanization processes, we should also acknowledge that we need to develop plans and policies that would adapt the change.

*Department of Landscape Architecture, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey* 

*Developers have erased the very identity of this city. This is a tragedy.*"

İstanbul is facing [48]:

**5. Conclusion**

identity.

assessment of urban identity.

**Author details** 

Isil Kaymaz

…….

*The municipal assembly met Sept. 14, with members representing the ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP) and the Republican People's Party (CHP), according to a report from Anatolia news agency. The project was approved with affirmative votes from the AKP members, while the CHP members voted against it.* 

*Akif Burak Atlar, assistant secretary-general of the Istanbul City Planners Chamber said: "The Haydarpaşa Train Station may lose its public function [with this project]. We want to defend the protection of the train station feature of the Haydarpaşa building and leave it as it is for future generations, because it is part of our cultural heritage*."

*Commercial and tourism functions would close the building and the surrounding area to public use, he said. Haydarpaşa is planned to become the city's main tourism port, where giant cruise ships will dock.* 

……..

*The government deems it to be one of the most important "prestigious projects" planned for Istanbul, along with the Galata Port project on the European side of Istanbul.* 

…….

*Both projects were approved this year by the Cultural and Natural Heritage Conservation Board, despite having stirred great public controversy. Istanbul Mayor Kadir Topbaş had previously said that the two areas, which have cultural and historical value, would be opened to tourism.*"

**Figure 8.** Haydarpaşa Train Station [47].

Haydarpaşa Port Project is not the only project that will change the unique character of İstanbul forever. There are many attempts by the government and the Metropolitan Municipality o change the urban landscape irreversibly. Non-governmental organizations, professional organizations and academicians are the primary opponents of these projects. Regarding these kind of projects in İstanbul, Steele and Shafik well summarize the threat İstanbul is facing [48]:

"*None of these have sufficiently addressed the singular character of Istanbul as a world class city which is stepped in multiple layers of history and tradition. Its most distinctive aspect has always been its silhouette and relationship to the water. By erasing this most important feature, Planners and Developers have erased the very identity of this city. This is a tragedy.*"

## **5. Conclusion**

756 Advances in Landscape Architecture

*the CHP members voted against it.* 

**Figure 8.** Haydarpaşa Train Station [47].

*generations, because it is part of our cultural heritage*."

*along with the Galata Port project on the European side of Istanbul.* 

…….

*dock.*  ……..

…….

"*The Istanbul Municipal Assembly has approved reconstruction plan for protection of the Haydarpaşa Train Station and Port, paving the way to change the entire appearance of a historical location marked for about a century by one of the architectural symbols of Istanbul's Asian side*.

*The municipal assembly met Sept. 14, with members representing the ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP) and the Republican People's Party (CHP), according to a report from Anatolia news agency. The project was approved with affirmative votes from the AKP members, while* 

*Akif Burak Atlar, assistant secretary-general of the Istanbul City Planners Chamber said: "The Haydarpaşa Train Station may lose its public function [with this project]. We want to defend the protection of the train station feature of the Haydarpaşa building and leave it as it is for future* 

*Commercial and tourism functions would close the building and the surrounding area to public use, he said. Haydarpaşa is planned to become the city's main tourism port, where giant cruise ships will* 

*The government deems it to be one of the most important "prestigious projects" planned for Istanbul,* 

*Both projects were approved this year by the Cultural and Natural Heritage Conservation Board, despite having stirred great public controversy. Istanbul Mayor Kadir Topbaş had previously said* 

*that the two areas, which have cultural and historical value, would be opened to tourism.*"

Urban landscape is a complex structure which is a result of the interaction between human and his environment. It also involves a social dimension, a cultural dimension and an economic dimension. Urban landscapes are formed and shaped mainly under the influence of human activities. Therefore, they inherit communities' values, beliefs, symbolic meanings which occur and change throughout the time. They change as communities change, lifestyles change, and world economy change. Thus, they are the physical reflection of urban identity.

Similar to self identity, urban identity is also flexible and evolving. The change is an inevitable process. However, the question is how to manage the change and urban identity in today's cities which are more multi-cultural and multi-ethnic than ever. Therefore sustainability should not be limited to only natural resources, but should also include urban identity as cultural heritage. Hence there is a need for methodologies of analysis and assessment of urban identity.

The main goal of planners and designers is to create liveable places for people. "Liveability" of a place can be determined through the quality of the environment. On the other hand the quality of a place not only is determined through physical features of an environment, but also involves subjective factors. Thus, social and psychological dimension of the urban environments should be taken into account in planning and design schemes. The mutual relationship between people and their environments should be well understood and interpreted in order to create and maintain liveable places. Unfortunately, it is often too late when we realize the effects of our actions that lead to loss of coherence, diversity and change. While we put all the blame on globalization and urbanization processes, we should also acknowledge that we need to develop plans and policies that would adapt the change.

## **Author details**

Isil Kaymaz *Department of Landscape Architecture, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey* 

## **6. References**

[1] Sepe M. Place identity and placemaker: planning the urban sustainability. Journal of Urban Planning and Development, 136 (2), DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9488(2010) 136:2(139)

Urban Landscapes and Identity 759

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**Chapter 30** 

© 2013 Eroğlu et al., licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

**Homegardens in Landscape Architecture –** 

Landscape can be defined as from one point of view enter into the framework of a view that they produce a combination of natural and cultural assets (Council of Europe, 2000). At the same time, objects or land covers around us and how we perceive and how the relationship between nature and culture has the meaning established. Landscapes are the most important elements in building spatial identities. Landscapes, sometimes with their natural and cultural features can provide information about the way of life of the people. They are used in a sustainable manner for future generations and makes sense economically. The decisions to get to taken whether rural or urban landscape in the continuity, management

Landscapes are divided into three basic groups as natural, semi-natural and cultural (artificial) (Atik, 2009). Natural landscapes include areas that there is little or no human impact such as mountain forest, river, and lakes (Çepel, 1988). Semi-natural landscapes are dominated by the majority of the natural areas of land cover change in the form of areas that are too small. Urban, recreational, agricultural and industrial areas formed cultural or

Agricultural landscapes that are one of the four elements of cultural landscape (Karahan and Orhan, 2008) are the main land use form and the resulting high visibility leads to a widespread perception of rural farming. The importance of preserving agricultural

 the ecological integrity and the scenic value of landscapes make rural areas attractive for the establishment of enterprises, for places to live, for tourism, and recreation

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

traditional agricultural landscapes form part of the cultural and natural heritage,

**A Case Study of Hazelnut Plantations** 

Engin Eroğlu, Cengiz Acar and İbrahim Turna

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

and use of the quality of life of people are very important.

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55750

**1. Introduction** 

artificial landscapes.

businesses

landscapes is determined as (EC, 2012);


## **Homegardens in Landscape Architecture – A Case Study of Hazelnut Plantations**

Engin Eroğlu, Cengiz Acar and İbrahim Turna

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55750

## **1. Introduction**

760 Advances in Landscape Architecture

(accessed:28.12.2012).

yapacak/ (accessed: 21.12.2012).

28.12.2012).

http://www.bursamimar.org.tr/icsayfa.php?catid=6&altid=18&indeks=457(accessed

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Challenges.2010. http://iphs2010.com/abs/ID141.pdf (accessed 28.12.2012).

[45] Oguz D. And Çakc I. Changes in leisure and recreational preferences: a case study of

[48] Steele J. and Shafik R. Tensions and transformations in the master planning process of Istanbul. 14th PHS Conference. Urban Transformation: Controversies, Contrasts and

[43] http://www.toki.gov.tr/TR/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA

849816B2EF209A85B5E49F32C4 (accessed:28.12.2012).

emec-bulvari-70-gun-alt-gecidi/ (accessed:28.12.2012).

Ankara. Scientific Research and Essays 2010: 5(8) 721-29.

Landscape can be defined as from one point of view enter into the framework of a view that they produce a combination of natural and cultural assets (Council of Europe, 2000). At the same time, objects or land covers around us and how we perceive and how the relationship between nature and culture has the meaning established. Landscapes are the most important elements in building spatial identities. Landscapes, sometimes with their natural and cultural features can provide information about the way of life of the people. They are used in a sustainable manner for future generations and makes sense economically. The decisions to get to taken whether rural or urban landscape in the continuity, management and use of the quality of life of people are very important.

Landscapes are divided into three basic groups as natural, semi-natural and cultural (artificial) (Atik, 2009). Natural landscapes include areas that there is little or no human impact such as mountain forest, river, and lakes (Çepel, 1988). Semi-natural landscapes are dominated by the majority of the natural areas of land cover change in the form of areas that are too small. Urban, recreational, agricultural and industrial areas formed cultural or artificial landscapes.

Agricultural landscapes that are one of the four elements of cultural landscape (Karahan and Orhan, 2008) are the main land use form and the resulting high visibility leads to a widespread perception of rural farming. The importance of preserving agricultural landscapes is determined as (EC, 2012);


© 2013 Eroğlu et al., licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Agricultural landscapes include fruit and vegetable gardens, livestock and flower-growing businesses, watering plants. In addition, these areas have been adapted human life as field which is a recreational, a peaceful space, spending leisure time (Gökalp and Yazgan, 2013).

Homegardens in Landscape Architecture – A Case Study of Hazelnut Plantations 763

Homegarden is an agroforestry term for any agro-silvo pastoral activities carried out intentionally within one's houselot primarily for food, but also for medicine, side-income

Homegardens are unique agroforestry systems. These intensive land-use systems involving the planned management of multipurpose trees and shrubs grown in intimate association with herbaceous species (mainly annual, perennial, and seasonal agricultural crops), and livestock, are all managed within the compounds of individual homes (Fernandes and Nair, 1986 and Mohan, 2004). Homegardens provide both economic and social advantages. They, with their various agricultural crops and trees, accomplish the basic needs of the local population. In addition, homegardens provide economic benefits while remaining

There are the relationship between homegardens and landscape architecture as ecological

 *As ecological*, socioeconomic structure, cultural behaviors and personal preferences, seem to be the main characteristics of the appearance, function, and structure of homegardens (Christanty, 1990, Mazumdar and Mazumdar, 2012). The homegardens usually have more various plant canopy types and thus they are more complex than the urban or rural gardens. The crops, ornamental plants and trees planted in a homegarden are carefully arranged to provide for specific functions and benefits, which are primarily economic in nature. The other effects of ecological relation of homegardens to landscape architecture are their complexity of patterns, diversity of

 *As visual*, generally, the places are where people live and threw the day unwinding. They are focal points combining people with have a range of plant richness and diversity. Most of the time, the people who live in these places is highly valued as a visual riches on offer. Therefore, the characteristic features of each garden include

Homegardening is a traditional agroforestry system where a clearly bounded piece of land immediately surrounding the dwelling house is cultivated with a mixture of perennials and annuals. Can homegardens conserve biodiversity and develop landscape planning in Turkey? This is an important question, given the low forest cover in the country and peoples' high dependency on the natural production systems. The first step in assessing the conservation value of homegardens is to undertake a thorough botanical and structural survey. Total plant diversity measures the direct conservation value of homegardens, while structural features may indirectly conserve other taxa, such as birds, reptiles, amphibians, small mammals, or arthropods (Kabir and Webb 2007, Sunwar et al. 2006, Smith et al. 2006, Peyre et al. 2006, Ali 2005, Blanckaert et al. 2004, Wezel and Bender 2003). Homegardens are

ecologically sound and biologically sustainable (Mohan, 2004).

plants, naturalness or not and climatic features.

cultural designs (Moreno-Black et al., 1996 and Mohan, 2004).

**2. An application on homegardens in hazelnut plantations** 

**What is "Homegarden"?** 

and visual.

and landscape (Mohan, 2004).

Agricultural landscapes are an important field in Turkey. Agricultural activities show ranging from one-year to multi-year products (Table 1).


**Table 1.** Agricultural landscape areas in Turkey (According to values of Republic of Turkey Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestok in 2012)

Hazelnut plantations are in fruit orchards and other permanent crops. Hazelnut plantations cover 7 138 320 da in agricultural landscapes in Turkey (Table 2). Hazelnut plantations are located in northern, eastern and middle Black Sea Region of Turkey (Turna, 2012).


**Table 2.** Distribution of hazelnut plantations in Turkey (According to values of Republic of Turkey Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestok in 2012)

In recent years, a new concept that emerged in the agricultural landscape has been the homegardens.

#### **What is "Homegarden"?**

762 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Agricultural landscapes include fruit and vegetable gardens, livestock and flower-growing businesses, watering plants. In addition, these areas have been adapted human life as field which is a recreational, a peaceful space, spending leisure time (Gökalp and Yazgan, 2013).

Agricultural landscapes are an important field in Turkey. Agricultural activities show

**Agricultural Landscapes Areas (da)** 

Poplar and willow land 1 973 562 Unused and undeveloped potentially productive land 19 443 399 Permanent meadow 14 493 128 Pasture land 131 673 745 Fallow land 37 459 577

**Table 1.** Agricultural landscape areas in Turkey (According to values of Republic of Turkey Ministry of

Hazelnut plantations are in fruit orchards and other permanent crops. Hazelnut plantations cover 7 138 320 da in agricultural landscapes in Turkey (Table 2). Hazelnut plantations are

> **Cities of Turkey Areas (da)** Artvin 224 026 Giresun 1 322 837 Ordu 2 106 005 Rize 618 472 Sakarya 759 062 Samsun 947 738 Trabzon 607 456 Düzce 552 724

**Table 2.** Distribution of hazelnut plantations in Turkey (According to values of Republic of Turkey

In recent years, a new concept that emerged in the agricultural landscape has been the

located in northern, eastern and middle Black Sea Region of Turkey (Turna, 2012).

5 867 005

23 891 026

**Total 234 801 442** 

**Total 7 138 320** 

ranging from one-year to multi-year products (Table 1).

Vegetables and flower gardens

Food, Agriculture and Livestok in 2012)

Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestok in 2012)

homegardens.

(Land under protective cover is included)

Fruit orchards and other permanent crops (Land under protective cover is included)

Homegarden is an agroforestry term for any agro-silvo pastoral activities carried out intentionally within one's houselot primarily for food, but also for medicine, side-income and landscape (Mohan, 2004).

Homegardens are unique agroforestry systems. These intensive land-use systems involving the planned management of multipurpose trees and shrubs grown in intimate association with herbaceous species (mainly annual, perennial, and seasonal agricultural crops), and livestock, are all managed within the compounds of individual homes (Fernandes and Nair, 1986 and Mohan, 2004). Homegardens provide both economic and social advantages. They, with their various agricultural crops and trees, accomplish the basic needs of the local population. In addition, homegardens provide economic benefits while remaining ecologically sound and biologically sustainable (Mohan, 2004).

There are the relationship between homegardens and landscape architecture as ecological and visual.


## **2. An application on homegardens in hazelnut plantations**

Homegardening is a traditional agroforestry system where a clearly bounded piece of land immediately surrounding the dwelling house is cultivated with a mixture of perennials and annuals. Can homegardens conserve biodiversity and develop landscape planning in Turkey? This is an important question, given the low forest cover in the country and peoples' high dependency on the natural production systems. The first step in assessing the conservation value of homegardens is to undertake a thorough botanical and structural survey. Total plant diversity measures the direct conservation value of homegardens, while structural features may indirectly conserve other taxa, such as birds, reptiles, amphibians, small mammals, or arthropods (Kabir and Webb 2007, Sunwar et al. 2006, Smith et al. 2006, Peyre et al. 2006, Ali 2005, Blanckaert et al. 2004, Wezel and Bender 2003). Homegardens are

an integral part of the farming system, an adjunct to the house where selected trees, shrubs and herbs are grown for edible products and cash income (Pandey et al. 2007, Trinh et al. 2003, Ceccolini 2002).

Homegardens in Landscape Architecture – A Case Study of Hazelnut Plantations 765

In this study, about 30 homegardens having hazelnut plantations (Figure 3) around Trabzon were examined and plants being in these gardens were identified (Acar et al. 2007 and Tokul

**Figure 3.** Hazelnut (*Corylus avellana*) Plantations and Hazelnut Fruits and Leaves

**Figure 2.** Disturbutions of Home Gardens and Some of the Homegardens in Trabzon City

**Methods** 

2001) (Table 3).

Homegardens are a common feature in Turkey like what they are in many countries, and often exhibit remarkable variability in composition and structure in geographic regions of Turkey. The homegardens in urban in the Black Sea region in Turkey related to urban-rural are basically the determiners to form the urban and regional landscape patterns. In this region, the homegardens having minimal and limited area, the importance and functions with effective systems contains mainly the hazelnut (*Corylus avellena*) and tea (*Camelia chinensis*) plantations. The hazelnut plantations are more common than the other agricultural crops in Northern Black Sea Region of Turkey especially in Trabzon.

## **2.1. Material and methods**

### **Study Area**

This stage has been carried out within the city of Trabzon, in the northeastern Black Sea Region of Turkey (401330N–411070N; 371070E–401300E UTM) (Figure 1-2). The city of Trabzon, which covers an area of approximately 4.685 km2, has a population about 283.233 inhabitants making it the third largest principal city in the region (Anonymous 2008).

The aim of this study is to determine the potential of contributions of landscape planning and designing of the homegardens in Trabzon city of Turkey. Therefore, the hazelnut plantations were evaluated in Trabzon city.

**Figure 2.** Disturbutions of Home Gardens and Some of the Homegardens in Trabzon City

#### **Methods**

764 Advances in Landscape Architecture

2003, Ceccolini 2002).

**2.1. Material and methods** 

plantations were evaluated in Trabzon city.

**Study Area** 

**Figure 1.** Study Area

an integral part of the farming system, an adjunct to the house where selected trees, shrubs and herbs are grown for edible products and cash income (Pandey et al. 2007, Trinh et al.

Homegardens are a common feature in Turkey like what they are in many countries, and often exhibit remarkable variability in composition and structure in geographic regions of Turkey. The homegardens in urban in the Black Sea region in Turkey related to urban-rural are basically the determiners to form the urban and regional landscape patterns. In this region, the homegardens having minimal and limited area, the importance and functions with effective systems contains mainly the hazelnut (*Corylus avellena*) and tea (*Camelia chinensis*) plantations. The hazelnut plantations are more common than the other

This stage has been carried out within the city of Trabzon, in the northeastern Black Sea Region of Turkey (401330N–411070N; 371070E–401300E UTM) (Figure 1-2). The city of Trabzon, which covers an area of approximately 4.685 km2, has a population about 283.233

The aim of this study is to determine the potential of contributions of landscape planning and designing of the homegardens in Trabzon city of Turkey. Therefore, the hazelnut

inhabitants making it the third largest principal city in the region (Anonymous 2008).

agricultural crops in Northern Black Sea Region of Turkey especially in Trabzon.

In this study, about 30 homegardens having hazelnut plantations (Figure 3) around Trabzon were examined and plants being in these gardens were identified (Acar et al. 2007 and Tokul 2001) (Table 3).

**Figure 3.** Hazelnut (*Corylus avellana*) Plantations and Hazelnut Fruits and Leaves

## **2.2. Results**

Turkey has 9 cultivated *Corylus avellana* taxa and they are named differently by the indigenous people (Anonymous 2007).

Homegardens in Landscape Architecture – A Case Study of Hazelnut Plantations 767

**Groundcover** 

**Shrub** 

**Tree** 

**Hedge** 

**Within** 

**Homegarden** 

**Native** 

*Diospyros kaki* X X X *Diospyros lotus* X X X *Dryopteris dilotata* X *Echium vulgare* XX *Euphorbia peplis* XX *Fagus orientalis* X X X *Ficus carica* X X X *Fragaria vesca* X X X *Fraxinus exelcior* X X X X

*Daucus corota* XX

*Galeobdelon luteum* XX *Galium aparine* XX *Geranium purpureum* XX

*Heracleum apiifolium* XX *Hypericum perforatum* XX *Lamium purpureum* XX

*Lysimachia verticillaris* XX

*Ostrya carpinifolia* X X X

*Mercurialis perennis* X X *Myosoton aquaticum* X X *Nasturtium officinale* X X

*Phaseolus vulgaris* X X *Phytolacca americana* X X

*Pimpinella rhodantha* X X *Pisum sativum* X X *Plantago major* X X

*Polygala major* X X *Polygonum aviculare* X X

*Primula vulgaris* X X

*Hedera helix* X X X *Helleborus orientale* X X X

*Laurocerasus officinalis* X X X X

*Malus sylvestris* X X X

*Picea orientalis* X X X X

*Platanus orientalis* X X X X

*Populus nigra* X X X X

*Prunus avium* X X X *Prunus cherry* X X X *Prunus domestica* X X X *Prunus persica* X X X *Pyrus sylvestris* X X X X

**Exotic** 

**Fruit** 

**Plant Species** 

The species near the borders, in deeper sides and under the hazelnut plants in the research areas were identified. According to this research, totally 90 annual and biannual species (19 species near the borders, 14 inside and 57 under the hazelnut plants) were identified (Figure 4) (Table 3).

Hazelnut is one of the most important income resources among all agricultural products in Turkey and the country is number one in the list of hazelnut producers with the rate of 72 percent all over the world. Trabzon and its neighborhoods have important hazelnut plantations and most of the green areas in the urban side are these hazelnut fields (Reis, 2003).

Hazelnut plantations also include fruit trees such as *Malus* sp. (Apple), *Prunus* sp. (Plum), *Pyrus* sp. (Pear), *Prunus persica* (Peach).

Hazelnut fields are on slopes of the riverbanks in general, especially because of the geography of the Black Sea Region. Indigenous people in the area plant some trees to conserve their hazelnut fields and to make the borders of neighborhoods clear (Table 3).



indigenous people (Anonymous 2007).

*Pyrus* sp. (Pear), *Prunus persica* (Peach).

Turkey has 9 cultivated *Corylus avellana* taxa and they are named differently by the

The species near the borders, in deeper sides and under the hazelnut plants in the research areas were identified. According to this research, totally 90 annual and biannual species (19 species near the borders, 14 inside and 57 under the hazelnut plants) were identified (Figure

Hazelnut is one of the most important income resources among all agricultural products in Turkey and the country is number one in the list of hazelnut producers with the rate of 72 percent all over the world. Trabzon and its neighborhoods have important hazelnut plantations and most of the green areas in the urban side are these hazelnut fields (Reis, 2003). Hazelnut plantations also include fruit trees such as *Malus* sp. (Apple), *Prunus* sp. (Plum),

Hazelnut fields are on slopes of the riverbanks in general, especially because of the geography of the Black Sea Region. Indigenous people in the area plant some trees to conserve their hazelnut fields and to make the borders of neighborhoods clear (Table 3).

**Native** 

*Acer campestre* X X X

*Alnus glutinosa subsp. glutinosa* X X X

*Carpinus betulus* X X X *Carpinus orientalis* X X X

*Colchicum speciosum* XX

*Dactylorhiza euxina* XX

*Cornus mas* X X X X *Cornus sanguinea* X X X *Corylus avellana* X X X *Crataegus monogyna* X X X *Cydonia oblonga* X X

*Achillea millefolium* X X *Agrimonia eupatoria* X X *Allium cepa* X X *Allium porrum* X X

*Bellis perennis* X X *Brassica oleracea* X X *Capsella bursa-pastoris* X X

*Chaerophyllum aureum* X X *Cirsium arvense* X X

**Exotic** 

**Fruit** 

**Groundcover** 

**Shrub** 

**Tree** 

**Hedge** 

**Within** 

**Homegarden** 

**2.2. Results** 

4) (Table 3).

**Plant Species** 


**Table 3.** Plant Species in Home Gardens (Hazelnut Plantations) of Trabzon City

 *Ground cover compositions Trifolium repens Bellis perennis* 

Homegardens in Landscape Architecture – A Case Study of Hazelnut Plantations 769

 *Geranium purpureum Ranunculus constantinopolitanus Vinca major* 

 *Fragaria vesca Helleborus orientale Primula vulgaris* 

 Hazelnut plantations are very important income resources for the indigenous people. The homegardens having hazelnut plantations are the most dominate open green areas

Some agricultural products such as hazelnut, tea etc. creates habitats for some other

 It is easy to claim that hazelnut fields are useful to get some fruits at the same time. That is the reason that hazelnut plantations should be supported for agroforestry studies. Homegardens contributes to floral diversity of landscape architecture with owned plant

 Especially, agricultural landscapes have different visual preferences affect people as visual effects. In this context, their diversity of size, color, texture, form effect on and

 Agricultural landscapes are in the landscape ecology concepts as patch and matrix (Forman, 1983, Forman and Godron 1986, Forman, 1995). According to Eroğlu, 2012, plant compositions that created by agricultural patches are important landscape element both visually and ecologically. Therefore, homegardens are important

plants, which makes a serious contribution to biodiversity in urban areas.

**Figure 4.** Some of the Ground Covers Under the Hazelnut Plantations

The results of this study can be given the following items.

**3. Conclusions** 

biodiversity.

in and around Trabzon city.

visual state of landscape.

ecological patches and landscape elements.

**Native** 

*Quercus hartwissiana* X X X

*Rosa canina* X X X *Rubus fruticosus* X X X

*Sambucus nigra* X X X

*Ulmus minor* X X X X

*Vitis sp.* X X X

*Ranunculus constantinopolitanus* X X *Raphanus raphanistrum subsp. Raphanistrum* X X *Rhinanthus angustifolius* X X

*Rumex acetosella* X X *Rumex pulcher* X X *Ruscus acuelatus* X X *Salvia glutinosa* X X *Sambucus ebulus* X X

*Scrophularia nodosa* X X *Senecio vulgaris* X X *Stachys sp.* X X *Stelleria media* X X *Tanacetum parthenium* X X *Taraxacum crepidiforme* X X *Trachytemon orientalis* X *Trifolium pratense* X X *Trifolium repens* X X *Tussilaga farfara* X X

*Veronica officinalis* X *Vicia cracca* X X *Vinca major* X X

*Zea mays* X X

 *Ground cover compositions Trifolium repens Bellis perennis* 

**Table 3.** Plant Species in Home Gardens (Hazelnut Plantations) of Trabzon City

**Exotic** 

**Fruit** 

**Groundcover** 

**Shrub** 

**Tree** 

**Hedge** 

**Within** 

**Homegarden** 

**Plant Species** 

 *Geranium purpureum Ranunculus constantinopolitanus Vinca major* 

 *Fragaria vesca Helleborus orientale Primula vulgaris* 

**Figure 4.** Some of the Ground Covers Under the Hazelnut Plantations

## **3. Conclusions**

The results of this study can be given the following items.


 Homegardens and agricultural landscapes are to consider landscape components with their visual and ecological potentials in optimal land use planning, landscape development plans, development plans, landscape plans and local levels in terms of design applications.

Homegardens in Landscape Architecture – A Case Study of Hazelnut Plantations 771

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Homegardens include some cultural features such as plant material, planting style, agricultural applications and architectural structure. In order to evaluated tothese characteristics in tourism and tourism planning, they must be investigated and explored.

## **Author details**

Engin Eroğlu

*Düzce University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Düzce, Turkey* 

Cengiz Acar

*Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Trabzon, Turkey* 

#### İbrahim Turna

*Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Engineering, Trabzon, Turkey* 

## **4. References**


Çepel, N. (1990). Ekolojik Terimler Sözlüğü. İstanbul Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Yaynlar, 3048, ISBN 975-404-195-4, İstanbul.

Christanty, L. (1990). Homegardens in Tropical Asia, with Special Reference to Indonesia. Homegardens in Tropical America: A Review. In: K. Landauer, K and Brazil,M (eds.), Tropical Homegardens, pp 9-20. United Nations University Press, Tokyo, Japan.


770 Advances in Landscape Architecture

design applications.

**Author details** 

Engin Eroğlu

Cengiz Acar

*Trabzon, Turkey*  İbrahim Turna

**4. References** 

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Homegardens include some cultural features such as plant material, planting style, agricultural applications and architectural structure. In order to evaluated tothese characteristics in tourism and tourism planning, they must be investigated and explored.

*Düzce University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Düzce,* 

*Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture,* 

*Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Engineering, Trabzon,* 

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**Chapter 31** 

© 2013 Kiper, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Ecotourism helps in community development by providing the alternate source of livelihood to local community which is more sustainable. Its aim is to conserve resources, especially biological diversity, and maintain sustainable use of resources, which an bring ecological experience to travelers, conserve the ecological environment and gain economic benefit. However, achieving the aims in ecotourism depends on whether they are environmentally and ecologically sustainable and economically applicable. Ecotourism

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Role of Ecotourism in Sustainable Development** 

Ecotourism is a sub-component of the field of sustainable tourism. Ecotourism's perceived potential as an effective tool for sustainable development is the main reason why developing countries are now embracing it and including it in their economic development and conservation strategies. Ecotourism, as an alternative tourism, involves visiting natural areas in order to learn, to study, or to carry out activities environmentally friendly, that is, a tourism based on the nature experience, which enables the economic and social development of local communities. It focuses primarily on experiencing and learning about nature, its landscape, flora, fauna and their habitats, as well as cultural artifacts from the locality. A symbiotic and complex relationship between the environment and tourist activities is possible when this philosophy can be translated into appropriate policy, careful planning and tactful practicum. Carefully planned and operated ecotourism sites, especially if it is village-based and includes local participation, is able to provide direct benefits that might offset pressure from other less sustainable activities that make use of natural and cultural resources. Eco tourism, natural resources, cultural heritage, rural lifestyle and an integrated tourism is a type of local economic activities. Therefore, ecotourism in naturel and cultural areas was carried out with a number of elements in their natural landscape and cultural landscape (water, vista, topography, vegetation, clean air), as well as in the variety of recreational activities suitable for all kinds of environments. Therefore, ecotourism and its natural assets and raw materials to create, as well as directing people to travel is an

Tuğba Kiper

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55749

**1. Introduction** 

attractive force.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter


## **Role of Ecotourism in Sustainable Development**

Tuğba Kiper

772 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Tokul, A. (2001). Şalpazar-Ağasar Deresi Havzas Tarm Arazileri ile Orman Vejetasyonunun Floristik Yönden Karşlaştrlmas. KTÜ Orman Fakültesi Orman Müh.

Trinh, L.N., Watson, J.W., Huec, N.N., Ded, N.N., Minhe, N.V., Chuf, P., Sthapit, B.R., Eyzaguirre, P.B. (2003). Agrobiodiversity Conservation and Development in Vietnamese Home gardens. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 97 317–344. Turna, İ. (2012). Tarmsal Ormanclk Ders Notlar. KTÜ Orman Fakültesi Orman

Wezel, A., Bender, S. (2003). Plant Species Diversity of Homegardens of Cuba and Its Significance for Household Food Supply. Agroforestry Systems 57: 39–49, 2003.

Bölümü, Orman Botaniği ABD. Bitirme Tezi, Trabzon.

Mühendisliği Bölümü Silvikültür Anabilim Dal, Trabzon.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55749

## **1. Introduction**

Ecotourism is a sub-component of the field of sustainable tourism. Ecotourism's perceived potential as an effective tool for sustainable development is the main reason why developing countries are now embracing it and including it in their economic development and conservation strategies. Ecotourism, as an alternative tourism, involves visiting natural areas in order to learn, to study, or to carry out activities environmentally friendly, that is, a tourism based on the nature experience, which enables the economic and social development of local communities. It focuses primarily on experiencing and learning about nature, its landscape, flora, fauna and their habitats, as well as cultural artifacts from the locality. A symbiotic and complex relationship between the environment and tourist activities is possible when this philosophy can be translated into appropriate policy, careful planning and tactful practicum. Carefully planned and operated ecotourism sites, especially if it is village-based and includes local participation, is able to provide direct benefits that might offset pressure from other less sustainable activities that make use of natural and cultural resources. Eco tourism, natural resources, cultural heritage, rural lifestyle and an integrated tourism is a type of local economic activities. Therefore, ecotourism in naturel and cultural areas was carried out with a number of elements in their natural landscape and cultural landscape (water, vista, topography, vegetation, clean air), as well as in the variety of recreational activities suitable for all kinds of environments. Therefore, ecotourism and its natural assets and raw materials to create, as well as directing people to travel is an attractive force.

Ecotourism helps in community development by providing the alternate source of livelihood to local community which is more sustainable. Its aim is to conserve resources, especially biological diversity, and maintain sustainable use of resources, which an bring ecological experience to travelers, conserve the ecological environment and gain economic benefit. However, achieving the aims in ecotourism depends on whether they are environmentally and ecologically sustainable and economically applicable. Ecotourism

<sup>© 2013</sup> Kiper, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

helps in involving local community for the conservation of the ecology and biodiversity of the area that biodiversity in return provides the economic incentives to the local community. Eco-tourism contributes to conservation of biodiversity; sustains the well-being of local people; involves responsible action on the part of tourist and the tourism industry; promotes small and medium tourism enterprises; requires lowest possible consumption of natural resources; stresses local participation, ownership, and business opportunities, particularly for rural people; and above all includes the learning experiences.

Role of Ecotourism in Sustainable Development 775

opportunities for the local people (Farrell & Runyan 2001; Bhattacharya, Chowdhury and

Ecotourism itself is meant to be a sustainable form of natural resource-based tourism. Even though ecotourism lacks a concrete definition, there are many wellrecognized definitions

> Ecotourism is defined as travelling to relatively undisturbed natural areas with specific objective of studying, admiring and enjoying scenery and its wild

visits relatively undeveloped areas in the spirit of

or financial means aimed at directly benefiting the

This definition recognises that 'natural environment' included cultural components and that 'ecologically sustainable' involves an appropriate return to the local community and long term conservation of the resource.

and natural history of the environment, taking care not to alter the integrity of the ecosystem, while producing economic opportunities that make the conservation of

Environmentally responsible travel and visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature that promotes conservation, has low negative visitor impact, and provides for beneficially active

socio-economic involvement of local populations.

strive to be low impact and (usually) small scale. It helps educate the traveler; provides funds for conservation; directly benefits the economic development and political empowerment of local communities; and fosters respect for

A form of tourism inspired primarily by the natural history of an area, including its indigenous cultures. The ecotourist

appreciation, participation and sensitivity. The ecotourist practices a non-consumptive use of wildlife and natural resources and contributes to the visited areas through labor

conservation of the site and the economic well-being of the

Ecotourism is nature based tourism that involves education and interpretation of the natural environment and is

animals and plants as well as existing.

managed to be ecologically sustainable.

natural resources beneficial to local people

different cultures and for human rights.

McCormick, 1994 Purposeful travel to natural areas to understand the culture

Honey, 1999 Travel to fragile, pristine, and usually protected areas that

that have formed a clear picture of its core principles, which are shown in Table 1.

local residents.

Sarkar, 2011).

(Joshi, 2011)

Conservation

2006)

World Conservation

Union (Brandon, 1996)

Ceballos Lascurain (1987)

International (Ziffer, 1989).

The National Ecotourism Strategy (1994) (QuickStart Guide to a Tourism Business,

In order for ecotourism to encourage patterns of sustainability, which can benefit local communities, protect the environment, and be economically viable, it must be comprehensive and account for the complexity of issues that have been mentioned in this paper.

This chapter has revealed that there is a need for sustainable development in tourism, and the connection between tourism and environment is much stronger than in other sectors. Ecotourism must account for social, economic and environmental implications, in order to succeed. The purpose of this study look at ways in which ecotourism and sustainable development can be evaluated; and suggest ways to improve current ecotourism practices. In parallel with this purpose, it was aimed at looking for an answer to questions of: What is Ecotourism? "What might be the effects of ecotourism?" What are the impacts and challenges of ecotourism? What are the possible benefits that ecotourism can bring? Within this scope, we focused on ecotourism's definition, its objectives, the reasons of its emergence and development, its principles, its types, its environmental, social and economic impacts; ecotourism and sustainable development and on the examination of approaches to ecotourism in Turkey and Europe.

In this section, the subjects below will be discussed.


## **2. What is ecotourism and its types?**

Ecotourism, a unique subset of the tourism industry, is 'focused on the enhancement or maintenance of natural systems through tourism. Ecotourism means different things to different people. To some, it is the general term that encompasses nature-based, adventure, soft adventure, and cultural tourism. The term ecotourism was coined in 1983 by "Hctor Ceballos Lascurain" a Mexican environmentalist, and was initially used to describe naturebased travel to relatively undisturbed areas with an emphasis on education. Ecotourism guarantees the sustainable use of environmental resources, while generating economic opportunities for the local people (Farrell & Runyan 2001; Bhattacharya, Chowdhury and Sarkar, 2011).

774 Advances in Landscape Architecture

ecotourism in Turkey and Europe.

 What is ecotourism and its types? What is sustainable development?

Introduction

Conclusion

In this section, the subjects below will be discussed.

Ecotourism – examples of implementation

**2. What is ecotourism and its types?** 

 Ecotourism and environmental, social and economic impacts Ecotourism and sustainable development relationship

paper.

helps in involving local community for the conservation of the ecology and biodiversity of the area that biodiversity in return provides the economic incentives to the local community. Eco-tourism contributes to conservation of biodiversity; sustains the well-being of local people; involves responsible action on the part of tourist and the tourism industry; promotes small and medium tourism enterprises; requires lowest possible consumption of natural resources; stresses local participation, ownership, and business opportunities, particularly

In order for ecotourism to encourage patterns of sustainability, which can benefit local communities, protect the environment, and be economically viable, it must be comprehensive and account for the complexity of issues that have been mentioned in this

This chapter has revealed that there is a need for sustainable development in tourism, and the connection between tourism and environment is much stronger than in other sectors. Ecotourism must account for social, economic and environmental implications, in order to succeed. The purpose of this study look at ways in which ecotourism and sustainable development can be evaluated; and suggest ways to improve current ecotourism practices. In parallel with this purpose, it was aimed at looking for an answer to questions of: What is Ecotourism? "What might be the effects of ecotourism?" What are the impacts and challenges of ecotourism? What are the possible benefits that ecotourism can bring? Within this scope, we focused on ecotourism's definition, its objectives, the reasons of its emergence and development, its principles, its types, its environmental, social and economic impacts; ecotourism and sustainable development and on the examination of approaches to

Ecotourism, a unique subset of the tourism industry, is 'focused on the enhancement or maintenance of natural systems through tourism. Ecotourism means different things to different people. To some, it is the general term that encompasses nature-based, adventure, soft adventure, and cultural tourism. The term ecotourism was coined in 1983 by "Hctor Ceballos Lascurain" a Mexican environmentalist, and was initially used to describe naturebased travel to relatively undisturbed areas with an emphasis on education. Ecotourism guarantees the sustainable use of environmental resources, while generating economic

for rural people; and above all includes the learning experiences.

Ecotourism itself is meant to be a sustainable form of natural resource-based tourism. Even though ecotourism lacks a concrete definition, there are many wellrecognized definitions that have formed a clear picture of its core principles, which are shown in Table 1.



Role of Ecotourism in Sustainable Development 777

or help undo damage to the environment, and f) ecotourists appreciate and respect local

It focuses primarily on experiencing and learning about nature, its landscape, flora, fauna and their habitats, as well as cultural artifacts from the locality. A symbiotic and complex relationship between the environment and tourist activities is possible when this philosophy can be translated into appropriate policy, careful planning and tactful practicum (Rahman,

While the details vary, most definitions of eco-tourism boil down to a special form of

As shown in Fig 1, there is just a thin line of differentiation between sustainable tourism and ecotourism, which also shows that there is as such no absolute boundary between sustainable and unsustainable tourism (Eriksson, 2003). According to Weaver (2001); Ecotourism exists within the broader classification of tourism types which, at an initial level, can be divided into 'mass tourism' and 'alternative tourism' (Figure 1). Mass tourism is seen as the more traditional form of tourism development where short-term, freemarket principles dominate and the maximization of income is paramount. The differences between

Ecotourism as a very specific form is part of the broad concept of nature-based tourism, or it can be said that ecotourism describes a nature-based operation in the field of tourism. "The most obvious characteristic of Ecotourism is that it is nature based" Figure 2 (Weaver (2001);

culture, traditions, etc.

tourism that meets three criteria:

 it provides for environmental conservation; it includes meaningful community participation;

mass tourism and ecotourism are shown in Table 2.

**Figure 1.** Conceptual model of tourism (Eriksson,2003)

it is profitable and can be self-sustained

2010).

#### **Table 1.** Definitions of ecotourism

The (International) Ecotourism Society in 1990: *Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people* in 1996 by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) which describes ecotourism as: *Environmentally responsible travel and visitation to natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (and any accompanying cultural features, both past and present) that promote conservation, have a low visitor impact and provide for beneficially active socio-economic involvement of local peoples* (Joshi, 2011)

Ecotourism tries to raise environmental consciousness by exploring ecology and ecosystems and by providing environmental type experiences. Taking part in ecology actively and getting first hand impressions of how ecosystems work influence peoples' ways of thinking, which finally raises awareness of conservation and protection (Ecotourism – Sustainable Tourism in National Parks and Protected Areas, 2005).

According to Patterson (2002), characteristics of an ecotourism business are that it:


According to Chesworth (1995), Ecotourism has six characteristics. These are: a) ecotourism involves travel to relatively undisturbed natural areas and/or archeological sites, b) it focuses on learning and the quality of experience, c) it economically benefits the local communities, d) ecotourists seek to view rare species, spectacular landscapes and/or the unusual and exotic, e) ecotourists do not deplete resources but even sustain the environment or help undo damage to the environment, and f) ecotourists appreciate and respect local culture, traditions, etc.

It focuses primarily on experiencing and learning about nature, its landscape, flora, fauna and their habitats, as well as cultural artifacts from the locality. A symbiotic and complex relationship between the environment and tourist activities is possible when this philosophy can be translated into appropriate policy, careful planning and tactful practicum (Rahman, 2010).

While the details vary, most definitions of eco-tourism boil down to a special form of tourism that meets three criteria:


776 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Table 1.** Definitions of ecotourism

monitoring phases

experience is based.

taken to an area in a season

Orients customers on the region to be visited.

Respects the privacy and culture of local people.

Ensures that wildlife is not harassed.

 Hires local people and buys supplies locally, where possible. Recognizes that nature is a central element to the tourist experience. Uses guides trained in interpretation of scientific or natural history.

Weaver, 1999 Interest in ecotourism, now widespread among tourism

Weaver, 2001 Ecotourism is a form of tourism that fosters learning

The (International) Ecotourism Society in 1990: *Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people* in 1996 by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) which describes ecotourism as: *Environmentally responsible travel and visitation to natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (and any accompanying cultural features, both past and present) that promote conservation, have a low visitor impact and provide for* 

Ecotourism tries to raise environmental consciousness by exploring ecology and ecosystems and by providing environmental type experiences. Taking part in ecology actively and getting first hand impressions of how ecosystems work influence peoples' ways of thinking, which finally raises awareness of conservation and protection (Ecotourism – Sustainable

 Have a low impact upon a protected area's natural resources and recreation techniques. Involve stakeholders (individuals, communities, ecotourists, tour operators and government institutions) in the planning, development, implementation and

Limits visitation to areas, either by limiting group size and/or by the number of groups

According to Chesworth (1995), Ecotourism has six characteristics. These are: a) ecotourism involves travel to relatively undisturbed natural areas and/or archeological sites, b) it focuses on learning and the quality of experience, c) it economically benefits the local communities, d) ecotourists seek to view rare species, spectacular landscapes and/or the unusual and exotic, e) ecotourists do not deplete resources but even sustain the environment

Supports the work of conservation groups preserving the natural area on which the

According to Patterson (2002), characteristics of an ecotourism business are that it:

context'

*beneficially active socio-economic involvement of local peoples* (Joshi, 2011)

Tourism in National Parks and Protected Areas, 2005).

planners and marketers, is rationalized by a number of popular assumptions regarding the sector's potential economic, environmental, and socio-cultural benefits

experiences and appreciation of the natural environment, or some component thereof, within its associated cultural

> As shown in Fig 1, there is just a thin line of differentiation between sustainable tourism and ecotourism, which also shows that there is as such no absolute boundary between sustainable and unsustainable tourism (Eriksson, 2003). According to Weaver (2001); Ecotourism exists within the broader classification of tourism types which, at an initial level, can be divided into 'mass tourism' and 'alternative tourism' (Figure 1). Mass tourism is seen as the more traditional form of tourism development where short-term, freemarket principles dominate and the maximization of income is paramount. The differences between mass tourism and ecotourism are shown in Table 2.

**Figure 1.** Conceptual model of tourism (Eriksson,2003)

Ecotourism as a very specific form is part of the broad concept of nature-based tourism, or it can be said that ecotourism describes a nature-based operation in the field of tourism. "The most obvious characteristic of Ecotourism is that it is nature based" Figure 2 (Weaver (2001);


Role of Ecotourism in Sustainable Development 779

Adventure tourism is defined as: "an outdoor leisure activity that takes place in an unusual, exotic, remote or wilderness destination, involves some form of unconventional means of transportation, and tends to be associated with low or high levels of activity" (Fennel & Dowling, 2003). According to this definition of adventure tourism and to that of ecotourism

Ecotourism is a component of sustainable tourism. In many ways, sustainable tourism exemplifies the relationship between ecotourism and sustainable development (Sâmbotn et

 Quality – valuable experience for visitors and increased life quality for host communities through cultural identity, poverty reduction and environmental quality; Continuity – exploitation is made at the optimum level that allows the preservation and

Balance between the needs of tourism industry, environmental protection, and local

communities by an equitable distribution of benefits among stakeholders

 Maintenance of the ecosystem where the ecotourism attraction is located Protection and maintenance of wildlife especially endangered species

No wastes overflow and contamination of the environment (water, soil and air)

Livelihood must benefit more the local community than outside entrepreneurs;

The local government supports the ecotourism project through ordinances and

 The Management Board (community-based) and appropriate government agencies, e.g. DENR, support the project through strict enforcement of environmental laws Experience and product management should follow principles and practices associated

Many dimensions clearly emerge from these widely stated definitions including (Matthews,

b. Maintenance of the physico-chemical conditions of the area Maintenance of the quality of fresh water and marine resources

 Historical structures are maintained as part of cultural heritage d. Infrastructures and signboards blend with the environment

with ecological, socio-cultural and economic sustainability.

Environmental education program is part of the ecotourism package;

Maintenance of Carrying Capacity of the environment;

as previously stated, it seems that there are many overlapping concepts.

al., 2011; Bansal & Kumar, 2011);

a. Protection of the Ecosystem

Sustainable tourism will focus on three areas:

regeneration of the natural resources;

Standarts of ecotourism (Weaver & Lawton, 2007);

Wildlife live harmoniously with people

c. Conservation of local culture and history

Culture of locality is maintained

e. Sustainability

2002)

resolutions; and

**Table 2.** Distinct characteristics between mass tourism and ecotourism (Dorobantu & Nstoreanu, 2012)

**Figure 2.** Relationship of ecotourism to other forms of tourism (Hill & Gale, 2009)

Adventure tourism is defined as: "an outdoor leisure activity that takes place in an unusual, exotic, remote or wilderness destination, involves some form of unconventional means of transportation, and tends to be associated with low or high levels of activity" (Fennel & Dowling, 2003). According to this definition of adventure tourism and to that of ecotourism as previously stated, it seems that there are many overlapping concepts.

Ecotourism is a component of sustainable tourism. In many ways, sustainable tourism exemplifies the relationship between ecotourism and sustainable development (Sâmbotn et al., 2011; Bansal & Kumar, 2011);

Sustainable tourism will focus on three areas:


Standarts of ecotourism (Weaver & Lawton, 2007);


778 Advances in Landscape Architecture

penetration

principles

local community

Behavior-oriented leisure

education and training actions

Characteristics of mass tourism. Characteristics of ecotourism

Large groups of visitors Small groups of visitors

Touristic general marketing activities Eco-marketing activities.

Advanced control options Limited possibilities of control

General development goals Local development objectives

**Figure 2.** Relationship of ecotourism to other forms of tourism (Hill & Gale, 2009)

market

principles

local community

natural environment

and

Impact on natural environment Little impact on the natural environment

Intensive development of tourism facilities Reduced development of tourism facilities **Table 2.** Distinct characteristics between mass tourism and ecotourism (Dorobantu & Nstoreanu, 2012)

High price with purpose of filtering the

Management based on local economic

Loyalty in the process of training and education for appropriate conduct for the

Personalized relationships between visitors

Urban Rural

Average prices for purposes of market

Management based on macroeconomic

activities/entertainment, opponents to

Anonymous relationship between visitors and


Many dimensions clearly emerge from these widely stated definitions including (Matthews, 2002)

1. Ecotourism occurs in natural areas (most often protected areas) and/or places of unique ecological or cultural interest

Role of Ecotourism in Sustainable Development 781

This was the dominant dilemma addressed by the Brundtland Commission which indicated that sustainable development should, as a minimum, address the following elements (Wall,

Defined sustainable development as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It is often called intergenerational equality, the idea is that we should share natural resources not just with people who are alive on the planet today but also with future generations of the earth's inhabitants. Sustainable development integrates economic, social with the aforementioned environmental goals. Sustainability highlights on the resource conservation (Dixon & Pretorius, 2001; Mebratu, 1998; Jaini, Anuar & Daim, 2012). Dixon & Pretorius (2001) cite the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI), which emphasizes environmental, social and economic concerns as three distinct but interrelated components

According to Hall (2008) sustainable development and tourism present change which refers to the movement from one state or condition to another. Whether such a transition is positive or negative depends on the original criteria by which change is measured. Sustainable tourism requires the informed participation of all relevant stakeholders, as well as strong political leadership to ensure wide participation and consensus building. Achieving it requires monitoring of impacts, introducing the necessary preventive and/or corrective measures whenever necessary. Sustainable tourism should also maintain a high level of tourist satisfaction and ensure a meaningful experience to the tourists, raising their awareness about sustainability issues and promoting sustainable tourism practices amongst

Sustainable development through ecotourism is a concerning issue in the world today. Many countries have ensured their regional development by this concept. In this concept, sustainable development may be occurred by the ecotourism and regional development (Figure 3) simultaneously in an area. Dimensions of ecotourism development refer to the environmental, economic, and social aspects of tourism development, and a suitable balance

It was further suggested that in order for this to occur, it would be necessary to:

Meet essential needs such as for jobs, food, energy, water and sanitation;

Maintenance of ecological integrity and diversity;

Keep options open for future generations;

 Conserve and enhance the resource base; Reorient technology and manage risk; and

Merge environment and economics in decision making.

Meet basic human needs;

 Revive economic growth; Change the quality of growth;

of sustainable development.

them (World Tourism Organisation, 2001).

 Reduce injustice; and Increase self-determination.

2007);


These principles and standards must be put in place by those who develop ecotourism products, as well as those who plan the development of an area-based ecotourism. In ecotourism branch a special place is given by the marketing concept. The importance of proper marketing is widely recognized throughout the tourism sector that today tourism market has become increasingly segmented over the methods of communication to reach consumers have multiplied and diversified (Boghean & Boghean, 2006).

## **3. What is sustainable development?**

The concept of sustainability first appeared in the public scene in the report put out by the World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission) in 1987. The commission report advances the idea of sustainable development by noting that economic growth and environmental conservation are not only compatible but they are necessary partners. One cannot exist without the other (Harris et al., 2002).Sustainable development is high potential for any community within economic, social, cultural, ecologic and physical constraints (Bhuiyan et al., 2012). Sustainable development has been defined in many ways, but the most frequently quoted definition is from Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report:

"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two key concepts (IISD, 2012):


Van der Merwe & Van der Marwe (1999) add that Sustainable development is a program for changing the process of economic development so that it ensures a basic quality of life for all people and at the same time protects the ecosystems and community systems that make life possible and worthwhile.

This was the dominant dilemma addressed by the Brundtland Commission which indicated that sustainable development should, as a minimum, address the following elements (Wall, 2007);


780 Advances in Landscape Architecture

long-term success.

ecological or cultural interest

ecological and socio-cultural resources

impacts on the host environment.

**3. What is sustainable development?** 

known as the Brundtland Report:

two key concepts (IISD, 2012):

possible and worthwhile.

overriding priority should be given; and

the environment's ability to meet present and future needs."

1. Ecotourism occurs in natural areas (most often protected areas) and/or places of unique

2. Ecotourism contributes to conservation or preservation of the natural resources and

3. Ecotourism should create necessary funds to promote permanent protection of

4. The local residents accrue economic and social benefits thereby contributing to project's

6. Ecotourism should be effectively managed for the long-term through minimal negative

These principles and standards must be put in place by those who develop ecotourism products, as well as those who plan the development of an area-based ecotourism. In ecotourism branch a special place is given by the marketing concept. The importance of proper marketing is widely recognized throughout the tourism sector that today tourism market has become increasingly segmented over the methods of communication to reach

The concept of sustainability first appeared in the public scene in the report put out by the World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission) in 1987. The commission report advances the idea of sustainable development by noting that economic growth and environmental conservation are not only compatible but they are necessary partners. One cannot exist without the other (Harris et al., 2002).Sustainable development is high potential for any community within economic, social, cultural, ecologic and physical constraints (Bhuiyan et al., 2012). Sustainable development has been defined in many ways, but the most frequently quoted definition is from Our Common Future, also

"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it

The concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which

The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on

Van der Merwe & Van der Marwe (1999) add that Sustainable development is a program for changing the process of economic development so that it ensures a basic quality of life for all people and at the same time protects the ecosystems and community systems that make life

promotes stewardship of natural and cultural resources.

5. Ecotourism incorporates environmental and cultural education.

consumers have multiplied and diversified (Boghean & Boghean, 2006).

7. Ecotourism should provide a quality tourism experience.

Increase self-determination.

It was further suggested that in order for this to occur, it would be necessary to:


Defined sustainable development as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It is often called intergenerational equality, the idea is that we should share natural resources not just with people who are alive on the planet today but also with future generations of the earth's inhabitants. Sustainable development integrates economic, social with the aforementioned environmental goals. Sustainability highlights on the resource conservation (Dixon & Pretorius, 2001; Mebratu, 1998; Jaini, Anuar & Daim, 2012). Dixon & Pretorius (2001) cite the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI), which emphasizes environmental, social and economic concerns as three distinct but interrelated components of sustainable development.

According to Hall (2008) sustainable development and tourism present change which refers to the movement from one state or condition to another. Whether such a transition is positive or negative depends on the original criteria by which change is measured. Sustainable tourism requires the informed participation of all relevant stakeholders, as well as strong political leadership to ensure wide participation and consensus building. Achieving it requires monitoring of impacts, introducing the necessary preventive and/or corrective measures whenever necessary. Sustainable tourism should also maintain a high level of tourist satisfaction and ensure a meaningful experience to the tourists, raising their awareness about sustainability issues and promoting sustainable tourism practices amongst them (World Tourism Organisation, 2001).

Sustainable development through ecotourism is a concerning issue in the world today. Many countries have ensured their regional development by this concept. In this concept, sustainable development may be occurred by the ecotourism and regional development (Figure 3) simultaneously in an area. Dimensions of ecotourism development refer to the environmental, economic, and social aspects of tourism development, and a suitable balance between these dimensions must be established to maintain its long-term sustainability (Bhuiyan et al, 2012).

Role of Ecotourism in Sustainable Development 783

Ecotourism operates for one or more of the eco-friendly alternatives for the economic use of natural resources compared with mining, hunting, farming and so on (Li, 2006). Ecotourism promotes an enhanced appreciation of natural environments and environmental education

Ecotourism is largely perceived to safeguard natural areas and thereby to contribute to the conservation of biodiversity. It focuses primarily on experiencing and learning about nature, its landscape, flora, fauna and their habitats, as well as cultural artefacts from the locality. In ecotourism planning the first issue that emerges is the environment and its conservation (Munn, 1992; Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996; Gössling, 1999; Tisdell & Wilson, 2002; Lindsey et

An ecotourism destination must in no way be developed without planning in terms of environmental concern (Rahman, 2010). Within the ecotourism implementation existence of water resources creates advantages in terms of both visuality and utilization. Climatic features of a region influence tourism directly and indirectly and play a crucial role in the development of tourism. Plants drawing interest thanks to their size, age or appearance are other appealing components of ecotourism. Flowering plants are important resources in ecoturism. Historical, natural and folkloric values are important sources for ecotourism. According to Soykan, traditional commercial products are one of the most significant appeals leading to development of ecotourism in a region. This is because whole production process from planting to harvest and processing bear cultural differences, and most of them

Ecotourism has the potential to seriously impact local communities, largely due to the tendency of ecotourists to have a greater interest in the culture and nature of the areas they

Ecotourism destinations are always environmentally sensitive because ecotourism activities directly involve various environmental phenomena including bird watching, trekking, mountaineering, horse riding and elephant riding within the forest wilderness trail, staying in natural caves, studying about flora and fauna, simple bush walking, fishing, animal behavior study, ecological studies (Rahman,2010). Ecotourism always incorporates various activities in nature (hiking, mountain climbing, observing the living beings in their natural habitat, etc.), but it may include cultural activities, too. Ecotourism is an important educational component, it is a chance to learn respect for nature, for the local culture, and for some it is a chance to self-reflection being inspired by the beauty of the surroundings.

Tourism is a highly complex activity and thus requires tools to assist in effective decision making to come to terms with the competing economic, social, and environmental demands of sustainable development (Fadahunsi, 2011). Table 3 indicates some interesting examples of potential risks from tourism activities, which are especially crucial in naturel and culturel

**5. Ecotourism and sustainable development relationship** 

by exposing visitors and locals to nature and conservation (Bob et al., 2008).

al., 2005; Lopez-Espinosa de los Monteros, 2002; Fung & Wong, 2007)

are performed in traditional ways (Kiper, 2011).

visit, as compared to mass tourists (McMinn, 1997).

areas.

**Figure 3.** Sustainable development throught ecotourism (Bhuiyan et al., 2012)

## **4. Ecotourism and environmental, social and economic impacts**

Tourism can be sustainable if development meets the needs of tourists and local residents while protecting future opportunities. Ecotourism offers benefits for local residents, conservation, development and educationalexperiences. Ecotourism is a sustainable form of natural resource-based tourism. It focuses primarily on experiencing and learning about nature, its landscape, flora, fauna and their habitats, as well as cultural artefacts from the locality (Dowling,1997; Fennell, 1999).

Ecotourism entails a combination of conservation and tourism (the economics related with it) to benefit local communities, especially focusing on sustainability (Myburgh & Saayman, 2002).

Natural and cultural landscape values form a basis for ecotourism. These values are geographical position, microclimatic conditions, existence of water, natural beauties, existence of natural vegetation, existence of wildlife, surface features, geomorphologic structure, local food, festivals and pageants, traditional agricultural structure, local handicrafts, regional dress culture, historical events and people, heritage appeals, architectural variety, traditional music and folk dance, artistic activities and so on (Gerry, 2001; Lane, 1993, Lanquar, 1995; Soykan, 1999; Brassoulis, 2002, Catibog-Sinha & Wen, 2008; Mlynarczyk, 2002; Drzewiecki, 2001; Kiper, 2006).

Ecotourism operates for one or more of the eco-friendly alternatives for the economic use of natural resources compared with mining, hunting, farming and so on (Li, 2006). Ecotourism promotes an enhanced appreciation of natural environments and environmental education by exposing visitors and locals to nature and conservation (Bob et al., 2008).

782 Advances in Landscape Architecture

(Bhuiyan et al, 2012).

between these dimensions must be established to maintain its long-term sustainability

**Figure 3.** Sustainable development throught ecotourism (Bhuiyan et al., 2012)

locality (Dowling,1997; Fennell, 1999).

Mlynarczyk, 2002; Drzewiecki, 2001; Kiper, 2006).

**4. Ecotourism and environmental, social and economic impacts** 

Tourism can be sustainable if development meets the needs of tourists and local residents while protecting future opportunities. Ecotourism offers benefits for local residents, conservation, development and educationalexperiences. Ecotourism is a sustainable form of natural resource-based tourism. It focuses primarily on experiencing and learning about nature, its landscape, flora, fauna and their habitats, as well as cultural artefacts from the

Ecotourism entails a combination of conservation and tourism (the economics related with it) to benefit local communities, especially focusing on sustainability (Myburgh & Saayman, 2002).

Natural and cultural landscape values form a basis for ecotourism. These values are geographical position, microclimatic conditions, existence of water, natural beauties, existence of natural vegetation, existence of wildlife, surface features, geomorphologic structure, local food, festivals and pageants, traditional agricultural structure, local handicrafts, regional dress culture, historical events and people, heritage appeals, architectural variety, traditional music and folk dance, artistic activities and so on (Gerry, 2001; Lane, 1993, Lanquar, 1995; Soykan, 1999; Brassoulis, 2002, Catibog-Sinha & Wen, 2008; Ecotourism is largely perceived to safeguard natural areas and thereby to contribute to the conservation of biodiversity. It focuses primarily on experiencing and learning about nature, its landscape, flora, fauna and their habitats, as well as cultural artefacts from the locality. In ecotourism planning the first issue that emerges is the environment and its conservation (Munn, 1992; Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996; Gössling, 1999; Tisdell & Wilson, 2002; Lindsey et al., 2005; Lopez-Espinosa de los Monteros, 2002; Fung & Wong, 2007)

An ecotourism destination must in no way be developed without planning in terms of environmental concern (Rahman, 2010). Within the ecotourism implementation existence of water resources creates advantages in terms of both visuality and utilization. Climatic features of a region influence tourism directly and indirectly and play a crucial role in the development of tourism. Plants drawing interest thanks to their size, age or appearance are other appealing components of ecotourism. Flowering plants are important resources in ecoturism. Historical, natural and folkloric values are important sources for ecotourism. According to Soykan, traditional commercial products are one of the most significant appeals leading to development of ecotourism in a region. This is because whole production process from planting to harvest and processing bear cultural differences, and most of them are performed in traditional ways (Kiper, 2011).

Ecotourism has the potential to seriously impact local communities, largely due to the tendency of ecotourists to have a greater interest in the culture and nature of the areas they visit, as compared to mass tourists (McMinn, 1997).

Ecotourism destinations are always environmentally sensitive because ecotourism activities directly involve various environmental phenomena including bird watching, trekking, mountaineering, horse riding and elephant riding within the forest wilderness trail, staying in natural caves, studying about flora and fauna, simple bush walking, fishing, animal behavior study, ecological studies (Rahman,2010). Ecotourism always incorporates various activities in nature (hiking, mountain climbing, observing the living beings in their natural habitat, etc.), but it may include cultural activities, too. Ecotourism is an important educational component, it is a chance to learn respect for nature, for the local culture, and for some it is a chance to self-reflection being inspired by the beauty of the surroundings.

## **5. Ecotourism and sustainable development relationship**

Tourism is a highly complex activity and thus requires tools to assist in effective decision making to come to terms with the competing economic, social, and environmental demands of sustainable development (Fadahunsi, 2011). Table 3 indicates some interesting examples of potential risks from tourism activities, which are especially crucial in naturel and culturel areas.


Role of Ecotourism in Sustainable Development 785

the tourism industry (Wall, 1997). Similarly, tourism activities generally can create various negative impacts on the surrounding environment. Increased human interference in ecologically fragile areas can cause irreversible change in the existing ecological processes. These problems can be reflected in degrading natural resources, vegetation structure and the size of the habitat patch, increasing deforestation and decreasing upstream water flow

Ecotourism is rooted in the concept of sustainable development, as defined by the World Commission on Environment and Development's Brundtland report (1987) (Place, 1995; King & Stewart, 1992; McMinn, 1997; Stem et al., 2003). According to the emergence of sustainable tourism development it is proven that the milestone for its emergence was the Brundtland Report by the WCED in the year 1987. Previously, many ideas in this field had been developed at the IUCN -The World Conservation Union and referenced in the World Conservation Strategy published in 1980 (Ritchie & Crouch, 2003). Ecotourism is often perceived as an tool for promoting sustainable development in developing countries. Ecotourism helps in community development by providing the alternate source of livelihood to local community which is more sustainable. Many view ecotourism as a viable way to protect the natural environment and create social and economic benefits for local communities. Ecotourism encompasses a spectrum of nature-based activities that foster visitor appreciation and understanding of natural and cultural heritage and are managed to be ecologically, economically and socially sustainable. Therefore, ecotourism is accepted as an alternative type of sustainable development. Ecotourism has attracted increasing attention in recentyears, not only as an alternative to mass tourism, but also as a means to promote a country's economic development and environmental conservation. Its aim is to conserve resources, especially biological diversity, and maintain sustainable use of resources, which can bring ecological experience to travelers, conserve the ecological environment and gain (Bansal & Kumar, 2011; Godratollah et al., 2011; Tewodros, 2010). Ecotourism is increasingly being lauded as a sustainable development option for rural communities, one that is able to spur economic development (Vogt, 1997) and instill environmental protection at the same time (Cater, 2002). If the environment has not at least achieved a net benefit toward its sustainability

Many groups have proposed sets of guidelines or principles for sustainable tourism and ecotourism. Ecotourism is a sustainable version of tourism in natural areas, including at the same time elements of rural and cultural tourism. Besides subscribing to the principles of sustainable tourism, ecotourism has specific principles: it contributes actively to the conservation of natural and cultural heritage, it includes local communities in planning, development and operation activities, and it contributes to their welfare, it involves complete and interesting explanations for visitors, regarding the natural and cultural resources, it is intended mainly to individual visitors and also to small organized groups (Sâmbotn et al, 2011). According to Buchsbaum 2004; in many ways, sustainable tourism exemplifies the relationship between ecotourism and sustainable development. Many groups have proposed sets of guidelines or principles for sustainable tourism and ecotourism Tourism Concern and the World Wildlife Fund for Nature developed a

wellknown list of principles and guidelines in 1991, which are presented in Table 4.

(Tourism Queenland, 2002).

and ecological integrity, then the activity is not ecotourism.

**Table 3.** Potential Risks from Tourism (Ecotourism – Sustainable Tourism in National Parks and Protected Areas, 2005)

Ecotourism has been regarded as a panacea for solving many of the environmental and economic problems of lessdeveloped nations. Yet, regardless of how socially and environmentally responsible ecotourism may be in theory, in practice it remains rooted in the tourism industry (Wall, 1997). Similarly, tourism activities generally can create various negative impacts on the surrounding environment. Increased human interference in ecologically fragile areas can cause irreversible change in the existing ecological processes. These problems can be reflected in degrading natural resources, vegetation structure and the size of the habitat patch, increasing deforestation and decreasing upstream water flow (Tourism Queenland, 2002).

784 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Element Examples of risks from tourism activities**

disturbance is gone

management. **Water** Increased demands for fresh water.

species.

attracting visitors.

breeding or eating).

approaching people for food.

behaviour.

cuts.

Protected Areas, 2005)

**Ecosystems**  The construction of accommodation, visitor centres,

of habitats, impacts on drainage etc.

**Soils**  Soil compaction can occur in certain well-used areas.

plane, train, ship or automobile). **Wildlife**  Hunting and fishing may change population dynamics.

infrastructure, and other services has a direct impact on the

environment, from vegetation removal, animal disturbance elimination

 Wildlife habitat may be significantly changed (travel routes, hunting areas, breeding areas, etc.) by all kinds of tourist development and use.

 Transportation may have direct negative impacts on the environment (e.g. vegetation removal, weed transmission, animal disturbance). Fire frequency may change due to tourists and park tourism

Soil removal and erosion also occurs, and may continue after the

Propeller-driven watercraft may affect certain aquatic plants and

Hunters and fishers may demand the introduction of foreign species,

Disturbance by visitors can occur for all species, including that are not

 The impact can last beyond the time of initial contact (e.g. before heatrate returns to normal, or before birds alight, or mammals resume

Marine mammals may be hurt or killed by boat impacts or propeller

Habituation to humans can cause changed wildlife behaviour, uch as

Impacts occur on insects and small invertebrates, from effect of

Disturbance can be of several kinds: noise, visual or harassing

**Vegetation**  Concentrated use around facilities has a negative effect on vegetation.

 Disposal of sewage or litter in rivers, lakes or oceans. Release of oil and fuel from ships and smaller craft.

**Air** Motorised transportation may cause pollution from emissions (from

and increased populations of target animals.

**Table 3.** Potential Risks from Tourism (Ecotourism – Sustainable Tourism in National Parks and

Ecotourism has been regarded as a panacea for solving many of the environmental and economic problems of lessdeveloped nations. Yet, regardless of how socially and environmentally responsible ecotourism may be in theory, in practice it remains rooted in

transportation, introduced species, etc

Ecotourism is rooted in the concept of sustainable development, as defined by the World Commission on Environment and Development's Brundtland report (1987) (Place, 1995; King & Stewart, 1992; McMinn, 1997; Stem et al., 2003). According to the emergence of sustainable tourism development it is proven that the milestone for its emergence was the Brundtland Report by the WCED in the year 1987. Previously, many ideas in this field had been developed at the IUCN -The World Conservation Union and referenced in the World Conservation Strategy published in 1980 (Ritchie & Crouch, 2003). Ecotourism is often perceived as an tool for promoting sustainable development in developing countries. Ecotourism helps in community development by providing the alternate source of livelihood to local community which is more sustainable. Many view ecotourism as a viable way to protect the natural environment and create social and economic benefits for local communities. Ecotourism encompasses a spectrum of nature-based activities that foster visitor appreciation and understanding of natural and cultural heritage and are managed to be ecologically, economically and socially sustainable. Therefore, ecotourism is accepted as an alternative type of sustainable development. Ecotourism has attracted increasing attention in recentyears, not only as an alternative to mass tourism, but also as a means to promote a country's economic development and environmental conservation. Its aim is to conserve resources, especially biological diversity, and maintain sustainable use of resources, which can bring ecological experience to travelers, conserve the ecological environment and gain (Bansal & Kumar, 2011; Godratollah et al., 2011; Tewodros, 2010). Ecotourism is increasingly being lauded as a sustainable development option for rural communities, one that is able to spur economic development (Vogt, 1997) and instill environmental protection at the same time (Cater, 2002). If the environment has not at least achieved a net benefit toward its sustainability and ecological integrity, then the activity is not ecotourism.

Many groups have proposed sets of guidelines or principles for sustainable tourism and ecotourism. Ecotourism is a sustainable version of tourism in natural areas, including at the same time elements of rural and cultural tourism. Besides subscribing to the principles of sustainable tourism, ecotourism has specific principles: it contributes actively to the conservation of natural and cultural heritage, it includes local communities in planning, development and operation activities, and it contributes to their welfare, it involves complete and interesting explanations for visitors, regarding the natural and cultural resources, it is intended mainly to individual visitors and also to small organized groups (Sâmbotn et al, 2011). According to Buchsbaum 2004; in many ways, sustainable tourism exemplifies the relationship between ecotourism and sustainable development. Many groups have proposed sets of guidelines or principles for sustainable tourism and ecotourism Tourism Concern and the World Wildlife Fund for Nature developed a wellknown list of principles and guidelines in 1991, which are presented in Table 4.


Role of Ecotourism in Sustainable Development 787

**promotes environmental protection (impact assessment and environmental planning, construction methods and materials, visual impacts, water supply, air quality, waste** 

**wastewater, water conservation, energy** 

**transport, minimal impact on wildlife) provides environmenta education** 

**encourages donations to contribute to the protection of local natural resources air quality** 

Promotes local peoples active participation

Enhances local communitys equilibrium Encourages intercultural appreciation and communication between host communities and

Creates permanent jobs for local people

Promotes consumption and production

Ungrades local infastructure

Equal distribution of revenues

Uses natural resources efficiently

prodected areas

**Table 5.** Three systems of sustainability in ecotourism development (According to Wall 1997;

These criteria include quantification of environmental performance for most of the key environmental indicators. This allows recognition and encouragement of ecotourism product that makes measured environmental improvements which result in a more


Contributes to lasting local economic development

Drives the development of other related industries

Profits esrned retained within local communities

Finances the establishment and maintenance of

Promotes local ownership Empowers local people

**minimisation and litter drainage and stormwater,** 

**minimisation— buildings, energy minimisation—** 

**-increases public environmental consciousness -fosters healty attitudes and behaviors towards** 

appropriate, and the forms that this might take are likely to vary with location. The following table 5. develops sustability goals of ecotourism. Achieving sustainable tourism defined here as tourism that is ecologically benign, economically feasible and socially acceptable—is thus contingent on environmental protection and reconciling tourism

**nature** 

tourists

activities with local socio-economic values (Brown et al., 1997).

**A: Environmental sustainability goals of** 

**B: Sociocultural sustainability goals of** 

**C: Economic sustainability goals of** 

Alexander and Whitehouse 2004; (Jiang 2008).

**ecotourism** 

**ecotourism** 

**ecotourism** 

**Table 4.** Principles for Sustainable Tourism (Blamey, 2001).

Medina (2005) explains that a criterion for sustainable tourism should include indicators of social and economic sustainability adding up to indicators of environmental sustainability. In addition, Wall (1997) has argued that for tourism to contribute to sustainable development it must be economically viable, environmentally sensitive and culturally appropriate, and the forms that this might take are likely to vary with location. The following table 5. develops sustability goals of ecotourism. Achieving sustainable tourism defined here as tourism that is ecologically benign, economically feasible and socially acceptable—is thus contingent on environmental protection and reconciling tourism activities with local socio-economic values (Brown et al., 1997).

786 Advances in Landscape Architecture

The conservation and sustainable use of resources -natural, social, cultural, -- is crucial and makes long-term business

Reduction of over-consumption and waste avoids the costs

of restoring long-term environmental damage and

diversity is essential for long-term sustainable tourism,

Tourism development which is integrated into a national and local strategic planning framework and which undertakes environmental impact assessments, increase

Tourism that supports a wide range of local economic activities and which takes environmental costs and values into account, both protects these economies and avoids

The full involvement of local communities in the tourism sector not only benefits them and the environment but also

Consultation between the tourism industry and local communities organizations and institutions is essential if hey are to work alongside each other and resolve potential

work practices, along with recruitment of personnel at all levels, improves the quality of the tourism product

Marketing that provides tourists with full and responsible information increases respect for the natural, social and cultural environments of destination areas and enhances

effective data collection and analysis is essential to help solve problems and bring benefits to destinations, the

sense Using resources sustainably:

contributes to the quality of tourism

the long-term viability of tourism

and creates a resilient base for the industry

improves the quality of the tourism project

**3. Maintaining Biodiversity** Maintaining and promoting natural, social, and cultural

environmental damage

conflicts of interest **8. Training Staff** Staff training which integrates sustainable tourism into

customer satisfaction **10. Undertaking research** Ongoing research and monitoring by the industry using

industry and consumers

Medina (2005) explains that a criterion for sustainable tourism should include indicators of social and economic sustainability adding up to indicators of environmental sustainability. In addition, Wall (1997) has argued that for tourism to contribute to sustainable development it must be economically viable, environmentally sensitive and culturally

**1**. **Using resources** 

**2. Reducing over consumption and waste** 

**4.Integrating tourism into** 

**5. Supporting local** 

**6. Involving local communities** 

**and the public** 

**9. Marketing tourism** 

**Table 4.** Principles for Sustainable Tourism (Blamey, 2001).

**responsibly** 

**7. Consulting stakeholders** 

**sustainably**

**planning** 

**economies** 


**Table 5.** Three systems of sustainability in ecotourism development (According to Wall 1997; Alexander and Whitehouse 2004; (Jiang 2008).

These criteria include quantification of environmental performance for most of the key environmental indicators. This allows recognition and encouragement of ecotourism product that makes measured environmental improvements which result in a more sustainable world (http://www.ecoroute.eu/brochures/Report\_SW\_Europe\_draft30-04- 2004.pdf. Review of criteria, procedures and legal framework for ecotourism in Europe).

Role of Ecotourism in Sustainable Development 789

The participants at the World Ecotourism Summit, held in Quebec in May 2002, have acknowledged that ecotourism respects the principles of sustainable tourism referring to the economic, social and environmental impact, with some further specific principles (Sâmbotn

 Ecotourism actively contribute to the conservation of natural and cultural heritage. Ecotourism include local communities in the activities of planning, development and

Ecotourism is intended mainly for individual visitors and small organized groups.

development and sustainable ecotourism tourism development (Yogi, 2010).

Conservation of both human (cultural) and natural heritage

**6. Ecotourism – examples of implementation** 

Turkey-2023, 2007; Ninth Development Plan, 2006).

great changes both in socio-cultural and economic aspects.

Long term development and productivity for the future generation.

Ecotourism involves complete and interesting explanations for visitors, regarding the

According to Ramwell and Henry (1996) point out four basic principles of sustainable

So both sustainable tourism and sustainable development focuses on the same key issues of ecology, society, and a systemic process of development that is guided by strategic planning

More tranquil, natural and original spaces are preferred to ordinary tourism centers. Likewise, individuals have begun to prefer activities, which they can particularly perform in naturel and culturel areas and with which they can learn original cultural values and be within the nature, instead of sea-sand-sun tourism. Ecotourism has increased very quickly in recent years especially in developing countries. These are highlighted in Table 6 and pertain to economic aspects, impacts on culture, environmental concerns and development. In the Tourism Strategy of Turkey-2023 and the Ninth Development Plan (2007-2013), it is aimed to utilize natural, cultural, historical and geographical values of Turkey based on conservation-use balance, to increase the share of Turkey from tourism and to promote the attractiveness of regions via alternative tourism types like ecotourism (Tourism Strategy of

Ecotourism is implemented differently around the world, and the impacts on native cultures vary similarly. It is universal that tourism is a crucial industry to provide economic support to developing countries. An international pact in 1996 designated the tourism industry as the paramount economic growth strategy within Central America (Moreno, 2005). At this point, "Ecotourism" activities have particularly recently become sectors which can create

et al, 2011);

their welfare.

(Yogi, 2010).

operation, and it contributes to

natural and cultural resources.

Holistic and strategic planning

Conservation of essential ecological system

According to Rome (1999); Ecotourism is one strategy for supporting conservation and providing income for communities in and around protected areas. It can contribute to economic development and conservation of protected areas by: a) generating revenues that can be used to sustainably manage protected areas, b) providing local employment and c) inculcating a sense of community ownership. However, without careful planning and management that balance ecological, social, and economic objectives, it may lead to environmental damage. Furthermore, envisioned as a positive approach towards sustainable development, unplanned or poorly planned and implemented tourism can have serious negative effects, offsetting the benefits it was designed to provide. Even the potential local benefits of ecotourism can lead to environmental damage to a protected area.

The core set of eight principles are that ecotourism product should: (The Green Globe 21 International Ecotourism Standard , 2004)


One of the most influential ecotourism documents, the Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism (2002), produced after the World Ecotourism Summit during the International Year of Ecotourism, recognized that not only does ecotourism embrace the principles of sustainable tourism but it also embodies the following specific principles: (1) contributes actively to the conservation of natural and cultural heritage; (2) includes local and indigenous communities in its planning, development and operation, and contributes to their well-being; (3) interprets the natural and cultural heritage to visitors; (4) encourages independent travelers, as well as organized tours for small size groups. TIES' (2010) asserts that those involved in ecotourism should follow six principles: (1) minimize impact; (2) build environmental and cultural awareness and respect; (3) provide positive experiences for visitors and hosts; (4) provide direct financial benefits for conservation; (5) provide financial benefits and empowerment for local people; and (6) raise sensitivity to hosts' cultures political, and social climate)(McLaughlin, 2011).

The participants at the World Ecotourism Summit, held in Quebec in May 2002, have acknowledged that ecotourism respects the principles of sustainable tourism referring to the economic, social and environmental impact, with some further specific principles (Sâmbotn et al, 2011);


788 Advances in Landscape Architecture

International Ecotourism Standard , 2004)

formed (Responsible Marketing).

appreciation and enjoyment (Interpretation);

(Natural Area Focus);

Sustainability Practice);

climate)(McLaughlin, 2011).

Respect);

sustainable world (http://www.ecoroute.eu/brochures/Report\_SW\_Europe\_draft30-04- 2004.pdf. Review of criteria, procedures and legal framework for ecotourism in Europe).

According to Rome (1999); Ecotourism is one strategy for supporting conservation and providing income for communities in and around protected areas. It can contribute to economic development and conservation of protected areas by: a) generating revenues that can be used to sustainably manage protected areas, b) providing local employment and c) inculcating a sense of community ownership. However, without careful planning and management that balance ecological, social, and economic objectives, it may lead to environmental damage. Furthermore, envisioned as a positive approach towards sustainable development, unplanned or poorly planned and implemented tourism can have serious negative effects, offsetting the benefits it was designed to provide. Even the potential

local benefits of ecotourism can lead to environmental damage to a protected area.

The core set of eight principles are that ecotourism product should: (The Green Globe 21

1. Focus on giving visitors the opportunity to personally and directly experience nature

2. Provide opportunities to experience nature in ways that lead to greater understanding,

3. Represent best practice for environmentally sustainable tourism (Environmental

4. Contribute directly to the conservation of natural areas (Contribution to Conservation); 5. Provide ongoing contributions to the local community (Benefiting Local Communities); 6. Be sensitive to, interpret and involve the culture/s existing in the area (Cultural

8. Be marketed and promoted honestly and accurately so that realistic expectations are

One of the most influential ecotourism documents, the Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism (2002), produced after the World Ecotourism Summit during the International Year of Ecotourism, recognized that not only does ecotourism embrace the principles of sustainable tourism but it also embodies the following specific principles: (1) contributes actively to the conservation of natural and cultural heritage; (2) includes local and indigenous communities in its planning, development and operation, and contributes to their well-being; (3) interprets the natural and cultural heritage to visitors; (4) encourages independent travelers, as well as organized tours for small size groups. TIES' (2010) asserts that those involved in ecotourism should follow six principles: (1) minimize impact; (2) build environmental and cultural awareness and respect; (3) provide positive experiences for visitors and hosts; (4) provide direct financial benefits for conservation; (5) provide financial benefits and empowerment for local people; and (6) raise sensitivity to hosts' cultures political, and social

7. Consistently meets consumer expectations (Customer Satisfaction) ; and


According to Ramwell and Henry (1996) point out four basic principles of sustainable development and sustainable ecotourism tourism development (Yogi, 2010).


So both sustainable tourism and sustainable development focuses on the same key issues of ecology, society, and a systemic process of development that is guided by strategic planning (Yogi, 2010).

## **6. Ecotourism – examples of implementation**

More tranquil, natural and original spaces are preferred to ordinary tourism centers. Likewise, individuals have begun to prefer activities, which they can particularly perform in naturel and culturel areas and with which they can learn original cultural values and be within the nature, instead of sea-sand-sun tourism. Ecotourism has increased very quickly in recent years especially in developing countries. These are highlighted in Table 6 and pertain to economic aspects, impacts on culture, environmental concerns and development. In the Tourism Strategy of Turkey-2023 and the Ninth Development Plan (2007-2013), it is aimed to utilize natural, cultural, historical and geographical values of Turkey based on conservation-use balance, to increase the share of Turkey from tourism and to promote the attractiveness of regions via alternative tourism types like ecotourism (Tourism Strategy of Turkey-2023, 2007; Ninth Development Plan, 2006).

Ecotourism is implemented differently around the world, and the impacts on native cultures vary similarly. It is universal that tourism is a crucial industry to provide economic support to developing countries. An international pact in 1996 designated the tourism industry as the paramount economic growth strategy within Central America (Moreno, 2005). At this point, "Ecotourism" activities have particularly recently become sectors which can create great changes both in socio-cultural and economic aspects.


Role of Ecotourism in Sustainable Development 791

Uneven benefit sharing between

Low percentage of community

Risk of failure in small businesses

partners

employment

**pros cons**  and damage to vegetation. Much research has been directed toward determining acceptable standards for a variety of social and ecological

Awareness increase, both for the

 P romotion of local micro enterprise New opportunities for employment

 Diversity can be provided for agricultural product Life standarts rise. It supplements women employement.

 The quality of agricultural production rises and in quality production has its real value.

**Table 6.** Effects of eco-tourism in international countries (Watkin, 2003; Kiper, Özdemir, Sağlam, 2011)

Ecotourism activities have been sorted into the following categories: (Economic

 Winter Tourism (Back Country /Tour Skiing, Dog Sledding, Snow Shoeing) Walking, camping, boating, hunting, sight-seeing, swimming, cultural activities, observing wildlife and nature, skiing, visiting historical places, and horse riding among

The general trend in ecotourism is to increase experiences by encouraging activities such as long-distance walking, camping, boating, hunting, sight-seeing, swimming, cultural activities, bicycling, observing wildlife and nature, skiing, visiting historical places, and horse riding among others. Generally, instructive activities, for example, wildlife observation, participation in festivals, cultural activities and nature landscapes, attract most

Development Branch BC Ministry of Sustainable Resource Management, 2003)

marine cruising including sailing, yacht and power cruising

Freshwater River Rafting, Canoeing and Kayaking

impacts

**Economic**  Revenue generation

Marine Ecotourism

 sea kayaking tours Land based Ecotourism

Horseback Trail Riding

Bicycle Touring/Mountain Biking

Hiking/Backpacking/Trekking

community

E m p l o y m e n t

can be composed.


**Table 6.** Effects of eco-tourism in international countries (Watkin, 2003; Kiper, Özdemir, Sağlam, 2011)

Ecotourism activities have been sorted into the following categories: (Economic Development Branch BC Ministry of Sustainable Resource Management, 2003)

Marine Ecotourism

790 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Environmental**  Low environmental impact

**pros cons** 

Risk of environmental

 Environmental pollution rises The decays of natural resource

 Failure to meet the community's perception of development Advantages open to abuse by community members

Controversy about the motivation

Hotel, motel or other usages cause

of such programmes

environmental decays. Transportation density rises.

Disturbance to habitats and

Threats posed by dangerous

 Feasible population rise effects local peoples' daily life in a

Conventional life style changes.

Erosion of traditional values and

 Misre presentation and degradation of cultures Visual and noise pollution

species

animals

happen

negative way.

for the guests

degradation

happen.

 Watching landscape, plants and animals, being acquaintance with local cultural activities, observing through directly contacting with nature, obtaining knowledge and assessment will be provided via

 The affective factor of region rises. Natural texture is protected. The opportunities of underwork

ecotourism activities.

and bodywork rise.

Capacity building within the

Provision for health and family

 Extending ecotourism activities year round will prevent to utilize natural landscape assets of the region only in summer and will prevent short time pressure on the sources. New investments come to region The quality of agricultural production rises and in quality production has its real value.

Monitoring of habitat and species

Internal migration happens with

Conventional culture is lived by

"avoidable impacts" such as littering, ad hoc campfires, inappropriate disposal of waste,

 Festival etc. activities rise. It supplements intersectoral

**Developmental**  Provision for the development of the community

community

planning

**Conservation**  Enhancement of conservation objectives

**Cultural aspects**  Aw a reness of the local cultures

tourism.

cooperation.

protected.

**Education**  Education can help reduce

Low cultural impact

	- Bicycle Touring/Mountain Biking
	- Horseback Trail Riding
	- Hiking/Backpacking/Trekking
	- Freshwater River Rafting, Canoeing and Kayaking
	- Winter Tourism (Back Country /Tour Skiing, Dog Sledding, Snow Shoeing)

The general trend in ecotourism is to increase experiences by encouraging activities such as long-distance walking, camping, boating, hunting, sight-seeing, swimming, cultural activities, bicycling, observing wildlife and nature, skiing, visiting historical places, and horse riding among others. Generally, instructive activities, for example, wildlife observation, participation in festivals, cultural activities and nature landscapes, attract most attention. Activities like hiking, outdoor sports, picnic, paragliding arranged according to different areas of interest influence the preferences of many visitors (Kiper, 2011; Cengiz, 2007). According to Soykan, for Europeans rural roads are natural and cultural heritages. This is because they have natural, economic and cultural identities. Some give us opportunity to familiarize with local planting patterns by passing through agricultural lands, some lie among virgin natural areas with beautiful views (e.g. forests, rivers, lakes) and some connect the settlements which have unique cultural monuments. Therefore, in many countries in Europe (specifically Austria, Switzerland and France, which have mountainous areas) long distance trekking is well-organized (Kiper, 2011).

Role of Ecotourism in Sustainable Development 793

**Accessibility**  Tho the ecotourism region Tho the site

**Infastructure**  Support infastructure

**User**

**Social interaction** 

in Table 8.

**pre-requisites** 

**Attractions**  Types of ecotourism experiences

Support services

 Prior knowledge Prior skills Equipment

**Visitor impacts**  Consequences of visitor access

Decision process

**Management**  Stakeholder involvement

contributions to the local public. (Gültekin, 2010).

**Table 7.** ECOS models (Fagence, 2001)

**Relationship**  Between ecotourism and other potential uses of the same resource

 IN (Tropical forests, mountain areas) OF (birds, tress, wild flowers, mammals)

Level of interaction sought, achieved

Also, "Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Methods" are used widely in detecting land use suitabilities. The integration of ELECTRE, to give the order of precedence of uses, with GIS, a quite important means in spatial planning studies, will enable to reach successful results. Studies for determining the suitabilities for use of a land for ecotourism will also determine the development of the land in the following years and the sustainability of its resource values.

In the eco-tourism plans, diversifying economic and ecologic activities by starting and developing organized eco-tourism practice, enhancing the life quality of the locals with the economic gains provided by eco-tourism, increasing the participation of habitat conservation, improving environmental conscious, conserving natural, cultural and historical landscape values and passing them onto the next generation and popularizing ecotourism planning with the support and participation of responsible and related organizations should be aimed. Good planning of natural and cultural elements that create resources for eco-tourism activities and their management will make important

While envisioned as a positive approach towards sustainable development, unplanned or poorly planned and implemented tourism can have serious negative effects on the environment and on communities, offsetting the benefits it was designed to provide. In order to anticipate negative impacts and to prevent or mitigate them, ecotourism impacts monitoring is required. The sample of potential ecotourism monitoring ndicators are shown

Controls on visitor access, use

BY (watching, filming, collecting)

Complementarity, compatibility, integration, competition

Level of interaction with local/host community sought, achieved

In order for ecotourism to have a sustainable development, the analyses for determining land use suitabilities gain importance. It and other similar methods set standards or ranges of acceptable change and describe a methodology for determining these standards, measuring impacts and identifying management strategies for controlling negative impacts. They include ve includeIn recent years resources assessments have adopted oppottunity spectrum methods.

Opportunty spectrum this group includes (Fagence, 2001; Rome, 1999) ;


The ECOS model (Table 7) has been developed especially to cope with the peculiar needs of planning for ecotourism the capture of ecolpgical base-line data is the important first step.

Refinement to ECOS assesments could include


This data is then assessed or measured in terms of the capacity to be used in ecotourism, with the assessment focusing on eight important factors:


#### **Table 7.** ECOS models (Fagence, 2001)

792 Advances in Landscape Architecture

attention. Activities like hiking, outdoor sports, picnic, paragliding arranged according to different areas of interest influence the preferences of many visitors (Kiper, 2011; Cengiz, 2007). According to Soykan, for Europeans rural roads are natural and cultural heritages. This is because they have natural, economic and cultural identities. Some give us opportunity to familiarize with local planting patterns by passing through agricultural lands, some lie among virgin natural areas with beautiful views (e.g. forests, rivers, lakes) and some connect the settlements which have unique cultural monuments. Therefore, in many countries in Europe (specifically Austria, Switzerland and France, which have

In order for ecotourism to have a sustainable development, the analyses for determining land use suitabilities gain importance. It and other similar methods set standards or ranges of acceptable change and describe a methodology for determining these standards, measuring impacts and identifying management strategies for controlling negative impacts. They include ve includeIn recent years resources assessments have adopted oppottunity spectrum methods.

TA (Threshold Analysis, and more recently UET-ultimate environmental thresholds)

The ECOS model (Table 7) has been developed especially to cope with the peculiar needs of planning for ecotourism the capture of ecolpgical base-line data is the important first step.

 Landscape assesments (to differentiate geographical sectors according to their principal ecotourism resources, stages of "naturalness/change, levels of ecotourist interest) Attractiveness indices ( to differentiate according to uniqueness, international drawing

 Resource status (to differentiate according to the degree of disturbance of the natural resource, and any circumstance which might impede its sustainability or cause its

 Marketing assesments (combining some of the other assessments according to an aggregation of attractiveness for particular consumer/tourist market segments –to

This data is then assessed or measured in terms of the capacity to be used in ecotourism,

attractiveness to be forfeited –a form of carrying capacity assesment)

interpet the feasibility of capturing and sustaining tourist interest)

mountainous areas) long distance trekking is well-organized (Kiper, 2011).

Opportunty spectrum this group includes (Fagence, 2001; Rome, 1999) ;

 ROS (Recreation Opportunty Spectrum) TOS (Tourism Opportunty Spectrum) LAC (Limits of Acceptable Change)

 ECOS (Ecotourism Opportunty Spectrum) Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) Visitor Impact Management (VIM)

Refinement to ECOS assesments could include

 Visitor Experience and Resource Protection (VERP) Tourism Optimisation Management Model (TOMM)

power, primacy-a measure of comparative attraction)

Conservation potential (including rehabilitation potential)

with the assessment focusing on eight important factors:

Also, "Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Methods" are used widely in detecting land use suitabilities. The integration of ELECTRE, to give the order of precedence of uses, with GIS, a quite important means in spatial planning studies, will enable to reach successful results. Studies for determining the suitabilities for use of a land for ecotourism will also determine the development of the land in the following years and the sustainability of its resource values.

In the eco-tourism plans, diversifying economic and ecologic activities by starting and developing organized eco-tourism practice, enhancing the life quality of the locals with the economic gains provided by eco-tourism, increasing the participation of habitat conservation, improving environmental conscious, conserving natural, cultural and historical landscape values and passing them onto the next generation and popularizing ecotourism planning with the support and participation of responsible and related organizations should be aimed. Good planning of natural and cultural elements that create resources for eco-tourism activities and their management will make important contributions to the local public. (Gültekin, 2010).

While envisioned as a positive approach towards sustainable development, unplanned or poorly planned and implemented tourism can have serious negative effects on the environment and on communities, offsetting the benefits it was designed to provide. In order to anticipate negative impacts and to prevent or mitigate them, ecotourism impacts monitoring is required. The sample of potential ecotourism monitoring ndicators are shown in Table 8.


Role of Ecotourism in Sustainable Development 795

Various tendencies also occur in the understanding of tourism upon changing living conditions. More tranquil, natural and original spaces are preferred to ordinary tourism centers. Likewise, individuals have begun to prefer activities, which they can particularly perform in naturel and culturel areas and with which they can learn original cultural values and be within the nature, instead of sea-sand-sun tourism. At this point, "Ecotourism" activities have particularly recently become sectors which can create great changes both in socio-cultural and economic aspects. Main purpose is not only ensuring the socio-economic development but also the protection of natural and cultural landscape values to ensure

Ecotourism should be seen in direct relation to nature conservation (protected areas), with preservation of the authentic and involving local communities in all stages of the process. Development process is a lengthy process, which requires a sustained effort from all those involved but can bring major benefits in the long term, contribute directly to the creation of

the use of natural assets and resources in ecologically sensitive areas to create unique

After research we can draw the main conclusions of this work, as it follows: (Sâmbotn, 2011) Ecotourism is a form of tourism developed in natural areas, whose goal is to acknowledge and to appreciate nature and local culture, which includes conservation measures and ensures an active involvement, generating benefits for the local

 Ecotourism clothes the sustainable tourism principles, but differs from it by aspects related to local community issues, interpretation for visitors to a particular destination,

Tourism has a complex impact on the environment, but it is also generating both cost

 The interest of tourists for travel in natural areas (land or water) has increased recently; Ecotourism contributes to increased revenues from tourism, but also to the positive

 Worldwide, there are a large number of natural areas associated with a specific cultural diversity, resulting in particular through the perpetuation of the long traditions and

 Tourists have a certain responsibility towards the destination visited and the environment by their choice itself, behavior and activities performed in that space, and therefore it is important to be informed about the quality and sensitivity of destinations.

environmentally responsible travel to relatively undisturbed natural areas,

combining sustainable development with the natural environments,

**7. Conclusion** 

awareness of nature conservation on the other hand.

"sustainable existing 'target area (Roxana, 2012).

travel in order to enjoy, study and appreciate nature,

visitor experiences with minimal impact on the area.

Ecotourism is about (Roxana, 2012);

the promotion of conservation,

population;

and benefits;

social effects;

customs;

the number of visitors;

**Table 8.** A sample of potential ecotourism monitoring ndicators (Rome, 1999)

## **7. Conclusion**

794 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Infrastructure (or managerial)**  **Indicators**

**Environmental**  Species of special tourism interest – numbers recorded per time

Endangered species – numbers recorded per time or area,

Keystone species – numbers recorded per time or area,

Vegetation trampled near trails and infrastructure

• Knowledge of traditional uses of flora and fauna and rituals

• Number and size of vehicles in parking areas • Degree of solitude experienced by visitors

or area, breeding sites

Trail maintenance required

**Experiential** •Number of other people or groups encountered on trails

• Number of repeat visitors • Tourist ratings of guides

• Ratings of food and accommodations

**Economic** • Number and size of vehicles in parking areasIncome levels of • Residents working directly in ecotourism

• Residents not involved with ecotourism

• Changes in costs of local goods and services

• Rate of new construction in the area

• Number and volume of new businesses

• Degree of road maintenance required • Methods of communication and transport

• Changes in land use near protected areas • Quality and quantity of consumption • Changes in dress and language

• Community attitudes about tourists and tourism

• Residents providing ecotourism services indirectly

• Revenue generated by ecotourism for protected area • Amount of money spent on community improvements

• Amount of protected area budget spent on ecotourism-related

• Amount of infrastructure development within protected area • Amount of time spent in maintenance of infrastructure • Lodging capacity in and around the protected area

breeding sites

breeding sites Trail width

Water quality

**Socio-cultural** • Quality of historical, cultural sites

• Use of free time

management

• Population changes

**Table 8.** A sample of potential ecotourism monitoring ndicators (Rome, 1999)

• Number and length of trails

Various tendencies also occur in the understanding of tourism upon changing living conditions. More tranquil, natural and original spaces are preferred to ordinary tourism centers. Likewise, individuals have begun to prefer activities, which they can particularly perform in naturel and culturel areas and with which they can learn original cultural values and be within the nature, instead of sea-sand-sun tourism. At this point, "Ecotourism" activities have particularly recently become sectors which can create great changes both in socio-cultural and economic aspects. Main purpose is not only ensuring the socio-economic development but also the protection of natural and cultural landscape values to ensure awareness of nature conservation on the other hand.

Ecotourism should be seen in direct relation to nature conservation (protected areas), with preservation of the authentic and involving local communities in all stages of the process. Development process is a lengthy process, which requires a sustained effort from all those involved but can bring major benefits in the long term, contribute directly to the creation of "sustainable existing 'target area (Roxana, 2012).

Ecotourism is about (Roxana, 2012);


After research we can draw the main conclusions of this work, as it follows: (Sâmbotn, 2011)


These principles should be envisaged both for lovers of this form of tourism and service providers of such eco-touristic products.

Role of Ecotourism in Sustainable Development 797

planning. Tourism planning purposes this. relationship between rational resources requirements Ensuring the sustainable use of natural (water, vista, topography, clean air, natural vegetation structure, microclimatic features of climate, marine and coastal topographic structure and motion, etc.) and cultural resources (Archeological heritage, Religious structures, Conventional architecture, Traditional social activities) to the evaluation of the physical planning decisions in the field of ecological planning strategies (Dinç and Kocan, 2012). Additionally, According to Bunruamkaew & Murayama (2012); ecotourism development must promote educational development and create awareness in people of the need to jointly maintain the ecosystem of the area. There is a need to implement development plans and manage natural resources in a way that ensures ecological and environmental integrity. Environmental education and interpretation is the key to creating an enjoyable and meaningful ecotourism experience, and is one of the key points of differentiation between ecotourism and other tourism products. Successful interpretive components of ecotourism products will foster appreciation and support for

*Namk Kemal University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Design and Architect, Department of Landscape* 

Bansal, S.P. & Kumar, J. 2011. Ecotourism for Community Development: A Stakeholder's Perspective in Great Himalayan National Park. International Journal of Social Ecology

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Overview of Selected Issues. Alternation*,* 15(1): 17-44.

**Author details** 

*Architecture, Turkey* 

**8. References** 

1928.

The World Bank.

Tuğba Kiper

Basic purposes of ecotourism are to preserve and utilize natural and cultural resources in a sustainable way and to enable economic development of local people. However, achieving the aims in ecotourism depends on whether they are environmentally and ecologically sustainable and economically applicable. In order to achieve these, a participative tourism planning is required (Kiper, 2011). Figure 4 illustrates the multiple and diverse elements essential for ensuring that communities fulfil their role in ecotourism development (Drumm & Moore, 2002).

**Figure 4.** Essential elements for ecotourism in community setting

Now that ecotourism has reached such stature, it is especially important to scrutinize its effectiveness as a strategy for sustainable development, and search for ways to improve policies and practices. Clearly ecotourism is not a universal remedy; but its potential to promote sustainable development deserves considerable attention.

In conclusion, According to Kiper, Özdemir and Sağlam (2011); ecotourism activities which are not performed according to the purpose, the principles and the characteristics cause the disturbance in environmental, economic and socio-cultural fields due to over-intensification to be occurred especially in sensitive ecosystems like naturel and culturel areas. Therefore, in order to provide sustainability in the ecotourism, it is necessary to know environmental, social and economical effects of ecotourism activities and to consider these effects during the planning. Tourism planning purposes this. relationship between rational resources requirements Ensuring the sustainable use of natural (water, vista, topography, clean air, natural vegetation structure, microclimatic features of climate, marine and coastal topographic structure and motion, etc.) and cultural resources (Archeological heritage, Religious structures, Conventional architecture, Traditional social activities) to the evaluation of the physical planning decisions in the field of ecological planning strategies (Dinç and Kocan, 2012). Additionally, According to Bunruamkaew & Murayama (2012); ecotourism development must promote educational development and create awareness in people of the need to jointly maintain the ecosystem of the area. There is a need to implement development plans and manage natural resources in a way that ensures ecological and environmental integrity. Environmental education and interpretation is the key to creating an enjoyable and meaningful ecotourism experience, and is one of the key points of differentiation between ecotourism and other tourism products. Successful interpretive components of ecotourism products will foster appreciation and support for conservation efforts, local communities and culture.

## **Author details**

#### Tuğba Kiper

796 Advances in Landscape Architecture

& Moore, 2002).

providers of such eco-touristic products.

**Figure 4.** Essential elements for ecotourism in community setting

promote sustainable development deserves considerable attention.

Now that ecotourism has reached such stature, it is especially important to scrutinize its effectiveness as a strategy for sustainable development, and search for ways to improve policies and practices. Clearly ecotourism is not a universal remedy; but its potential to

In conclusion, According to Kiper, Özdemir and Sağlam (2011); ecotourism activities which are not performed according to the purpose, the principles and the characteristics cause the disturbance in environmental, economic and socio-cultural fields due to over-intensification to be occurred especially in sensitive ecosystems like naturel and culturel areas. Therefore, in order to provide sustainability in the ecotourism, it is necessary to know environmental, social and economical effects of ecotourism activities and to consider these effects during the

These principles should be envisaged both for lovers of this form of tourism and service

Basic purposes of ecotourism are to preserve and utilize natural and cultural resources in a sustainable way and to enable economic development of local people. However, achieving the aims in ecotourism depends on whether they are environmentally and ecologically sustainable and economically applicable. In order to achieve these, a participative tourism planning is required (Kiper, 2011). Figure 4 illustrates the multiple and diverse elements essential for ensuring that communities fulfil their role in ecotourism development (Drumm

> *Namk Kemal University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Design and Architect, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey*

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McMinn, S. 1997. The Challenge of Sustainable Tourism. The Environmentalist. 17: 135-141.

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Stem, C., Lassoie, J., Lee, D., and Deshler, D. 2003. Community Participation in Ecotourism Benefits: The Link To Conservation Practices and Perspectives. Society and Natural Resources*.* 16: 387-413.

**Chapter 32** 

© 2013 Benli, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**The Use of Courtyards and Open Areas** 

The courtyards of the mosques were gathering places frequently in use, public meetings always had a pleasant environment. The courts of the Imperial mosques and large building complexes called "*külliye*", have a regularity and symmetrical form. Evliya Çelebi [1], the famous Ottoman Turkish travel writer, tells us of the fragrance of the mosque courtyards, with fruit trees and flower beds. The types of Ottoman open space other than mosque-courts are open praying platforms;"*namazgah*", open air grounds promenade; "*mesire*" or meadows/large green areas which were called "*çayr*". Open praying platforms which Ottomans called "Namazgah" have regular forms, although the open spaces of the Ottoman urban model has been judged to be formless. The open areas of Ottomans were not architecturally designed; their margins are quite casual or simply enhanced by single monuments. The open air grounds, promenade (Mesire) are the actual core of the open air system. The open space when it is very large does not have a form as it is natural and has a manner of being situated in nature. They were quite widespread in public use in the 18th

century and they represented a form that was latent in the preceding period.

Until the mid-16th century, the daily life of the common people was experienced around the mosque, open market and residence. Since the social life was self-enclosed, public open spaces were not felt as required; instead the courtyards of mosques and *külliye*s were used as gathering places for the people. The külliyes built after the Sultan Mehmed *the Conqueror*  conquered Constantinople, were building complexes which reached wide functional resources, possessing an urban vision, with their inherent structures of multiple functionality. These complexes which harbored various functions of religious service, education, social aid (hosting travelers, feeding the poor and providing health-care for the

**in the Ottoman Period in İstanbul** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Gülhan Benli

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55797

**2. A type of open area: Külliye**

**1. Introduction** 


http://www.ecoroute.eu/brochures/Report\_SW\_Europe\_draft30-04-2004.pdf


**Chapter 32** 

## **The Use of Courtyards and Open Areas in the Ottoman Period in İstanbul**

Gülhan Benli

802 Advances in Landscape Architecture

60 p.

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Vogt, H. 1997. The economic benefits of tourism in the marine reserve of Apo Island, Philippines. H.A. Lessios, I.G. Macintyre (Eds.), Proceedings of the Eighth International Coral Reef Symposium, vol. 2Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama, p. 2102–

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Research, 26(4), 792-816

Uppsala, p.60.

International.

http://www.ecoroute.eu/brochures/Report\_SW\_Europe\_draft30-04-2004.pdf

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55797

## **1. Introduction**

The courtyards of the mosques were gathering places frequently in use, public meetings always had a pleasant environment. The courts of the Imperial mosques and large building complexes called "*külliye*", have a regularity and symmetrical form. Evliya Çelebi [1], the famous Ottoman Turkish travel writer, tells us of the fragrance of the mosque courtyards, with fruit trees and flower beds. The types of Ottoman open space other than mosque-courts are open praying platforms;"*namazgah*", open air grounds promenade; "*mesire*" or meadows/large green areas which were called "*çayr*". Open praying platforms which Ottomans called "Namazgah" have regular forms, although the open spaces of the Ottoman urban model has been judged to be formless. The open areas of Ottomans were not architecturally designed; their margins are quite casual or simply enhanced by single monuments. The open air grounds, promenade (Mesire) are the actual core of the open air system. The open space when it is very large does not have a form as it is natural and has a manner of being situated in nature. They were quite widespread in public use in the 18th century and they represented a form that was latent in the preceding period.

## **2. A type of open area: Külliye**

Until the mid-16th century, the daily life of the common people was experienced around the mosque, open market and residence. Since the social life was self-enclosed, public open spaces were not felt as required; instead the courtyards of mosques and *külliye*s were used as gathering places for the people. The külliyes built after the Sultan Mehmed *the Conqueror*  conquered Constantinople, were building complexes which reached wide functional resources, possessing an urban vision, with their inherent structures of multiple functionality. These complexes which harbored various functions of religious service, education, social aid (hosting travelers, feeding the poor and providing health-care for the

© 2013 Benli, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

sick) and trade, were designed keeping the whole of the city in consideration. One of the characteristics of the İslamic cities, great mosque and market constituting the city-center, is also prevalent for the külliyes built in İstanbul.

The Use of Courtyards and Open Areas in the Ottoman Period in İstanbul 805

reconstructed. Many gardeners were assigned for the reconstruction works. Hasbahçe1 in Sarayburnu, İstanbul; Halkal Garden, Üsküdar Garden, HaydarPaşa Garden are some

On Fridays the people went to promenades with rowboats, carts, animals or on foot. Light rowboats, which were called "*piyade*" were built for using in tours of this kind. Families who did not have rowboats would rent them. As a result of the ongoing popularity of these excursion areas and outdoors, various promenades were formed in Istanbul, which contributes even more to the beauty of the city. Greenwoods next to the rivers of Istanbul stand out as pleasant places used by the people in spring and summer seasons. The hills constituting the topography of Istanbul create eye pleasing perspectives, with the green

Promenades were composed in places allowed by the topography of Istanbul, according to the existing structure of the land, freely and with respect to the nature; being the largest common use areas and usually had flat meadows. However, there are much smaller promenades near the city, which made landscape designs necessary from a topographical view. The solution was hanging gardens in these areas. Küçük Çamlca, Sütlüce or Çubuklu promenades of Istanbul were planned as terraces overlooking to the sea. In Saryer Çrçr promenade, the sustaining walls, whose drawing samples can be found in Drawing 1, are placed on the land by avoiding any damage on the natural beauty [2]. Today, some of the century-old trees in this area are cut down. The common feature of these examples is that the floor is divided into seperate layers with sustaining walls and the open area is organized as a hanging garden, facing one specific direction. The separate terraces enabled different

The handmade paths in the promenade are rare, narrow and are paved with stones which are in various sizes and not fully smooth. The paths are straight in direction, where the land allows. The paths are used for connecting the meadows at specific points. The formation of the trees had an important place in promenades. Large shades are formed by preserving the existing trees and planting other trees next to them. Reference points such as fountains, target stones and outdoor praying places, called *namazgâh* were placed in appropriate points

Flat meadows were separated for entertainment, games or sports. Plane trees were preferred in promenades due to its large shade. Starting in the 18th century, especially in hanging gardens, stone pines were used, by planting in rows [2]. It is possible to see many of those stone pines in many hanging gardens which are today in the boundaries of private properties. From the 19th century on, ornamental trees such as "Magnolia" and "Blue Pine" were two of the most popular choices. While the common people prepared food from the earlier day and brought them in food boxes, the rich people had their servants bring their

families independently. The trees were planted in layers on the terraces.

among those gardens.

in the area.

food on rowboats.

1 Hasbahçe: the garden of Sultans.

texture formed by the trees, shrubs and meadow grass.

**4. Landscape designs in promenades** 

Large külliyes were institutions which addressed the needs of the society, enabling social development and betterment by providing social services. Large-scale külliyes in İstanbul (Fatih Külliyesi, Süleymaniye Külliyesi, Şehzade Külliyesi, Sultanahmet Külliyesi etc.) are enormous social institutions consisting of a mosque, *turbe* (a sepulcher for usually religiously reputable people), *hazire* (a reserved burial area surrounded with fences), *medrese*  (or 'madrassah', muslim theological school), *sbyan mektebi* (primary school for young boys), *şifahane* (hospital), *imaret* (public soup-kitchen), *sebil* (public water distribution place), fountain, market, lodging inn and a *hamam* (Turkish bath).

Major Ottoman Külliyes in İstanbul were located on the main road axis of the city and corresponded to the preceding Roman and Byzantine era forums; however the spatial differences in two types of spaces are the results of the differences between Byzantine and Ottoman social structures. The decisions concerning the urban life were announced to the public in mosques and mosque courtyards, thus they held the function of communication between the government and the people, well before the information age. The reactions of the community were evaluated in those public spaces, to be reported to the government. However, some courtyards were nested with the külliye of the mosque, or the neighboring market, undertaking several other functions. The surrounding shopkeepers came to the mosque for *namaz*, five times a day, and after the prayers, they held conversations with other shopkeepers usually about commercial, social or political issues. The children of those shopkeepers, who comes with their fathers attended to lessons of Arabic, Persian, religious rules and ethics in those mosques. In the courtyards of large, central mosques, chatters or peddlers were present through all day. These courtyards were also "appointment" points; those who came from the provincial areas or residents of peripheral neighborhoods used the courtyards as reference points, met each other in these public areas.

## **3. Natural and public parks – Promenades**

Places for promenade, as today is called as "picnic" after the Western societies, were open spaces of common use in spring and summer months in the Ottoman society. Although promenades are not architectural works, they are a major historical element in the urban planning of İstanbul. In the heart of the 16th century Istanbul, the area around the Bayram Pasha Creek (Lykos Creek as called in the Byzantine era) was called Yenibahçe and was the most preferred promenade.

Promenades are places for countryside walks, which displayed a vast expansion in the 18th century. They were one of the first places the people preferred to visit for pleasure in leisure days and holidays. Being at liberty in those vast meadows always rejoiced the visitors. Enjoying the cool breeze of the Bosphorus in the shades of huge trees was a popular entertainment for the residents of Istanbul. During the public improvement works in the 16th century under the command of Suleyman the Magnificent, gardens in Istanbul were also reconstructed. Many gardeners were assigned for the reconstruction works. Hasbahçe1 in Sarayburnu, İstanbul; Halkal Garden, Üsküdar Garden, HaydarPaşa Garden are some among those gardens.

On Fridays the people went to promenades with rowboats, carts, animals or on foot. Light rowboats, which were called "*piyade*" were built for using in tours of this kind. Families who did not have rowboats would rent them. As a result of the ongoing popularity of these excursion areas and outdoors, various promenades were formed in Istanbul, which contributes even more to the beauty of the city. Greenwoods next to the rivers of Istanbul stand out as pleasant places used by the people in spring and summer seasons. The hills constituting the topography of Istanbul create eye pleasing perspectives, with the green texture formed by the trees, shrubs and meadow grass.

## **4. Landscape designs in promenades**

804 Advances in Landscape Architecture

also prevalent for the külliyes built in İstanbul.

fountain, market, lodging inn and a *hamam* (Turkish bath).

courtyards as reference points, met each other in these public areas.

**3. Natural and public parks – Promenades** 

most preferred promenade.

sick) and trade, were designed keeping the whole of the city in consideration. One of the characteristics of the İslamic cities, great mosque and market constituting the city-center, is

Large külliyes were institutions which addressed the needs of the society, enabling social development and betterment by providing social services. Large-scale külliyes in İstanbul (Fatih Külliyesi, Süleymaniye Külliyesi, Şehzade Külliyesi, Sultanahmet Külliyesi etc.) are enormous social institutions consisting of a mosque, *turbe* (a sepulcher for usually religiously reputable people), *hazire* (a reserved burial area surrounded with fences), *medrese*  (or 'madrassah', muslim theological school), *sbyan mektebi* (primary school for young boys), *şifahane* (hospital), *imaret* (public soup-kitchen), *sebil* (public water distribution place),

Major Ottoman Külliyes in İstanbul were located on the main road axis of the city and corresponded to the preceding Roman and Byzantine era forums; however the spatial differences in two types of spaces are the results of the differences between Byzantine and Ottoman social structures. The decisions concerning the urban life were announced to the public in mosques and mosque courtyards, thus they held the function of communication between the government and the people, well before the information age. The reactions of the community were evaluated in those public spaces, to be reported to the government. However, some courtyards were nested with the külliye of the mosque, or the neighboring market, undertaking several other functions. The surrounding shopkeepers came to the mosque for *namaz*, five times a day, and after the prayers, they held conversations with other shopkeepers usually about commercial, social or political issues. The children of those shopkeepers, who comes with their fathers attended to lessons of Arabic, Persian, religious rules and ethics in those mosques. In the courtyards of large, central mosques, chatters or peddlers were present through all day. These courtyards were also "appointment" points; those who came from the provincial areas or residents of peripheral neighborhoods used the

Places for promenade, as today is called as "picnic" after the Western societies, were open spaces of common use in spring and summer months in the Ottoman society. Although promenades are not architectural works, they are a major historical element in the urban planning of İstanbul. In the heart of the 16th century Istanbul, the area around the Bayram Pasha Creek (Lykos Creek as called in the Byzantine era) was called Yenibahçe and was the

Promenades are places for countryside walks, which displayed a vast expansion in the 18th century. They were one of the first places the people preferred to visit for pleasure in leisure days and holidays. Being at liberty in those vast meadows always rejoiced the visitors. Enjoying the cool breeze of the Bosphorus in the shades of huge trees was a popular entertainment for the residents of Istanbul. During the public improvement works in the 16th century under the command of Suleyman the Magnificent, gardens in Istanbul were also Promenades were composed in places allowed by the topography of Istanbul, according to the existing structure of the land, freely and with respect to the nature; being the largest common use areas and usually had flat meadows. However, there are much smaller promenades near the city, which made landscape designs necessary from a topographical view. The solution was hanging gardens in these areas. Küçük Çamlca, Sütlüce or Çubuklu promenades of Istanbul were planned as terraces overlooking to the sea. In Saryer Çrçr promenade, the sustaining walls, whose drawing samples can be found in Drawing 1, are placed on the land by avoiding any damage on the natural beauty [2]. Today, some of the century-old trees in this area are cut down. The common feature of these examples is that the floor is divided into seperate layers with sustaining walls and the open area is organized as a hanging garden, facing one specific direction. The separate terraces enabled different families independently. The trees were planted in layers on the terraces.

The handmade paths in the promenade are rare, narrow and are paved with stones which are in various sizes and not fully smooth. The paths are straight in direction, where the land allows. The paths are used for connecting the meadows at specific points. The formation of the trees had an important place in promenades. Large shades are formed by preserving the existing trees and planting other trees next to them. Reference points such as fountains, target stones and outdoor praying places, called *namazgâh* were placed in appropriate points in the area.

Flat meadows were separated for entertainment, games or sports. Plane trees were preferred in promenades due to its large shade. Starting in the 18th century, especially in hanging gardens, stone pines were used, by planting in rows [2]. It is possible to see many of those stone pines in many hanging gardens which are today in the boundaries of private properties. From the 19th century on, ornamental trees such as "Magnolia" and "Blue Pine" were two of the most popular choices. While the common people prepared food from the earlier day and brought them in food boxes, the rich people had their servants bring their food on rowboats.

<sup>1</sup> Hasbahçe: the garden of Sultans.

Furthermore, there used to be many peddlers in promenades. Sellers of strawberries, oranges, chestnuts, paste candy, halva, ice cream, chickpeas shouted what they sold. When some disturbed the public, they were intervened. Okmeydan Promenade, Büyükdere, Veli Efendi, Çrpc Meadows in the European side of İstanbul; Fener Garden, Haydarpasa Meadow, Çamlca, Beykoz Meadows, Göksu Promenade and Küçüksu Meadow in the Asian side of the city were the major promenades of the Ottoman Empire.

The Use of Courtyards and Open Areas in the Ottoman Period in İstanbul 807

**4.1. The most famous meadow and promenade of Istanbul: Kağthane** 

cushions were laid and on top of it an awning was spread on a pillar (Figure 2).

of the river was taken in a canal with a wall.

even rowing impossible.

banks. Tents were set up for groups.

The name of the Kağthane River used to be Barbisos in the Byzantine times. This open area became a promenade which hosted various entertainments in the beginning of the 1600s. Kağthane Promenade was popular among the people of Istanbul for several centuries. It is one of the largest promenade of Istanbul, with respect to its length. For women who usually preferred travelling on land, a one-day excursion to Kağthane was a cause to celebrate. For travelling they used a cart pulled by two oxen, decorated with red fringes. Inside the car

Kağthane was popular especially because of its water. The Krk Çeşme Waters which was brought to Istanbul in the time of Suleyman the Magnificent was distributed from Kağthane. Orchards and gardens were not allowed where the water conduits were passing in Kağthane. In the meadows around Kağthane, also grazing and building sheep pens were prohibited. Kağthane Valley, whose width varies from part to part, and lies between two naked ranges of hills, formed an extraordinary effective and proportionate space. Over the river which traversed the promenade, two wooden bridges were built and a certain part

As the longest canal built in Ottoman era landscape architecture, from the first bridge to the land, one part of the bank was reserved for women, when the other side was for men. Sometimes the popularity went on to congestion, and it made berthing the rowboats, or

According to the ancient Turkish traditions, 6th of May was accepted as the coming of spring and in the *Hdrellez* Festivals on that day hundreds of people from all over İstanbul would visit Kağthane on boats and carts. The river passing in the middle of the area enabled a convenient atmosphere for boat rides. Huge clothes, rugs, carpets were laid on the ground to sit in the shades of huge plane trees, under the drooping willows and poplar trees on the

The most frequent visits to Kağthane promenade were in spring, and it was not preferred in hot months of the summer. In the area men sat under the trees, next to the river, while women mostly toured around in carts. Kağthane promenade was both a place the people enjoyed, and also a place for official feasts, meetings and weddings. It is known that goldsmiths and saddler makers among the guild branches set up tents in the area for both entertainment and mercantile negotiations. Evliya Celebi mentions the plane, poplar and willow trees on the both banks of the river in the 17th century, and calls the area with the name of "*Lalezar*". This definition indicates that the tulip flower (*lale* in Turkish) was commonly used in the area. Eremya Çelebi Kömürciyan (1637-1695) [3] tells us that from the huge dairy farms in the area, milk and yoghurt was provided to the Ottoman palace, there were huge trees and mills near the river and the people of Istanbul visited the place for entertainment. The reason why Kağthane came to be known with the name of "Sa'dabad" in Europe is the foundation of Sa'dabad Palace here in 1722. Sa'dabad defines the complex

**Promenade** 

The most famous promenade, which was in its heydays especially in the 18th century was the wooded meadows next to the Kağthane River, close to the Topkap Palace. In the 20th century, some promenades such as Kuşdili and Çifte havuzlar, on the banks of the Yoğurtçu creek in the Anatolian side of Istanbul gained a larger fame. Today, Beykoz meadow in the north of Istanbul is kept in its old form to some extent.

**Figure 1.** Drawn by Sedat Hakk Eldem [2], Terraced public garden with decorative ponds, Saryer, Çrçr, Bosphorus.

## **4.1. The most famous meadow and promenade of Istanbul: Kağthane Promenade**

806 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Çrçr, Bosphorus.

Furthermore, there used to be many peddlers in promenades. Sellers of strawberries, oranges, chestnuts, paste candy, halva, ice cream, chickpeas shouted what they sold. When some disturbed the public, they were intervened. Okmeydan Promenade, Büyükdere, Veli Efendi, Çrpc Meadows in the European side of İstanbul; Fener Garden, Haydarpasa Meadow, Çamlca, Beykoz Meadows, Göksu Promenade and Küçüksu Meadow in the

The most famous promenade, which was in its heydays especially in the 18th century was the wooded meadows next to the Kağthane River, close to the Topkap Palace. In the 20th century, some promenades such as Kuşdili and Çifte havuzlar, on the banks of the Yoğurtçu creek in the Anatolian side of Istanbul gained a larger fame. Today, Beykoz meadow in the

**Figure 1.** Drawn by Sedat Hakk Eldem [2], Terraced public garden with decorative ponds, Saryer,

Asian side of the city were the major promenades of the Ottoman Empire.

north of Istanbul is kept in its old form to some extent.

The name of the Kağthane River used to be Barbisos in the Byzantine times. This open area became a promenade which hosted various entertainments in the beginning of the 1600s. Kağthane Promenade was popular among the people of Istanbul for several centuries. It is one of the largest promenade of Istanbul, with respect to its length. For women who usually preferred travelling on land, a one-day excursion to Kağthane was a cause to celebrate. For travelling they used a cart pulled by two oxen, decorated with red fringes. Inside the car cushions were laid and on top of it an awning was spread on a pillar (Figure 2).

Kağthane was popular especially because of its water. The Krk Çeşme Waters which was brought to Istanbul in the time of Suleyman the Magnificent was distributed from Kağthane. Orchards and gardens were not allowed where the water conduits were passing in Kağthane. In the meadows around Kağthane, also grazing and building sheep pens were prohibited. Kağthane Valley, whose width varies from part to part, and lies between two naked ranges of hills, formed an extraordinary effective and proportionate space. Over the river which traversed the promenade, two wooden bridges were built and a certain part of the river was taken in a canal with a wall.

As the longest canal built in Ottoman era landscape architecture, from the first bridge to the land, one part of the bank was reserved for women, when the other side was for men. Sometimes the popularity went on to congestion, and it made berthing the rowboats, or even rowing impossible.

According to the ancient Turkish traditions, 6th of May was accepted as the coming of spring and in the *Hdrellez* Festivals on that day hundreds of people from all over İstanbul would visit Kağthane on boats and carts. The river passing in the middle of the area enabled a convenient atmosphere for boat rides. Huge clothes, rugs, carpets were laid on the ground to sit in the shades of huge plane trees, under the drooping willows and poplar trees on the banks. Tents were set up for groups.

The most frequent visits to Kağthane promenade were in spring, and it was not preferred in hot months of the summer. In the area men sat under the trees, next to the river, while women mostly toured around in carts. Kağthane promenade was both a place the people enjoyed, and also a place for official feasts, meetings and weddings. It is known that goldsmiths and saddler makers among the guild branches set up tents in the area for both entertainment and mercantile negotiations. Evliya Celebi mentions the plane, poplar and willow trees on the both banks of the river in the 17th century, and calls the area with the name of "*Lalezar*". This definition indicates that the tulip flower (*lale* in Turkish) was commonly used in the area. Eremya Çelebi Kömürciyan (1637-1695) [3] tells us that from the huge dairy farms in the area, milk and yoghurt was provided to the Ottoman palace, there were huge trees and mills near the river and the people of Istanbul visited the place for entertainment. The reason why Kağthane came to be known with the name of "Sa'dabad" in Europe is the foundation of Sa'dabad Palace here in 1722. Sa'dabad defines the complex of palaces, summer palaces and gardens in the area and the style of entertainment and living.

The Use of Courtyards and Open Areas in the Ottoman Period in İstanbul 809

**Figure 3.** Kağthane Festivals in the beginning of the 20th century in a photograph by Berggren.

**Figure 4.** İmrahor (Mirahur) Mansion in Kağthane Promenade area and the touring rowboats

**Figure 5.** Rowboats on the Kağthane river, 19th century**.**

The main landscape designs in the area started in 1719, in the times of Sultan Ahmed III. Yirmisekiz Çelebi Mehmet Efendi who was sent to Paris as an ambassador was deeply affected by the Versailles, Fontainebleau Palaces and gardens of other French mansions and palaces. The mansions, summer houses, fountains and gardens around Kağthane were built upon his descriptions of those gardens to the palace authorities. The area with the plane trees was arranged, rows of trees were planted on two sides of the river, and rose and tulip gardens were formed in 1721. The most important aspect of the area is the waterfalls created in here. Sa'dabad reached the peak of its fame during the "Tulip Era" of the Ottoman Empire. The usage of water together with architectural applications defines a periodic characteristic.

The Sa'dabad Summer Palace, with its marble floors, built on top of 30 columns next to the river, had an important place and left important traces in the Ottoman history, culture, arts and literature. Kağthane Promenade kept its importance by being an actively used area until the beginning of the 20th century. The area which was for a period used as a military zone, now is filled with residential buildings. Today, apart from plane and ash trees, two types of trees which are not found in elsewhere in Istanbul: first is American swamp cypress (Taxodium distichum) and the second is Zelkova (Zelkova carpinifolia), a type of elm tree originating in North Persia. Four of the American cypress trees (trunk peripheries: 290, 285, 268 and 265 cm's.) and two of the Zelkovas (trunk peripheries: 285 and 277 cm's.) are in considerably good health and are estimated to be 200-250 years old [4]. Those trees are presumed to be the ones which could reach our day and age, among the hundreds of exotic trees brought from European plantations for this promenade area.

**Figure 2.** An ox-cart going to the promenade area, in a photograph by B. Kargopoulo, 1854.

The Use of Courtyards and Open Areas in the Ottoman Period in İstanbul 809

808 Advances in Landscape Architecture

living.

characteristic.

of palaces, summer palaces and gardens in the area and the style of entertainment and

The main landscape designs in the area started in 1719, in the times of Sultan Ahmed III. Yirmisekiz Çelebi Mehmet Efendi who was sent to Paris as an ambassador was deeply affected by the Versailles, Fontainebleau Palaces and gardens of other French mansions and palaces. The mansions, summer houses, fountains and gardens around Kağthane were built upon his descriptions of those gardens to the palace authorities. The area with the plane trees was arranged, rows of trees were planted on two sides of the river, and rose and tulip gardens were formed in 1721. The most important aspect of the area is the waterfalls created in here. Sa'dabad reached the peak of its fame during the "Tulip Era" of the Ottoman Empire. The usage of water together with architectural applications defines a periodic

The Sa'dabad Summer Palace, with its marble floors, built on top of 30 columns next to the river, had an important place and left important traces in the Ottoman history, culture, arts and literature. Kağthane Promenade kept its importance by being an actively used area until the beginning of the 20th century. The area which was for a period used as a military zone, now is filled with residential buildings. Today, apart from plane and ash trees, two types of trees which are not found in elsewhere in Istanbul: first is American swamp cypress (Taxodium distichum) and the second is Zelkova (Zelkova carpinifolia), a type of elm tree originating in North Persia. Four of the American cypress trees (trunk peripheries: 290, 285, 268 and 265 cm's.) and two of the Zelkovas (trunk peripheries: 285 and 277 cm's.) are in considerably good health and are estimated to be 200-250 years old [4]. Those trees are presumed to be the ones which could reach our day and age, among the hundreds of exotic

trees brought from European plantations for this promenade area.

**Figure 2.** An ox-cart going to the promenade area, in a photograph by B. Kargopoulo, 1854.

**Figure 3.** Kağthane Festivals in the beginning of the 20th century in a photograph by Berggren.

**Figure 4.** İmrahor (Mirahur) Mansion in Kağthane Promenade area and the touring rowboats

**Figure 5.** Rowboats on the Kağthane river, 19th century**.**

The Use of Courtyards and Open Areas in the Ottoman Period in İstanbul 811

the meadow had been used for military purposes, such as the accumulation of the soldiers

**Figure 7.** Beykoz Meadow, S. H. Eldem, A: Summer house and its garden, B: Fountain, C: Barracks, D:

Two valleys parallel to each other, formed by Big and Small Goksu rivers, and the meadow in between two, was the most famous promenade area, known as "The Sweet Waters of Asia", in the Anatolian side of Istanbul. Göksu Promenade which enveloped a large area, was an entertainment scene for officials of high-ranks, princes and aristocratic stratum until the time of Abdulhamid II., and the common people started to use the are in the time of

Evliya Celebi tells that health-giving water ran in Göksu River and was surrounded by high trees. The season for Göksu started in the hot summer days and continued until autumn, unlike Kağthane. On summer nights with full moon rowboat tours were organized on Göksu. Göksu Promenade was famous for its corn, eggplant and the fair that is founded in the area. Although a river passes the area like Kağthane, the topographical structure is different. There were wooden bridges on the bridge and there were greenwoods, fountains

Miss Julia Pardoe, who visited Istanbul in the 18th century, describes the Küçüksu meadow, where she went with Geselligkeit Duma Funkerin as such: "*The Valley of Guiuk-Suy7, charmingly situated about mid-way of the Bosphorus, and called by Europeans the Asian Sweet Waters, owes its charm and its popularity to the circumstance of its being intersected by a pretty stream of fresh water, which, after flowing along under the shadows of tall and leafy trees, finally mingles its pigmy ripples with the swifter waves of the channel. […] The visitor to Guiuk-Suy might fancy himself in Arcadia, so lovely is the locality. […] On Fridays, (the Mahommedan Sabbath,) the valley is thronged with holiday- keeping idlers. […] The Fountain of Guiuk-Suy stands in the midst of a double avenue of trees, which fringe the border of the Bosphorus. It is built of delicate white marble, is extremely elegant in design, and elaborately ornamented with arabesques. The spot which it adorns is a point of reunion for the fair idlers of the valley, when the evening breeze upon the channel* 

**4.3. Göksu Promenade, also known as "The Sweet Waters of Asia"** 

and camping.

Abdulhamid II.

7 Guiuk-Suy: Göksu

and a *namazgah* around it.

*Namazgah*, E: Seaport and summer house, F: Stable

**Figure 6.** Caglayan Summer Palace built next to the water canal by Sultan Abdulaziz in 1862 (Ircica archives). (Çaglayan Summer Palace was built in the place of previous sultan mansions. Its architects are Agop and Sarkis Balyan. The water of the river was taken in a canal, directed in front of the palace and it enabled an unlike landscape design)

## **4.2. The largest entertainment area of Istanbul: Beykoz Meadow**

The area known as Beykoz Meadow or Tokat Garden, is known to exist since the time of Mehmed II the Conqueror (the second half of the 15th century). The meadow which lies kilometers deep from the Bosphorus is famous for the abundance of water springs. The river which passes through the meadow is dry today, yet it was a scene for rowboat tours until the end of 19th century (Figure 7) [2]. The area, like Kağthane Promenade area was beautified with various fountains, mansions and halls.

The foundation of Beykoz Promenade was in the time of Mehmed II the Conqueror and it was a busier scene compared to other promenades. Special care was given to the area as Sultan Murad IV. (1623-1640) enjoyed throwing javelin and hunting in the area. "Waistcloth wearing" ceremonies, which represent the rises of status from apprenticeship to foremanship, and to the mastership were organized in this promenade for decades.

Groups of Istanbul craftsmen used to go to a promenade away from the city every year with their foremen and apprentices as a tradition of the guilds2. They would set up tents in the area and stayed for several days, up to 10 days. For example, goldsmiths' guild would go to Kağthane, when shoemakers always preferred the Beykoz meadow. Guild governors also invited the sultan, by sending appropriate gifts via their assistants. Popular entertainments such as wrestling competitions between apprentice boys, *çengi*3 and *köçek*4 dancers, *orta oyunu*5 and *karagöz*6 performances, funambulist shows were organized. Promenade were never deserted through the summer season. When football was starting to be played in Turkey, one of the first game fields was Beykoz meadow, due to its flat topography. Also,

<sup>2</sup> Guild: a professional association, founded by organized merchants and artisans living in the same area.

<sup>3</sup> Çengi: a female-dancer who uses cymbals

<sup>4</sup> Köçek: a male dancer disguised as female

<sup>5</sup> Orta oyunu: Ottoman folk theater performed in open space, inside the crowd

<sup>6</sup> Karagöz: traditional shadow puppet play, based on imitation and conversation

the meadow had been used for military purposes, such as the accumulation of the soldiers and camping.

**Figure 7.** Beykoz Meadow, S. H. Eldem, A: Summer house and its garden, B: Fountain, C: Barracks, D: *Namazgah*, E: Seaport and summer house, F: Stable

## **4.3. Göksu Promenade, also known as "The Sweet Waters of Asia"**

Two valleys parallel to each other, formed by Big and Small Goksu rivers, and the meadow in between two, was the most famous promenade area, known as "The Sweet Waters of Asia", in the Anatolian side of Istanbul. Göksu Promenade which enveloped a large area, was an entertainment scene for officials of high-ranks, princes and aristocratic stratum until the time of Abdulhamid II., and the common people started to use the are in the time of Abdulhamid II.

Evliya Celebi tells that health-giving water ran in Göksu River and was surrounded by high trees. The season for Göksu started in the hot summer days and continued until autumn, unlike Kağthane. On summer nights with full moon rowboat tours were organized on Göksu. Göksu Promenade was famous for its corn, eggplant and the fair that is founded in the area. Although a river passes the area like Kağthane, the topographical structure is different. There were wooden bridges on the bridge and there were greenwoods, fountains and a *namazgah* around it.

Miss Julia Pardoe, who visited Istanbul in the 18th century, describes the Küçüksu meadow, where she went with Geselligkeit Duma Funkerin as such: "*The Valley of Guiuk-Suy7, charmingly situated about mid-way of the Bosphorus, and called by Europeans the Asian Sweet Waters, owes its charm and its popularity to the circumstance of its being intersected by a pretty stream of fresh water, which, after flowing along under the shadows of tall and leafy trees, finally mingles its pigmy ripples with the swifter waves of the channel. […] The visitor to Guiuk-Suy might fancy himself in Arcadia, so lovely is the locality. […] On Fridays, (the Mahommedan Sabbath,) the valley is thronged with holiday- keeping idlers. […] The Fountain of Guiuk-Suy stands in the midst of a double avenue of trees, which fringe the border of the Bosphorus. It is built of delicate white marble, is extremely elegant in design, and elaborately ornamented with arabesques. The spot which it adorns is a point of reunion for the fair idlers of the valley, when the evening breeze upon the channel* 

810 Advances in Landscape Architecture

and it enabled an unlike landscape design)

3 Çengi: a female-dancer who uses cymbals 4 Köçek: a male dancer disguised as female

**Figure 6.** Caglayan Summer Palace built next to the water canal by Sultan Abdulaziz in 1862 (Ircica archives). (Çaglayan Summer Palace was built in the place of previous sultan mansions. Its architects are Agop and Sarkis Balyan. The water of the river was taken in a canal, directed in front of the palace

The area known as Beykoz Meadow or Tokat Garden, is known to exist since the time of Mehmed II the Conqueror (the second half of the 15th century). The meadow which lies kilometers deep from the Bosphorus is famous for the abundance of water springs. The river which passes through the meadow is dry today, yet it was a scene for rowboat tours until the end of 19th century (Figure 7) [2]. The area, like Kağthane Promenade area was

The foundation of Beykoz Promenade was in the time of Mehmed II the Conqueror and it was a busier scene compared to other promenades. Special care was given to the area as Sultan Murad IV. (1623-1640) enjoyed throwing javelin and hunting in the area. "Waistcloth wearing" ceremonies, which represent the rises of status from apprenticeship to

Groups of Istanbul craftsmen used to go to a promenade away from the city every year with their foremen and apprentices as a tradition of the guilds2. They would set up tents in the area and stayed for several days, up to 10 days. For example, goldsmiths' guild would go to Kağthane, when shoemakers always preferred the Beykoz meadow. Guild governors also invited the sultan, by sending appropriate gifts via their assistants. Popular entertainments such as wrestling competitions between apprentice boys, *çengi*3 and *köçek*4 dancers, *orta oyunu*5 and *karagöz*6 performances, funambulist shows were organized. Promenade were never deserted through the summer season. When football was starting to be played in Turkey, one of the first game fields was Beykoz meadow, due to its flat topography. Also,

foremanship, and to the mastership were organized in this promenade for decades.

2 Guild: a professional association, founded by organized merchants and artisans living in the same area.

5 Orta oyunu: Ottoman folk theater performed in open space, inside the crowd 6 Karagöz: traditional shadow puppet play, based on imitation and conversation

**4.2. The largest entertainment area of Istanbul: Beykoz Meadow** 

beautified with various fountains, mansions and halls.

<sup>7</sup> Guiuk-Suy: Göksu

*renders this portion of the glen more cool and delicious than that in which they pass the earlier hours of the day ; and is only separated from it by tlie stream already named, which is traversed by a heavy wooden bridge...*" [5].

The Use of Courtyards and Open Areas in the Ottoman Period in İstanbul 813

short lance, made of hard wood, with an iron head. The game is a centuries-old one, played on horses in two teams. It is a field and war game, which was played in many open areas in

It is known that in the Ottoman era, like all the houses and mansions, also palaces, summer houses and manors of the sultan had gardens. Gardens which were allocated to the sultan, outside the Ottoman Palace, were called "*hasbahçe*" and for the gardening works in those gardens, skilled gardeners were trained in the Bostanc Ocağ [7]. Most of the buildings in the Hasbahçe of the Topkap Palace in İstanbul were centers for teaching science and arts. Architect Sinan, who carried the Ottoman architecture to its peak, and architect Mehmed Aga are known to have studied in the inspiring atmosphere of those hasbahçes. It was common practice to found and run gardens in various places of Istanbul for financial income and personal pleasures, and this was the task of the class of Bostanc, who had an important place in the Ottoman Palace. Officials of the Bostanc Ocağ served either in the

Gardens which belonged to the palace were scattered in various parts of Istanbul. The number of those gardens increased or decreased, in line with the choices of the sultan governing the Ottoman Empire. According to Evliya Çelebi, the number of the hasbahces was 21, and the number of promenades was 30. Most of them were used for daily visits. In

For resting and entertainment purposes, sultans preferred these gardens and promenades in and around İstanbul. Major parks and promenades were also open to the public in specific days of the week. Most probably these meadows were enjoyed by the common people of Constantinople in the Byzantine era. Hasbahces, apart from the palace gardens were the first examples of planned green areas. Besides, parks, orchards and graveyards were also open

acrobatics are employed. Every hit on target wins a point fort he team. After all the players throwing their javelins, the

the empire. To attract the public attention, drums and shawms were played.

**Figure 9.** Sultan Selim III. Period "Cirit Field", in an engraving by Melling.

Hasbahçe of the palace, or in other gardens outside the palace.

some of the gardens and meadows, horses of the palace were grazed.

winner is announced according to the number of hits.

**5. The garden of the Sultan: Hasbahçes** 

Göksu Promenade started to fall into decay as from the end of the times of Abdulhamid II. and lost its vivacity with the announcement of the second constitutionalism. Today the meadow between the two rivers is filled with buildings, however the topography can still be perceived.

**Figure 8.** Women having a picnic in the promenade, 1854.

## **4.4. Sports field of Istanbul: Okmeydan Meadow and Promenade**

Okmeydan, in the European side of İstanbul, near Kasmpaşa, was created by Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror by confiscating the gardens and yards in the area after he conquered the city. By decrees, intervening with the area, burying the dead and making gardens were prohibited [6]. In this large meadow there was a lodge for archers, a mosque, a sultan summer house, and a large *namazgah* with a marble pulpit. Also, at various places of this land, range stones with epitaphs were erected. These stones erected as memories of empire-wide archery competitions were each objects of art. Today this historical area is occupied by squatter houses and most of the range stones are lost. Ottoman sultans used to come to this land by sea, climbed to Okmeydan on horses which stay in the stables and played a sport which is a favorite of Turks, "cirit" or also called as "çavgan"8. "Cirit" is a

<sup>8</sup> Çavgan; Cirit match (an equestrian game between two teams in which short javelins are thrown) How the game is played: A one meter long, heavy and thick stick, made of either dried oak or peeled date tree branches is used. The players on their horses make two rows facing each other, by leaving a distance of 100 m. between each horse rider. One of the riders in a team shouts the name of a player in the opposing team, riding his horse towards, and the game starts. The player who rides his horse throws the javelin to his opponent and starts running back. The player to whom the javelin was thrown chases the runner and throws him the javelin. Meanwhile, another player from the team of the runner starts chasing the player who is chasing his team-mate and the games continues in this manner. The target in the game is the rider on the horse. If the javelin hits the horse, the thrower is disqualified. Therefore the riders employ different tactics to avoid the javelin thrown towards them. Ducking, drooping to the sides of the horse, and some

short lance, made of hard wood, with an iron head. The game is a centuries-old one, played on horses in two teams. It is a field and war game, which was played in many open areas in the empire. To attract the public attention, drums and shawms were played.

**Figure 9.** Sultan Selim III. Period "Cirit Field", in an engraving by Melling.

## **5. The garden of the Sultan: Hasbahçes**

812 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 8.** Women having a picnic in the promenade, 1854.

**4.4. Sports field of Istanbul: Okmeydan Meadow and Promenade** 

Okmeydan, in the European side of İstanbul, near Kasmpaşa, was created by Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror by confiscating the gardens and yards in the area after he conquered the city. By decrees, intervening with the area, burying the dead and making gardens were prohibited [6]. In this large meadow there was a lodge for archers, a mosque, a sultan summer house, and a large *namazgah* with a marble pulpit. Also, at various places of this land, range stones with epitaphs were erected. These stones erected as memories of empire-wide archery competitions were each objects of art. Today this historical area is occupied by squatter houses and most of the range stones are lost. Ottoman sultans used to come to this land by sea, climbed to Okmeydan on horses which stay in the stables and played a sport which is a favorite of Turks, "cirit" or also called as "çavgan"8. "Cirit" is a

8 Çavgan; Cirit match (an equestrian game between two teams in which short javelins are thrown) How the game is played: A one meter long, heavy and thick stick, made of either dried oak or peeled date tree branches is used. The players on their horses make two rows facing each other, by leaving a distance of 100 m. between each horse rider. One of the riders in a team shouts the name of a player in the opposing team, riding his horse towards, and the game starts. The player who rides his horse throws the javelin to his opponent and starts running back. The player to whom the javelin was thrown chases the runner and throws him the javelin. Meanwhile, another player from the team of the runner starts chasing the player who is chasing his team-mate and the games continues in this manner. The target in the game is the rider on the horse. If the javelin hits the horse, the thrower is disqualified. Therefore the riders employ different tactics to avoid the javelin thrown towards them. Ducking, drooping to the sides of the horse, and some

*wooden bridge...*" [5].

perceived.

*renders this portion of the glen more cool and delicious than that in which they pass the earlier hours of the day ; and is only separated from it by tlie stream already named, which is traversed by a heavy* 

Göksu Promenade started to fall into decay as from the end of the times of Abdulhamid II. and lost its vivacity with the announcement of the second constitutionalism. Today the meadow between the two rivers is filled with buildings, however the topography can still be

> It is known that in the Ottoman era, like all the houses and mansions, also palaces, summer houses and manors of the sultan had gardens. Gardens which were allocated to the sultan, outside the Ottoman Palace, were called "*hasbahçe*" and for the gardening works in those gardens, skilled gardeners were trained in the Bostanc Ocağ [7]. Most of the buildings in the Hasbahçe of the Topkap Palace in İstanbul were centers for teaching science and arts. Architect Sinan, who carried the Ottoman architecture to its peak, and architect Mehmed Aga are known to have studied in the inspiring atmosphere of those hasbahçes. It was common practice to found and run gardens in various places of Istanbul for financial income and personal pleasures, and this was the task of the class of Bostanc, who had an important place in the Ottoman Palace. Officials of the Bostanc Ocağ served either in the Hasbahçe of the palace, or in other gardens outside the palace.

> Gardens which belonged to the palace were scattered in various parts of Istanbul. The number of those gardens increased or decreased, in line with the choices of the sultan governing the Ottoman Empire. According to Evliya Çelebi, the number of the hasbahces was 21, and the number of promenades was 30. Most of them were used for daily visits. In some of the gardens and meadows, horses of the palace were grazed.

> For resting and entertainment purposes, sultans preferred these gardens and promenades in and around İstanbul. Major parks and promenades were also open to the public in specific days of the week. Most probably these meadows were enjoyed by the common people of Constantinople in the Byzantine era. Hasbahces, apart from the palace gardens were the first examples of planned green areas. Besides, parks, orchards and graveyards were also open

acrobatics are employed. Every hit on target wins a point fort he team. After all the players throwing their javelins, the winner is announced according to the number of hits.

areas used by the people. *At Meydan* (Horse Square) in Sultanahmet, where the Sultan Festivals were organized is the only example for squares [8]. "Tersane Garden", which was an open area used frequently by Sultan Mehmed II who conquered İstanbul, is located in Haskoy, İstanbul; between Sütlüce and Kasmpaşa. Although it is not in the boundaries of the Ottoman Palace, it is accepted as a palace garden and here a summer house was built and various vegetables and fruits of the best kind, such as lemon, bitter orange, citron, pomegranate, grapes, peaches, and apricots were grown. According to Eremya Çelebi, who gives a depiction of the place in the 17th century, the existing mansions in the area were allocated to the harem and its garden was decorated with flowers in all colours, and the stone pine trees grew high as they constituted a dome on top of the garden [3].

The Use of Courtyards and Open Areas in the Ottoman Period in İstanbul 815

observed. In open areas, water is used with elements such as decorative pools, waterfalls, cascades, etc. to bring comfort and vivacity to the atmosphere. In many pools, animal shaped sculptures which flowed water from the mouth were used as decorative elements.

In Ottoman landscape architecture, applications of hanging terraces to make slopes level (which is an ancient eastern tradition) were plenty. As the slope of the land increased, the water flowed stronger and reached the desired speed. The garden ground becomes sloped, instead of horizontal. Due to these two reasons which cannot possibly be accepted, the ground was divided into horizontal layers, graded and the area is held by sustaining walls. These applications gave birth to hanging gardens. It became possible to enable a normal current for the channels in their shortened lengths and many elements to decorate the garden are achieved. These are points of superior view and comfort, together with the

One of the characteristics of the gardens is the elevation of the roads. Due to the roads in the

The Eastern garden is usually accepted as the beginning of the understanding of garden. Although scattering kiosks in various points in the gardens is accepted as an application which is widely practiced in the East, most of the Ottoman promenades and large gardens

The period between the years 1718-1730 is named as "Tulip Era" in Ottoman history. Many changes and novelties took place in the Tulip Era in the Ottoman State. In this era when scientific advances were experienced, architectural activities were accelerated, translation committees were started, opening up new promenades to public use and reorganizing the old ones caused a more lively social life. The Ottoman women, who started going outdoors much more than they used to, who practiced more existence in the social life started to appear more in promenades. Even their clothing got more varied and more colorful. Not only the wealthy women, but women of all strata of the society had a sense of decoration in the era. In the accounts of the era, the lifestyle in Sa'dabad is one of the hot topics. Sa'dabad is not only the name of a promenade, or a palace, but the name of a huge structural complex and the name of the life style of the era. The bed of Kağthane River was altered and a canal was built, and lands were given to 170 prominent statesmen to build eye pleasing manors on the both sides of the canal. A palace named Sa'dabad was built for Sultan Ahmed III

Entertainments in Sa'dabad were the most important elements for enriching the social life in the Tulip Era. In old İstanbul gardens, first quadrangle shapes, then in the 18th century

shape of dams or levees, garden plans could keep their traditional axiality and order.

waterfalls, which are a result of the channels passing from one grade to another.

*Building hanging gardens* 

*Road planning* 

*Building kiosks on various points in the gardens* 

had kiosks and summer houses in small or large scales.

**7. Effects of the Tulip Era on promenades** 

between the years 1721-1722 [2].

Evliya Çelebi, in his work "Seyahatname" tells us about the Tersane Garden that various orders to liven up the place were given by Sultan Mehmet II. the Conqueror, various baths and summer palaces, rooms, halls, pools and tank-fountains were built, around 12000 cypress trees were planted in the area [1]. In the times of Murad IV, around 100 bostanci foremen were registered in the bostanc ocağ of the Tersane Garden. As these areas were only used in the summer months, the residents of the sultan were stone structures and the residents for the servants were either tents or wooden structures, giving rise to frequent fires which caused major problems in the area. Ahmed I, İbrahim, Mehmed IV, Ahmed III, and Selim III were Ottoman sultans who frequently used the green areas of the Tersane Garden. It is recorded in written accounts that Sultan Mehmed the Hunter who came back from a siege in 1677 watched the Galata craftsmen from his caged manor in this garden, and watched a funambulist in 1678 [9]. In the periods to follow, Tersane Garden's name was changed to Aynalkavak Garden and a stable9 was added as in many other hasbahces.

## **6. Main principles of open area planning in the Ottoman period**

#### *Use of water as a need*

As the most crucial need of any living, water had been carried using pipe drains and aqueducts, then pools, and distributed to all over the city. For keeping the green texture in open areas and gardens, Ottomans took water from springs or creeks, forwarded it to artificial channels and brought water to the lands. For this purpose, a slight slope on the ground helped with easing the flow in the channels. Where the slope was not enough, artificial grades were formed in the channels. Considering the planning level, it might be stated that the network of channels which intersect in straight lines, pioneered to the geometrical landscape architecture. The sections and width of the channels were specified according to their types of directing and sharing the water. In joints and intersection points, storage reservoirs and circulation ponds were built and in time they were also changed into decorative pools.

#### *Use of water for scenic and relaxation purposes*

Water is one of the most actively used elements in the Ottoman architecture and landscape architecture. From hospital architecture to residential buildings, a variety of application is

<sup>9</sup> Stable: the stable built for the horses of the sultan and other lesser palace authorities

observed. In open areas, water is used with elements such as decorative pools, waterfalls, cascades, etc. to bring comfort and vivacity to the atmosphere. In many pools, animal shaped sculptures which flowed water from the mouth were used as decorative elements.

#### *Building hanging gardens*

814 Advances in Landscape Architecture

*Use of water as a need* 

areas used by the people. *At Meydan* (Horse Square) in Sultanahmet, where the Sultan Festivals were organized is the only example for squares [8]. "Tersane Garden", which was an open area used frequently by Sultan Mehmed II who conquered İstanbul, is located in Haskoy, İstanbul; between Sütlüce and Kasmpaşa. Although it is not in the boundaries of the Ottoman Palace, it is accepted as a palace garden and here a summer house was built and various vegetables and fruits of the best kind, such as lemon, bitter orange, citron, pomegranate, grapes, peaches, and apricots were grown. According to Eremya Çelebi, who gives a depiction of the place in the 17th century, the existing mansions in the area were allocated to the harem and its garden was decorated with flowers in all colours, and the

Evliya Çelebi, in his work "Seyahatname" tells us about the Tersane Garden that various orders to liven up the place were given by Sultan Mehmet II. the Conqueror, various baths and summer palaces, rooms, halls, pools and tank-fountains were built, around 12000 cypress trees were planted in the area [1]. In the times of Murad IV, around 100 bostanci foremen were registered in the bostanc ocağ of the Tersane Garden. As these areas were only used in the summer months, the residents of the sultan were stone structures and the residents for the servants were either tents or wooden structures, giving rise to frequent fires which caused major problems in the area. Ahmed I, İbrahim, Mehmed IV, Ahmed III, and Selim III were Ottoman sultans who frequently used the green areas of the Tersane Garden. It is recorded in written accounts that Sultan Mehmed the Hunter who came back from a siege in 1677 watched the Galata craftsmen from his caged manor in this garden, and watched a funambulist in 1678 [9]. In the periods to follow, Tersane Garden's name was changed to Aynalkavak Garden and a stable9 was added as in many other hasbahces.

stone pine trees grew high as they constituted a dome on top of the garden [3].

**6. Main principles of open area planning in the Ottoman period** 

were built and in time they were also changed into decorative pools.

9 Stable: the stable built for the horses of the sultan and other lesser palace authorities

*Use of water for scenic and relaxation purposes* 

As the most crucial need of any living, water had been carried using pipe drains and aqueducts, then pools, and distributed to all over the city. For keeping the green texture in open areas and gardens, Ottomans took water from springs or creeks, forwarded it to artificial channels and brought water to the lands. For this purpose, a slight slope on the ground helped with easing the flow in the channels. Where the slope was not enough, artificial grades were formed in the channels. Considering the planning level, it might be stated that the network of channels which intersect in straight lines, pioneered to the geometrical landscape architecture. The sections and width of the channels were specified according to their types of directing and sharing the water. In joints and intersection points, storage reservoirs and circulation ponds

Water is one of the most actively used elements in the Ottoman architecture and landscape architecture. From hospital architecture to residential buildings, a variety of application is In Ottoman landscape architecture, applications of hanging terraces to make slopes level (which is an ancient eastern tradition) were plenty. As the slope of the land increased, the water flowed stronger and reached the desired speed. The garden ground becomes sloped, instead of horizontal. Due to these two reasons which cannot possibly be accepted, the ground was divided into horizontal layers, graded and the area is held by sustaining walls. These applications gave birth to hanging gardens. It became possible to enable a normal current for the channels in their shortened lengths and many elements to decorate the garden are achieved. These are points of superior view and comfort, together with the waterfalls, which are a result of the channels passing from one grade to another.

#### *Road planning*

One of the characteristics of the gardens is the elevation of the roads. Due to the roads in the shape of dams or levees, garden plans could keep their traditional axiality and order.

#### *Building kiosks on various points in the gardens*

The Eastern garden is usually accepted as the beginning of the understanding of garden. Although scattering kiosks in various points in the gardens is accepted as an application which is widely practiced in the East, most of the Ottoman promenades and large gardens had kiosks and summer houses in small or large scales.

## **7. Effects of the Tulip Era on promenades**

The period between the years 1718-1730 is named as "Tulip Era" in Ottoman history. Many changes and novelties took place in the Tulip Era in the Ottoman State. In this era when scientific advances were experienced, architectural activities were accelerated, translation committees were started, opening up new promenades to public use and reorganizing the old ones caused a more lively social life. The Ottoman women, who started going outdoors much more than they used to, who practiced more existence in the social life started to appear more in promenades. Even their clothing got more varied and more colorful. Not only the wealthy women, but women of all strata of the society had a sense of decoration in the era. In the accounts of the era, the lifestyle in Sa'dabad is one of the hot topics. Sa'dabad is not only the name of a promenade, or a palace, but the name of a huge structural complex and the name of the life style of the era. The bed of Kağthane River was altered and a canal was built, and lands were given to 170 prominent statesmen to build eye pleasing manors on the both sides of the canal. A palace named Sa'dabad was built for Sultan Ahmed III between the years 1721-1722 [2].

Entertainments in Sa'dabad were the most important elements for enriching the social life in the Tulip Era. In old İstanbul gardens, first quadrangle shapes, then in the 18th century rounded, oviform, sinuous lines, and then in the 19th century artificial lake forms gained importance. The first urban design example of the era, Kağthane promenade also reflects this understanding [10]. Artificial hills, valleys, lakes and woods were intentionally formed to look natural. Natural gardens and promenades were placed in valley opening up to the Bosphorus or the Golden Horn, for the view. Groups of trees or single but monumental trees, water elements such as creeks, springs, canals, fountains, pools, stone or grass halls, viewing areas were formed in these vast areas. The flat meadow was kept for various entertainments, games, and sports activities such as javelin, wrestling and archery. Walkways were paved on the hills which surrounded the meadow as if an amphitheater. Especially the sloped land in Bosphorus gave possibility to various levee applications and in later times high cost levees with baroque curves found places in the proudest gardens [4].

The Use of Courtyards and Open Areas in the Ottoman Period in İstanbul 817

remain. However, some information can be derived from the archives, engravings and

In the designs of areas used commonly by the public, such as promenades, meadows and large gardens, largely and characteristically materials such as pools, sprinklers, fountains, sculptures were used. It is known that there were trees with large leaves which gave shades, fruit trees, pergolas, levees and stairs, sprinklers and sculptures, flower beds like roses and tulips and green areas around the pools. Geometrical elements are rarely used. In the designs of Ottoman gardens, applications which refer to the Islamic depiction of the Heaven were used: "Heaven is a garden in which rivers flow, with large pools and waterfalls, various trees, date palms and vineyards." With the desire to create a corner of the paradise in the world, plane, ash, lime, elm, nettle, bay, redbud trees; rose, tulip, jacinth and

Tersane Garden, Kağthane, or with its later name Sa'dabad, and the Beykoz Meadow are the most cited, most depicted and most famous promenades of İstanbul in both local and

The festivals held in open areas were also causes for social solidarity and social cohesion. People from all strata of the society participated in those festivals, some as audience, some as performers, and some as workers. Among the most important aims of these festivals were creating a communication between the palace and the people, to satisfy the public curiosity about the palace, to receive the ideas of the people on the government and to reinforce the

Racynski, who visited Istanbul in the August of 1814, tells his observations that Turks organize horse races in Atmeydani, entertainments in Kağthane, javelin matches in Sa'dabad yard, and in these organizations thousands of people, men and women gather, giving rise to different perceptions than of Eastern tradition [11]. Miss Julia Pardoe, expresses her observations in a 19th century Istanbul promenade: *"[…] To enjoy what none know better how to appreciate than the Orientals — a bright sky, a running stream, flowers, leaves, and sunshine. Bullock-carriages, covered with gay- coloured awnings of silken shag, fringed with gold; gilded arabas, drawn by swift horses ; and caiques, the number of whose elegantly-clad rowers denotes the rank or wealth of their owners […] It is, in short, a spirit-stirring scene ; and the poorer classes who are unable to command a carriage, or a caique, will cheerfully toil on foot from the city,* 

When the arrangements of urban open areas in the Ottoman Empire until the 18th century are examined, areas designed with as little intervention as possible to the nature, due to topographical and sociocultural aspects, still develop a unique style. However, after the 18th century, with the effects of European styles, the Ottoman style begins to change. After this period, Ottoman is heavily affected by European fashions of Baroque and English Naturalistic trends, and although Ottoman forms are kept in Ottoman palace gardens and promenades to some extent, many formal and informal arrangements were performed in

carnation flowers were used as decorative elements in the Ottoman gardens.

*under a scorching sun, in order to secure their portion of the festival."* 

works on the gardens.

foreign sources.

legal status on the people.

decorations and details.

## **8. Namazgahs**

Namazgahs were places of praying outdoors, when mosque or prayer rooms were not available in the area. Namazgahs were built for summer services in the city and promenades. In namazgahs, Friday and Bairam prayings were held by groups of men. Also they were built out of the city, to cater for the needs of resting and praying while travelling.

Apart from the yards of the social complexes, the only open area typological element which has a certain architectural form is the namazgah. It was a platform, with a tiled floor, in square or rectangular shape, elevated from the surrounding are with a couple of stairs, with sides and top open. The architectural shape of the namazgahs are defined by the low walls enveloping the area, a pulpit and a mihrab. In some of the namazgahs on interurban road sides, there is only a rammed earth floor and a large stone which points to the direction of Mecca. On some of these stones, also the name of the person who financed the building of the namazgah, and various Quran verses are inscribed.

Where the climate is warm, there are also some examples where the top is covered with a roof (some have inner wooden ceilings) or shaded by trees such as plane or nettle trees. Around the namazgahs, fountains, wells or springs for drinking water and ritual ablution are also found. Some examples are two storied: first floor for a fountain, and upper floor for the namazgah. As the ones on the İstanbul – Baghdad road, some namazgahs which used to be on caravan-routes in the past, are in the city in our day, due to the growth of the cities. Also from some, only fountains or the mihrab stones are left, usually preserved as they were mistaken for tombstones. Also Julia Pardoe in her travel writings stated that the mihrab stone in front of the Kağthane Summer Palace was a tombstone, by error.

## **9. Assessment and conclusion**

It is difficult to specify and determine the scope, methods and principles of landscape architecture in a holistic way, for the public areas of the Ottoman era, as so few examples remain. However, some information can be derived from the archives, engravings and works on the gardens.

816 Advances in Landscape Architecture

[4].

**8. Namazgahs** 

travelling.

rounded, oviform, sinuous lines, and then in the 19th century artificial lake forms gained importance. The first urban design example of the era, Kağthane promenade also reflects this understanding [10]. Artificial hills, valleys, lakes and woods were intentionally formed to look natural. Natural gardens and promenades were placed in valley opening up to the Bosphorus or the Golden Horn, for the view. Groups of trees or single but monumental trees, water elements such as creeks, springs, canals, fountains, pools, stone or grass halls, viewing areas were formed in these vast areas. The flat meadow was kept for various entertainments, games, and sports activities such as javelin, wrestling and archery. Walkways were paved on the hills which surrounded the meadow as if an amphitheater. Especially the sloped land in Bosphorus gave possibility to various levee applications and in later times high cost levees with baroque curves found places in the proudest gardens

Namazgahs were places of praying outdoors, when mosque or prayer rooms were not available in the area. Namazgahs were built for summer services in the city and promenades. In namazgahs, Friday and Bairam prayings were held by groups of men. Also they were built out of the city, to cater for the needs of resting and praying while

Apart from the yards of the social complexes, the only open area typological element which has a certain architectural form is the namazgah. It was a platform, with a tiled floor, in square or rectangular shape, elevated from the surrounding are with a couple of stairs, with sides and top open. The architectural shape of the namazgahs are defined by the low walls enveloping the area, a pulpit and a mihrab. In some of the namazgahs on interurban road sides, there is only a rammed earth floor and a large stone which points to the direction of Mecca. On some of these stones, also the name of the person who financed the building of

Where the climate is warm, there are also some examples where the top is covered with a roof (some have inner wooden ceilings) or shaded by trees such as plane or nettle trees. Around the namazgahs, fountains, wells or springs for drinking water and ritual ablution are also found. Some examples are two storied: first floor for a fountain, and upper floor for the namazgah. As the ones on the İstanbul – Baghdad road, some namazgahs which used to be on caravan-routes in the past, are in the city in our day, due to the growth of the cities. Also from some, only fountains or the mihrab stones are left, usually preserved as they were mistaken for tombstones. Also Julia Pardoe in her travel writings stated that the mihrab

It is difficult to specify and determine the scope, methods and principles of landscape architecture in a holistic way, for the public areas of the Ottoman era, as so few examples

stone in front of the Kağthane Summer Palace was a tombstone, by error.

the namazgah, and various Quran verses are inscribed.

**9. Assessment and conclusion** 

In the designs of areas used commonly by the public, such as promenades, meadows and large gardens, largely and characteristically materials such as pools, sprinklers, fountains, sculptures were used. It is known that there were trees with large leaves which gave shades, fruit trees, pergolas, levees and stairs, sprinklers and sculptures, flower beds like roses and tulips and green areas around the pools. Geometrical elements are rarely used. In the designs of Ottoman gardens, applications which refer to the Islamic depiction of the Heaven were used: "Heaven is a garden in which rivers flow, with large pools and waterfalls, various trees, date palms and vineyards." With the desire to create a corner of the paradise in the world, plane, ash, lime, elm, nettle, bay, redbud trees; rose, tulip, jacinth and carnation flowers were used as decorative elements in the Ottoman gardens.

Tersane Garden, Kağthane, or with its later name Sa'dabad, and the Beykoz Meadow are the most cited, most depicted and most famous promenades of İstanbul in both local and foreign sources.

The festivals held in open areas were also causes for social solidarity and social cohesion. People from all strata of the society participated in those festivals, some as audience, some as performers, and some as workers. Among the most important aims of these festivals were creating a communication between the palace and the people, to satisfy the public curiosity about the palace, to receive the ideas of the people on the government and to reinforce the legal status on the people.

Racynski, who visited Istanbul in the August of 1814, tells his observations that Turks organize horse races in Atmeydani, entertainments in Kağthane, javelin matches in Sa'dabad yard, and in these organizations thousands of people, men and women gather, giving rise to different perceptions than of Eastern tradition [11]. Miss Julia Pardoe, expresses her observations in a 19th century Istanbul promenade: *"[…] To enjoy what none know better how to appreciate than the Orientals — a bright sky, a running stream, flowers, leaves, and sunshine. Bullock-carriages, covered with gay- coloured awnings of silken shag, fringed with gold; gilded arabas, drawn by swift horses ; and caiques, the number of whose elegantly-clad rowers denotes the rank or wealth of their owners […] It is, in short, a spirit-stirring scene ; and the poorer classes who are unable to command a carriage, or a caique, will cheerfully toil on foot from the city, under a scorching sun, in order to secure their portion of the festival."* 

When the arrangements of urban open areas in the Ottoman Empire until the 18th century are examined, areas designed with as little intervention as possible to the nature, due to topographical and sociocultural aspects, still develop a unique style. However, after the 18th century, with the effects of European styles, the Ottoman style begins to change. After this period, Ottoman is heavily affected by European fashions of Baroque and English Naturalistic trends, and although Ottoman forms are kept in Ottoman palace gardens and promenades to some extent, many formal and informal arrangements were performed in decorations and details.

Some gardens kept giving service to the dwellers of the city for a long time, and some were deserted in short time. In the gardens which lost their appeal, public buildings such as barracks, hospitals, and ship building yards were built and in our day the old traces of the gardens are impossible to follow. Those green areas of the past have been shattered, dived and turned into private properties under the pressures of modernization and dens urbanization. Levees in some gardens were demolished according to the gardening trends of the day, the flower beds were altered, century-old trees were removed and replaced with foreign decorative plants and with these endeavors became works of the new era as a whole. The Use of Courtyards and Open Areas in the Ottoman Period in İstanbul 819

**Figure 11.** People having fun in Kağthane Promenade in an engraving by Barlett.

*Istanbul Aydn University Faculty of Engineering and Architecture,* 

[1] Danşman Z. Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnamesi. İstanbul: 1969.

[3] Kömürciyan EÇ. Translated: Andreasyan H.D. İstanbul Tarihi XII. Asrda İstanbul.

[4] Yaltrk F. Bahçeler. Dünden Bugüne İstanbul Ansiklopedisi. İstanbul:

[8] Aslanoğlu GE. Eski Türk Bahçeleri ve Özellikle Eski İstanbul Bahçeleri. Ankara: 1972.

[10] Racynski E. Translated: Turan K. 1814'de İstanbul ve Çanakkale'ye Seyahat. İstanbul:

[6] Altnay A.R. Onikinci Asr- Hicri'de İstanbul Hayat (1689-1785). İstanbul: 1935.

[7] Erdoğan M. Osmanl Devrinde İstanbul Bahçeleri. Ankara:1958;4 p.151

[9] Atasoy N. Hasbahçe - Osmanl Kültüründe Bahçe ve Çiçek. İstanbul: 2003.

[2] Eldem SH. Türk Bahçeleri. İstanbul: 1976.

[5] Pardoe J. Beauties of Bosphorus. London: 1838.

Silahtar tarihi 1. İstanbul: 1928

**Author details** 

**10. References** 

İstanbul: 1988.

1993;4 p.4-5.

1980

*Architecture Department, Florya Campus, İstanbul* 

Gülhan Benli

*Turkey* 

The affection and respect towards the nature in the Ottoman Period, the modesty in the gardens inside the nature continued until the beginning of the 19th century. The Ottomans felt the hidden beauty and possibilities of the piece of nature they came across with the most refined and indulgent sense and knew how to process these areas. Ottoman naturalist garden, unlike the European, was never carried away with romantic inclinations; never felt the need to build artificial ruins, grotesque and exotic structures [2]. The topographical slope was not accepted as a rule in beds and roads, the courage to draw straight lines in nature was displayed and it was succeeded, never causing impropriety, never going beyond the frames. Usually in Ottoman landscape architecture the piece of nature processed is not forced, but affected with small retouches and inclusions. All its power is in choosing the appropriate places and the incisiveness in discovering them [2]. Geometrical gardens formed in narrow terraces and yards of the monasteries and chateaus in Italy, France and England, with the inspirations of Roman villa, also took Ottoman garden planning in its command. In the 17th century, France reflected her brilliance in magnificent perspectives, parterres and aqueducts, creating the richest gardens based on geometrical and axial patterns. In the 18th century Europe, instead of the small geometrical garden, baroquely French gardens become more prominent. The garden designs in the Ottoman, kept its characteristics until the end of the 18th century, due to its proximity to Eastern and Muslim areas [2].

**Figure 10.** People having fun in Kağthane Promenade in an engraving by Thomas Allom, R. Walsh, *Constantinople and the Scenery of the Seven Churches of Asia Minor*, 1838.

**Figure 11.** People having fun in Kağthane Promenade in an engraving by Barlett.

## **Author details**

818 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Some gardens kept giving service to the dwellers of the city for a long time, and some were deserted in short time. In the gardens which lost their appeal, public buildings such as barracks, hospitals, and ship building yards were built and in our day the old traces of the gardens are impossible to follow. Those green areas of the past have been shattered, dived and turned into private properties under the pressures of modernization and dens urbanization. Levees in some gardens were demolished according to the gardening trends of the day, the flower beds were altered, century-old trees were removed and replaced with foreign decorative plants and with these endeavors became works of the new era as a whole. The affection and respect towards the nature in the Ottoman Period, the modesty in the gardens inside the nature continued until the beginning of the 19th century. The Ottomans felt the hidden beauty and possibilities of the piece of nature they came across with the most refined and indulgent sense and knew how to process these areas. Ottoman naturalist garden, unlike the European, was never carried away with romantic inclinations; never felt the need to build artificial ruins, grotesque and exotic structures [2]. The topographical slope was not accepted as a rule in beds and roads, the courage to draw straight lines in nature was displayed and it was succeeded, never causing impropriety, never going beyond the frames. Usually in Ottoman landscape architecture the piece of nature processed is not forced, but affected with small retouches and inclusions. All its power is in choosing the appropriate places and the incisiveness in discovering them [2]. Geometrical gardens formed in narrow terraces and yards of the monasteries and chateaus in Italy, France and England, with the inspirations of Roman villa, also took Ottoman garden planning in its command. In the 17th century, France reflected her brilliance in magnificent perspectives, parterres and aqueducts, creating the richest gardens based on geometrical and axial patterns. In the 18th century Europe, instead of the small geometrical garden, baroquely French gardens become more prominent. The garden designs in the Ottoman, kept its characteristics until the

end of the 18th century, due to its proximity to Eastern and Muslim areas [2].

**Figure 10.** People having fun in Kağthane Promenade in an engraving by Thomas Allom, R. Walsh,

*Constantinople and the Scenery of the Seven Churches of Asia Minor*, 1838.

Gülhan Benli *Istanbul Aydn University Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Architecture Department, Florya Campus, İstanbul Turkey* 

## **10. References**

	- [11] Schiele R., Wiener MW. 19. yüzylda İstanbul Hayat. İstanbul: 1988.
	- [12] Erdoğan E. Tarih İçinde Türk bahçesi. Çevre ve İnsan Dergisi. İstanbul: 1997;37 p.24-29.

**Section 7** 

**Landscape Restoration** 

**Landscape Restoration** 

820 Advances in Landscape Architecture

1997;37 p.24-29.

[11] Schiele R., Wiener MW. 19. yüzylda İstanbul Hayat. İstanbul: 1988.

[12] Erdoğan E. Tarih İçinde Türk bahçesi. Çevre ve İnsan Dergisi. İstanbul:

**Chapter 33** 

© 2013 Kuter, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Reclamation of Degraded Landscapes** 

Even though it is regarded as a crucial economic activity worldwide, mining has a significant negative impact on environment. Due to its nature, especially opencast mining inevitably leads to serious degradation on ecological and aesthetic values of the landscape. Topography and drainage, air, soil and water quality, vegetation including forest ecosystems, noise levels and ground vibrations, human health and habitation can be listed as the typical parameters that are mainly affected by opencast mining activities. When the extraction of reserve is over, the altered landscape has to be reclaimed in order to relieve the damaging effects of opencast mining and restore the landscape and its immediate

On the other hand, reclamation of post-mining landscapes is a very challenging task since there is no unique reclamation planning scheme for such landscapes, and it highly depends on the site-specific characteristics. Therefore, successful and sustainable reclamation requires interdisciplinary approach leading to an integrated and effective proposal to restore ecological, hydrological, aesthetic, recreational and other functions of the post-mining landscape. Different methods and approaches for the reclamation of opencast mine sites have been proposed by several disciplines such as landscape architecture, environmental

The main motivation of this chapter is to emphasize both the importance of reclamation studies and the fact that natural and cultural characteristics of the post-mining landscapes have to be considered within different point of views by various disciplines simultaneously

The remainder of this chapter is organized as follows. The next section gives basic overview of the effects of opencast mining activities on both environment and human health. In

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and mining engineering, forestry, archeology and social sciences.

in order to obtain the most suitable landscape use planning for such areas.

**due to Opencast Mining** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Nazan Kuter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55796

**1. Introduction** 

surroundings.

## **Reclamation of Degraded Landscapes due to Opencast Mining**

Nazan Kuter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55796

## **1. Introduction**

Even though it is regarded as a crucial economic activity worldwide, mining has a significant negative impact on environment. Due to its nature, especially opencast mining inevitably leads to serious degradation on ecological and aesthetic values of the landscape. Topography and drainage, air, soil and water quality, vegetation including forest ecosystems, noise levels and ground vibrations, human health and habitation can be listed as the typical parameters that are mainly affected by opencast mining activities. When the extraction of reserve is over, the altered landscape has to be reclaimed in order to relieve the damaging effects of opencast mining and restore the landscape and its immediate surroundings.

On the other hand, reclamation of post-mining landscapes is a very challenging task since there is no unique reclamation planning scheme for such landscapes, and it highly depends on the site-specific characteristics. Therefore, successful and sustainable reclamation requires interdisciplinary approach leading to an integrated and effective proposal to restore ecological, hydrological, aesthetic, recreational and other functions of the post-mining landscape. Different methods and approaches for the reclamation of opencast mine sites have been proposed by several disciplines such as landscape architecture, environmental and mining engineering, forestry, archeology and social sciences.

The main motivation of this chapter is to emphasize both the importance of reclamation studies and the fact that natural and cultural characteristics of the post-mining landscapes have to be considered within different point of views by various disciplines simultaneously in order to obtain the most suitable landscape use planning for such areas.

The remainder of this chapter is organized as follows. The next section gives basic overview of the effects of opencast mining activities on both environment and human health. In

Section 3, reclamation and rehabilitation are addressed within a broader perspective, including the definition of basic terminology; the aim, the importance and the necessity for the reclamation of opencast mine sites; methods and techniques; evaluation of the success of reclamation; interdisciplinary dimension of the issue; several case studies; and legislative matters as well. Finally, Section 4 concludes this chapter.

Reclamation of Degraded Landscapes due to Opencast Mining 825

Water resources and the quality of air are seriously modified by surface mining operations. One problem introduced during surface mining operations is groundwater, which contains dissolved salts derived from the rock that it has been in contact with, and it is characterized according to the concentrations and proportions of combinations of ions that it contains. Impacts of surface mining are often large and unpredicted such as a former zinc-copper mine polluting the environment due to cadmium leachates or a former gold-copper ore causing arsenic pollution of surface waters (Sengupta 1993; Sams and Beer 2000; Salonen et

Pöykiö et al. (2002) have evaluated the impact of a chromium opencast mining complex on the ambient air environment at Kemi, Northern Finland. The total suspended particles and associated metal (Cr, Ni and Pb) concentrations in the air were determined in their study

Soil destruction is one of the most crucial environmental impacts of opencast mining activities. In the course of removing the desired mineral material, original soil become lost, or buried by wastes. When mining is going and has gone on, particularly top soil must be conserved because it is an essential source of seed and nutrients, and should be preserved for use in reclamation. According to Mummey et al. (2002), disturbance of soil ecosystems that disrupts normal functioning or alters the composition of soil microbial communities is

Surface mining speeds up erosion and sedimentation and short duration, high intensity storms can be a violent force moving thousands of tons of soil. Physical characteristics of the overburden, degree and length of slope, climate, amount and rate of rainfall, type and percentage of vegetative ground cover affect the vulnerability of strip mined land erosion (Sengupta 1993). According to the Kleeberg et al. (2008); soil erosion is frequently related to high rates of particulate phosphorus (P) transfer from land to water bodies. Providing a long term source of P for aquatic biota, and accelerating freshwater eutrophication, information on P sources is important for good environmental management. In their study, a year-long monitoring, and ten short rainfall simulations on plot scale, at ridges and rills and a combination of them, revealed high erosion from bare lignite mining dumps at

Another adverse impact of opencast mining on land is soil contamination with a range of potentially hazardous substances (both chemical and biological) which, if present at sufficiently high levels, may introduce potential problems related to public health and environment. For example, soils can contain high levels of heavy metals such as cadmium and lead, which can severely affect the local population (Kibble and Saunders 2001). So, identifying and dealing with contaminated land is important in order to support increased

It has been recently declared by the *United States Environmental Protection Agency* (*US EPA*) that the imperfect management of wastes produced in the course of mining and reclamation works is detrimental to environmental and human health. The effect of wastes due to

quality of life for communities and conservation of biodiversity (Kibblewhite 2001).

potentially destructive for both short and long term ecological stability.

al. 2003; Bell and Donnelly 2006).

Schlabendorf-North, Lusatia, Germany.

area.

## **2. The effects of opencast mining activities on environment and human health**

Mining is important for local and global economy, but this operation mostly and inevitably leads to substantial environmental damage and due to these kinds of activities, original potential of landscape is extremely altered.

Especially in the case of opencast mining, where a mineral is fairly close to the surface in a massive or wide tabular body, or the mineral itself is part of the surface soil or rock, surface mining methods are often considered as more economical. The most common surface mining methods such as strip mining, open pit mining, opencast mining and quarrying start from the earth's surface and keep exposure to the surface during the extraction period. Disruption of the surface significantly affects the soil, fauna, flora and surface water, thereby influencing all types of land use. Additionally, if the operation goes further below the water table, it will affect the near-surface groundwater (Chamber of Mines of South Africa 2008).

Most surface mining methods are large scale, involving removal of massive volumes of material, including overburden, to extract the mineral deposit. Large amounts of waste can be produced in the process. Surface mining also can cause noise and disturbance, leave scars on the landscape and may pollute the air with dust (Bell and Donnelly 2006). Therefore, it is not only crucial to have a detailed understanding of the pre-mining environment, but also important to apprehend the utilized mining method in order to plan a meaningful surface rehabilitation, wherever possible (Chamber of Mines of South Africa 2008). The process of removing, storing and subsequently replacing the soil during the mining activity lead to potential problems in relation to subsequent restoration. In this respect, a major distinction should be drawn between those sites where, for operational reasons, soil has to be stored for a period of years while the mining progresses, and those, usually larger, sites where a progressive system of restoration can be practiced (Rimmer and Younger 1997).

The negative impacts of surface mining on environment can be listed as the following (Kavourides et al. 2002):


Water resources and the quality of air are seriously modified by surface mining operations. One problem introduced during surface mining operations is groundwater, which contains dissolved salts derived from the rock that it has been in contact with, and it is characterized according to the concentrations and proportions of combinations of ions that it contains. Impacts of surface mining are often large and unpredicted such as a former zinc-copper mine polluting the environment due to cadmium leachates or a former gold-copper ore causing arsenic pollution of surface waters (Sengupta 1993; Sams and Beer 2000; Salonen et al. 2003; Bell and Donnelly 2006).

824 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**health** 

South Africa 2008).

(Kavourides et al. 2002):

 alteration of land morphology, disturbance of native fauna and flora,

 modification of surface and ground water balance, resettlement of residential areas, roads and railways,

release of air, liquid and solid pollutants and noise pollution.

matters as well. Finally, Section 4 concludes this chapter.

potential of landscape is extremely altered.

Section 3, reclamation and rehabilitation are addressed within a broader perspective, including the definition of basic terminology; the aim, the importance and the necessity for the reclamation of opencast mine sites; methods and techniques; evaluation of the success of reclamation; interdisciplinary dimension of the issue; several case studies; and legislative

**2. The effects of opencast mining activities on environment and human** 

Mining is important for local and global economy, but this operation mostly and inevitably leads to substantial environmental damage and due to these kinds of activities, original

Especially in the case of opencast mining, where a mineral is fairly close to the surface in a massive or wide tabular body, or the mineral itself is part of the surface soil or rock, surface mining methods are often considered as more economical. The most common surface mining methods such as strip mining, open pit mining, opencast mining and quarrying start from the earth's surface and keep exposure to the surface during the extraction period. Disruption of the surface significantly affects the soil, fauna, flora and surface water, thereby influencing all types of land use. Additionally, if the operation goes further below the water table, it will affect the near-surface groundwater (Chamber of Mines of

Most surface mining methods are large scale, involving removal of massive volumes of material, including overburden, to extract the mineral deposit. Large amounts of waste can be produced in the process. Surface mining also can cause noise and disturbance, leave scars on the landscape and may pollute the air with dust (Bell and Donnelly 2006). Therefore, it is not only crucial to have a detailed understanding of the pre-mining environment, but also important to apprehend the utilized mining method in order to plan a meaningful surface rehabilitation, wherever possible (Chamber of Mines of South Africa 2008). The process of removing, storing and subsequently replacing the soil during the mining activity lead to potential problems in relation to subsequent restoration. In this respect, a major distinction should be drawn between those sites where, for operational reasons, soil has to be stored for a period of years while the mining progresses, and those, usually larger, sites where a

progressive system of restoration can be practiced (Rimmer and Younger 1997).

The negative impacts of surface mining on environment can be listed as the following

occupation of large farming areas needed for excavation and dumping operations,

Pöykiö et al. (2002) have evaluated the impact of a chromium opencast mining complex on the ambient air environment at Kemi, Northern Finland. The total suspended particles and associated metal (Cr, Ni and Pb) concentrations in the air were determined in their study area.

Soil destruction is one of the most crucial environmental impacts of opencast mining activities. In the course of removing the desired mineral material, original soil become lost, or buried by wastes. When mining is going and has gone on, particularly top soil must be conserved because it is an essential source of seed and nutrients, and should be preserved for use in reclamation. According to Mummey et al. (2002), disturbance of soil ecosystems that disrupts normal functioning or alters the composition of soil microbial communities is potentially destructive for both short and long term ecological stability.

Surface mining speeds up erosion and sedimentation and short duration, high intensity storms can be a violent force moving thousands of tons of soil. Physical characteristics of the overburden, degree and length of slope, climate, amount and rate of rainfall, type and percentage of vegetative ground cover affect the vulnerability of strip mined land erosion (Sengupta 1993). According to the Kleeberg et al. (2008); soil erosion is frequently related to high rates of particulate phosphorus (P) transfer from land to water bodies. Providing a long term source of P for aquatic biota, and accelerating freshwater eutrophication, information on P sources is important for good environmental management. In their study, a year-long monitoring, and ten short rainfall simulations on plot scale, at ridges and rills and a combination of them, revealed high erosion from bare lignite mining dumps at Schlabendorf-North, Lusatia, Germany.

Another adverse impact of opencast mining on land is soil contamination with a range of potentially hazardous substances (both chemical and biological) which, if present at sufficiently high levels, may introduce potential problems related to public health and environment. For example, soils can contain high levels of heavy metals such as cadmium and lead, which can severely affect the local population (Kibble and Saunders 2001). So, identifying and dealing with contaminated land is important in order to support increased quality of life for communities and conservation of biodiversity (Kibblewhite 2001).

It has been recently declared by the *United States Environmental Protection Agency* (*US EPA*) that the imperfect management of wastes produced in the course of mining and reclamation works is detrimental to environmental and human health. The effect of wastes due to mining and processing activities on ecosystems can be observed in groundwater, surface water, and soil and the following points may put human health in danger (Passariello et al. 2002):

Reclamation of Degraded Landscapes due to Opencast Mining 827

many subcategories of impacts such as air pollution, ground deformation, water pollution

According to Ghose (2002), opencast coal mining causes much more environmental pollution especially air quality deterioration in respect of dust and gaseous pollutants. It creates air pollution problem in the mining premises and the surrounding locations. In the study, the sources of air pollution in Jharia Coalfield, Indiana were identified, and *Suspended Particulate Matter* (*SPM*) and *Respirable Particulate Matter* (*RPM*) concentrations were found to be very high in work zone as well as surrounding locations. The study emphasized that

In Sokolov coal mining district in Czech Republic, total area of more than 6000 ha will have been disturbed around year 2036 at the end of mining activities. Spoil material overlying the coal layer was removed and deposited in heaps. The largest heaps formed by removal of spoil material are thousands of hectares in the area and reach elevations of more than 100 m

In the Lusatian mining district of eastern Germany, where 6% of the global lignite production occurred during 90s, this influence is of particular concern. Over the last hundred years 75,000 ha of land have been turned into dumps. The water balance of the whole region has been changed by groundwater pumping. Fifty percent of the dump area was not reclaimed by the year 1998. At many places recultivation efforts were impeded by extreme ecological site conditions mainly due to the high pyrite content of the spoil material

Xin-yi et al. (2009) investigated Yanma coal mining waste dump in China in their study. The surface layer soil around the mountain was gathered, and the heavy metal content and pH were measured out. The heavy metal (Pb, Zn, Cu, Cr, Cd) pollution situation of the soil was researched according to the distance of coal mining waste dump. As revealed out from the study, heavy metal polluted the soil in certain distance to the coal mining waste dump, and the content is in negative correlation with the distance to the coal mining waste dump.

Bell et al. (2001) studied the environmental degradation associated with the abandoned Middelburg Colliery in the Witbank Coalfield, South Africa. The chemical composition of spoil materials of the mine mainly consist of two principal oxides: silica and alumina; calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium, potassium, and titanium oxides are also present in small concentrations. Pyrite takes place in the shales and coal of the spoil heaps, and its contact with air gives a toxic nature to soil heaps, which is not in favor of healthy vegetation growth

The chemistry of groundwater in contact with coal mine workings may change due to reactions with iron pyrite, which may result either from oxidation of pyritic materials increasing the acidity of the water, or from dissolution of soluble salts in the spoil, overburden, or increasing levels of dissolved solids in the water. The oxidation process requires that both air and water come in contact with pyritic materials, whereas air is not required for dissolution of soluble salts. As a result of these chemical changes, groundwater

and water resource depletion (Sengupta 1993; Younger 2004).

stringent air quality standards should be set for coal mining areas.

above the original terrain (Frouz et al. 2006).

(Hüttl 1998).

and plant life.


As a result of the study of Coelho et al. (2007), it has been stated that irritating symptoms have been found in the eye mucous and respiratory system of people living near abandoned mine pits, and population in the Vila Real district, in the Northeast of Portugal have been exposed to higher level of lead and cadmium.

Razo et al. (2004) assessed the environmental impact of arsenic and heavy metal pollution of soil, sediment and surface water in the Villa de la Paz-Matehuala, San Luis Potosi in Mexico, and the results of soil samples reported high concentrations of chemicals hazardous to human health. In order to give a specific example, the maximum arsenic concentration in pluvial water storage ponds (265 μg.L−1), near the main potential sources of pollution, exceed by 5 times the Mexican drinking water quality guideline (50 μg.L−1).

It is a matter of necessity at this point to both emphasize and focus on the negative effects of opencast coal mining on ecosystems at a landscape level, which may not only be large scale, but also be intense.

Environmental impacts of opencast coal mining have been thoroughly investigated by many researchers and defined for the various stages of the coal fuel cycle. The "coal cycle" comprises five main activities: i) Exploration and extraction; ii) Preparation; iii) Handling and supply; iv) Conversion (where applicable); and v) Utilization, including waste disposal. The principal environmental impacts and concerns specific to exploration, extraction, and preparation phases are listed below (Buchanan and Brenkley 1994):


The environmental impacts resulting from coal mining activities are mainly attributable to the exposure of decreased earth materials, especially such as coal, pyrite, siderite, and ankerite, and to the oxidizing power of the Earth's atmosphere. The consequences range from the spontaneous combustion of coal to the release of acidic waters from pyrite oxidation. If no extenuating measures are used, potentially many unpleasant environmental impacts result from surface coal mining area. A typology of the known impacts resulting from mine voids and wastes in coal mining districts has been developed, which recognizes many subcategories of impacts such as air pollution, ground deformation, water pollution and water resource depletion (Sengupta 1993; Younger 2004).

826 Advances in Landscape Architecture

use of contaminated water,

but also be intense.

2002):

mining and processing activities on ecosystems can be observed in groundwater, surface water, and soil and the following points may put human health in danger (Passariello et al.

As a result of the study of Coelho et al. (2007), it has been stated that irritating symptoms have been found in the eye mucous and respiratory system of people living near abandoned mine pits, and population in the Vila Real district, in the Northeast of Portugal have been

Razo et al. (2004) assessed the environmental impact of arsenic and heavy metal pollution of soil, sediment and surface water in the Villa de la Paz-Matehuala, San Luis Potosi in Mexico, and the results of soil samples reported high concentrations of chemicals hazardous to human health. In order to give a specific example, the maximum arsenic concentration in pluvial water storage ponds (265 μg.L−1), near the main potential sources of pollution,

It is a matter of necessity at this point to both emphasize and focus on the negative effects of opencast coal mining on ecosystems at a landscape level, which may not only be large scale,

Environmental impacts of opencast coal mining have been thoroughly investigated by many researchers and defined for the various stages of the coal fuel cycle. The "coal cycle" comprises five main activities: i) Exploration and extraction; ii) Preparation; iii) Handling and supply; iv) Conversion (where applicable); and v) Utilization, including waste disposal. The principal environmental impacts and concerns specific to exploration, extraction, and

 Surface mines: siting; large-scale land use; overburden removal and disposal; disturbance of hydrology and run-off; acid mine drainage; visual intrusion; noise; blast vibration; fly rock; fugitive dust; transportation/traffic; high wall stability; restoration of soil fertility; recreating ecosystem diversity; recreating landscape; amenity value;

Abandoned mines: methane migration; flooding; groundwater contamination;

The environmental impacts resulting from coal mining activities are mainly attributable to the exposure of decreased earth materials, especially such as coal, pyrite, siderite, and ankerite, and to the oxidizing power of the Earth's atmosphere. The consequences range from the spontaneous combustion of coal to the release of acidic waters from pyrite oxidation. If no extenuating measures are used, potentially many unpleasant environmental impacts result from surface coal mining area. A typology of the known impacts resulting from mine voids and wastes in coal mining districts has been developed, which recognizes

exceed by 5 times the Mexican drinking water quality guideline (50 μg.L−1).

preparation phases are listed below (Buchanan and Brenkley 1994):

 inhalation of aerosols containing high levels of metals, percutaneous absorption following skin contact,

consumption of food from contaminated areas.

exposed to higher level of lead and cadmium.

historic resource preservation.

structural integrity; land rehabilitation.

According to Ghose (2002), opencast coal mining causes much more environmental pollution especially air quality deterioration in respect of dust and gaseous pollutants. It creates air pollution problem in the mining premises and the surrounding locations. In the study, the sources of air pollution in Jharia Coalfield, Indiana were identified, and *Suspended Particulate Matter* (*SPM*) and *Respirable Particulate Matter* (*RPM*) concentrations were found to be very high in work zone as well as surrounding locations. The study emphasized that stringent air quality standards should be set for coal mining areas.

In Sokolov coal mining district in Czech Republic, total area of more than 6000 ha will have been disturbed around year 2036 at the end of mining activities. Spoil material overlying the coal layer was removed and deposited in heaps. The largest heaps formed by removal of spoil material are thousands of hectares in the area and reach elevations of more than 100 m above the original terrain (Frouz et al. 2006).

In the Lusatian mining district of eastern Germany, where 6% of the global lignite production occurred during 90s, this influence is of particular concern. Over the last hundred years 75,000 ha of land have been turned into dumps. The water balance of the whole region has been changed by groundwater pumping. Fifty percent of the dump area was not reclaimed by the year 1998. At many places recultivation efforts were impeded by extreme ecological site conditions mainly due to the high pyrite content of the spoil material (Hüttl 1998).

Xin-yi et al. (2009) investigated Yanma coal mining waste dump in China in their study. The surface layer soil around the mountain was gathered, and the heavy metal content and pH were measured out. The heavy metal (Pb, Zn, Cu, Cr, Cd) pollution situation of the soil was researched according to the distance of coal mining waste dump. As revealed out from the study, heavy metal polluted the soil in certain distance to the coal mining waste dump, and the content is in negative correlation with the distance to the coal mining waste dump.

Bell et al. (2001) studied the environmental degradation associated with the abandoned Middelburg Colliery in the Witbank Coalfield, South Africa. The chemical composition of spoil materials of the mine mainly consist of two principal oxides: silica and alumina; calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium, potassium, and titanium oxides are also present in small concentrations. Pyrite takes place in the shales and coal of the spoil heaps, and its contact with air gives a toxic nature to soil heaps, which is not in favor of healthy vegetation growth and plant life.

The chemistry of groundwater in contact with coal mine workings may change due to reactions with iron pyrite, which may result either from oxidation of pyritic materials increasing the acidity of the water, or from dissolution of soluble salts in the spoil, overburden, or increasing levels of dissolved solids in the water. The oxidation process requires that both air and water come in contact with pyritic materials, whereas air is not required for dissolution of soluble salts. As a result of these chemical changes, groundwater

becomes highly ferruginous and often has a low pH value, and hence it is referred to as *acid mine drainage*, which can be toxic due to high values of sulphate and increased levels of heavy metals. Where this groundwater flows into surface watercourses, the latter may become grossly polluted, and it may also cause other problems such as faults and subsidence being reactivated or the displacement and emergence of mine gases into the environment. *Acid mine drainage* is a significant, unremedied environmental problem which deteriorates surface and ground water quality. Also, it is of value to notice that some of the closed mine sites under investigation still cause severe environmental degradation due to metal load resulting in disruption of fish and algae growth (Sengupta, 1993; Sams and Beer, 2000; Salonen et al, 2003; Bell and Donnelly, 2006).

Reclamation of Degraded Landscapes due to Opencast Mining 829

southeast Spain. According to the study, the tailings, soil and sediment samples that were collected showed high concentrations of Ag, As, Ba, Cu, Pb, Sb and Zn when analyzed.

Navarro et al. (2008) evaluated the dispersion and influence of soluble and particulate metals present in the materials from an abandoned mine, Cabezo Rajao, in Spain. Tailings and soils were sampled and analyzed for pH, EC, CaCO3, grain size, mineralogical composition and heavy metal content, while water samples were collected and analyzed for pH, EC, soluble metals and salts. A total of eighteen sampling stations were selected from Cabezo Rajao mining site, to be representative of the different soils or waste material types present at the site. Solid samples were air dried and sieved to < 2 mm for general analytical determinations. Equivalent calcium carbonate was determined by the volumetric method using a Bernard calcimeter. Textural analysis was performed after dispersion of the fine soil and by combining extraction by Robinson pipette and sieving, and the mineralogical

In the study conducted by Jun-bao et al. (2002) in the Fushun coal mine, the northeast China, the spatiotemporal variation of heavy metal element content in reclamation soil was studied and grid method was used in order to sample covering soil at the test field. The soil samples were taken at different locations, including three kinds of covering soil, three different

Komnitsas and Modis (2006) aim to map As and Zn contamination and assess the risk for agricultural soils in a wider disposal site containing wastes derived from coal beneficiation in coal mining region of Tula, south of Moscow, Russia. Geochemical data related to environmental studies show that the waste characteristics favor solubilization and mobilization of inorganic contaminants and in some cases the generation of acidic leachates. 135 soil samples were collected from a depth of 20 cm using a 500 m x 500 m grid and analyzed by using geostatistics under the maximum entropy principle in order to produce risk assessment maps and estimate the probability of soil contamination. The samples were oven dried, sieved, ground, dissolved in aqua regia and analyzed for 23 inorganic elements

All types of opencast mining have serious impact on all landscape components and functions, leading to significant alteration of the original landscape, which is actually a subcategory of cultural landscape. Once mining operations start, the landscape development in progress is disturbed, the original ecosystems are removed, the topography is significantly altered, the basic ecological relations are unchangeably disrupted, and biodiversity is decreased. These factors consequently lead to total ecological destabilization, elimination of the aesthetic values and decrease in the recreational potential of the landscape. Therefore, post-mining landscapes are often called "*landscapes without a memory*", which gives landscape architects one of the few opportunities in order to create a new landscape that will rapidly improve the visual quality of a region. (Sklenicka et al. 2004;

As a result of the aforementioned changes in the ecosystem, disturbance on nourishment and energy flows is inevitable, which mostly leads to devastation of the ecosystem. When

composition of the samples was determined by X-ray diffraction analysis.

depths of soil layers and four different covering ages of covering soil.

by atomic absorption spectrophotometry.

Sklenicka and Kasparova 2008).

In the case of Britain, most coal field areas have been closed and mine water pumping has stopped. As a result, the emission of ferruginous effluents and *acid mine drainage* from the various exits to mines due to groundwater rebound are two of the most remarkable effects of coal mine closure (Bell and Donnelly, 2006). In Adak, located in the Vasterbotten district in northern Sweden, surface water, sediment and soil samples contain higher concentrations of As, Cu, Fe and Zn, compared to the target and intervention limits set by international regulatory agencies (Bhattacharya et al. 2006).

Studies of both Song et al. (1997) in Daesong coal mine, Keumsan in South Korea and Sams and Beer (2000) along the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers in the US including their subbasins revealed the extent of polluted area by *acid mine drainage* due to upward trends in sulphate concentrations. These trends appear to be related to increase in coal production.

Klukanova and Rapant (1999) showed that waters draining freely from the mines transport large amounts of toxic elements into surface streams which contaminate broader surroundings in the Handlova–Cigel brown coal district, Slovakia. The results from monitored localities indicated that long-term mining activities adversely influence the environment. Although during the past decades or centuries many of these effects may have been reduced or eliminated, such as in old dumps that were covered by vegetation and where their toxic elements washed out to become part of present-day environment. However, many past mining activities cause environmental problems even today, and they must be mapped and monitored.

In order to have detailed knowledge on the extent of impacts of opencast mining, site assessment is necessary and various kinds of investigations should be explored in order to choose the best technique for the environmental reclamation. Various analysis techniques, sampling and modeling schemes have been proposed and applied by researchers and according to Cuccu (2002), judgmental sampling, systematic and regular grid sampling, simple random sampling, stratified sampling, ranked set sampling, composite sampling can all be used as sampling method, and the techniques to achieve sampling operations may differ in function of number of sampling area and geometric features of sampling location.

Navarro et al. (2004) have carried out field and laboratory studies in order to investigate soil contamination derived from past mining activity in the Sierra Almagrera district in southeast Spain. According to the study, the tailings, soil and sediment samples that were collected showed high concentrations of Ag, As, Ba, Cu, Pb, Sb and Zn when analyzed.

828 Advances in Landscape Architecture

2000; Salonen et al, 2003; Bell and Donnelly, 2006).

regulatory agencies (Bhattacharya et al. 2006).

must be mapped and monitored.

becomes highly ferruginous and often has a low pH value, and hence it is referred to as *acid mine drainage*, which can be toxic due to high values of sulphate and increased levels of heavy metals. Where this groundwater flows into surface watercourses, the latter may become grossly polluted, and it may also cause other problems such as faults and subsidence being reactivated or the displacement and emergence of mine gases into the environment. *Acid mine drainage* is a significant, unremedied environmental problem which deteriorates surface and ground water quality. Also, it is of value to notice that some of the closed mine sites under investigation still cause severe environmental degradation due to metal load resulting in disruption of fish and algae growth (Sengupta, 1993; Sams and Beer,

In the case of Britain, most coal field areas have been closed and mine water pumping has stopped. As a result, the emission of ferruginous effluents and *acid mine drainage* from the various exits to mines due to groundwater rebound are two of the most remarkable effects of coal mine closure (Bell and Donnelly, 2006). In Adak, located in the Vasterbotten district in northern Sweden, surface water, sediment and soil samples contain higher concentrations of As, Cu, Fe and Zn, compared to the target and intervention limits set by international

Studies of both Song et al. (1997) in Daesong coal mine, Keumsan in South Korea and Sams and Beer (2000) along the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers in the US including their subbasins revealed the extent of polluted area by *acid mine drainage* due to upward trends in sulphate concentrations. These trends appear to be related to increase in coal production.

Klukanova and Rapant (1999) showed that waters draining freely from the mines transport large amounts of toxic elements into surface streams which contaminate broader surroundings in the Handlova–Cigel brown coal district, Slovakia. The results from monitored localities indicated that long-term mining activities adversely influence the environment. Although during the past decades or centuries many of these effects may have been reduced or eliminated, such as in old dumps that were covered by vegetation and where their toxic elements washed out to become part of present-day environment. However, many past mining activities cause environmental problems even today, and they

In order to have detailed knowledge on the extent of impacts of opencast mining, site assessment is necessary and various kinds of investigations should be explored in order to choose the best technique for the environmental reclamation. Various analysis techniques, sampling and modeling schemes have been proposed and applied by researchers and according to Cuccu (2002), judgmental sampling, systematic and regular grid sampling, simple random sampling, stratified sampling, ranked set sampling, composite sampling can all be used as sampling method, and the techniques to achieve sampling operations may differ in function of number of sampling area and geometric features of sampling location.

Navarro et al. (2004) have carried out field and laboratory studies in order to investigate soil contamination derived from past mining activity in the Sierra Almagrera district in Navarro et al. (2008) evaluated the dispersion and influence of soluble and particulate metals present in the materials from an abandoned mine, Cabezo Rajao, in Spain. Tailings and soils were sampled and analyzed for pH, EC, CaCO3, grain size, mineralogical composition and heavy metal content, while water samples were collected and analyzed for pH, EC, soluble metals and salts. A total of eighteen sampling stations were selected from Cabezo Rajao mining site, to be representative of the different soils or waste material types present at the site. Solid samples were air dried and sieved to < 2 mm for general analytical determinations. Equivalent calcium carbonate was determined by the volumetric method using a Bernard calcimeter. Textural analysis was performed after dispersion of the fine soil and by combining extraction by Robinson pipette and sieving, and the mineralogical composition of the samples was determined by X-ray diffraction analysis.

In the study conducted by Jun-bao et al. (2002) in the Fushun coal mine, the northeast China, the spatiotemporal variation of heavy metal element content in reclamation soil was studied and grid method was used in order to sample covering soil at the test field. The soil samples were taken at different locations, including three kinds of covering soil, three different depths of soil layers and four different covering ages of covering soil.

Komnitsas and Modis (2006) aim to map As and Zn contamination and assess the risk for agricultural soils in a wider disposal site containing wastes derived from coal beneficiation in coal mining region of Tula, south of Moscow, Russia. Geochemical data related to environmental studies show that the waste characteristics favor solubilization and mobilization of inorganic contaminants and in some cases the generation of acidic leachates. 135 soil samples were collected from a depth of 20 cm using a 500 m x 500 m grid and analyzed by using geostatistics under the maximum entropy principle in order to produce risk assessment maps and estimate the probability of soil contamination. The samples were oven dried, sieved, ground, dissolved in aqua regia and analyzed for 23 inorganic elements by atomic absorption spectrophotometry.

All types of opencast mining have serious impact on all landscape components and functions, leading to significant alteration of the original landscape, which is actually a subcategory of cultural landscape. Once mining operations start, the landscape development in progress is disturbed, the original ecosystems are removed, the topography is significantly altered, the basic ecological relations are unchangeably disrupted, and biodiversity is decreased. These factors consequently lead to total ecological destabilization, elimination of the aesthetic values and decrease in the recreational potential of the landscape. Therefore, post-mining landscapes are often called "*landscapes without a memory*", which gives landscape architects one of the few opportunities in order to create a new landscape that will rapidly improve the visual quality of a region. (Sklenicka et al. 2004; Sklenicka and Kasparova 2008).

As a result of the aforementioned changes in the ecosystem, disturbance on nourishment and energy flows is inevitable, which mostly leads to devastation of the ecosystem. When viewed in the landscape planning perspective, landscape evaluation can be considered as a management tool and the first thing to consider is to decide for which purpose the landscape will be used. Then, the implementation of reclamation should be carried out by taking the basic rules of ecology into account. In case of having connected habitats, a small portion of land may serve as a healthy ecosystem. The impacts of mining on the social and environmental structure are mostly long-term and closely associated with the social level of the local society (Gillarova and Pecharova 2009).

Reclamation of Degraded Landscapes due to Opencast Mining 831

values."; "*Reclamation:* The site is hospitable to organisms that were originally present or others that approximate the original inhabitants."; "*Restoration:* The condition of the site at the time of disturbance is replicated after the action.". According to these definitions*:* i) *rehabilitation* usually allows the greatest flexibility in future land use and incurs the least cost; ii) *reclamation* means that the pre- and post-disturbance land uses are nearly the same; and iii) *restoration* allows no land use flexibility and results in the greatest cost (Sahu and

In British terminology, "*restoration* means the return of newly mined land to post-mining productivity, whereas *reclamation* means the recovery of derelict land (abandoned industrial land including that from mining) to usefulness. American usage of the word *restoration* has caused it to mean a strict replication of conditions existing before mining." (Saperstein 1990). According to Del Tredici (2008), "*restoration* has inherent assumptions stating that it is both possible and desirable to establish some portion of the original ecological conditions of a site. People in favor of following strict restoration guidelines have to answer two very difficult questions: i) to what former time period should the site be restored? And ii) how should one deal with the imponderable environmental changes affecting the site? On the other hand, *reclamation*, also referred to as *revitalization*, assumes that there is no ecologic time travel to an earlier state of the site. Instead, to minimize the negative impacts of the site on the surrounding environment and to maximize its aesthetic and ecological functionally are the main objectives of reclamation projects, which are usually large scale and heavily

A rational reclamation objective should not only aim to create a permanently stable landscape that is both aesthetically and environmentally compatible with surrounding undisturbed lands, but also take into consideration aesthetics, intended use, and versatility when shaping the land in order to construct a land resource with both maximum feasible utility and versatility for future generations. Even though the approximate original contour as a minimum condition is generally required by reclamation regulations, there can be cases where variance from that is allowed as long as desirable results are guaranteed (Jansen and

Within the frame of remediation of a contaminated land, either the minimization of actual or potential environment threat, or the reduction of potential risks to acceptable levels are the main goals, which can be accomplished by applying one or more of the following (Wood

elimination of the hazard by removal or treatment/modification of the contaminant,

protection or removal of the receptor (essentially involving an interruption of the

 control of the hazard by isolation or separation of the contaminant, interruption of the pathway of contaminant movement and exposure,

Dash, 2011).

disturbed".

1997; 2001):

pathway).

Melsted 1988; Sengupta 1993).

**3.2. Aim, importance and necessity of reclamation** 

## **3. Reclamation of opencast mine sites**

It's crucial to make a mine disturbed land environmentally stable in order to transfer an unpolluted environment and natural resources to the next generations. However, when a demolished land is left with its own, it may take years and years to recover and reach an ecological balance. During this period, these types of lands need human hand for reclamation and recovery. Therefore, post-mining reclamation works are those aiming to regain landscape's fertility, its ecologic, economic and esthetic values (Akpnar, 2005).

### **3.1. Basic terminology**

There are different terms that have been used for reclamation such as *rehabilitation*, *restoration* and *recultivation*. Whereas these terms are mostly used interchangeably, there are obviously some fine differences in meaning.

*Restoration* is used as "the act of restoring to a former state or position or to an unimpaired or perfect condition". To restore means "*to bring back to the original state or to a healthy or vigorous state*". This usage implies returning to an original state and to a state that is perfect and healthy. On both sides of the Atlantic, the word is used in that way. Rehabilitation is "*the action of restoring a thing to a previous condition or status*". This may sound similar to restoration; however, there is little or no implication of perfection. In common usage, something that is rehabilitated is not expected to be in as original or healthy state as if it had been restored. Remediation is the act of remedying. To remedy is "*to rectify, to make good*". There is more emphasis on the process rather than on the endpoint reached. Reclamation is used particularly in Britain but also in North America. It is defined as "*the making of land fit for cultivation*". However, to reclaim is defined as "*to bring back to a proper state*". This definition does not imply returning to an original state but rather to a useful one. Replacement is, therefore, a possible alternative option. To replace is "*to provide or procure a substitute or equivalent in place of*" (although an alternative meaning is to restore). Mitigation is a word often used when restoration is considered. It is important to note that it is nothing to do with restoration. To mitigate means "*to appease or to moderate the heinousness of something*" (Bradshaw, 1996).

Three categories of remedial treatment have been defined by the National Academy of Sciences, America: "*Rehabilitation:* The land is returned to a form and productivity in conformity with a prior land-use plan with a stable ecological state that does not contribute substantially to environmental deterioration and is consistent with surrounding aesthetic values."; "*Reclamation:* The site is hospitable to organisms that were originally present or others that approximate the original inhabitants."; "*Restoration:* The condition of the site at the time of disturbance is replicated after the action.". According to these definitions*:* i) *rehabilitation* usually allows the greatest flexibility in future land use and incurs the least cost; ii) *reclamation* means that the pre- and post-disturbance land uses are nearly the same; and iii) *restoration* allows no land use flexibility and results in the greatest cost (Sahu and Dash, 2011).

In British terminology, "*restoration* means the return of newly mined land to post-mining productivity, whereas *reclamation* means the recovery of derelict land (abandoned industrial land including that from mining) to usefulness. American usage of the word *restoration* has caused it to mean a strict replication of conditions existing before mining." (Saperstein 1990).

According to Del Tredici (2008), "*restoration* has inherent assumptions stating that it is both possible and desirable to establish some portion of the original ecological conditions of a site. People in favor of following strict restoration guidelines have to answer two very difficult questions: i) to what former time period should the site be restored? And ii) how should one deal with the imponderable environmental changes affecting the site? On the other hand, *reclamation*, also referred to as *revitalization*, assumes that there is no ecologic time travel to an earlier state of the site. Instead, to minimize the negative impacts of the site on the surrounding environment and to maximize its aesthetic and ecological functionally are the main objectives of reclamation projects, which are usually large scale and heavily disturbed".

## **3.2. Aim, importance and necessity of reclamation**

830 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**3.1. Basic terminology** 

the local society (Gillarova and Pecharova 2009).

**3. Reclamation of opencast mine sites** 

obviously some fine differences in meaning.

viewed in the landscape planning perspective, landscape evaluation can be considered as a management tool and the first thing to consider is to decide for which purpose the landscape will be used. Then, the implementation of reclamation should be carried out by taking the basic rules of ecology into account. In case of having connected habitats, a small portion of land may serve as a healthy ecosystem. The impacts of mining on the social and environmental structure are mostly long-term and closely associated with the social level of

It's crucial to make a mine disturbed land environmentally stable in order to transfer an unpolluted environment and natural resources to the next generations. However, when a demolished land is left with its own, it may take years and years to recover and reach an ecological balance. During this period, these types of lands need human hand for reclamation and recovery. Therefore, post-mining reclamation works are those aiming to regain landscape's fertility, its ecologic, economic and esthetic values (Akpnar, 2005).

There are different terms that have been used for reclamation such as *rehabilitation*, *restoration* and *recultivation*. Whereas these terms are mostly used interchangeably, there are

*Restoration* is used as "the act of restoring to a former state or position or to an unimpaired or perfect condition". To restore means "*to bring back to the original state or to a healthy or vigorous state*". This usage implies returning to an original state and to a state that is perfect and healthy. On both sides of the Atlantic, the word is used in that way. Rehabilitation is "*the action of restoring a thing to a previous condition or status*". This may sound similar to restoration; however, there is little or no implication of perfection. In common usage, something that is rehabilitated is not expected to be in as original or healthy state as if it had been restored. Remediation is the act of remedying. To remedy is "*to rectify, to make good*". There is more emphasis on the process rather than on the endpoint reached. Reclamation is used particularly in Britain but also in North America. It is defined as "*the making of land fit for cultivation*". However, to reclaim is defined as "*to bring back to a proper state*". This definition does not imply returning to an original state but rather to a useful one. Replacement is, therefore, a possible alternative option. To replace is "*to provide or procure a substitute or equivalent in place of*" (although an alternative meaning is to restore). Mitigation is a word often used when restoration is considered. It is important to note that it is nothing to do with restoration. To

mitigate means "*to appease or to moderate the heinousness of something*" (Bradshaw, 1996).

Three categories of remedial treatment have been defined by the National Academy of Sciences, America: "*Rehabilitation:* The land is returned to a form and productivity in conformity with a prior land-use plan with a stable ecological state that does not contribute substantially to environmental deterioration and is consistent with surrounding aesthetic A rational reclamation objective should not only aim to create a permanently stable landscape that is both aesthetically and environmentally compatible with surrounding undisturbed lands, but also take into consideration aesthetics, intended use, and versatility when shaping the land in order to construct a land resource with both maximum feasible utility and versatility for future generations. Even though the approximate original contour as a minimum condition is generally required by reclamation regulations, there can be cases where variance from that is allowed as long as desirable results are guaranteed (Jansen and Melsted 1988; Sengupta 1993).

Within the frame of remediation of a contaminated land, either the minimization of actual or potential environment threat, or the reduction of potential risks to acceptable levels are the main goals, which can be accomplished by applying one or more of the following (Wood 1997; 2001):


When viewed in mine reclamation perspective, the fundamental objectives are given as (Cao 2007):

Reclamation of Degraded Landscapes due to Opencast Mining 833

needs and post-treatment management requirements (Wood 1997). Additionally, large extend of areas within the mining and industrial structures (i.e., traffic network, electricity grid, pipelines, canalization streams, storage areas, industrial parks etc.) also increase the

In reclamation of post-mining landscapes, there are generally two basic motives: determinism and contingency, and the processes related with the former are mostly considered. Several factors associated with the latter have also significant role on the success of the reclamation, and these factors are often unpredictable and can be grouped in four categories: i) Initial conditions (natural climate and topography, type and abundance of topsoil); ii) Natural perturbations (droughts, extreme rainfall events, frost periods, pests); iii) Influence of the surrounding ecosystems and people (runoff and sediment flows, grazing, hunting, land uses); and iv) Human contingencies (modification/intermittence of mining operations; mistakes in the performance of reclamation works; changes in legal rules, etc.). Additionally, it is necessary to consider the reclaimed areas as open ecosystems that interact with their surrounding environment, so landscaping schemes and reclamation work must be included in any proposal for the development of a mine that broadly evaluates the impacts of open mine sites on local residents, the landscape and the environment. The following points should be considered to improve the performance of opencast mine

simultaneous integration of mining and reclamation activities to optimize the

interactive development of reclamation projects by all actors and to have a consensus

specific research to acquire detailed knowledge about the reference ecosystem in order

For achievable and sustainable reclamation, detailed information on various important factors, classified as either natural or cultural, is required during the post-mining land use

Naturally, not every mine has the same motives and methods for site rehabilitation, and it is important to point out that it is not feasible to restore all mine sites due to economic and operational considerations. However, even though disturbed by mining activities, all postmining lands eventually inherit some economic, recreational and esthetic potential. Hence, discovering the unique potential of mined land and choosing appropriate methods and measures, which actually form the core of reclamation, are necessary for the successful transformation of this potential into a sustained capability. In order to obtain satisfactory results in reclamation, special attention must be paid to the post-mining use of the land and its potential functions (i.e., pasture, hayland, recreational areas, wildlife habitat, wetlands, fishing ponds etc.), together with the implementation of environmental conservation and land reclamation programs to minimize the negative environmental effects (Cao 2007;

plan for monitoring and survey to check, improve, or redirect the applied practices.

complexity of rehabilitation works, and restrain the possibilities (Prikryl et al. 2002).

reclamation (Bell and Donnelly 2006; Ibarra and de las Heras 2005):

to adopt the general protocols for reclamation to local conditions,

opportunities offered by mining operations,

on the final objectives for the reclaimed areas,

planning, and they are listed in Table 1 (Ramani et al. 1990):

Kavourides et al. 2002; Saperstein 1990).


Mining and land development are closely linked in the dynamic and integrative process addressed by a range of environmental, production, aesthetic, land use, and economic issues related within the reclamation planning objectives. This process, whose outline is briefly given below, starts at the opening of a mine operation and terminates at the closure of the mine, which may take five to fifty years (Bauer, 2000):


## **3.3. Methods and techniques for reclamation**

The process of choosing the most appropriate technique for the reclamation is often a painstaking task, and many economic and operational parameters (i.e., process applicability, effectiveness and costs, process development status and availability and operational requirements) should be taken into account, as well as several additional factors such as process limitations, monitoring needs, potential environmental impact, health and safety needs and post-treatment management requirements (Wood 1997). Additionally, large extend of areas within the mining and industrial structures (i.e., traffic network, electricity grid, pipelines, canalization streams, storage areas, industrial parks etc.) also increase the complexity of rehabilitation works, and restrain the possibilities (Prikryl et al. 2002).

832 Advances in Landscape Architecture

contamination),

mining operations.

mine operation,

landscapes,

threatening human health and safety),

community's surrounding landscape),

constructing public facilities in communities),

mine, which may take five to fifty years (Bauer, 2000):

maximize access to aggregate resources on the site,

waste in building and shaping land forms,

**3.3. Methods and techniques for reclamation** 

progresses through the deposit.

2007):

When viewed in mine reclamation perspective, the fundamental objectives are given as (Cao

to eliminate health and safety hazards (i.e., removal of all facilities and structures

 to restore impacted land and water resources (i.e., progressive re-vegetation and stabilization of residues to reduce potential of acid mine drainage or water

to eliminate off-site environmental impacts (i.e., cleaning up sites to conform to the

 to ensure that post-mining land has a feasible self-sustaining future with respect to both environmental and socio-economic benefits (i.e., developing publicly owned land for recreation, historic purposes, conservation purposes, or open space benefits, or for

to encourage better use of energy and natural resources, and to guarantee sustained

Mining and land development are closely linked in the dynamic and integrative process addressed by a range of environmental, production, aesthetic, land use, and economic issues related within the reclamation planning objectives. This process, whose outline is briefly given below, starts at the opening of a mine operation and terminates at the closure of the

build a mine environment compatible with neighboring land uses during the whole

use all unique deposit features created by the mining operation in shaping new

employ non-aggregate earth materials such as overburden, clay deposits, and mine

 use available earth moving equipment and earth moving procedures efficiently for reclaiming the mine site, without interfering with ongoing mining operations, develop a coordinated and sequential program of mining, earth moving, land shaping, and landscaping to ensure that lands are prepared for development as mining

The process of choosing the most appropriate technique for the reclamation is often a painstaking task, and many economic and operational parameters (i.e., process applicability, effectiveness and costs, process development status and availability and operational requirements) should be taken into account, as well as several additional factors such as process limitations, monitoring needs, potential environmental impact, health and safety In reclamation of post-mining landscapes, there are generally two basic motives: determinism and contingency, and the processes related with the former are mostly considered. Several factors associated with the latter have also significant role on the success of the reclamation, and these factors are often unpredictable and can be grouped in four categories: i) Initial conditions (natural climate and topography, type and abundance of topsoil); ii) Natural perturbations (droughts, extreme rainfall events, frost periods, pests); iii) Influence of the surrounding ecosystems and people (runoff and sediment flows, grazing, hunting, land uses); and iv) Human contingencies (modification/intermittence of mining operations; mistakes in the performance of reclamation works; changes in legal rules, etc.). Additionally, it is necessary to consider the reclaimed areas as open ecosystems that interact with their surrounding environment, so landscaping schemes and reclamation work must be included in any proposal for the development of a mine that broadly evaluates the impacts of open mine sites on local residents, the landscape and the environment. The following points should be considered to improve the performance of opencast mine reclamation (Bell and Donnelly 2006; Ibarra and de las Heras 2005):


For achievable and sustainable reclamation, detailed information on various important factors, classified as either natural or cultural, is required during the post-mining land use planning, and they are listed in Table 1 (Ramani et al. 1990):

Naturally, not every mine has the same motives and methods for site rehabilitation, and it is important to point out that it is not feasible to restore all mine sites due to economic and operational considerations. However, even though disturbed by mining activities, all postmining lands eventually inherit some economic, recreational and esthetic potential. Hence, discovering the unique potential of mined land and choosing appropriate methods and measures, which actually form the core of reclamation, are necessary for the successful transformation of this potential into a sustained capability. In order to obtain satisfactory results in reclamation, special attention must be paid to the post-mining use of the land and its potential functions (i.e., pasture, hayland, recreational areas, wildlife habitat, wetlands, fishing ponds etc.), together with the implementation of environmental conservation and land reclamation programs to minimize the negative environmental effects (Cao 2007; Kavourides et al. 2002; Saperstein 1990).


Reclamation of Degraded Landscapes due to Opencast Mining 835

Since it is inevitable to have various mutual associates (i.e., companies, state and local agencies, as well as special interest groups and general public) in the planning of surface mines, the major objective is to preserve or enhance the long term use of the land within an integrated mining, reclamation, and land use planning concept that accounts for the interactions that must take place between the various levels of land use planners. A sample

**Figure 1.** Process of the integration of surface mining, reclamation, and land use planning (Ramani et

Rearrangement and rehabilitation works, which may be either to remove the visual effects of an existing mine site or to reduce the impact of a new mine site to a lowest degree, should be planned before starting operation and carried out in parallel with mining activities. By this way, reclamation can be implemented in a more economical way with minimum cost. During the planning of rehabilitation works, research for land use and purpose of use for the reclaimed land are crucial (Akpnar et al. 1993), and this type of landscape planning should

to take the necessary landscape planning measures against noise and dust

to carry out an effective and economic rehabilitation in order to have an efficient

to reform the land in accordance with the final scope of use within the frame of

fulfill some or all of the following general conditions (Fanuscu 1999; Görcelioğlu 2002):

to minimize the visual impact at lowest possible degree,

al. 1990)

During mining operations:

contamination. Subsequent to mining operations:

post-mining utilization,

available resources,

framework of such a plan is illustrated in Figure 1 (Ramani et al. 1990).

**Table 1.** Required information for reclamation and postmining land use planning (Ramani et al. 1990)

Since it is inevitable to have various mutual associates (i.e., companies, state and local agencies, as well as special interest groups and general public) in the planning of surface mines, the major objective is to preserve or enhance the long term use of the land within an integrated mining, reclamation, and land use planning concept that accounts for the interactions that must take place between the various levels of land use planners. A sample framework of such a plan is illustrated in Figure 1 (Ramani et al. 1990).

**Figure 1.** Process of the integration of surface mining, reclamation, and land use planning (Ramani et al. 1990)

Rearrangement and rehabilitation works, which may be either to remove the visual effects of an existing mine site or to reduce the impact of a new mine site to a lowest degree, should be planned before starting operation and carried out in parallel with mining activities. By this way, reclamation can be implemented in a more economical way with minimum cost. During the planning of rehabilitation works, research for land use and purpose of use for the reclaimed land are crucial (Akpnar et al. 1993), and this type of landscape planning should fulfill some or all of the following general conditions (Fanuscu 1999; Görcelioğlu 2002):

During mining operations:

834 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**I. NATURAL FACTORS**

1. Precipitation

3. Humidity 4. Temperature 5. Climate type 6. Growing season

2. Wind-airflow patterns, intensity

**H. Terrestrial ecology**

2. Crops 3. Game animals

**I. Aquatic ecology** 

1. Natural vegetation, characterization, identification of survival needs

1. Aquatic animals-fish; water birds, resident

3. Characterization, use, and survival needs of

4. Resident and migratory birds 5. Rare and endangered species

and migratory 2. Aquatic plants

**II. CULTURAL FACTORS** 

1. Travel distance 2. Travel time

**E. Land ownership**  1. Public 2. Industry 3. Private

> 1. Agriculture 2. Forestry 3. Recreational 4. Residential 5. Commercial 6. Industrial 7. Institutional

9. Water **G. Population characteristics**  1. Population 2. Population shift 3. Density 4. Age distribution 5. Number of households 6. Household size 7. Average income 8. Employment 9. Educational levels

**Table 1.** Required information for reclamation and postmining land use planning (Ramani et al. 1990)

**A. Location B. Accessibility**

aquatic life system

3. Transportation networks **C. Size and shape of the site D. Surrounding land use** 1. Current 2. Historical 3. Land use plans 4. Zoning ordinances

**F. Type, intensity, and value of use** 

8. Transportation/Utilities

7. Microclimatic characteristics

a. watershed consideration b. flood plain delineations c. surface drainage patterns d. amount and quality of runoffs

c. amount and quality of ground

2. Ground water hydrology a. ground water table

> water flows d. recharge potential

4. Chemical nature of overburden

1. Agricultural characteristics

g. depth to bedrock

2. Engineering characteristics a. shrink-swell potential

> f. bearing capacity g. organic layers

5. Coal characterization

1. Surface hydrology

b. aquifers

1. Stratigraphy 2. Structure 3. Geomorphology

> a.texture b. structure c.organic matter content d. moisture content e.permeability f. pH

h. color

b. wetness c. depth to bedrock d. erodibility e. slope

**A. Topography**  1. Relief 2. Slope **B. Climate** 

**C. Altitude D. Exposure (aspect) E. Hydrology** 

**F. Geology** 

**G. Soil** 

	- to carry out an effective and economic rehabilitation in order to have an efficient post-mining utilization,
	- to reform the land in accordance with the final scope of use within the frame of available resources,

 to rehabilitate the lower layer material, which has been dug up and is inappropriate for vegetation,

Reclamation of Degraded Landscapes due to Opencast Mining 837

*Rearrangement* includes excavation and dumping according to the planning, stable design of dump sites and chamfers with proper slope and elevation, laying out of top humus layer and fertile soil right beneath it either directly or later, grading, drainage and water regime control, constructing surrounding drainage channels against floods, and constructing infrastructure and road network; whereas *rehabilitation* comprises improvement of soil

Factors related to soil and climatic conditions play significant role in the reclamation of postmining lands. Although it is easy to modify soil factors, it is practically impossible to manipulate the climatic factors except for those related to moisture (i.e., irrigation for waterdeficient periods and drainage for water excess periods). Since the climatic adaptation of plants to a certain specific region is one of the major concerns for the fulfillment of reclamation objectives, a special attention must be paid to climate when selecting plants for

Since there is an urgent need for soil reconstruction and restoration of productive and functional soil plant systems on abandoned and degraded opencast mine sites, soil improvement is an indispensable stage of any reclamation process, where geological substrate, slope and type of reclamation are the key determinants. The whole process consists of a sequence of interrelated stages: i) application of additives, ii) spreading and defraying organic materials, and iii) fertilizing crop rotation. It has also be noted that Mg and Ca amounts, absorption capacity, and available humus forms of the soil horizons should be carefully analyzed in deciding which type of plant is more appropriate (i.e.,

Vegetation cover has some significant functions on post-mining landscapes in different ways by i) modifying the surface characteristics, ii) controlling the erosion and reducing slope failures, iii) lessening stream sedimentation, and iv) restoring the beauty and productivity of the land (Schor and Gray 2007; Hutnik and McKee 1990). So, in order to reduce the probability of negative consequences, selection of suitable plant material, which may be either native or introduced plant species, is critical. Additionally, the planners should not only take site specific conditions under consideration, but also pay special attention to those points during vegetation establishment, as will be explained now

 it should be considered as an integral part of the mining and reclamation process, appropriate methods should be chosen according to the aim of re-vegetation and the

Basic knowledge about both biotic and abiotic factors, as well as ecological processes is necessary to reduce the time period needed for creating the favorable soil characteristics required for prosperous biological reclamation. The properties of the reconstructed soils should be analyzed since the structure of future ecosystem highly depends on physical and chemical soil characteristics, which directly affect the amounts of available resources (i.e.,

local variations in climate, geology, and soils should be considered.

conditions and re-vegetation on topographically graded lands (Akpnar et al., 1993).

erosion control and targeted land uses (Powell 1988).

deciduous or coniferous) (Hendrychova 2008).

compactly (Hutnik and McKee 1990; Powell 1988):

plant species used,

to take replantation and post-mining land use issues into account.

According to Akpnar et al. (1993), rearrangement and rehabilitation works on degraded areas due to mining activities are carried out in four main steps: i) *post-mining land use planning*; ii) *rearrangement* within the frame of existing land use plan (excavation, dumping, water regime control, removing and laying out of top soil separately etc.); iii) *rehabilitation* (biological reclamation); and iv) *monitoring* and *maintenance*.

One of the main aims of reclamation is to restore the land use capability of disturbed landscape; within this context, reclamation planning is necessary and strictly related to *land use planning*. Substantial deformation of the topographic structure of the landscape, loss of fertile top soil, detriment in the flora and fauna; reduction of such negative effects to a minimum level or complete removal of them are achieved by *landscape use planning*, which is the first stage of the landscape restoration studies.

*Landscape use planning*, briefly, is to investigate a landscape in point of different aspects and research its availability for the proposed purpose of use. Such plans ensure an optimum utilization of resources by either preservation of environmental values or reducing harmful effects. Re-establishing the balance between ecology and economy in order to decrease the inevitable environmental problems at a minimum level caused by mining, reconstructing the disturbed ecosystem and introducing the possible new uses according to the needs of dwellers are among the main concerns of *landscape use planning*. These studies are part of the reclamation work and begin with planning of all mining activities, then continue during the whole production process. At the beginning, preliminary decisions about the post-mining land use of region are made. This initial plan constitutes the base for detailed decisions to be made later and provides a chance for preliminary evaluation (Akpnar et al. 1993).

Potential future use of the post-mining lands basically depends on the nature of the land, soil conditions, and communal structure of nearby surrounding to be rehabilitated by technical, biological, agricultural means or forestry applications. The followings are the potential land use types that follow successful land reclamation (Görcelioğlu 2002; Topay et al. 2007; Tshivhandekano 2004):


*Rearrangement* includes excavation and dumping according to the planning, stable design of dump sites and chamfers with proper slope and elevation, laying out of top humus layer and fertile soil right beneath it either directly or later, grading, drainage and water regime control, constructing surrounding drainage channels against floods, and constructing infrastructure and road network; whereas *rehabilitation* comprises improvement of soil conditions and re-vegetation on topographically graded lands (Akpnar et al., 1993).

836 Advances in Landscape Architecture

inappropriate for vegetation,

(biological reclamation); and iv) *monitoring* and *maintenance*.

the first stage of the landscape restoration studies.

al. 2007; Tshivhandekano 2004):

Nature conservation and wildlife,

Solid waste or rubble storage area.

 The original land use, Afforestation, forestry,

Settlement or industry,

Agriculture,

 Hydrology, Recreation, Site improving, Special reserve,

to rehabilitate the lower layer material, which has been dug up and is

According to Akpnar et al. (1993), rearrangement and rehabilitation works on degraded areas due to mining activities are carried out in four main steps: i) *post-mining land use planning*; ii) *rearrangement* within the frame of existing land use plan (excavation, dumping, water regime control, removing and laying out of top soil separately etc.); iii) *rehabilitation*

One of the main aims of reclamation is to restore the land use capability of disturbed landscape; within this context, reclamation planning is necessary and strictly related to *land use planning*. Substantial deformation of the topographic structure of the landscape, loss of fertile top soil, detriment in the flora and fauna; reduction of such negative effects to a minimum level or complete removal of them are achieved by *landscape use planning*, which is

*Landscape use planning*, briefly, is to investigate a landscape in point of different aspects and research its availability for the proposed purpose of use. Such plans ensure an optimum utilization of resources by either preservation of environmental values or reducing harmful effects. Re-establishing the balance between ecology and economy in order to decrease the inevitable environmental problems at a minimum level caused by mining, reconstructing the disturbed ecosystem and introducing the possible new uses according to the needs of dwellers are among the main concerns of *landscape use planning*. These studies are part of the reclamation work and begin with planning of all mining activities, then continue during the whole production process. At the beginning, preliminary decisions about the post-mining land use of region are made. This initial plan constitutes the base for detailed decisions to be

made later and provides a chance for preliminary evaluation (Akpnar et al. 1993).

Potential future use of the post-mining lands basically depends on the nature of the land, soil conditions, and communal structure of nearby surrounding to be rehabilitated by technical, biological, agricultural means or forestry applications. The followings are the potential land use types that follow successful land reclamation (Görcelioğlu 2002; Topay et

to take replantation and post-mining land use issues into account.

Factors related to soil and climatic conditions play significant role in the reclamation of postmining lands. Although it is easy to modify soil factors, it is practically impossible to manipulate the climatic factors except for those related to moisture (i.e., irrigation for waterdeficient periods and drainage for water excess periods). Since the climatic adaptation of plants to a certain specific region is one of the major concerns for the fulfillment of reclamation objectives, a special attention must be paid to climate when selecting plants for erosion control and targeted land uses (Powell 1988).

Since there is an urgent need for soil reconstruction and restoration of productive and functional soil plant systems on abandoned and degraded opencast mine sites, soil improvement is an indispensable stage of any reclamation process, where geological substrate, slope and type of reclamation are the key determinants. The whole process consists of a sequence of interrelated stages: i) application of additives, ii) spreading and defraying organic materials, and iii) fertilizing crop rotation. It has also be noted that Mg and Ca amounts, absorption capacity, and available humus forms of the soil horizons should be carefully analyzed in deciding which type of plant is more appropriate (i.e., deciduous or coniferous) (Hendrychova 2008).

Vegetation cover has some significant functions on post-mining landscapes in different ways by i) modifying the surface characteristics, ii) controlling the erosion and reducing slope failures, iii) lessening stream sedimentation, and iv) restoring the beauty and productivity of the land (Schor and Gray 2007; Hutnik and McKee 1990). So, in order to reduce the probability of negative consequences, selection of suitable plant material, which may be either native or introduced plant species, is critical. Additionally, the planners should not only take site specific conditions under consideration, but also pay special attention to those points during vegetation establishment, as will be explained now compactly (Hutnik and McKee 1990; Powell 1988):


Basic knowledge about both biotic and abiotic factors, as well as ecological processes is necessary to reduce the time period needed for creating the favorable soil characteristics required for prosperous biological reclamation. The properties of the reconstructed soils should be analyzed since the structure of future ecosystem highly depends on physical and chemical soil characteristics, which directly affect the amounts of available resources (i.e., nutrient levels), initial species establishment, and long-term successional trends (Hendrychova 2008).

Reclamation of Degraded Landscapes due to Opencast Mining 839

reclamation (Harwood and Thames 1988), iv) to detect reclamation sites and to measure the impacts of increasing land degradation (Gorokhovich et al. 2003; Hladnik 2005), and v) to

Restoration of a landscape disturbed by opencast mining operations is mostly viewed in technical or economic perspectives only. Even though the public focused only on the forestry and agricultural aspects of restoration previously, there has been a recent interest in nature conservation and recreation. In order to restore ecological, hydrological, aesthetic, production, recreational and other functions of the post-mining area, a sustainable land use development plan should be prepared through a holistic approach (Sklenicka and

increase sophistication of mining industry in rehabilitation practices (Hancock 2004).

Three basic goals that any restoration plan should reach are given as (Powell 1988):

stabilization of newly reclaimed lands against accelerated wind and/or water erosion,

achievable and sustainable land use by enforcing certain minimum performance

The evaluation of restoration success is a tough issue, since it strictly depends on the character of the post-mining land, inherent features of ecological species involved, and the main objectives of the restoration operation. According to Pecharova et al. (2011), the process should allow spontaneous succession, or use technical restoration by sowing or

The *Society for Ecological Restoration International* addresses the same issue by taking 9 ecosystem-related parameters under consideration to measure the restoration success

All mining operations, due to their nature, have negative impacts on the cultural landscape. And opencast mining activities are not an exception, as they drastically change the former dynamic equilibrium of the landscape, leading to the formation of new ecosystems. Only the

similar diversity and community structure in comparison with reference sites,

**3.4. Evaluating the success of reclamation** 

development of target specific re-vegetation programs,

functional groups necessary for long-term stability,

**3.5. Interdisciplinary dimension of reclamation** 

planting target species and restoring or improving the site conditions.

capacity of the physical environment to sustain viable populations,

Kasparova 2008).

standards.

(Hendrychova 2008):

presence of local species,

 integration with the landscape, removal of potential threats, resilience to natural disturbances,

regular functioning,

self-sustainability.

After a proper *rearrangement* and *rehabilitation* work, an additional time is needed to ensure a fertile use of land. At this stage, *monitoring, maintenance* and *controlling* of many environmental and ecologic parameters (i.e., water quality, drainage, vegetation growth, soil condition, erosion etc.) closely associated with the restoration site are essential to improve the quality of the restoration (Akpnar 2005).

Mining activities definitely have long-term impacts on terrestrial ecosystems: i) land degradation, ii) deforestation, iii) loss of fertile topsoil, iv) change in topography and hydrologic conditions, and v) pollution of usable surface and ground water (Tören 2002). So, monitoring and management of post-mining environment are necessary to evaluate the environmental impacts and long term behaviors of post-mining landscapes, and they should be handled with in the perspective of a well-planned environmental policy. Besides, even during any remediation process, adequate quality control measures are also needed to ensure that the methodology conforms to specification or that treatment targets have been achieved. In many cases, environmental monitoring is required while remediation is still in progress. These objectives naturally imply the utilization of scientific methodology, particularly, when field data is unavailable or insufficient (Hancock et al. 2006; Wood 1997).

The basic principles of the environmental management policy for reclamation are given as (Kavourides et al. 2002):


Reclamation studies often require the integration of multi-source data acquired by different sources of diverse technical and operational characteristics (Kyzeridi et al. 2002). Such data is mostly in both time and spatial domains. So, use of GIS incorporated with remote sensing (RS) technologies provides a suitable platform for the monitoring and the management of reclamation, since it offers unique capabilities for editing, managing, analyzing and automating different kinds of spatial data required for decision making (Bruns and Sweet 2004; Chevrel et al. 2001; Chevrel et al. 2002; Smyth and Dearden 1998; Ganas et al. 2004).

GIS-based decision support systems have many potential applications in reclamation: i) to derive computer-based landscape evolution models for better understanding of geomorphic landscape process in reclamation (Hancock 2004), ii) to evaluate the future development of terrestrial ecosystem under the extreme environmental conditions of post-mining landscapes (Hüttl 1998), iii) to reduce the cost of spoil handling during mining and reclamation (Harwood and Thames 1988), iv) to detect reclamation sites and to measure the impacts of increasing land degradation (Gorokhovich et al. 2003; Hladnik 2005), and v) to increase sophistication of mining industry in rehabilitation practices (Hancock 2004).

## **3.4. Evaluating the success of reclamation**

838 Advances in Landscape Architecture

the quality of the restoration (Akpnar 2005).

(Hancock et al. 2006; Wood 1997).

information systems (GIS).

knowledge of the local environmental conditions,

 selection of the proper methods and techniques of land reclamation, general land-planning for the areas under reclamation (land use map),

according to the environmental terms determined by the Ministry,

(Kavourides et al. 2002):

(Hendrychova 2008).

nutrient levels), initial species establishment, and long-term successional trends

After a proper *rearrangement* and *rehabilitation* work, an additional time is needed to ensure a fertile use of land. At this stage, *monitoring, maintenance* and *controlling* of many environmental and ecologic parameters (i.e., water quality, drainage, vegetation growth, soil condition, erosion etc.) closely associated with the restoration site are essential to improve

Mining activities definitely have long-term impacts on terrestrial ecosystems: i) land degradation, ii) deforestation, iii) loss of fertile topsoil, iv) change in topography and hydrologic conditions, and v) pollution of usable surface and ground water (Tören 2002). So, monitoring and management of post-mining environment are necessary to evaluate the environmental impacts and long term behaviors of post-mining landscapes, and they should be handled with in the perspective of a well-planned environmental policy. Besides, even during any remediation process, adequate quality control measures are also needed to ensure that the methodology conforms to specification or that treatment targets have been achieved. In many cases, environmental monitoring is required while remediation is still in progress. These objectives naturally imply the utilization of scientific methodology, particularly, when field data is unavailable or insufficient

The basic principles of the environmental management policy for reclamation are given as

systematic realization of the environmental protection and restoration programs

monitoring and evaluation of the environmental restoration results by geographic

Reclamation studies often require the integration of multi-source data acquired by different sources of diverse technical and operational characteristics (Kyzeridi et al. 2002). Such data is mostly in both time and spatial domains. So, use of GIS incorporated with remote sensing (RS) technologies provides a suitable platform for the monitoring and the management of reclamation, since it offers unique capabilities for editing, managing, analyzing and automating different kinds of spatial data required for decision making (Bruns and Sweet 2004; Chevrel et al. 2001; Chevrel et al. 2002; Smyth and Dearden 1998; Ganas et al. 2004).

GIS-based decision support systems have many potential applications in reclamation: i) to derive computer-based landscape evolution models for better understanding of geomorphic landscape process in reclamation (Hancock 2004), ii) to evaluate the future development of terrestrial ecosystem under the extreme environmental conditions of post-mining landscapes (Hüttl 1998), iii) to reduce the cost of spoil handling during mining and Restoration of a landscape disturbed by opencast mining operations is mostly viewed in technical or economic perspectives only. Even though the public focused only on the forestry and agricultural aspects of restoration previously, there has been a recent interest in nature conservation and recreation. In order to restore ecological, hydrological, aesthetic, production, recreational and other functions of the post-mining area, a sustainable land use development plan should be prepared through a holistic approach (Sklenicka and Kasparova 2008).

Three basic goals that any restoration plan should reach are given as (Powell 1988):


The evaluation of restoration success is a tough issue, since it strictly depends on the character of the post-mining land, inherent features of ecological species involved, and the main objectives of the restoration operation. According to Pecharova et al. (2011), the process should allow spontaneous succession, or use technical restoration by sowing or planting target species and restoring or improving the site conditions.

The *Society for Ecological Restoration International* addresses the same issue by taking 9 ecosystem-related parameters under consideration to measure the restoration success (Hendrychova 2008):


## **3.5. Interdisciplinary dimension of reclamation**

All mining operations, due to their nature, have negative impacts on the cultural landscape. And opencast mining activities are not an exception, as they drastically change the former dynamic equilibrium of the landscape, leading to the formation of new ecosystems. Only the

vegetation establishment by itself is not a proper approach. Instead, sustainable establishment of new ecosystems in the post-mining areas should be seen as an interdisciplinary challenge, in which the active participation of both science and society is highly required (Hüttl and Gerwin 2005).

Reclamation of Degraded Landscapes due to Opencast Mining 841

Land use planner

Land use planner Landscape architect

Plant biologist

Surveyor

Attorney or paralegal specialist

Photogrammetrist/cartographer

Photogrammetrist/cartographer

Transportation engineer Land use planner

Engineering economist Land use planner Real estate specialist Fiscal planner

Mining engineer Environmental engineer

Forest engineer Agronomist Geologist Hydrogeologist Terrestrial ecologist Plant biologist Agricultural engineer

Archeologist Landscape architect Land use planner Social scientist

Mining engineer Land use planner Landscape architect Agronomist

Mining engineer Land use planner Environmental engineer

Agronomist

Engineering economist

Mineral processing engineer Environmental engineer Landscape architect Agronomist Geologist Hydrologist

**Mine Planning Phase Planning Activities Areas of Specialization** 

constraints related to land use

Prepare land ownership map

potential of the site will justify reclamation to a higher, more

Determine the impact of waste disposal on the Postmining

will have on the site with respect to capability and

postmining land uses

postmining land use plan

Legal requirements analysis Identification of regulatory

Land and reserve acquisition Prepare land use / land cover

Financial evaluation Check if land development

Environmental impact studies Evaluate the impact mining

Preliminary mine planning Preliminary identification of

Permits acquisition Land use information and

Coal beneficiation studies and

plant design

maps

Market development Check market potential of site Geographer

costly land use

uses of land

productivity

The negative visual impact of the mining sites unavoidably lowers the aesthetic value of the landscape and its surroundings. So, post-mining landscape planning and rehabilitation activities should strictly consider the previous aesthetic characteristics of the land and their future development within an interdisciplinary approach (Sklenicka and Kasparova 2008).

As important as the interdisciplinary dimension of the issue, all mutual associates such as stakeholders, state officials and laws, environmental groups, engineers, landscape architectures, ecological experts, soil and social scientists should be "creatively" involved in the planning phase (Miao and Mars 2000; Saperstein 1990). By this way, significant social and environmental gains can be obtained by improving the conditions of post-mining landscapes through a relatively small investment (Garavan et.al. 2008).

When building up such a "project team", scale of the project and its complexity, special issues, and the clients' demands are the key factors to get the best results. For projects that require permitting and the preparation of mining and reclamation documents, landscape architects, mine operators, geologists, hydro-geologists, and civil engineers are possible candidates for the team (Bauer 2000).

The involvement of landscape architects in the industry has increased steadily and their role has gone far beyond the "traditional boundaries" of the profession; commonly and mistakenly thought as basic beautification and site planning duties. Based on their education and experiences, landscape architects now can easily deal with more complex sequential mining and reclamation plans, including site analysis, site and land use planning, visual analysis, grading, zoning, re-vegetation, slope stabilization, etc. They also play active roles in the permitting, regulatory, environmental assessment and community relation processes. The form, the function and the purpose of post mine landscape planning should be considered within earth science issues by landscape architects. By this way, they can approach the issue with more systematic and comprehensive manner. Landscape architects should aim to develop integrated multi-scale design approaches not only to be an equal partner in the planning process, but also to be in a position to direct the project team and undertake the responsibility for the success of reclamation planning (Arbogast 2008; Bauer 2000).

For a landscape architecture, a working knowledge on the following three points is essential for the understanding and success of reclamation planning services (Bauer 2000): i) components of mining processes associated with reclamation, ii) geologic complexities and structures within each aggregate deposit, and iii) mechanics and procedures for incorporating the mining procedures with reclamation activities. Table 2 overviews the mine reclamation studies within a multidisciplinary point of view.


2008).

2000).

highly required (Hüttl and Gerwin 2005).

candidates for the team (Bauer 2000).

vegetation establishment by itself is not a proper approach. Instead, sustainable establishment of new ecosystems in the post-mining areas should be seen as an interdisciplinary challenge, in which the active participation of both science and society is

The negative visual impact of the mining sites unavoidably lowers the aesthetic value of the landscape and its surroundings. So, post-mining landscape planning and rehabilitation activities should strictly consider the previous aesthetic characteristics of the land and their future development within an interdisciplinary approach (Sklenicka and Kasparova

As important as the interdisciplinary dimension of the issue, all mutual associates such as stakeholders, state officials and laws, environmental groups, engineers, landscape architectures, ecological experts, soil and social scientists should be "creatively" involved in the planning phase (Miao and Mars 2000; Saperstein 1990). By this way, significant social and environmental gains can be obtained by improving the conditions of post-mining

When building up such a "project team", scale of the project and its complexity, special issues, and the clients' demands are the key factors to get the best results. For projects that require permitting and the preparation of mining and reclamation documents, landscape architects, mine operators, geologists, hydro-geologists, and civil engineers are possible

The involvement of landscape architects in the industry has increased steadily and their role has gone far beyond the "traditional boundaries" of the profession; commonly and mistakenly thought as basic beautification and site planning duties. Based on their education and experiences, landscape architects now can easily deal with more complex sequential mining and reclamation plans, including site analysis, site and land use planning, visual analysis, grading, zoning, re-vegetation, slope stabilization, etc. They also play active roles in the permitting, regulatory, environmental assessment and community relation processes. The form, the function and the purpose of post mine landscape planning should be considered within earth science issues by landscape architects. By this way, they can approach the issue with more systematic and comprehensive manner. Landscape architects should aim to develop integrated multi-scale design approaches not only to be an equal partner in the planning process, but also to be in a position to direct the project team and undertake the responsibility for the success of reclamation planning (Arbogast 2008; Bauer

For a landscape architecture, a working knowledge on the following three points is essential for the understanding and success of reclamation planning services (Bauer 2000): i) components of mining processes associated with reclamation, ii) geologic complexities and structures within each aggregate deposit, and iii) mechanics and procedures for incorporating the mining procedures with reclamation activities. Table 2 overviews the mine

reclamation studies within a multidisciplinary point of view.

landscapes through a relatively small investment (Garavan et.al. 2008).


Reclamation of Degraded Landscapes due to Opencast Mining 843

pit, which was substantially complete by the fall of 1997. During 1998, the contours of the site were reestablished, topsoil replaced, wetlands constructed, and seeding and planting were initiated. The majority of seeding and planting was completed by year and 1999. Additionally the design constructed hiking, biking and equestrian trails for public recreational use. The pre-mining, active mining, and reclaimed site are shown in Figure 2 for

**Figure 2.** Flambeau Mine Site: a) before mining (1991), b) during mining (1996), and c) after mining

(2002) (Fox 2002)

a chronological comparison (Fox 2002 ; Cherry 2008).

**Table 2.** The areas of technical expertise essential in pre-mining (Adapted from Ramani et.al. 1990; Şimşir et al. 2007)

## **3.6. Case studies of reclamation**

In the 20th century, rapid developments and new innovations in the technology and the machinery used in the mining industry have changed the whole face of landscape modification in all large mining districts of the world. Common problems in such postmining areas are the increase in water surface area and the acid mine drainage, leading to severe site conditions. Hence, prior to any reclamation study, site specific conditions due to previous mining activities should be taken into account, and the plans toward sustainable ecosystem development should be prepared accordingly. Additionally, soil fauna, mechanisms of plant succession and site specific biocoenosis should be investigated thoroughly for the successful establishment of terrestrial ecosystems on post-mining sites (Hüttl and Gerwin 2005).

Flambeau Mine, located in Wisconsin, is one of the prominent examples for the application of sustainable development principles and implementation of twenty first century materials and engineering technology to reclamation of post-mining landscapes. The implementation of sustainable development at Flambeau Mine has four main pillars: i) economic prosperity, ii) environmental protection, iii) social and community well-being, and iv) governance. The design is based upon a collaborative approach from overlapping disciplines. In addition to traditional engineers and architects, community planners, transportation planners, biodiversity specialists, energy efficiency specialists (e.g. green building) and landscape architects all contribute to the master design. The key to a successful design is to meld the wants and needs of the community with the various ideas and designs from the design team (Cherry 2008).

The study was designed, constructed, operated, and reclaimed in the 1990s. Reclamation of the site began during the fall of 1996 with the initiation of sequential backfilling of the open pit, which was substantially complete by the fall of 1997. During 1998, the contours of the site were reestablished, topsoil replaced, wetlands constructed, and seeding and planting were initiated. The majority of seeding and planting was completed by year and 1999. Additionally the design constructed hiking, biking and equestrian trails for public recreational use. The pre-mining, active mining, and reclaimed site are shown in Figure 2 for a chronological comparison (Fox 2002 ; Cherry 2008).

842 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Şimşir et al. 2007)

**3.6. Case studies of reclamation** 

(Hüttl and Gerwin 2005).

(Cherry 2008).

**Mine Planning Phase Planning Activities Areas of Specialization** 

Detailed mine planning Detailed land use plan design Land use planner (specifically

**Table 2.** The areas of technical expertise essential in pre-mining (Adapted from Ramani et.al. 1990;

In the 20th century, rapid developments and new innovations in the technology and the machinery used in the mining industry have changed the whole face of landscape modification in all large mining districts of the world. Common problems in such postmining areas are the increase in water surface area and the acid mine drainage, leading to severe site conditions. Hence, prior to any reclamation study, site specific conditions due to previous mining activities should be taken into account, and the plans toward sustainable ecosystem development should be prepared accordingly. Additionally, soil fauna, mechanisms of plant succession and site specific biocoenosis should be investigated thoroughly for the successful establishment of terrestrial ecosystems on post-mining sites

Flambeau Mine, located in Wisconsin, is one of the prominent examples for the application of sustainable development principles and implementation of twenty first century materials and engineering technology to reclamation of post-mining landscapes. The implementation of sustainable development at Flambeau Mine has four main pillars: i) economic prosperity, ii) environmental protection, iii) social and community well-being, and iv) governance. The design is based upon a collaborative approach from overlapping disciplines. In addition to traditional engineers and architects, community planners, transportation planners, biodiversity specialists, energy efficiency specialists (e.g. green building) and landscape architects all contribute to the master design. The key to a successful design is to meld the wants and needs of the community with the various ideas and designs from the design team

The study was designed, constructed, operated, and reclaimed in the 1990s. Reclamation of the site began during the fall of 1996 with the initiation of sequential backfilling of the open

Agricultural engineer Hydrogeologist Plant biologist

Engineering economist

Engineering economist

landscape architect) Mining engineer Environmental engineer

Civil engineer Agricultural engineer

Agronomist Hydrogeologist Plant biologist

land use plan

Administrative detail analysis Submitted / approval of final

**Figure 2.** Flambeau Mine Site: a) before mining (1991), b) during mining (1996), and c) after mining (2002) (Fox 2002)

The reclamation of the Flambeau Mine has included (Flambeau Reclaimed 2012):

Reclamation of Degraded Landscapes due to Opencast Mining 845

**Figure 4.** A site reclaimed by Starvaggi Industries in West Virginia is developed into the Star Lake Amphitheater: a) post-mining landscape, b) after the reclamation (Mineral Information Institute 2012)

**Figure 5.** Afforestation operations in Şile, İstanbul (Şile Forestry Operation Directorate 2012)

Rehabilitation and restoration operations in most of the abandoned coal mine areas are conducted by Turkish Coal Enterprises (TKİ). According to General Directorate of Turkish Coal Enterprises (2011), between 1991 and 2011, nearly 7.3 million trees in various species [stone pine (*Pinus pinea*), black pine (*Pinus nigra*), red pine (*Pinus brutia*)*,* cypress (*Cupressus* sp.), cedar (*Cedrus* sp.), horse chestnut (*Aesculus hippocastanum*), black locust (*Robinia pseudoacasia*)*,* tree of heaven (*Ailanthus altissima*), oak (*Quercus* sp.), maple (*Acer* sp.), ash (*Fraxinus* sp.), etc.] were planted on 4455 hectares of post-mining lands in various

**Figure 6.** Afforestation in Ağaçl, İstanbul (Kutorman 2012)

establishment directorates of TKİ (Figure 7).

afforestation (Figure 5 and 6).

In Turkey, reclamation of abandoned mine sites is generally carried out in the form


The completion of surface contouring and return of the topsoil in 1998 were followed by the planting of native plant species necessary for the creation of prairie grasslands, woodlands and wetlands. In order to monitor and evaluate the success of the reclamation, 300 locations were randomly selected across the reclaimed Flambeau Mine. At these locations, necessary studies are performed each year in order to observe whether the performance standards (i.e., vegetative cover, planted native species, diversity and woody species survival) are met. In 2001, all necessary standards were met at the reclaimed mine site, which allowed the submittal of the *Notice of Completion to the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources*. Recent surveys show a fully utilized wildlife at the reclaimed site, which provides unique and critical habitat, particularly for grassland bird species (Flambeau Reclaimed 2012).

Another outstanding example is Jarrahdale in Australia. The mining operations for bauxite at Jarrahdele started in 1963 and continued until 1998. During this period, over 160 million tons of ore was mined. Site rehabilitation studies continued for another 3 years. By 2001, all mined areas, haul roads and building sites were completely rehabilitated (Figure 3) (Alcoa 2012).

**Figure 3.** a) The original Jarrahdale crusher circle before its closure in 1998, and b) the same crusher circle site at Jarrahdale, after rehabilitation has been completed (Alcao 2012)

As shown in Figure 4, reclaimed mine sites are returned to productive use in a variety of ways that will serve for future generations.

Reclamation of Degraded Landscapes due to Opencast Mining 845

**Figure 4.** A site reclaimed by Starvaggi Industries in West Virginia is developed into the Star Lake Amphitheater: a) post-mining landscape, b) after the reclamation (Mineral Information Institute 2012)

In Turkey, reclamation of abandoned mine sites is generally carried out in the form afforestation (Figure 5 and 6).

**Figure 5.** Afforestation operations in Şile, İstanbul (Şile Forestry Operation Directorate 2012)

**Figure 6.** Afforestation in Ağaçl, İstanbul (Kutorman 2012)

844 Advances in Landscape Architecture

2012).

The reclamation of the Flambeau Mine has included (Flambeau Reclaimed 2012):

constructing four miles of trails for non-motorized recreational activities.

critical habitat, particularly for grassland bird species (Flambeau Reclaimed 2012).

Another outstanding example is Jarrahdale in Australia. The mining operations for bauxite at Jarrahdele started in 1963 and continued until 1998. During this period, over 160 million tons of ore was mined. Site rehabilitation studies continued for another 3 years. By 2001, all mined areas, haul roads and building sites were completely rehabilitated (Figure 3) (Alcoa

**Figure 3.** a) The original Jarrahdale crusher circle before its closure in 1998, and b) the same crusher

As shown in Figure 4, reclaimed mine sites are returned to productive use in a variety of

circle site at Jarrahdale, after rehabilitation has been completed (Alcao 2012)

ways that will serve for future generations.

The completion of surface contouring and return of the topsoil in 1998 were followed by the planting of native plant species necessary for the creation of prairie grasslands, woodlands and wetlands. In order to monitor and evaluate the success of the reclamation, 300 locations were randomly selected across the reclaimed Flambeau Mine. At these locations, necessary studies are performed each year in order to observe whether the performance standards (i.e., vegetative cover, planted native species, diversity and woody species survival) are met. In 2001, all necessary standards were met at the reclaimed mine site, which allowed the submittal of the *Notice of Completion to the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources*. Recent surveys show a fully utilized wildlife at the reclaimed site, which provides unique and

returning the site to its original approximate contours,

creating and restoring over 10 acres of wetland on site,

creating over 120 acres of grassland habitat,

planting clusters of trees to attract and support wildlife habitats,

Rehabilitation and restoration operations in most of the abandoned coal mine areas are conducted by Turkish Coal Enterprises (TKİ). According to General Directorate of Turkish Coal Enterprises (2011), between 1991 and 2011, nearly 7.3 million trees in various species [stone pine (*Pinus pinea*), black pine (*Pinus nigra*), red pine (*Pinus brutia*)*,* cypress (*Cupressus* sp.), cedar (*Cedrus* sp.), horse chestnut (*Aesculus hippocastanum*), black locust (*Robinia pseudoacasia*)*,* tree of heaven (*Ailanthus altissima*), oak (*Quercus* sp.), maple (*Acer* sp.), ash (*Fraxinus* sp.), etc.] were planted on 4455 hectares of post-mining lands in various establishment directorates of TKİ (Figure 7).

Reclamation of Degraded Landscapes due to Opencast Mining 847

In the first half of the 1970s, many states asked mine operators to provide methods for certain mine operations and requirements for reclamation. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, more compulsive regulations were imposed by the states with coal mining activities and the federal government. In this period, under the influence of Congress and pending legislation, public education campaigns by local mining associations and new research efforts by the industry to reduce the economic impact of legislated reclamation gained speed. Today, all surface mining in the US is regulated by federal or state laws (Harwood

The reclamation for the surface effects of coal mining activities (including underground operations) on public and private lands in the US is based on the *Surface Mining Control and* 

This principle law (i.e., *SMCRA/PL 95-87*) defines the federal standards for the reclamation of surface mine sites. Within the guidelines and regulatory procedures set by this law, the industry was pinned for the reclamation of surface-mined lands, which has led to major changes in mining practices and reclamation techniques. By this way, many surface-mined

Section 101(c) of *SMCRA* states: "Many surface mining operations result in disturbances of surface areas that burden and adversely affect commerce and the public welfare by destroying or diminishing the utility of land for commercial, industrial, residential, recreational, agricultural, and forestry purposes, by causing erosion and landslides, by contributing to floods, by polluting the water, by destroying fish and wildlife habitats, by impairing natural beauty, by damaging the property of citizens, by creating hazards dangerous to life and property by degrading the quality of life in local communities, and by counteracting governmental programs and efforts to conserve soil, water, and other natural resources." Section 101(e) of *SMCRA* says: "Surface mining and reclamation technology are now developed so that effective and reasonable regulation of surface coal mining operations by the States and by the Federal Government in accordance with the requirements of this Act is an appropriate and necessary means to minimize so far as practicable the adverse social, economic, and environmental effects of such mining operations." (Office of Surface

Each Canadian provincial government has the authority to make laws related to property, contracts, natural resources, employment, land use and planning, education, health care and municipalities. So, most laws in respect of commercial nature are enacted by provincial governments. Mining activities are mainly governed by the laws of the province or territory where a mine is physically located. Additionally, the federal government has overlapping jurisdiction in a number of areas such as taxation and the environment. The federal *Canadian Environmental Assessment Act* (*CEAA-2012*) constitutes the main legislative frame for all environmental assessment processes. It requires an environmental assessment when a federal authority proposes the mining project, provides financing or lands for the project, or issues certain permits or approvals for the project. In general, a federal environmental

and Thames 1988).

*Reclamation Act* (*SMCRA*) of 1977 (Micsak, 2008).

lands have been successfully reclaimed (Doll 1988).

Mining Reclamation and Enforcement 2012).

*Canada* 

**Figure 7.** Afforestation of soil waste dumps by the establishment directorates of TKİ (General Directorate of Turkish Coal Enterprises 2011)

## **3.7. Legislative and regulatory issues in mine reclamation**

Since the late 20th century, reclamation has been widely accepted by both developed and developing countries as a desirable and necessary remedy in order to: i) reestablish the environmental conditions in post-mining landscapes at an acceptable level, and ii) increase their economic value to an optimum level (Cao 2007).

The law plays a critical role in reclamation of the post-mining landscape. It does not only define the legal status of the issue, but also reveals the outlook and approach of individual governments, which differ significantly in their attempts to mitigate the effects of mining disturbance.

For many of the developing countries, mining has a significant contribution to economy, which often puts a certain pressure on policy makers in order to establish an appropriate balance between national economic growth and environmental protection. Generally speaking, developing countries do not have strict environmental regulations and effective enforcement programs, and they usually address the issue within mining and environmental acts, or related national laws. Additionally, these countries mostly consider the reclamation and pollution control after the mine operations end (Cao 2007).

On the other hand, the approach in developed countries is more comprehensive and they have more stringent and effective regulations. Besides, restoration is regarded as a continuous process during mining, and mining companies have to prepare detailed environmental management plans and use expensive environmental technologies.

At this point, it would be wise to basically give examples of legislations related to mining and reclamation in several developed countries. The situation in Turkey is also overviewed briefly.

#### *USA*

With both the foundation of the *Soil Conservation Service* in the early 1930s and increasing local and state concerns about the degradation of land due to surface mining operations, protection of land resources became a publically important issue after World War I. This movement evolved into surface mine legislation, first in West Virginia in 1938, and then, in Indiana (1941), Illinois (1943), Pennsylvania (1945), and in Ohio (1947). Parallel to the increase in surface mining activities due to the energy crisis in the 1970s, the protection of environment gained more public interest (Doll 1988).

In the first half of the 1970s, many states asked mine operators to provide methods for certain mine operations and requirements for reclamation. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, more compulsive regulations were imposed by the states with coal mining activities and the federal government. In this period, under the influence of Congress and pending legislation, public education campaigns by local mining associations and new research efforts by the industry to reduce the economic impact of legislated reclamation gained speed. Today, all surface mining in the US is regulated by federal or state laws (Harwood and Thames 1988).

The reclamation for the surface effects of coal mining activities (including underground operations) on public and private lands in the US is based on the *Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act* (*SMCRA*) of 1977 (Micsak, 2008).

This principle law (i.e., *SMCRA/PL 95-87*) defines the federal standards for the reclamation of surface mine sites. Within the guidelines and regulatory procedures set by this law, the industry was pinned for the reclamation of surface-mined lands, which has led to major changes in mining practices and reclamation techniques. By this way, many surface-mined lands have been successfully reclaimed (Doll 1988).

Section 101(c) of *SMCRA* states: "Many surface mining operations result in disturbances of surface areas that burden and adversely affect commerce and the public welfare by destroying or diminishing the utility of land for commercial, industrial, residential, recreational, agricultural, and forestry purposes, by causing erosion and landslides, by contributing to floods, by polluting the water, by destroying fish and wildlife habitats, by impairing natural beauty, by damaging the property of citizens, by creating hazards dangerous to life and property by degrading the quality of life in local communities, and by counteracting governmental programs and efforts to conserve soil, water, and other natural resources." Section 101(e) of *SMCRA* says: "Surface mining and reclamation technology are now developed so that effective and reasonable regulation of surface coal mining operations by the States and by the Federal Government in accordance with the requirements of this Act is an appropriate and necessary means to minimize so far as practicable the adverse social, economic, and environmental effects of such mining operations." (Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement 2012).

### *Canada*

846 Advances in Landscape Architecture

disturbance.

briefly.

*USA* 

Directorate of Turkish Coal Enterprises 2011)

**Figure 7.** Afforestation of soil waste dumps by the establishment directorates of TKİ (General

Since the late 20th century, reclamation has been widely accepted by both developed and developing countries as a desirable and necessary remedy in order to: i) reestablish the environmental conditions in post-mining landscapes at an acceptable level, and ii) increase

The law plays a critical role in reclamation of the post-mining landscape. It does not only define the legal status of the issue, but also reveals the outlook and approach of individual governments, which differ significantly in their attempts to mitigate the effects of mining

For many of the developing countries, mining has a significant contribution to economy, which often puts a certain pressure on policy makers in order to establish an appropriate balance between national economic growth and environmental protection. Generally speaking, developing countries do not have strict environmental regulations and effective enforcement programs, and they usually address the issue within mining and environmental acts, or related national laws. Additionally, these countries mostly consider

On the other hand, the approach in developed countries is more comprehensive and they have more stringent and effective regulations. Besides, restoration is regarded as a continuous process during mining, and mining companies have to prepare detailed

At this point, it would be wise to basically give examples of legislations related to mining and reclamation in several developed countries. The situation in Turkey is also overviewed

With both the foundation of the *Soil Conservation Service* in the early 1930s and increasing local and state concerns about the degradation of land due to surface mining operations, protection of land resources became a publically important issue after World War I. This movement evolved into surface mine legislation, first in West Virginia in 1938, and then, in Indiana (1941), Illinois (1943), Pennsylvania (1945), and in Ohio (1947). Parallel to the increase in surface mining activities due to the energy crisis in the 1970s, the protection of

the reclamation and pollution control after the mine operations end (Cao 2007).

environmental management plans and use expensive environmental technologies.

**3.7. Legislative and regulatory issues in mine reclamation** 

their economic value to an optimum level (Cao 2007).

environment gained more public interest (Doll 1988).

Each Canadian provincial government has the authority to make laws related to property, contracts, natural resources, employment, land use and planning, education, health care and municipalities. So, most laws in respect of commercial nature are enacted by provincial governments. Mining activities are mainly governed by the laws of the province or territory where a mine is physically located. Additionally, the federal government has overlapping jurisdiction in a number of areas such as taxation and the environment. The federal *Canadian Environmental Assessment Act* (*CEAA-2012*) constitutes the main legislative frame for all environmental assessment processes. It requires an environmental assessment when a federal authority proposes the mining project, provides financing or lands for the project, or issues certain permits or approvals for the project. In general, a federal environmental assessment is required for most major mining projects. Federal and/or provincial environmental impact assessments are required prior to commencing or expanding operations or even conducting exploration in order to decide whether or not a proposed mining project should proceed based on its environmental and social impacts. The government generally has the authority to require a public hearing and the discretion to accept a proposed mining project or reject it (Davies 2011).

Reclamation of Degraded Landscapes due to Opencast Mining 849

*Protection Act* was amended by *Environment Act* in 1995, and *Part IIA* of this amendment defines a detailed framework for the identification and the compulsory remedial action for

The *French Mining Code* (*Code Minier*) was enacted on 21 April 1810. The old *Mining Code* was amended by *Law No. 94- 588* of 15 July 1994, which organizes existing case law and aims at a better protection of the environment, and can be seen as revisions to bring the *French Mining Code* in conformity with relevant European regulations. During the development of the French environmental law in the past three decades, mechanisms for financial sanctions for those causing environmental damage have been incorporated without proper coordination in enforcement. With the *Environmental Code* enacted in 1999 (*Code de l'Environnement*), a more coherent regime was aimed by the Government. The *Code* addresses to several environmental issues in more than 975 articles over six chapters, combining liability clauses (Betlem et al. 2002). The central government representatives (*préfets*) can legislate for promoting the conservation of the habitat of listed protected species, according to a decree adopted in 1977 for the implementation of the *Act*

In Turkey, there have been several efforts to designate the principle legal guidelines for the reclamation of post-industrial landscapes. "*The Regulation on Reclamation of Lands Disturbed by Mining Activities*" is an important landmark for mine closure planning in Turkey. It basically aims to establish the basic requirements for this purpose, and was published on 14th of December, 2007, and amended on 23rd of January, 2010. According to this regulation, reclamation plans for mining projects must be appended to the *Environmental Impact Assessment* (*EIA*) reports. A summary of related laws and regulations is given in Table 3.

Forest Law No. 6831 1956 - Forest Law No. 6831 (1956)

1983 Regulation on Unhealthy Institutions (1995)

Mining Law No. 3213 1985 - Mining Law No. 3213 (1985)

Regulation on Repealing of Unhealthy Institutions Regulation (2005)

**Repealed by Valid** 

1930 - General Hygiene Law No.

1982 - The Constitution of the

1983 - Environmental Law No.

1983 - National Parks Law No.

1593 (1930)

2872 (1983)

2873 (1983)

Repealed (2005)

Republic of Turkey (1982)

contaminated land (Legislation.gov.uk 2012).

*France* 

(Groombridge 1992).

**Laws and Regulations Effective** 

General Hygiene Law No.

The Constitution of the Republic of Turkey

Environmental Law No.

National Parks Law No.

Regulation on Unhealthy

**Date**

*Turkey* 

1593

2872

2873

Institutions

#### *Australia*

The first Australian mining law dates back to 1851. Legal dimension of environmental issues associated with mine operations are defined within the various sections of *Mining Act* and the *Environmental Protection Act*, which was enacted in 1986. According to the act, any project proposal, which may potentially have a significant impact on the environment, is referred to the *Environmental Protection Authority*. The *Environmental Protection Authority* evaluates the proposal and prepares a report on whether the proposal should proceed. In relation to the minerals and the environment, four important points are always kept under consideration: i) assessment and recommendation on the environmental management related to exploration and mining proposal, ii) collaboration with the industry and the community on the environmental management of the mining industry, iii) compliance with environmental conditions during exploration and mining, and iv) cooperation with other governmental agencies in order to keep lands of high conservation under protection, and not to exclude land unnecessarily from exploration and development activity (Hunt 2009).

#### *Germany*

German mining law dates back to 1865, when the *Allgemeines Berggesetz* (*AGB*) was established. The first reclamation amendments to the mining law were enacted in 1929. Due to the increase in demand for coal after World War II, reclamation was ignored. However, beginning in 1950, reclamation efforts increased and new laws with more precise requirements were put into force in Germany (Knabe 1964). The act has been amended several times and was replaced in 1980 by the *Federal German Mining Act* (*BGBl. IS. 1310*). This act was set into force in January 1982 and revised on December 9, 2006, through slight revision to provisions of *Article 11* (*BGBl. IS. 2833*) (Anderson 2012; Betlem et al. 2002).

#### *United Kingdom*

The main laws related to the mining and the environment in UK are i) *Coal Mines Regulation Act* (1908), ii) *Mining Industry Act* (1920), iii) *Coal Act* (1938), iv) *The Town and Country Planning Act* (Scotland) (1947), v) *Coal Industry Act* (1949), vi) *Mineral Workings Act* (1951), vii) *Mines and Quarries Act* (1954), viii) *Opencast Coal Act* (1958), ix) *Mines Act* (Northern Ireland) (1969), and x) *Environmental Protection Act* (1990) (Legislation.gov.uk 2012). English mining law operates primarily by public (administrative) law rather than by private (civil) mechanisms. The central administrative body is the *Coal Authority* and it was established under the *Coal Industry Act* (1994) during the privatization of the industry. There are lots of acts in the area of mining regulation; however, the *Coal Industry Act* (1994) and the *Coal Mining Subsidence Act* (1991) are the most pertinent ones (Betlem et al., 2002). *Environmental*  *Protection Act* was amended by *Environment Act* in 1995, and *Part IIA* of this amendment defines a detailed framework for the identification and the compulsory remedial action for contaminated land (Legislation.gov.uk 2012).

#### *France*

848 Advances in Landscape Architecture

*Australia* 

*Germany* 

*United Kingdom* 

assessment is required for most major mining projects. Federal and/or provincial environmental impact assessments are required prior to commencing or expanding operations or even conducting exploration in order to decide whether or not a proposed mining project should proceed based on its environmental and social impacts. The government generally has the authority to require a public hearing and the discretion to

The first Australian mining law dates back to 1851. Legal dimension of environmental issues associated with mine operations are defined within the various sections of *Mining Act* and the *Environmental Protection Act*, which was enacted in 1986. According to the act, any project proposal, which may potentially have a significant impact on the environment, is referred to the *Environmental Protection Authority*. The *Environmental Protection Authority* evaluates the proposal and prepares a report on whether the proposal should proceed. In relation to the minerals and the environment, four important points are always kept under consideration: i) assessment and recommendation on the environmental management related to exploration and mining proposal, ii) collaboration with the industry and the community on the environmental management of the mining industry, iii) compliance with environmental conditions during exploration and mining, and iv) cooperation with other governmental agencies in order to keep lands of high conservation under protection, and not to exclude land unnecessarily from exploration and development activity (Hunt 2009).

German mining law dates back to 1865, when the *Allgemeines Berggesetz* (*AGB*) was established. The first reclamation amendments to the mining law were enacted in 1929. Due to the increase in demand for coal after World War II, reclamation was ignored. However, beginning in 1950, reclamation efforts increased and new laws with more precise requirements were put into force in Germany (Knabe 1964). The act has been amended several times and was replaced in 1980 by the *Federal German Mining Act* (*BGBl. IS. 1310*). This act was set into force in January 1982 and revised on December 9, 2006, through slight revision to provisions of *Article 11* (*BGBl. IS. 2833*) (Anderson 2012; Betlem et al. 2002).

The main laws related to the mining and the environment in UK are i) *Coal Mines Regulation Act* (1908), ii) *Mining Industry Act* (1920), iii) *Coal Act* (1938), iv) *The Town and Country Planning Act* (Scotland) (1947), v) *Coal Industry Act* (1949), vi) *Mineral Workings Act* (1951), vii) *Mines and Quarries Act* (1954), viii) *Opencast Coal Act* (1958), ix) *Mines Act* (Northern Ireland) (1969), and x) *Environmental Protection Act* (1990) (Legislation.gov.uk 2012). English mining law operates primarily by public (administrative) law rather than by private (civil) mechanisms. The central administrative body is the *Coal Authority* and it was established under the *Coal Industry Act* (1994) during the privatization of the industry. There are lots of acts in the area of mining regulation; however, the *Coal Industry Act* (1994) and the *Coal Mining Subsidence Act* (1991) are the most pertinent ones (Betlem et al., 2002). *Environmental* 

accept a proposed mining project or reject it (Davies 2011).

The *French Mining Code* (*Code Minier*) was enacted on 21 April 1810. The old *Mining Code* was amended by *Law No. 94- 588* of 15 July 1994, which organizes existing case law and aims at a better protection of the environment, and can be seen as revisions to bring the *French Mining Code* in conformity with relevant European regulations. During the development of the French environmental law in the past three decades, mechanisms for financial sanctions for those causing environmental damage have been incorporated without proper coordination in enforcement. With the *Environmental Code* enacted in 1999 (*Code de l'Environnement*), a more coherent regime was aimed by the Government. The *Code* addresses to several environmental issues in more than 975 articles over six chapters, combining liability clauses (Betlem et al. 2002). The central government representatives (*préfets*) can legislate for promoting the conservation of the habitat of listed protected species, according to a decree adopted in 1977 for the implementation of the *Act* (Groombridge 1992).

#### *Turkey*

In Turkey, there have been several efforts to designate the principle legal guidelines for the reclamation of post-industrial landscapes. "*The Regulation on Reclamation of Lands Disturbed by Mining Activities*" is an important landmark for mine closure planning in Turkey. It basically aims to establish the basic requirements for this purpose, and was published on 14th of December, 2007, and amended on 23rd of January, 2010. According to this regulation, reclamation plans for mining projects must be appended to the *Environmental Impact Assessment* (*EIA*) reports. A summary of related laws and regulations is given in Table 3.



Reclamation of Degraded Landscapes due to Opencast Mining 851

One of the human footprints that cause drastic changes on environment is mining. Although it has a significant contribution to world economy and an indisputable social influence on the life of communities, its devastating negative impacts on environment cannot be disregarded. Particularly, opencast mining activities severely alter the topography and the physical conditions of the atmosphere, and inversely affect plant life, soil conditions, wildlife habitats, and water resources in the mining area and in its immediate surroundings. As a result of above mentioned factors, post-mining landscapes lose their previous aesthetic, ecological and socioeconomic values. If effective mitigation measures are not taken to decrease the adverse environmental impacts, environmental degradation due to opencast

As addressed within the chapter, the ultimate goal of reclamation is two-fold: i) to sustainably establish the aesthetic and ecological conditions of the post-mining landscape so that it become as much compatible as with surrounding undisturbed lands, and ii) to regain or enhance the productive capacity and stability of the land so that it contributes to

Due to rapid industrialization and economic growth, the size and the content of the problems arising from negative impacts of mining activities have been changed and become more complicated than ever. So, in order to achieve successful results in reclamation studies, multidisciplinary approach enriched with the latest technological means is highly required. Of course, there is no "*unique*" and "*magical*" reclamation plan that can be directly applied on all post-mining areas, since major determinants in each reclamation study highly differ and depend on the specific characteristics of the site. Additionally, collaborative and creative involvement of all concerned parties (i.e., state and company officials, local authorities and non-governmental organizations, scientist, engineers and specialists, environmental groups etc.) is crucial for the development of permanently stable landscape use and reclamation plans. It is also necessary to emphasize that reclamation studies should begin at the earliest stages of project development, continue during mining, and proceed

The role of landscape architects in such studies has recently gone far beyond the "classical" borders of the profession. Instead of routine beautification and site planning tasks, now they often involve in large-scale complex reclamation and rehabilitation projects, and they even serve as the leader of the project team by taking the advantage of their education and practical experiences, which enables them to develop more innovative, consolidative and

Legislative issues in mining and reclamation studies are mostly contingent to the visions of the governments. However, in order to foster efficiency and sustainability of post-mining landscapes, and to protect our valuable natural resources, much stricter global

standardization on legal measures is needed in our rapidly changing world.

community's economic and social welfare in a more efficient way.

comprehensive approaches toward the optimum solution.

**4. Concluding remarks** 

mining operations may be irreversible.

after the operation is completed.

**Table 3.** The main laws and regulations related to mining and reclamation in Turkey (Official Gazette of Republic of Turkey 2012; Republic of Turkey Prime Ministry 2012; Republic of Turkey Ministry of Justice 2012; Chamber of Mining Engineers of Turkey 2012)

## **4. Concluding remarks**

850 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Regulation on Protection of

Regulation on Noise

Regulation on Water Pollution Control

Solid Wastes

Assessment

Forest Lands

Soil Pollution

Regulation on the

Law

Implementation of Mining

Regulation on Permission of Mining Activities

Regulation on Reclamation of Lands Disturbed by Mining Activities

Regulation on Protection of Groundwater against Pollution and Deterioration

Justice 2012; Chamber of Mining Engineers of Turkey 2012)

Regulation on

Regulation on Control of

Environmental Impact

Regulation on Allocation of

Regulation on Control of Hazardous Wastes

Regulation on Control of

Air Quality

Control

**Laws and Regulations Effective** 

**Date**

**Repealed by Valid** 

Regulation on Air Quality

Regulation on Assessment and Management of Environmental Noise (2010)

Regulation on Water Pollution Control (2004)

Solid Wastes (1991)

Environmental Impact Assessment (2008)

Implementation of 17th and 18th Articles of the Forest

Regulation on Control of Hazardous Wastes (2005)

Regulation on the

Activities (2010)

Implementation of Mining

Mining Activities (2005)

Groundwater against Pollution and Deterioration

(2012)

Regulation on Reclamation of Lands Disturbed by Mining Activities (2010)

Regulation on Control of Soil Pollution and Point-Source Contaminated Fields (2010)

Regulation on

Regulation on

Law (2011)

Assessment and Management (2008)

1986 Regulation on Air Quality Assessment and Management (2008)

1986 Regulation on Assessment and Management of Environmental Noise (2005;

Pollution Control (2004)

Environmental Impact Assessment (1997; 2002;

Implementation of 17th and 18th Articles of the Forest

Hazardous Wastes (2005)

Regulation on Control of Soil Pollution and Point-Source Contaminated Fields (2010)

Implementation of Mining

2005 - Regulation on Permission

2012 - Regulation on Protection of

1995 Regulation on Permissions in Forest Lands (2007) Regulation on

1991 - Regulation on Control of

2008; 2010)

1988 Regulation on Water

2003; 2008)

Law (2011)

1995 Regulation on Control of

2001 Regulation on Control of Soil Pollution (2005)

Regulation on Noise 2003 - Regulation on Noise (2003)

Activities (2010)

2007 Regulation on Reclamation of Lands Disturbed by Mining Activities (2010)

**Table 3.** The main laws and regulations related to mining and reclamation in Turkey (Official Gazette of Republic of Turkey 2012; Republic of Turkey Prime Ministry 2012; Republic of Turkey Ministry of

2005 Regulation on the

1993 Regulation on

One of the human footprints that cause drastic changes on environment is mining. Although it has a significant contribution to world economy and an indisputable social influence on the life of communities, its devastating negative impacts on environment cannot be disregarded. Particularly, opencast mining activities severely alter the topography and the physical conditions of the atmosphere, and inversely affect plant life, soil conditions, wildlife habitats, and water resources in the mining area and in its immediate surroundings.

As a result of above mentioned factors, post-mining landscapes lose their previous aesthetic, ecological and socioeconomic values. If effective mitigation measures are not taken to decrease the adverse environmental impacts, environmental degradation due to opencast mining operations may be irreversible.

As addressed within the chapter, the ultimate goal of reclamation is two-fold: i) to sustainably establish the aesthetic and ecological conditions of the post-mining landscape so that it become as much compatible as with surrounding undisturbed lands, and ii) to regain or enhance the productive capacity and stability of the land so that it contributes to community's economic and social welfare in a more efficient way.

Due to rapid industrialization and economic growth, the size and the content of the problems arising from negative impacts of mining activities have been changed and become more complicated than ever. So, in order to achieve successful results in reclamation studies, multidisciplinary approach enriched with the latest technological means is highly required. Of course, there is no "*unique*" and "*magical*" reclamation plan that can be directly applied on all post-mining areas, since major determinants in each reclamation study highly differ and depend on the specific characteristics of the site. Additionally, collaborative and creative involvement of all concerned parties (i.e., state and company officials, local authorities and non-governmental organizations, scientist, engineers and specialists, environmental groups etc.) is crucial for the development of permanently stable landscape use and reclamation plans. It is also necessary to emphasize that reclamation studies should begin at the earliest stages of project development, continue during mining, and proceed after the operation is completed.

The role of landscape architects in such studies has recently gone far beyond the "classical" borders of the profession. Instead of routine beautification and site planning tasks, now they often involve in large-scale complex reclamation and rehabilitation projects, and they even serve as the leader of the project team by taking the advantage of their education and practical experiences, which enables them to develop more innovative, consolidative and comprehensive approaches toward the optimum solution.

Legislative issues in mining and reclamation studies are mostly contingent to the visions of the governments. However, in order to foster efficiency and sustainability of post-mining landscapes, and to protect our valuable natural resources, much stricter global standardization on legal measures is needed in our rapidly changing world.

Our future depends on what we do today and how we interact with nature. So, it is essential to sustainably reclaim mine-disturbed lands through comprehensive and collaborative planning that considers all key aspects. Because we borrow the nature that we live in from future generations, which is a fact that we should always recall.

Reclamation of Degraded Landscapes due to Opencast Mining 853

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## **Author details**

#### Nazan Kuter

*Cankiri Karatekin University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Cankiri, Turkey* 

## **5. References**


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**Section 8** 

**Biodiversity and Plant Material** 


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858 Advances in Landscape Architecture

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Soil around the Coal Mining Waste Dump. 2009.

**Chapter 34** 

© 2013 Özyavuz et al., licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

**Native Vegetation** 

Murat Özyavuz, Aslı B. Korkut

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

*genes they contain and the ecosystems of which they form a part*".

Biodiversity is the diversity of life in all its forms across the planet. The National State of the Environment Report made the following statements in defining biodiversity (Slattery, et al.,

"*Biodiversity is the variety of all forms of life - the different plants, animals and microorganisms, the* 

It ranges from large scale ecosystems to the different species of flora and fauna, and to genetic differences between individuals of the same species. These three levels work together to create the complexity of life on earth. Accordingly, biodiversity is conventionally partitioned into three components: (1) *genetic diversity*, (2) *species diversity* and (3) *diversity of* 

Genetic diversity is normally considered to be the range of genetic information present within a species. Genetic information is passed on to successive generations either directly in asexual reproduction or by mixing of genetic material from both parents in sexual reproduction. Genetic diversity increases the diversity of form and behavior within a species, which provides it with greater capacity to cope with changing environmental conditions or make use of completely different environments. Genetic diversity may be expressed in the form of genetic variation within individuals, within populations and/or between populations. Genetic diversity can decline if populations are lost or if the total population of the species is drastically reduced. If populations become fragmented into very small sub-populations, inbreeding depression may cause the genetic diversity to decline

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and Ayten Özyavuz

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55813

*ecosystems* (Slattery, et al., 2003).

further (Smith, et. al., 2000).

**Genetic diversity** 

**1. Introduction** 

2003):

**Chapter 34** 

## **Native Vegetation**

Murat Özyavuz, Aslı B. Korkut and Ayten Özyavuz

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55813

## **1. Introduction**

Biodiversity is the diversity of life in all its forms across the planet. The National State of the Environment Report made the following statements in defining biodiversity (Slattery, et al., 2003):

"*Biodiversity is the variety of all forms of life - the different plants, animals and microorganisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems of which they form a part*".

It ranges from large scale ecosystems to the different species of flora and fauna, and to genetic differences between individuals of the same species. These three levels work together to create the complexity of life on earth. Accordingly, biodiversity is conventionally partitioned into three components: (1) *genetic diversity*, (2) *species diversity* and (3) *diversity of ecosystems* (Slattery, et al., 2003).

## **Genetic diversity**

Genetic diversity is normally considered to be the range of genetic information present within a species. Genetic information is passed on to successive generations either directly in asexual reproduction or by mixing of genetic material from both parents in sexual reproduction. Genetic diversity increases the diversity of form and behavior within a species, which provides it with greater capacity to cope with changing environmental conditions or make use of completely different environments. Genetic diversity may be expressed in the form of genetic variation within individuals, within populations and/or between populations. Genetic diversity can decline if populations are lost or if the total population of the species is drastically reduced. If populations become fragmented into very small sub-populations, inbreeding depression may cause the genetic diversity to decline further (Smith, et. al., 2000).

© 2013 Özyavuz et al., licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

#### **Species diversity**

The number of species present in a location depends on the type of ecosystem. Subtropical rainforests usually contain over 100 vascular plant species in a hectare, including 30-40 tree species, whereas a hectare of cool temperate rainforest may contain only 5-10 tree species. Grassy woodlands and heaths may also be diverse with more than 100 species in a hectare, although sometimes these vegetation types contain relatively few species. However, ecosystems with relatively few species, such as temperate rainforests, can be important for species diversity if those species are unique. The diversity of various animal species assemblages varies even more than that of plants, and some groups also show distinct seasonal variation (Smith, et. al., 2000) (Figure 1.).

Native Vegetation 863

**Figure 2.** With a variety of important plant Ganos Mountain, Tekirdag, Turkey

 differences in composition pre and post disturbance; and the ecosystem processes, linkages and how they are supported.

Authority, 2000):

Protection Authority, 2000).

 soils; landscape; species richness; species composition;

plants)

*The functional value* is derived from the parts played by the species assemblages in supporting ecosystem processes and is expressed through the kinds of plant and animal assemblages occurring in various parts of the landscape on different soil types. In addressing this, matters requiring consideration include (Environmental Protection

*The intrinsic values* relate to the actual species and species associations. Two species assemblages may have different *intrinsic* values but may still have the same functional value in terms of the part they play in maintaining ecosystem/ecological processes (Environmental

**Figure 3.** The Saka Lake, İğneada, Krklareli, Turkey (It is an important area for a variety of birds and

**Figure 1.** *Hedera colchica* (This plant is covered *Prunus avium* and has taken its place)

#### **Diversity of ecosystems**

The species in a given area interact with each other and with their environment to form complex networks known as ecosystems. These differ from place to place, thus creating ecosystem diversity. Each ecosystem differs from all others because it contains a unique combination of species (and therefore genes) and because these species interact with each other and with each environment in distinctive ways. Biodiversity is not static but is constantly changing. It is increased by genetic change and evolutionary processes and reduced by processes such as habitat degradation, a decline in flora and fauna, and the extinction of species. Diversity in all its forms (genetic, species and ecosystem) is a critical factor in the resilience of an area and its ability to respond to significant changes such as fire, food, climate and human impacts. Diversity is the key to maintaining viable populations of our native flora and fauna (Environmental Protection Authority, 2000) (Figure 2).

This is due to three major components, loss of biodiversity can result in reduction or loss of ecosystem function. Therefore, it is very important the need for conservation of biodiversity. There are four main reasons for preserving biodiversity: maintaining ecosystem processes, ethics, aesthetics and culture, and economics (Environmental Protection Authority, 2000).

Biodiversity has two key aspects:


**Figure 2.** With a variety of important plant Ganos Mountain, Tekirdag, Turkey

*The functional value* is derived from the parts played by the species assemblages in supporting ecosystem processes and is expressed through the kinds of plant and animal assemblages occurring in various parts of the landscape on different soil types. In addressing this, matters requiring consideration include (Environmental Protection Authority, 2000):

soils;

862 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Diversity of ecosystems** 

Biodiversity has two key aspects:

its functional value at the ecosystem level; and

seasonal variation (Smith, et. al., 2000) (Figure 1.).

The number of species present in a location depends on the type of ecosystem. Subtropical rainforests usually contain over 100 vascular plant species in a hectare, including 30-40 tree species, whereas a hectare of cool temperate rainforest may contain only 5-10 tree species. Grassy woodlands and heaths may also be diverse with more than 100 species in a hectare, although sometimes these vegetation types contain relatively few species. However, ecosystems with relatively few species, such as temperate rainforests, can be important for species diversity if those species are unique. The diversity of various animal species assemblages varies even more than that of plants, and some groups also show distinct

The species in a given area interact with each other and with their environment to form complex networks known as ecosystems. These differ from place to place, thus creating ecosystem diversity. Each ecosystem differs from all others because it contains a unique combination of species (and therefore genes) and because these species interact with each other and with each environment in distinctive ways. Biodiversity is not static but is constantly changing. It is increased by genetic change and evolutionary processes and reduced by processes such as habitat degradation, a decline in flora and fauna, and the extinction of species. Diversity in all its forms (genetic, species and ecosystem) is a critical factor in the resilience of an area and its ability to respond to significant changes such as fire, food, climate and human impacts. Diversity is the key to maintaining viable populations of

**Figure 1.** *Hedera colchica* (This plant is covered *Prunus avium* and has taken its place)

our native flora and fauna (Environmental Protection Authority, 2000) (Figure 2).

This is due to three major components, loss of biodiversity can result in reduction or loss of ecosystem function. Therefore, it is very important the need for conservation of biodiversity. There are four main reasons for preserving biodiversity: maintaining ecosystem processes, ethics, aesthetics and culture, and economics (Environmental Protection Authority, 2000).

its intrinsic value at the individual species, species assemblages and genetic levels.

**Species diversity** 


*The intrinsic values* relate to the actual species and species associations. Two species assemblages may have different *intrinsic* values but may still have the same functional value in terms of the part they play in maintaining ecosystem/ecological processes (Environmental Protection Authority, 2000).

**Figure 3.** The Saka Lake, İğneada, Krklareli, Turkey (It is an important area for a variety of birds and plants)

Biodiversity provides the critical processes that make life possible, and that are often taken for granted. Healthy, functioning ecosystems are necessary to maintain the quality of the atmosphere, and to maintain and regulate the climate, fresh water, soil formation, cycling of nutrients and disposal of wastes (often referred to as ecosystem services). Biodiversity is essential for controlling pest plants, animals and diseases, for pollinating crops and for providing food, clothing and many kinds of raw materials (Environmental Protection Authority, 2000).

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 Biodiversity allows for ecosystems to adjust to disturbances like extreme fires and floods. If a reptile species goes extinct, a forest with 20 other reptiles is likely to adapt

Genetic diversity prevents diseases and helps species adjust to changes in their

Simply for the wonder of it all. There are few things as beautiful and inspiring as the

**Figure 4.** Reedy areas, is applied to the regular cutting program has an important economic function.

Extinction is a native part of life on Earth. Over the history of the planet most of the species that ever existed, evolved and then gradually went extinct. Species go extinct because of native shifts in the environment that take place over long periods of time, such as ice ages.

Today, species are going extinct at an accelerated and dangerous rate, because of non-native environmental changes caused by human activities. Some of the activities have direct effects

When an ecosystem has been dramatically changed by human activities—such as agriculture, oil and gas exploration, commercial development or water diversion—it may no longer be able to provide the food, water, cover, and places to raise young. Every day there are fewer places left that wildlife can call home (Figure 5). There are three major kinds of

 Habitat destruction: A bulldozer pushing down trees is the iconic image of habitat destruction. Other ways that people are directly destroying habitat, include filling in

 Habitat fragmentation: Much of the remaining terrestrial wildlife habitat in the U.S. has been cut up into fragments by roads and development. Aquatic species' habitat has been fragmented by dams and water diversions. These fragments of habitat may not be large or connected enough to support species that need a large territory in which to find

on species and ecosystems, such as are (National Wildlife Federation, 2013):

wetlands, dredging rivers, mowing fields, and cutting down trees.

habitat loss are (National Wildlife Federation, 2013):

better than another forest with only one reptile.

diversity of life that exists on Earth.

environment.

**Threats to Biodiversity** 

**Habitat loss/ degradation** 

Biodiversity refers to the living pieces that shouldn't be discarded since we use the earth's resources to sustain us. Experience suggests to us that the first rule of intelligent tinkering is to keep all of the pieces. Because of the interconnected nature of ecosystems, the loss or addition of one species has the potential to change an ecosystem.


## **The Importance of Biodiversity**

Potential benefits of biodiversity are; health of ecosystems, their ability to maintain and regulate atmospheric quality, climate, fresh water, marine productivity, soil formation, cycling of nutrients and waste disposal, Resilience of ecosystems, their ability to respond to and recover from external shocks such as drought, flood, and climate change, cultural values (Figure 4). Biodiversity is extremely important to people and the health of ecosystems. A few of the reasons are (National Wildlife Federation, 2013):


#### **Threats to Biodiversity**

864 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Authority, 2000).

conservation.

**The Importance of Biodiversity** 

new vaccine or drug.

people.

Biodiversity provides the critical processes that make life possible, and that are often taken for granted. Healthy, functioning ecosystems are necessary to maintain the quality of the atmosphere, and to maintain and regulate the climate, fresh water, soil formation, cycling of nutrients and disposal of wastes (often referred to as ecosystem services). Biodiversity is essential for controlling pest plants, animals and diseases, for pollinating crops and for providing food, clothing and many kinds of raw materials (Environmental Protection

Biodiversity refers to the living pieces that shouldn't be discarded since we use the earth's resources to sustain us. Experience suggests to us that the first rule of intelligent tinkering is to keep all of the pieces. Because of the interconnected nature of ecosystems, the loss or

 High levels of biodiversity are associated with greater ecosystem stability. The more diverse a system is, the better able it is to cope with environmental stressors, such as floods or drought. Biodiversity gives us choices, options and flexibility to help us cope

 When a system is simplified, such as having only one species of crop or type of grass, it increases the odds that environmental stressors will have a more pronounced impact or that a disease or pest will be able to spread rapidly. Animal and plant populations with low genetic diversity are much more susceptible to stress and vulnerable to extinction. We all rely on the tremendous variety of species, genes and ecosystems in our world and the many benefits we receive from them - they deserve our respect and

Potential benefits of biodiversity are; health of ecosystems, their ability to maintain and regulate atmospheric quality, climate, fresh water, marine productivity, soil formation, cycling of nutrients and waste disposal, Resilience of ecosystems, their ability to respond to and recover from external shocks such as drought, flood, and climate change, cultural values (Figure 4). Biodiversity is extremely important to people and the health of

 Biodiversity allows us to live healthy and happy lives. It provides us with an array of foods and materials and it contributes to the economy. Without a diversity of

 Biodiversity is an important part of ecological services that make life livable on Earth. They include everything from cleaning water and absorbing chemicals, which wetlands do, to providing oxygen for us to breathe—one of the many things that plants do for

pollinators, plants, and soils, our supermarkets would have a lot less produce. Most medical discoveries to cure diseases and lengthen life spans were made because of research into plant and animal biology and genetics. Every time a species goes extinct or genetic diversity is lost, we will never know whether research would have given us a

ecosystems. A few of the reasons are (National Wildlife Federation, 2013):

addition of one species has the potential to change an ecosystem.

with variability, including long-term habitat changes.

Extinction is a native part of life on Earth. Over the history of the planet most of the species that ever existed, evolved and then gradually went extinct. Species go extinct because of native shifts in the environment that take place over long periods of time, such as ice ages.

Today, species are going extinct at an accelerated and dangerous rate, because of non-native environmental changes caused by human activities. Some of the activities have direct effects on species and ecosystems, such as are (National Wildlife Federation, 2013):

#### **Habitat loss/ degradation**

When an ecosystem has been dramatically changed by human activities—such as agriculture, oil and gas exploration, commercial development or water diversion—it may no longer be able to provide the food, water, cover, and places to raise young. Every day there are fewer places left that wildlife can call home (Figure 5). There are three major kinds of habitat loss are (National Wildlife Federation, 2013):


mates and food. The loss and fragmentation of habitat make it difficult for migratory species to find places to rest and feed along their migration routes.

Native Vegetation 867

 Climate change Pollution

**Native Vegetation** 

such as climate change).

equivalent to the present.

All of these threats have put a serious strain on the diversity of species on Earth. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), globally about one third of all known species are threatened with extinction. That includes 29% of all amphibians, 21% of all mammals and 12% of all birds. If we do not stop the threats to biodiversity, we could be facing another mass extinction with dire consequences to the environment and human

In an area without anthropogenic influences, vegetation consisting of completely native causes "native vegetation" is called. Anthropogenic impacts on vegetation by humans and animals all the destroyed (cut plants, fires, grazing, irrigation and drying of areas of life,

A lot of people from the intensification of economic activities in the world, after the last 50 years, especially with the increasing environmental pollution, anthropogenic influences largely been talk of a distant vegetation. The world's most secluded and found not the people living in the bodies of living things, even if the environmental pollution caused by the accumulation of many chemicals were transported. For these reasons, today, even the

Description of the plant natively grows only in certain areas of native vegetation, but also to be expressed in those areas should be moved by the people. Native plants in geological times in a region that region-specific climate, soil, rainfall, drought and frost, depending on the physical and biotic characteristics evolve and interact with other species in that region are found in the local plant communities. In this way, the conditions under which native plants will have certain features that makes them perfectly adapted to the characteristics and landscaping,

Plant sociologists, often talking about the native vegetation of different "Potential Native Vegetation". Potential Native Vegetation, all the external influences in an area (anthropogenic effects) resulting from native plant cover is removed. Generally, founded by ancient civilizations such as Turkey, passed away of native resources and areas of use, this day there are big differences between vegetation and native vegetation. However, in areas that are difficult to reach believers hardly influence the high mountains and vegetation, is

The material is of great importance for landscaping with native plants and plant communities that make us the main ones are as follows: Forests, savannah, maquis, savannahs, deserts, meadows, tundras, alpine plants, swamps. These are usually the most important plant communities that make up the earth, ecological sense, have come together and established a partnership between the livings, rather than growing the plant complied

evaluated in terms of their formation and utilization conditions.

anthropogenic impact in less developed regions is still far from human influence.

conservation and restoration projects is extremely important to provide alternatives.

health and livelihood are (National Wildlife Federation, 2013).

 Habitat degradation: Pollution, invasive species and disruption of ecosystem processes (such as changing the intensity of fires in an ecosystem) are some of the ways habitats can become so degraded that they no longer support native wildlife.

**Figure 5.** Applied to the wrong policies of nature conservation, local communities could lead to damage to the environment.

### **Over exploitation (such as overfishing)**

People have always depended on wildlife and plants for food, clothing, medicine, shelter and many other needs. But today we are taking more than the native world can supply. The danger is that if we take too many individuals of a species from their native environment, the species may no longer be able to survive. The loss of one species can affect many other species in an ecosystem. Overexploitation is the over use of wildlife and plant species by people for food, clothing, pets, medicine, sport and many other purposes. The hunting, trapping, collecting and fishing of wildlife at unsustainable levels is not something new. The passenger pigeon was hunted to extinction early in the last century, and overhunting nearly caused the extinction of the American bison and several species of whales. Today, the Endangered Species Act protects some U.S. species that were in danger from overexploitation, and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES) works to prevent the global trade of wildlife. But there are many species that are not protected from being illegally traded or overharvested are (National Wildlife Federation, 2013).

#### **Spread of Non-native Species/ Diseases**

Human health and economies are also at risk from invasive species. The impacts of invasive species on our native ecosystems and economy cost billions of dollars each year. Many of our commercial, agricultural, and recreational activities depend on healthy native ecosystems.

Some human activities have indirect but wide-reaching effects on biodiversity, including:


damage to the environment.

**Over exploitation (such as overfishing)** 

**Spread of Non-native Species/ Diseases**

mates and food. The loss and fragmentation of habitat make it difficult for migratory

 Habitat degradation: Pollution, invasive species and disruption of ecosystem processes (such as changing the intensity of fires in an ecosystem) are some of the ways habitats

species to find places to rest and feed along their migration routes.

can become so degraded that they no longer support native wildlife.

**Figure 5.** Applied to the wrong policies of nature conservation, local communities could lead to

illegally traded or overharvested are (National Wildlife Federation, 2013).

People have always depended on wildlife and plants for food, clothing, medicine, shelter and many other needs. But today we are taking more than the native world can supply. The danger is that if we take too many individuals of a species from their native environment, the species may no longer be able to survive. The loss of one species can affect many other species in an ecosystem. Overexploitation is the over use of wildlife and plant species by people for food, clothing, pets, medicine, sport and many other purposes. The hunting, trapping, collecting and fishing of wildlife at unsustainable levels is not something new. The passenger pigeon was hunted to extinction early in the last century, and overhunting nearly caused the extinction of the American bison and several species of whales. Today, the Endangered Species Act protects some U.S. species that were in danger from overexploitation, and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES) works to prevent the global trade of wildlife. But there are many species that are not protected from being

Human health and economies are also at risk from invasive species. The impacts of invasive species on our native ecosystems and economy cost billions of dollars each year. Many of our commercial, agricultural, and recreational activities depend on healthy native ecosystems. Some human activities have indirect but wide-reaching effects on biodiversity, including:

All of these threats have put a serious strain on the diversity of species on Earth. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), globally about one third of all known species are threatened with extinction. That includes 29% of all amphibians, 21% of all mammals and 12% of all birds. If we do not stop the threats to biodiversity, we could be facing another mass extinction with dire consequences to the environment and human health and livelihood are (National Wildlife Federation, 2013).

#### **Native Vegetation**

In an area without anthropogenic influences, vegetation consisting of completely native causes "native vegetation" is called. Anthropogenic impacts on vegetation by humans and animals all the destroyed (cut plants, fires, grazing, irrigation and drying of areas of life, such as climate change).

A lot of people from the intensification of economic activities in the world, after the last 50 years, especially with the increasing environmental pollution, anthropogenic influences largely been talk of a distant vegetation. The world's most secluded and found not the people living in the bodies of living things, even if the environmental pollution caused by the accumulation of many chemicals were transported. For these reasons, today, even the anthropogenic impact in less developed regions is still far from human influence.

Description of the plant natively grows only in certain areas of native vegetation, but also to be expressed in those areas should be moved by the people. Native plants in geological times in a region that region-specific climate, soil, rainfall, drought and frost, depending on the physical and biotic characteristics evolve and interact with other species in that region are found in the local plant communities. In this way, the conditions under which native plants will have certain features that makes them perfectly adapted to the characteristics and landscaping, conservation and restoration projects is extremely important to provide alternatives.

Plant sociologists, often talking about the native vegetation of different "Potential Native Vegetation". Potential Native Vegetation, all the external influences in an area (anthropogenic effects) resulting from native plant cover is removed. Generally, founded by ancient civilizations such as Turkey, passed away of native resources and areas of use, this day there are big differences between vegetation and native vegetation. However, in areas that are difficult to reach believers hardly influence the high mountains and vegetation, is equivalent to the present.

The material is of great importance for landscaping with native plants and plant communities that make us the main ones are as follows: Forests, savannah, maquis, savannahs, deserts, meadows, tundras, alpine plants, swamps. These are usually the most important plant communities that make up the earth, ecological sense, have come together and established a partnership between the livings, rather than growing the plant complied evaluated in terms of their formation and utilization conditions.

Development of vegetation in an area and constantly remain in the area of environmental conditions that have an impact on the router. Environmental conditions, climatic conditions generally (temperature, humidity, rainfall, light, wind, etc.)., edaphic conditions (soil, water), orographic conditions (pressure area, slope, elevation, etc.)., biotic conditions (the effect of the surrounding creatures) is understood. Environment, living environment, "Biyosenoz" and the non-living environment "Ecotope" ecosystem, which together are called. Ecotopes a harmonious balance between native surroundings and has biyosenoz. At the end of the evolution of ecosystems composed of many years in this environment and vegetation is appropriate that this "Klimax" is called. There is one or more of the conditions that make the environment as a result of changes in the plant community, especially, are seen in the changing ecosystem. For these reasons, making any assessment of the vegetation in an area that should be examined thoroughly the effects of local environmental conditions and their vegetation.

Native Vegetation 869

climate, soils, timing of rainfall, drought, and frost; and interactions with the other species inhabiting the local community. Thus native plants possess certain traits that make them uniquely adapted to local conditions, providing a practical and ecologically valuable alternative for landscaping, conservation and restoration projects, and as livestock forage. In addition, native plants can match the finest cultivated plants in beauty, while often surpassing non-natives in ruggedness and resistance to drought, insects and disease

Native vegetation is defined differently in different jurisdictions but typically is defined to include natively occurring local vegetation (in some cases defined as vegetation that existed before a certain date), including in some jurisdictions native grasses and aquatic vegetation. The definition of terms such as 'remnant', 'regrowth', and 'thickening' is more contentious.

 Fodder; food; seeds; wildflowers and plants; medicines; timber, including for fencing and firewood; shade; shelter; honey production; pollination and pest control services

Soil and water protection (eg prevention of salinity, soil erosion or acidification)

'Existence' and 'option' values (Productivity Commission, 2004).

(Virginia Department of Conservation & Recreation, 2012) (Figure 7.).

**Figure 7.** *Thymelaea tartonraira* an important plant in arid area

(Productivity Commission, 2004).

Carbon sinks and/or storage

In other words, native vegetation is;

Oxygen production is the largest function.

Biodiversity

Climate

**Potential benefits of Native vegetation** 

 Tourism, recreation and visual amenity Habitat for native fauna (Figure 8)

Plants form the key elements stored in the primary energy production. All living things depend on other living plants. Native plants natively occur in the region in which they evolved. While non-native plants might provide some of the above benefits, native plants have many additional advantages. Because native plants are adapted to local soils and climate conditions, they generally require less watering and fertilizing than non-natives. Natives are often more resistant to insects and disease as well, and so are less likely to need pesticides. Wildlife evolved with plants; therefore, they use native plant communities for food, cover and rearing young. Using native plants helps preserve the balance and beauty of native ecosystems (Figure 6.).

**Figure 6.** Different plant species in small area (*Acer platanaoides, Hedera helix, İlex aquifolium, Rubus sp*.)

Native species are those that occur in the region in which they evolved. Plants evolve over geologic time in response to physical and biotic processes characteristic of a region: the climate, soils, timing of rainfall, drought, and frost; and interactions with the other species inhabiting the local community. Thus native plants possess certain traits that make them uniquely adapted to local conditions, providing a practical and ecologically valuable alternative for landscaping, conservation and restoration projects, and as livestock forage. In addition, native plants can match the finest cultivated plants in beauty, while often surpassing non-natives in ruggedness and resistance to drought, insects and disease (Virginia Department of Conservation & Recreation, 2012) (Figure 7.).

**Figure 7.** *Thymelaea tartonraira* an important plant in arid area

Native vegetation is defined differently in different jurisdictions but typically is defined to include natively occurring local vegetation (in some cases defined as vegetation that existed before a certain date), including in some jurisdictions native grasses and aquatic vegetation. The definition of terms such as 'remnant', 'regrowth', and 'thickening' is more contentious. (Productivity Commission, 2004).

#### **Potential benefits of Native vegetation**


868 Advances in Landscape Architecture

and their vegetation.

native ecosystems (Figure 6.).

Development of vegetation in an area and constantly remain in the area of environmental conditions that have an impact on the router. Environmental conditions, climatic conditions generally (temperature, humidity, rainfall, light, wind, etc.)., edaphic conditions (soil, water), orographic conditions (pressure area, slope, elevation, etc.)., biotic conditions (the effect of the surrounding creatures) is understood. Environment, living environment, "Biyosenoz" and the non-living environment "Ecotope" ecosystem, which together are called. Ecotopes a harmonious balance between native surroundings and has biyosenoz. At the end of the evolution of ecosystems composed of many years in this environment and vegetation is appropriate that this "Klimax" is called. There is one or more of the conditions that make the environment as a result of changes in the plant community, especially, are seen in the changing ecosystem. For these reasons, making any assessment of the vegetation in an area that should be examined thoroughly the effects of local environmental conditions

Plants form the key elements stored in the primary energy production. All living things depend on other living plants. Native plants natively occur in the region in which they evolved. While non-native plants might provide some of the above benefits, native plants have many additional advantages. Because native plants are adapted to local soils and climate conditions, they generally require less watering and fertilizing than non-natives. Natives are often more resistant to insects and disease as well, and so are less likely to need pesticides. Wildlife evolved with plants; therefore, they use native plant communities for food, cover and rearing young. Using native plants helps preserve the balance and beauty of

**Figure 6.** Different plant species in small area (*Acer platanaoides, Hedera helix, İlex aquifolium, Rubus sp*.)

Native species are those that occur in the region in which they evolved. Plants evolve over geologic time in response to physical and biotic processes characteristic of a region: the 'Existence' and 'option' values (Productivity Commission, 2004).

In other words, native vegetation is;

Oxygen production is the largest function.

Native Vegetation 871

The native vegetation is directly related to land use and environmental change and is the most easily visible and perceived part of the landscape. It is important in relation to visual effects. However, without detailed studies cannot be understood fully the relationship between other landscape elements. According to Peter et al. (2000), as well as providing essential habitat, native vegetation, including small isolated remnants and scattered trees,

According to (Smith, et. al., 2000); Connectivity concerns how easily the landscape allows plant and animal species to disperse or move through it. Adequate connectivity in the landscape reduces the probability of small isolated populations occurring, allows mobile species to access essential but dispersed resources, and may be important for species migration. Connectivity needs to be considered on a whole-of-landscape basis. This is because species movement can occur from any patch or island that is either large enough or of sufficient habitat quality to support a breeding population or among a number of smaller patches that combine to provide suitable habitat for a population. Corridors are generally considered important for providing connectivity in highly cleared and fragmented landscapes (Fahrig and Merriam 1985, Downes *et al.* 1997). However, there is only limited proof of their efficacy in allowing species movement and they may indeed negatively affect individual species by promoting transmission of diseases and disturbances (Simberlof and Cox 1987, Hess 1994). Nevertheless, it is generally agreed that species response to fragmentation is individualistic and that corridors enhance landscape connectivity for many

According to (Smith, et. al., 2000); Native vegetation plays an important role in many ecosystem processes. These processes include nutrient retention and cycling, carbon storage, purification of water and the maintenance of viable and diverse populations of important

has an important role in providing connectivity across the landscape (Figure 10).

**Figure 10.** The Mert Lake, İğneada, Krklareli, Turkey

species (Saunders *et al.* 1991, Dawson 1994, Beier and Noss 1998).

**Figure 8.** Larva fed on leaves of *Euphorbia sp.*


**Figure 9.** Sand dune areas are important for recreational activates.

Native vegetation provides many benefits principally through the protection of the land surface, amelioration or modification of local climate, maintenance of critical ecosystem processes, conservation of biodiversity, enhancement and protection of cultural and aesthetic values, and the provision of economically important products such as timber and grazing forage. However, significant degradation and loss of native vegetation has taken place since European settlement, principally as a result of human activity (Smith, et. al., 2000).

The native vegetation is directly related to land use and environmental change and is the most easily visible and perceived part of the landscape. It is important in relation to visual effects. However, without detailed studies cannot be understood fully the relationship between other landscape elements. According to Peter et al. (2000), as well as providing essential habitat, native vegetation, including small isolated remnants and scattered trees, has an important role in providing connectivity across the landscape (Figure 10).

**Figure 10.** The Mert Lake, İğneada, Krklareli, Turkey

870 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 8.** Larva fed on leaves of *Euphorbia sp.*

I is important in relation to soil

It is home to wildlife

2000).

It is important in relation to hydrological events.

It is important in relation to recreational (Figure 9)

**Figure 9.** Sand dune areas are important for recreational activates.

Native vegetation provides many benefits principally through the protection of the land surface, amelioration or modification of local climate, maintenance of critical ecosystem processes, conservation of biodiversity, enhancement and protection of cultural and aesthetic values, and the provision of economically important products such as timber and grazing forage. However, significant degradation and loss of native vegetation has taken place since European settlement, principally as a result of human activity (Smith, et. al.,

It is high and significant economic value.

The native vegetation is important in terms of microclimatic effects.

According to (Smith, et. al., 2000); Connectivity concerns how easily the landscape allows plant and animal species to disperse or move through it. Adequate connectivity in the landscape reduces the probability of small isolated populations occurring, allows mobile species to access essential but dispersed resources, and may be important for species migration. Connectivity needs to be considered on a whole-of-landscape basis. This is because species movement can occur from any patch or island that is either large enough or of sufficient habitat quality to support a breeding population or among a number of smaller patches that combine to provide suitable habitat for a population. Corridors are generally considered important for providing connectivity in highly cleared and fragmented landscapes (Fahrig and Merriam 1985, Downes *et al.* 1997). However, there is only limited proof of their efficacy in allowing species movement and they may indeed negatively affect individual species by promoting transmission of diseases and disturbances (Simberlof and Cox 1987, Hess 1994). Nevertheless, it is generally agreed that species response to fragmentation is individualistic and that corridors enhance landscape connectivity for many species (Saunders *et al.* 1991, Dawson 1994, Beier and Noss 1998).

According to (Smith, et. al., 2000); Native vegetation plays an important role in many ecosystem processes. These processes include nutrient retention and cycling, carbon storage, purification of water and the maintenance of viable and diverse populations of important

components of biodiversity such as detritivores (organisms that break down organic matter) pollinators and parasites and predators of farm pests (Figure 11). For example the life cycle of some parasitic wasps and flies depend on nearby sources of food found in native vegetation. Some species of these parasites seldom travel more than 200 metres from such sources of food (Davidson and Davidson 1992).

Native Vegetation 873

and productivity, both now and in the future. Native vegetation provides habitat for native animals. It delivers a range of ecosystem services that make the land more productive and that contribute to human wellbeing. The benefits provided by native vegetation can be separated into the following categories (Victorian Government Department of Sustainability

Use values involve people physically using or experiencing native vegetation and the attributes it provides, and deriving value from this use. These use values comprise both

*Direct use values.* These values include benefits to agricultural production, such as enriching soils, shade for animals, pollination of plants, and native vegetation as the provider of goods such as honey, timber and pasture for grazing. Other direct uses of native vegetation include

*Indirect use values.* These values include functional benefits derived from relying on native ecosystems for life support functions including providing clean air, water and other resources, along with the conservation of biodiversity. Other benefits include resilience to

There are a range of benefits that flow from native vegetation that are enjoyed without contact with the native vegetation. These are known as non-use values and include *existence values, option values* and *bequest values* (Victorian Government Department of Sustainability

*Existence values.* This means the satisfaction that the community derives simply from

 *Option values.* These are benefits derived from retaining the option to use native vegetation in the future without necessarily planning to do so. These benefits include the value of waiting until a time in the future when better information is available to

 *Bequest values.* These values derive from the knowledge that maintaining native vegetation and biodiversity will benefit future generations. (Victorian Government

The aim is to determine the extent of the formation and vegetation. Classificiation table is;

1. Floristic:As an individual species, genera, families and so on. to classify the botanical

2. Form and structure: This is based on the dominant forms (forest, pasture etc.) of plant communities by giving importance to classify plants (the most abundant, etc.) 3. Ecological: This classification, to classify plants according to habitat and some of the

climate change, and reduced susceptibility to disease and extreme weather events.

knowing that native vegetation and biodiversity exist.

inform decisions about the use of native vegetation.

Department of Sustainability and Environment, 2012).

**Identification and classificiation of native vegetation** 

critical environmental parameters.

and Environment, 2012).

*direct use values* and *indirect use values.*

recreation and cultural uses.

*Use values* 

*Non-use values* 

and Environment, 2012).

names of the form

**Figure 11.** *Ferula communis subsp.communis* is used in pharmaceutical industry

Degradation and loss of native vegetation resulting from human activity has altered and disturbed many of these ecosystem processes. Broad-scale loss of vegetation cover has led to considerable land degradation by exposing the land surface to wind and rainfall, which greatly increases soil erosion. These problems are exacerbated by some agricultural management practices, which cause loss of soil organic matter and nutrient decline and, in some places, increasing soil salinity and acidity. For example, it has been estimated that some 120,000 ha of NSW are currently affected by salinity and that 7.5 million ha could potentially become salt affected (Smith, et. al., 2000).

Disturbance of ecosystem function, fragmentation of habitats, the introduction of foreign species and ecologically unsympathetic agricultural systems has been widespread. As a consequence, species decline and extinction has been marked, while altered community balance has frequently led to the unchecked and damaging spread of exotic plants and animals. Halting the decline in native vegetation cover and rectifying some of the damage that has been done is not an easy task, but is possible. Nature reserves have a vital role in this recovery but are only part of the solution. We also need sympathetic management of privately owned native vegetation, and it should be recognised that such management can offer production benefits by preserving land and water quality. Restoration of vegetation cover also provides considerable potential for improved ecosystem function, increased biodiversity and better health for the wider environment (Smith, et. al., 2000).

#### **Benefits of native vegetation**

Biodiversity conservation is an essential component of responsible environmental and native resource management. It is fundamental to quality of life and supports our economy and productivity, both now and in the future. Native vegetation provides habitat for native animals. It delivers a range of ecosystem services that make the land more productive and that contribute to human wellbeing. The benefits provided by native vegetation can be separated into the following categories (Victorian Government Department of Sustainability and Environment, 2012).

### *Use values*

872 Advances in Landscape Architecture

sources of food (Davidson and Davidson 1992).

**Figure 11.** *Ferula communis subsp.communis* is used in pharmaceutical industry

potentially become salt affected (Smith, et. al., 2000).

**Benefits of native vegetation** 

components of biodiversity such as detritivores (organisms that break down organic matter) pollinators and parasites and predators of farm pests (Figure 11). For example the life cycle of some parasitic wasps and flies depend on nearby sources of food found in native vegetation. Some species of these parasites seldom travel more than 200 metres from such

Degradation and loss of native vegetation resulting from human activity has altered and disturbed many of these ecosystem processes. Broad-scale loss of vegetation cover has led to considerable land degradation by exposing the land surface to wind and rainfall, which greatly increases soil erosion. These problems are exacerbated by some agricultural management practices, which cause loss of soil organic matter and nutrient decline and, in some places, increasing soil salinity and acidity. For example, it has been estimated that some 120,000 ha of NSW are currently affected by salinity and that 7.5 million ha could

Disturbance of ecosystem function, fragmentation of habitats, the introduction of foreign species and ecologically unsympathetic agricultural systems has been widespread. As a consequence, species decline and extinction has been marked, while altered community balance has frequently led to the unchecked and damaging spread of exotic plants and animals. Halting the decline in native vegetation cover and rectifying some of the damage that has been done is not an easy task, but is possible. Nature reserves have a vital role in this recovery but are only part of the solution. We also need sympathetic management of privately owned native vegetation, and it should be recognised that such management can offer production benefits by preserving land and water quality. Restoration of vegetation cover also provides considerable potential for improved ecosystem function, increased

Biodiversity conservation is an essential component of responsible environmental and native resource management. It is fundamental to quality of life and supports our economy

biodiversity and better health for the wider environment (Smith, et. al., 2000).

Use values involve people physically using or experiencing native vegetation and the attributes it provides, and deriving value from this use. These use values comprise both *direct use values* and *indirect use values.*

*Direct use values.* These values include benefits to agricultural production, such as enriching soils, shade for animals, pollination of plants, and native vegetation as the provider of goods such as honey, timber and pasture for grazing. Other direct uses of native vegetation include recreation and cultural uses.

*Indirect use values.* These values include functional benefits derived from relying on native ecosystems for life support functions including providing clean air, water and other resources, along with the conservation of biodiversity. Other benefits include resilience to climate change, and reduced susceptibility to disease and extreme weather events.

#### *Non-use values*

There are a range of benefits that flow from native vegetation that are enjoyed without contact with the native vegetation. These are known as non-use values and include *existence values, option values* and *bequest values* (Victorian Government Department of Sustainability and Environment, 2012).


#### **Identification and classificiation of native vegetation**

The aim is to determine the extent of the formation and vegetation. Classificiation table is;


### **Turkey and Native Vegetation**

Biodiversity is the great wealth of the countries that have the most perceived. Turkey is the world's richest in terms of native vegetation one of the countries. Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian and Euro-Siberian phytogeographical regions of Anatolia into finding and intertwined with each other, this is the main cause of wealth.

Native Vegetation 875

north, north west, south of the south-westerly winds, the creation of different climates. Therefore, the vegetation varies in the vertical direction only, but also by looking also varies

**Figure 14.** *Arbutus andrachne* L. (Southern slopes overlooking the sea), Ganos Mountains, Tekirdağ,

The native vegetation has taken over the operations supported by the complex structure of biological diversity reveals the cycle of a healthy ecosystem. For this reason, all of the physical and biotic factors in areas where native vegetation and an interaction of mutual. The native vegetation on the one hand living environments affected by factors other living and non-living, and their presence on the other hand constitute one of the most important

widely (Figure 14).

Turkey

**Figure 13.** *Silene sangaria Coode & Cullen* (endemic)

Meadows and pastures in our country is one of the most important sources of biological diversity. These are considered one of the largest renewable native resources. Turkey, in terms of plants in the world, is one of the countries in the temperate climate zone. The main reasons for this wealth, climate differences, topographical diversity, geological and geomorphological diversity, sea, lake, river, such as various water variety of environments, ranging from 0-5000 meters height differences, three different combined with the fact that the place of plant geography, east and west of Anatolia differences between the present ecological and floristic diversity in all of these ecological reflection of the diversity (Figure 12).

**Figure 12.** The Hamam Lake, İğneada, Krklareli (the lake in forest)

Turkey, around 9000 with the type of ferns and seed plants is a country very rich in terms of flora. Whereas, flora of the European continent contains about 12,000 species. The importance of the flora of Turkey, as well as species richness is due to the high rate of endemism. There are 2750 endemic species in the European countries, Turkey, this number is around 3000 (Figure 13).

In our country, the factors leading to the formation of native vegetation regions of Anatolia, depends on the structure of a specific native. The first of these stages of the country that are turning very sharp elevation in mountainous morphological structure. Accordingly, in the north, north west, south of the south-westerly winds, the creation of different climates. Therefore, the vegetation varies in the vertical direction only, but also by looking also varies widely (Figure 14).

**Figure 13.** *Silene sangaria Coode & Cullen* (endemic)

874 Advances in Landscape Architecture

(Figure 12).

**Turkey and Native Vegetation** 

intertwined with each other, this is the main cause of wealth.

**Figure 12.** The Hamam Lake, İğneada, Krklareli (the lake in forest)

is around 3000 (Figure 13).

Turkey, around 9000 with the type of ferns and seed plants is a country very rich in terms of flora. Whereas, flora of the European continent contains about 12,000 species. The importance of the flora of Turkey, as well as species richness is due to the high rate of endemism. There are 2750 endemic species in the European countries, Turkey, this number

In our country, the factors leading to the formation of native vegetation regions of Anatolia, depends on the structure of a specific native. The first of these stages of the country that are turning very sharp elevation in mountainous morphological structure. Accordingly, in the

Biodiversity is the great wealth of the countries that have the most perceived. Turkey is the world's richest in terms of native vegetation one of the countries. Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian and Euro-Siberian phytogeographical regions of Anatolia into finding and

Meadows and pastures in our country is one of the most important sources of biological diversity. These are considered one of the largest renewable native resources. Turkey, in terms of plants in the world, is one of the countries in the temperate climate zone. The main reasons for this wealth, climate differences, topographical diversity, geological and geomorphological diversity, sea, lake, river, such as various water variety of environments, ranging from 0-5000 meters height differences, three different combined with the fact that the place of plant geography, east and west of Anatolia differences between the present ecological and floristic diversity in all of these ecological reflection of the diversity

**Figure 14.** *Arbutus andrachne* L. (Southern slopes overlooking the sea), Ganos Mountains, Tekirdağ, Turkey

The native vegetation has taken over the operations supported by the complex structure of biological diversity reveals the cycle of a healthy ecosystem. For this reason, all of the physical and biotic factors in areas where native vegetation and an interaction of mutual. The native vegetation on the one hand living environments affected by factors other living and non-living, and their presence on the other hand constitute one of the most important factors in terms of diversity. Native plants that will blend the best of local environmental conditions, plant species, and above all a large scale ecological plantation of native plants provides significant contributions to native and biological communities. Aesthetic and functional characteristics of many native plants, as well as contribute to the efficiency of the soil, reduce erosion, and often less than many exotic plants, fertilizers, pesticides and other chemicals, such as input, show the need for maintenance measures. Plantation studies, native plants are becoming increasingly popular for many countries.

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Reclamation of Halophytic Areas

Agricultural Control and Pollution

Fires can damage local and rare endemic species

**2. Tekirdağ and Ganos mountains** 

sandstones containing clay and cemented.

North-east to the Black Sea is 2.5 km from the coast.

damaged.

Fire

Afforestation

1. Forest vegetation 2. Shrub vegetation 3. Meadow vegetation 4. Aquatic vegetation

Large halophytic areas are improved, especially for agricultural purposes.

made of a plant endemic to the place where you are likely to disappearance.

different vegetation types in the Thrace Region, There are four main types:

Unconscious use of agricultural pesticides. Especially in endemic and rare plants are

Reforestation activities is changed environmental conditions of the plants. This activity is

The European continent in the Thrace Region, different climates, soil types, and due to the geographical characteristics of the floristic aspect is very rich. Although there are many

Northwest Turkey Tekirdag, Marmara Sea, one of the three provinces in the north of the territory of the whole of Thrace, as well as two sea-coasts in Turkey is one of the six provinces. With a surface area of 6313 km ², Istanbul, Tekirdag from the east, north, BSNL, west of Edirne, Canakkale south-west to the south, surrounded by the Sea of Marmara.

The geological structure of Tekirdağ is relatively young. area of the province while the sea covered the first time, the current image of the IV. from time. Increased Anatolia and Thrace, the Aegean Marmara and Black Sea basins lowered. Soils generally consist of

Tekirdag, approximately 1,200 km long starting Karlova 100-15000 m wide, consisting of the many faults of the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) is located near the end. (15-25 km). Faults may be caused by an earthquake within the boundaries of Tekirdag Province; Saros - Gaziköy fault in the Sea of Marmara with the edges of the trench part of the fault. Ministry of Public Works and Settlement, dated 04.18.1996 "Seismic Zoning Map of Turkey" according to the outcrops, and Barbaros 1 Mürefte Degrees are in the earthquake area.

The main reasons for this interest;

*Aesthetics:* Beauty, interesting or rare forms and the native environment, establishing the connection.

*Environment:* Water use reduction, less pesticide and fertilizer use, the creation of a suitable environment for wildlife.

*Maintenance:* low long-term maintenance costs, and less work needed to increase the durability of the plant listed as heard.

The presence of native vegetation of the country's economy is the direct and indirect benefits of unlimited. A rich variety of plant species in the flora of Turkey, local people need to grow them, as well as industrial and scientific organizations, benefits for different purposes. Native vegetation, improving a country's climatic conditions and soil loss prevention in rural areas, preparing the ground for scientific research, forest products, food, and pharmaceutical industry is a source of units to meet the need for raw materials and fuel.

Especially important in the protection of endemics are carried out. Classes of endangered to which they belong are determined internationally, is under a lot of pressure given priority species which are in danger of extinction.

Threats to plants in Turkey are shown below. These factors are;

Industrialization and urbanization,

Urbanization in rural areas is particularly damaging to vegetation

Agricultural extension and excessive grazing

The native pasture areas, overgrazing, and prevents the growth of weeds as well as to the spread of cosmopolitan species are herbaceous origin. The animals eating the herbs roots up to their neck that prevents the growth of weeds and grass pastures deteriorate the quality of output. The inedible prickly weeds are spreading.

Tourism

Dunes and coastal area to be occupied by tourism facilities

Collecting plants from nature

Native plants are collected from nature for various purposes (medical, spices, ornamental, fuel, animal feed, especially bulbous plants)

Reclamation of Halophytic Areas

Large halophytic areas are improved, especially for agricultural purposes.

Agricultural Control and Pollution

Unconscious use of agricultural pesticides. Especially in endemic and rare plants are damaged.

Afforestation

Reforestation activities is changed environmental conditions of the plants. This activity is made of a plant endemic to the place where you are likely to disappearance.

Fire

876 Advances in Landscape Architecture

The main reasons for this interest;

durability of the plant listed as heard.

species which are in danger of extinction.

Industrialization and urbanization,

Collecting plants from nature

fuel, animal feed, especially bulbous plants)

Agricultural extension and excessive grazing

output. The inedible prickly weeds are spreading.

Dunes and coastal area to be occupied by tourism facilities

Threats to plants in Turkey are shown below. These factors are;

Urbanization in rural areas is particularly damaging to vegetation

environment for wildlife.

connection.

Tourism

factors in terms of diversity. Native plants that will blend the best of local environmental conditions, plant species, and above all a large scale ecological plantation of native plants provides significant contributions to native and biological communities. Aesthetic and functional characteristics of many native plants, as well as contribute to the efficiency of the soil, reduce erosion, and often less than many exotic plants, fertilizers, pesticides and other chemicals, such as input, show the need for maintenance measures. Plantation studies,

*Aesthetics:* Beauty, interesting or rare forms and the native environment, establishing the

*Environment:* Water use reduction, less pesticide and fertilizer use, the creation of a suitable

*Maintenance:* low long-term maintenance costs, and less work needed to increase the

The presence of native vegetation of the country's economy is the direct and indirect benefits of unlimited. A rich variety of plant species in the flora of Turkey, local people need to grow them, as well as industrial and scientific organizations, benefits for different purposes. Native vegetation, improving a country's climatic conditions and soil loss prevention in rural areas, preparing the ground for scientific research, forest products, food, and pharmaceutical industry is a source of units to meet the need for raw materials and fuel. Especially important in the protection of endemics are carried out. Classes of endangered to which they belong are determined internationally, is under a lot of pressure given priority

The native pasture areas, overgrazing, and prevents the growth of weeds as well as to the spread of cosmopolitan species are herbaceous origin. The animals eating the herbs roots up to their neck that prevents the growth of weeds and grass pastures deteriorate the quality of

Native plants are collected from nature for various purposes (medical, spices, ornamental,

native plants are becoming increasingly popular for many countries.

Fires can damage local and rare endemic species

The European continent in the Thrace Region, different climates, soil types, and due to the geographical characteristics of the floristic aspect is very rich. Although there are many different vegetation types in the Thrace Region, There are four main types:


## **2. Tekirdağ and Ganos mountains**

Northwest Turkey Tekirdag, Marmara Sea, one of the three provinces in the north of the territory of the whole of Thrace, as well as two sea-coasts in Turkey is one of the six provinces. With a surface area of 6313 km ², Istanbul, Tekirdag from the east, north, BSNL, west of Edirne, Canakkale south-west to the south, surrounded by the Sea of Marmara. North-east to the Black Sea is 2.5 km from the coast.

The geological structure of Tekirdağ is relatively young. area of the province while the sea covered the first time, the current image of the IV. from time. Increased Anatolia and Thrace, the Aegean Marmara and Black Sea basins lowered. Soils generally consist of sandstones containing clay and cemented.

Tekirdag, approximately 1,200 km long starting Karlova 100-15000 m wide, consisting of the many faults of the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) is located near the end. (15-25 km). Faults may be caused by an earthquake within the boundaries of Tekirdag Province; Saros - Gaziköy fault in the Sea of Marmara with the edges of the trench part of the fault. Ministry of Public Works and Settlement, dated 04.18.1996 "Seismic Zoning Map of Turkey" according to the outcrops, and Barbaros 1 Mürefte Degrees are in the earthquake area.

Located in the southeastern part of the Balkan Peninsula in the Thrace region has a different morphological units. The most important of these morphological units in the province of Tekirdag Ganos and Koru Mountain (Figure 15).

Between these two mountainous terrain, river branches and split Ergene, mild, moderate, and sometimes pen plain steep slope lands in the south and middle parts are the high hills and sloping hillside land (Figure 16).

Ganos Mountain is located in the south of Thrace. Mountains, extends northeast-southwest direction. By Streams highly fragmented appearance. There are many hill and mountain villages in the region. Ganos Mountain is cool and a little rainy Mediterranean climate.

Native Vegetation 879

Therefore, there are so many taxa of Mediterranean origin. Ganos Mountain, *Quercus sp.* and *Carpinus sp.* representation of the Balkans, central Europe and the Euxine falls into the area of the dominant elements of the flora. In addition, shrubs Ganos Mountain foothills overlooking the Marmara Sea and the lowlands of the elements is observed that the

Constitute the most important Tekir Mountain the elevation of the province; 12 km south of the city of Tekirdag Kumbağ from the start, until to Gelibolu in a row (60 km) stretches. The highest point Ganos Mountain. The eastern part of the province is less high. Some of the ridges on the plains is slightly wavy. One of them is around Corlu, extends east-west direction. Line is part of a water basin that serves as a teenager, and this limits the ridge to the east foot of the Strandja Tekirdag regains the west. Istrancalar (Ganos Mountains),

In inland areas covering the vast and fertile plains of river valleys are broad-based. The most important of these, from the western direction Çerkezköy, Ergene river flowing through the bed with an ever-expanding Ergene Plain Hayrabolu and Cene (Beşiktepe)

Small and narrow coastal plains along the shores of the Marmara, the materials brought by the rivers along the coast, is a result of the accumulation. Tekirdag, Ergene Despite the fact that the basin, vegetation, rainfall, due to lack of geological structure is sparse and has a network of small streams. Irregular flow regimes of rivers, and is proportional to the amount of rainfall and the regime. In the summer, the waters decreased drying grows in winter precipitation and snow melt, or even brimming. City streams Saros Gulf, the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea is poured. Ergene important rivers of our city with the River

133 km along the coast of the Sea of Marmara Tekirdağ is the southern boundary. 2.5 km from the coast of the Black Sea, there are also. Marmara coast, leaving aside the small and narrow coastal plains, no generally high coasts. Marmaraereğlisi the only native harbor off the coast of Tekirdag. This is a peninsula. Marmaraereğlisi east of the port in the form of a semi-circle diameter of 1.600 m. Northeasterly mouth open, the other winds are closed. To

Tekirdag province, Black Sea Kastro (Camlikoy) dating back to the bay and the bay Çilingoz

Does not exceed 100 m in the Gulf of Tekirdag depth. Self called a shallow sea. Rich in marine plants and animals. More than 1000 m in the Gulf Kumbağ'dan south west of the line will be drawn deeper. Fishermen here or com channel are also. And the actual currents

Temperature averages and indices, given the general humidity, Tekirdağ province's climate is characterized as temperate semi-humid. The effect of distance and elevation coastal walks

inland sea temperature and precipitation values are entered variations are small.

prevent severe winds and west southwest wind is a haven of refuge for boats.

pseudomaquis.

Çerkezköy starts and rises gradually to the north.

alluvial deposits along the creeks and Maxillofacial Hayrabolu plains.

Corlu, Hayrabolu, Işklar, Olukbaş and puddles streams.

high and steep rocky coastline has a view.

through shoals of fish here.

**Figure 15.** Morphological structure of Ganos mountains

**Figure 16.** Profiles of Ganos Mountains, Tekirdağ, Turkey (Özyavuz, 2011)

Therefore, there are so many taxa of Mediterranean origin. Ganos Mountain, *Quercus sp.* and *Carpinus sp.* representation of the Balkans, central Europe and the Euxine falls into the area of the dominant elements of the flora. In addition, shrubs Ganos Mountain foothills overlooking the Marmara Sea and the lowlands of the elements is observed that the pseudomaquis.

878 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Tekirdag Ganos and Koru Mountain (Figure 15).

**Figure 15.** Morphological structure of Ganos mountains

**Figure 16.** Profiles of Ganos Mountains, Tekirdağ, Turkey (Özyavuz, 2011)

and sloping hillside land (Figure 16).

Located in the southeastern part of the Balkan Peninsula in the Thrace region has a different morphological units. The most important of these morphological units in the province of

Between these two mountainous terrain, river branches and split Ergene, mild, moderate, and sometimes pen plain steep slope lands in the south and middle parts are the high hills

Ganos Mountain is located in the south of Thrace. Mountains, extends northeast-southwest direction. By Streams highly fragmented appearance. There are many hill and mountain villages in the region. Ganos Mountain is cool and a little rainy Mediterranean climate.

Constitute the most important Tekir Mountain the elevation of the province; 12 km south of the city of Tekirdag Kumbağ from the start, until to Gelibolu in a row (60 km) stretches. The highest point Ganos Mountain. The eastern part of the province is less high. Some of the ridges on the plains is slightly wavy. One of them is around Corlu, extends east-west direction. Line is part of a water basin that serves as a teenager, and this limits the ridge to the east foot of the Strandja Tekirdag regains the west. Istrancalar (Ganos Mountains), Çerkezköy starts and rises gradually to the north.

In inland areas covering the vast and fertile plains of river valleys are broad-based. The most important of these, from the western direction Çerkezköy, Ergene river flowing through the bed with an ever-expanding Ergene Plain Hayrabolu and Cene (Beşiktepe) alluvial deposits along the creeks and Maxillofacial Hayrabolu plains.

Small and narrow coastal plains along the shores of the Marmara, the materials brought by the rivers along the coast, is a result of the accumulation. Tekirdag, Ergene Despite the fact that the basin, vegetation, rainfall, due to lack of geological structure is sparse and has a network of small streams. Irregular flow regimes of rivers, and is proportional to the amount of rainfall and the regime. In the summer, the waters decreased drying grows in winter precipitation and snow melt, or even brimming. City streams Saros Gulf, the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea is poured. Ergene important rivers of our city with the River Corlu, Hayrabolu, Işklar, Olukbaş and puddles streams.

133 km along the coast of the Sea of Marmara Tekirdağ is the southern boundary. 2.5 km from the coast of the Black Sea, there are also. Marmara coast, leaving aside the small and narrow coastal plains, no generally high coasts. Marmaraereğlisi the only native harbor off the coast of Tekirdag. This is a peninsula. Marmaraereğlisi east of the port in the form of a semi-circle diameter of 1.600 m. Northeasterly mouth open, the other winds are closed. To prevent severe winds and west southwest wind is a haven of refuge for boats.

Tekirdag province, Black Sea Kastro (Camlikoy) dating back to the bay and the bay Çilingoz high and steep rocky coastline has a view.

Does not exceed 100 m in the Gulf of Tekirdag depth. Self called a shallow sea. Rich in marine plants and animals. More than 1000 m in the Gulf Kumbağ'dan south west of the line will be drawn deeper. Fishermen here or com channel are also. And the actual currents through shoals of fish here.

Temperature averages and indices, given the general humidity, Tekirdağ province's climate is characterized as temperate semi-humid. The effect of distance and elevation coastal walks inland sea temperature and precipitation values are entered variations are small.

Along the coast of the Sea of Marmara, summer is hot and dry, while winters are mild and rainy characteristics of the Mediterranean climate. However, the effect of the Black Sea climate lighter summer drought. During the winter season snowfalls are common. More arid inland summer is entered the semi-continental climate with cold winters more apparent.

Native Vegetation 881

*Acer campestre L. subsp. Campestre, Alkanna tinctoria Tausch, Arbutus andrachne L*, *Asparagus acutifolius L., Briza maxima L.*, *Calycotome villosa (Poir) Lk., Capparis spinosa L., Carpinus betulus L.*, *Carpinus orientalis Miller, Cersis siliquastrum L, Cistus creticus L.*, *Colutea cilicica Boiss.et Bal.*, *Coronilla emerus subsp. Emeroides, Cercis siliquastrum L.*, *Cistus creticus L., Clematis vitalba L.*, *Colchicum autumnale L., Colutea cilicica Boiss.et Bal. Cornus mas L., Crataegus monogyna L., Cydonia oblonga Miller, Dittrichia* viscosa *L*. *Greuter, Doronicum orientale HOFFM.*, *Emerus majus Mill., Euphorbia rigida Bieb., Euphorbia characias subsp.wulfenii, Ferula communis subsp. Communis, Fraxinus ornus L. subsp. ornus, Glaucium flavum Crantz, Hymenocarpus circinnatus L. Savi, Hypericum perforatum L., İlex aquifolium L., Jasminum fruticans L.*, *Juncus acutus L., Juniperus oxycedrus L. subsp. oxycedrus., Phyllrea latifolia L. Prunus spinosa L. subsp. dasyphylla., Quercus frainetto Ten., Quercus infectoria Olivier, Quercus petraea (Mattuschka) Liebl. subsp*. *Petraea, Muscari armeniacum Lechtln Ex Baker, Nasturtium officinale L., Paliurus spina-christi Mill., Parietaria officinalis L., Phyllirea latifolia L.*, *Pistacia terebinthus L. Platanus orientalis L., Ruscus hypoglossum L., Salix viminalis L., Salvia triloba L., Sambucus ebulus L.*, *Sarcopoterium spinosum (L.) SPACH., Scorpiurus muricatus L. Fiori*., *Seseli tortuosum L., Smilax excelsa L., Spartium junceum L., Tamus communis L., Thymelaea tartonraira L., Thymus atticus Celak.*, *Tilia* 

*argentea Desf.* (Korkut, 1987; Özyavuz, 2011)

**Figure 18.** *Ruscus hypoglossum L* **Figure 19.** Emerus majus Mill.

**Figure 20.** *Hymenocarpus circinnatus L.* **Figure 21.** *Phyllrea latifolia L.*.

Extending to the north of Tekirdag House Strandja more rainfall due to the mass of the northern slopes are covered with beech forests. In this section cover ormanalt rhododendrons (Rhododendron) creates. The further south, the southern slopes and, due to reduced rainfall, *Fagus sp., Quercus sp.* and *Carpnus sp.* seen that place.

Adolescents in the residential areas near the basin rarely leave the bus at the correct Quercus sp., Carpinus sp, Paliurus and Ulmus sp. populations are outstanding. These small groups of trees, whether Thrace is a testament to the inner sections of the steppe area. Thrace region, as a result of the destruction of forests to make farmland, today has the appearance of steppe land. (Anthropogen step) In this section and in the valleys of the land base poplar and willow species are common (Figure 17).

**Figure 17.** *İlex aquifolium L.*

The northern slopes of the mountains of southern Ganos, *Carpinus sp., Quercus sp., Tilia sp.,* and under dense forest cover evident, due to reduced rainfall in the southern slopes are dry forests and scrub communities. *Quercus sp.* and *Pinus sylvestris sp.* forests in the Ganos Mountains communities are dominant.

## **3. Conclusion**

As a result of the researches of the Ganos Mountain, 202 genera and 64 families, 305 plant taxa were included in these genera. Compositae families in terms of richness of species in this family are the most important. This is followed by Leguminosae family. Ganos Mountain taxa of flora distribution of parts of the Euro-Mediterranean elements with the elements of Sibirian comes first. Tekirdağ can be shown poor in terms of forest. Istranca mountains fall within provincial areas, in places, are oak groves. In some areas, *Alnus sp, Ulmus sp.* and *Pinus species* where observed. Typical plants are Mediterrean Climate maquis, vineyards, fruit orchards and olive groves. Plants identified in this study are shown below;

*Acer campestre L. subsp. Campestre, Alkanna tinctoria Tausch, Arbutus andrachne L*, *Asparagus acutifolius L., Briza maxima L.*, *Calycotome villosa (Poir) Lk., Capparis spinosa L., Carpinus betulus L.*, *Carpinus orientalis Miller, Cersis siliquastrum L, Cistus creticus L.*, *Colutea cilicica Boiss.et Bal.*, *Coronilla emerus subsp. Emeroides, Cercis siliquastrum L.*, *Cistus creticus L., Clematis vitalba L.*, *Colchicum autumnale L., Colutea cilicica Boiss.et Bal. Cornus mas L., Crataegus monogyna L., Cydonia oblonga Miller, Dittrichia* viscosa *L*. *Greuter, Doronicum orientale HOFFM.*, *Emerus majus Mill., Euphorbia rigida Bieb., Euphorbia characias subsp.wulfenii, Ferula communis subsp. Communis, Fraxinus ornus L. subsp. ornus, Glaucium flavum Crantz, Hymenocarpus circinnatus L. Savi, Hypericum perforatum L., İlex aquifolium L., Jasminum fruticans L.*, *Juncus acutus L., Juniperus oxycedrus L. subsp. oxycedrus., Phyllrea latifolia L. Prunus spinosa L. subsp. dasyphylla., Quercus frainetto Ten., Quercus infectoria Olivier, Quercus petraea (Mattuschka) Liebl. subsp*. *Petraea, Muscari armeniacum Lechtln Ex Baker, Nasturtium officinale L., Paliurus spina-christi Mill., Parietaria officinalis L., Phyllirea latifolia L.*, *Pistacia terebinthus L. Platanus orientalis L., Ruscus hypoglossum L., Salix viminalis L., Salvia triloba L., Sambucus ebulus L.*, *Sarcopoterium spinosum (L.) SPACH., Scorpiurus muricatus L. Fiori*., *Seseli tortuosum L., Smilax excelsa L., Spartium junceum L., Tamus communis L., Thymelaea tartonraira L., Thymus atticus Celak.*, *Tilia argentea Desf.* (Korkut, 1987; Özyavuz, 2011)

**Figure 18.** *Ruscus hypoglossum L* **Figure 19.** Emerus majus Mill.

880 Advances in Landscape Architecture

apparent.

Along the coast of the Sea of Marmara, summer is hot and dry, while winters are mild and rainy characteristics of the Mediterranean climate. However, the effect of the Black Sea climate lighter summer drought. During the winter season snowfalls are common. More arid inland summer is entered the semi-continental climate with cold winters more

Extending to the north of Tekirdag House Strandja more rainfall due to the mass of the northern slopes are covered with beech forests. In this section cover ormanalt rhododendrons (Rhododendron) creates. The further south, the southern slopes and, due to

Adolescents in the residential areas near the basin rarely leave the bus at the correct Quercus sp., Carpinus sp, Paliurus and Ulmus sp. populations are outstanding. These small groups of trees, whether Thrace is a testament to the inner sections of the steppe area. Thrace region, as a result of the destruction of forests to make farmland, today has the appearance of steppe land. (Anthropogen step) In this section and in the valleys of the land base poplar

The northern slopes of the mountains of southern Ganos, *Carpinus sp., Quercus sp., Tilia sp.,* and under dense forest cover evident, due to reduced rainfall in the southern slopes are dry forests and scrub communities. *Quercus sp.* and *Pinus sylvestris sp.* forests in the Ganos

As a result of the researches of the Ganos Mountain, 202 genera and 64 families, 305 plant taxa were included in these genera. Compositae families in terms of richness of species in this family are the most important. This is followed by Leguminosae family. Ganos Mountain taxa of flora distribution of parts of the Euro-Mediterranean elements with the elements of Sibirian comes first. Tekirdağ can be shown poor in terms of forest. Istranca mountains fall within provincial areas, in places, are oak groves. In some areas, *Alnus sp, Ulmus sp.* and *Pinus species* where observed. Typical plants are Mediterrean Climate maquis, vineyards, fruit orchards and olive groves. Plants identified in this study are shown below;

reduced rainfall, *Fagus sp., Quercus sp.* and *Carpnus sp.* seen that place.

and willow species are common (Figure 17).

**Figure 17.** *İlex aquifolium L.*

**3. Conclusion** 

Mountains communities are dominant.

**Figure 20.** *Hymenocarpus circinnatus L.* **Figure 21.** *Phyllrea latifolia L.*.

**Figure 22.** *Scorpiurus muricatus L. Fiori*.

Native Vegetation 883

**Figure 27.** *Thymelaea tartonraira L.* **Figure 28.** *Tussilago farfara L.*.

**Figure 29.** *Sarcopoterium spinosum (L.) SPACH.* **Figure 30.** *Parietaria sp.*

Western Australia Position Statement No. 2, 15 p.

ve Ormanclk Araştrma Grubu Proje no: TOAG-581, Tekirdağ.

*Namk Kemal University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Design and Architect, Department of Landscape* 

Environmental Protection Authority, 2000. Clearing Of Native Vegetation, With Particular Reference To The Agricultural Area, Environmental Protection Of Native Vegetation In

Korkut, A. 1987. Trakya Bölgesi Doğal Bitki Örtüsünde Peyzaj planlama Çalşmalar Yönünden Değerlendirilebilecek Baz Bitkisel Materyalin Saptanmas, TÜBİTAK Tarm

**Author details** 

*Architecture, Turkey* 

Ayten Özyavuz

**4. References** 

Murat Özyavuz and Asl B. Korkut

*Namk Kemal University, Turkey* 

**Figure 23.** *Clematis vitalba L.* **Figure 24.** *Spartium junceum L.*

**Figure 25.** *Paliurus spina-christi Mill* **Figure 26.** *Doranicum orientale* Hoffm.

**Figure 27.** *Thymelaea tartonraira L.* **Figure 28.** *Tussilago farfara L.*.

**Figure 22.** *Scorpiurus muricatus L. Fiori*.

**Figure 23.** *Clematis vitalba L.* **Figure 24.** *Spartium junceum L.*

**Figure 25.** *Paliurus spina-christi Mill* **Figure 26.** *Doranicum orientale* Hoffm.

**Figure 29.** *Sarcopoterium spinosum (L.) SPACH.* **Figure 30.** *Parietaria sp.*

## **Author details**

Murat Özyavuz and Asl B. Korkut

*Namk Kemal University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Design and Architect, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

Ayten Özyavuz *Namk Kemal University, Turkey* 

## **4. References**


National Wildlife Federation, 2013. What is Biodiversity?, http://www.nwf.org/wildlife/ wildlife-conservation/biodiversity.aspx.

**Chapter 35** 

© 2013 Dilaver, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Conservation of Natural Plants** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Zuhal Dilaver

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55767

ecosystems and functions [1].

measure in this regard.

species diversity and ecosystem diversity.

but also characteristics and processes [1].

**1. Introduction** 

**and Their Use in Landscape Architecture** 

Biological diversity means the diversification of living organisms in all sources including the terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological structures that are part of these ecosystems. It refers to the differences exhibited by the living environments (habitats or, more broadly, ecosystems) of species in terms of various biotic and abiotic factors. It also refers to the differences between living things in ecosystems and between living and nonliving things, which vary according to place and time and to all of genes, species,

Biological diversity can be divided into three hierarchical categories: genetic diversity,

**Genetic Diversity** means the diversity within a given species. It is measured by the genetic

**Species Diversity** means the diversity of the species in a particular region or in the entire world. "Species richness", i.e. the number of species in a region is the most commonly used

**Ecosystem Diversity** is about the whole created by the community of organisms that interact with each other as an ecological unit and by their physical environment. The ecosystem consists of factors, such as fire, climate and the food cycle, which are separate from the community level and which are non-living themselves but still they affect the formation, structure and interaction of the community of living things. The conservation of biological diversity at the ecosystem level includes the conservation of the food chain and of the energy flow. At this level, it is necessary to protect not only species or groups of species

difference within a certain species, population, variety, sub-species or race.


## **Conservation of Natural Plants and Their Use in Landscape Architecture**

Zuhal Dilaver

884 Advances in Landscape Architecture

Report no. 29, Melbourne.

*nativeplants.shtml*

wildlife-conservation/biodiversity.aspx.

Sciences, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey.

*Journal of Tekirdag Agricultural Faculty*, 8(2), p.37-48.

National Wildlife Federation, 2013. What is Biodiversity?, http://www.nwf.org/wildlife/

Özyavuz, A. 2011. Determnaton of some plants grown n natural vegetaton n Tekrdağ (kumbağ-sarköy between) Coastlne and usage Opportuntes n landscape archtecture, MSc. Thesis, Namk Kemal University, Graduate School of Natural and Applied

Özyavuz, M. 2011. Analysis with Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing Techniques, Ecological Conditions of Vegetation, Ganos (Işklar) Mountain (Tekirdağ),

Peter L. Smith, Brian Wilson, Chris Nadolny, Des Lang. 2000. The ecological role of The native vegetation Of new south Wales, Native Vegetation Advisory Council, 60 p. Productivity Commission 2004, Impacts of Native Vegetation and Biodiversity Regulations,

Slattery, Britt E., Kathryn Reshetiloff, and Susan M. Zwicker. 2003. Native Plants for Wildlife Habitat and Conservation Landscaping: Chesapeake Bay Watershed. U.S. Fish &

Smith, P. L., Wilson, B., Nadolny, C. 2000. The ecological role of the native vegetation of new

Victorian Government Department of Sustainability and Environment, 2012. Future directions for native vegetation in Victoria Review of Victoria's native vegetation

*Virginia Department of Conservation & Recreation, 2012. Native Plants for Conservation, Restoration, and Landscaping, http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural\_heritage/* 

Wildlife Service, Chesapeake Bay Field Office, Annapolis, MD. 82 pp.

permitted clearing regulations, ISBN 978-1-74287-616-0 (online), 36 p.

south Wales, Native Vegetation Advisory Council, 60 p.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55767

## **1. Introduction**

Biological diversity means the diversification of living organisms in all sources including the terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological structures that are part of these ecosystems. It refers to the differences exhibited by the living environments (habitats or, more broadly, ecosystems) of species in terms of various biotic and abiotic factors. It also refers to the differences between living things in ecosystems and between living and nonliving things, which vary according to place and time and to all of genes, species, ecosystems and functions [1].

Biological diversity can be divided into three hierarchical categories: genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity.

**Genetic Diversity** means the diversity within a given species. It is measured by the genetic difference within a certain species, population, variety, sub-species or race.

**Species Diversity** means the diversity of the species in a particular region or in the entire world. "Species richness", i.e. the number of species in a region is the most commonly used measure in this regard.

**Ecosystem Diversity** is about the whole created by the community of organisms that interact with each other as an ecological unit and by their physical environment. The ecosystem consists of factors, such as fire, climate and the food cycle, which are separate from the community level and which are non-living themselves but still they affect the formation, structure and interaction of the community of living things. The conservation of biological diversity at the ecosystem level includes the conservation of the food chain and of the energy flow. At this level, it is necessary to protect not only species or groups of species but also characteristics and processes [1].

© 2013 Dilaver, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

As human activity continues to spread throughout the earth, natural areas are changed, resulting in increasing extinctions of plants, animals, and other types of species. Currently, many experts believe such extinctions are occurring at the fastest rate in history and perhaps the fastest rate since the extinction of dinosaurs 65 million years ago. This loss of biological diversity is accelerating as desertification, deforestation (especially in the tropics), degradation of oceans and water resources, atmospheric change, and other environmental changes continue rapidly [2].

Protection of Natural Plants and Their Use in Landscape Architecture Works 887

 the altitude differences that range between 0 and 5,000 meters, the country has deep canyons and very different types of ecosystems,

Anatolia resulting in ecological and floristic differences, the country is at the point where three continents intersect [1].

and different forms and combinations of these ecosystems [1].

zones, constitute about 35 percent of Turkey's total surface area [1].

[1].

**3. Ecosystem diversity** 

it was less affected by the glacial period in comparison with European countries,

the existence of the Anatolian Diagonal which links Northern Anatolia to Southern

The Euro-Siberian Biogeographical Zone extends throughout Northern Anatolia and through those parts of the Thracian Region which face the Black Sea. This climatic region has the highest rainfall and is largely covered with forests. The Mediterranean Biogeographical Zone, on the other hand, covers all areas on the Mediterranean cost and the western parts of Thrace and includes very different types of ecosystems. The Irano-Turanian zone is the largest of the Biogeographical Zones, starting in Central Anatolia and extending as far as Mongolia. The continental climate and steppe flora are predominant in this zone

Turkey has agricultural, forest, mountain, steppe, wetland, coastal and marine ecosystems

**Agricultural Ecosystems:** In Turkey different agricultural ecosystems are seen in coastal regions, inner regions and transition regions. Cultivated areas, located mostly in steppe

**Steppe Ecosystems:** There are about 21 million hectares of steppes and grasslands, defined as areas covered with herbaceous plants in Turkey. The steppe ecosystems are prevalent especially in Central Anatolia, in the high mountain floors of the Aegean and Mediterranean Regions and in a major part of Eastern Anatolia. The most characteristic feature of the steppe ecosystem is the predominance of annual or perennial herbaceous plants. The floristic composition of the steppe vegetation is very rich and includes many endemic plants. The steppe formation can be divided into two as "Plain Steppe" and "Mountain Steppe" in Turkey depending on the topographical structure of the area in which it lies. The plain steppe provides a habitat for species such as halophilic plants, members of the Chenopodiaceae, Juncaceae and Cyperaceae, *Peganum harmala* L., *Veroniva cymbalaria* Bodard, *Thymus L*. and *Salvia* L. The mountain steppe on the other hand, hosts the species of *Astragalus* L., *Onobrychis cornuta* (L.) Desv., *Acantholimon* Boiss., *Asphodelus* L. and *Thymus* L. In the Eastern Anatolia mountain steppe, *Ferula* L. becomes more predominant unlike in other regions. Alpine and sub-Alpine meadows cover large areas in the higher parts of the Eastern

Black Sea Mountains and in the northern and northeastern parts of Eastern Anatolia [1].

**Forest Ecosystems:** In Turkey, forest ecosystems cover a total area of 21,188,747 hectares. Forests consisting of broad-leaved trees are more widespread in Turkey. Coniferous trees occur at all altitudes from sea level to the highest limit where forests exist. In the Aegean and Mediterranean regions, there are humid and semi-humid coniferous and dry forests

Biological diversity is important to human welfare for many reasons. Agricultural crops derive from wild species, and the high-yielding hybrids of modern agriculture depend on continuing revitalization from wild genetic stock. Furthermore, future crop species that could be used directly or modified by biotechnology are lost when entire ecosystems are wiped out. Plants are the basis of prescription drugs; a number of plants discovered in tropical rainforests or other wild areas have made significant contributions to treatment of serious diseases. Also, loss of species often means the breakdown of ecosystems that may have important roles in regulating rainfall, controlling floods, producing oxygen and storing carbon, affecting both regional and global climate [2].

At the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, it was agreed that the decrease of biological diversity is a major problem and can only be prevented through international efforts. The Summit ended with the signing of important global conventions including the Convention on Biological Diversity, to which Turkey is a party by signing and ratifying it through the No. Law 4177 of 29 August 1996. The Convention entered into force in our country on 14 May 1997 [1].

The three main goals of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) are:


The Convention dictates that each country must identify its biological resources for which special protection measures are needed and which have a greater potential for sustainable use and also identify and monitor the categories and processes of actions that may have a negative effect on conservation and sustainable use [1].

## **2. Biological diversity in Turkey**

Turkey displays the character of a small continent in terms of biological diversity. Among the reasons for this are the following facts:


The Euro-Siberian Biogeographical Zone extends throughout Northern Anatolia and through those parts of the Thracian Region which face the Black Sea. This climatic region has the highest rainfall and is largely covered with forests. The Mediterranean Biogeographical Zone, on the other hand, covers all areas on the Mediterranean cost and the western parts of Thrace and includes very different types of ecosystems. The Irano-Turanian zone is the largest of the Biogeographical Zones, starting in Central Anatolia and extending as far as Mongolia. The continental climate and steppe flora are predominant in this zone [1].

## **3. Ecosystem diversity**

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changes continue rapidly [2].

carbon, affecting both regional and global climate [2].

negative effect on conservation and sustainable use [1].

namely Euro-Siberian, Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian, its topographic, geological, geomorphologic and soil diversity,

 Conservation of biological diversity; Sustainable use of biological resources; and

**2. Biological diversity in Turkey** 

the reasons for this are the following facts:

water, salt water and mineral water lakes,

resources [1].

Convention entered into force in our country on 14 May 1997 [1].

The three main goals of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) are:

As human activity continues to spread throughout the earth, natural areas are changed, resulting in increasing extinctions of plants, animals, and other types of species. Currently, many experts believe such extinctions are occurring at the fastest rate in history and perhaps the fastest rate since the extinction of dinosaurs 65 million years ago. This loss of biological diversity is accelerating as desertification, deforestation (especially in the tropics), degradation of oceans and water resources, atmospheric change, and other environmental

Biological diversity is important to human welfare for many reasons. Agricultural crops derive from wild species, and the high-yielding hybrids of modern agriculture depend on continuing revitalization from wild genetic stock. Furthermore, future crop species that could be used directly or modified by biotechnology are lost when entire ecosystems are wiped out. Plants are the basis of prescription drugs; a number of plants discovered in tropical rainforests or other wild areas have made significant contributions to treatment of serious diseases. Also, loss of species often means the breakdown of ecosystems that may have important roles in regulating rainfall, controlling floods, producing oxygen and storing

At the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, it was agreed that the decrease of biological diversity is a major problem and can only be prevented through international efforts. The Summit ended with the signing of important global conventions including the Convention on Biological Diversity, to which Turkey is a party by signing and ratifying it through the No. Law 4177 of 29 August 1996. The

Fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic

The Convention dictates that each country must identify its biological resources for which special protection measures are needed and which have a greater potential for sustainable use and also identify and monitor the categories and processes of actions that may have a

Turkey displays the character of a small continent in terms of biological diversity. Among

the country has three different types of bio climate and three Biogeographical Zones,

the existence of different types of aquatic bodies such as the sea, lakes, rivers, and fresh

Turkey has agricultural, forest, mountain, steppe, wetland, coastal and marine ecosystems and different forms and combinations of these ecosystems [1].

**Agricultural Ecosystems:** In Turkey different agricultural ecosystems are seen in coastal regions, inner regions and transition regions. Cultivated areas, located mostly in steppe zones, constitute about 35 percent of Turkey's total surface area [1].

**Steppe Ecosystems:** There are about 21 million hectares of steppes and grasslands, defined as areas covered with herbaceous plants in Turkey. The steppe ecosystems are prevalent especially in Central Anatolia, in the high mountain floors of the Aegean and Mediterranean Regions and in a major part of Eastern Anatolia. The most characteristic feature of the steppe ecosystem is the predominance of annual or perennial herbaceous plants. The floristic composition of the steppe vegetation is very rich and includes many endemic plants. The steppe formation can be divided into two as "Plain Steppe" and "Mountain Steppe" in Turkey depending on the topographical structure of the area in which it lies. The plain steppe provides a habitat for species such as halophilic plants, members of the Chenopodiaceae, Juncaceae and Cyperaceae, *Peganum harmala* L., *Veroniva cymbalaria* Bodard, *Thymus L*. and *Salvia* L. The mountain steppe on the other hand, hosts the species of *Astragalus* L., *Onobrychis cornuta* (L.) Desv., *Acantholimon* Boiss., *Asphodelus* L. and *Thymus* L. In the Eastern Anatolia mountain steppe, *Ferula* L. becomes more predominant unlike in other regions. Alpine and sub-Alpine meadows cover large areas in the higher parts of the Eastern Black Sea Mountains and in the northern and northeastern parts of Eastern Anatolia [1].

**Forest Ecosystems:** In Turkey, forest ecosystems cover a total area of 21,188,747 hectares. Forests consisting of broad-leaved trees are more widespread in Turkey. Coniferous trees occur at all altitudes from sea level to the highest limit where forests exist. In the Aegean and Mediterranean regions, there are humid and semi-humid coniferous and dry forests

(*Quercus* L, *Pinus nigra* Arnold and *Pinus brutia* Ten.) as well as shrubs and maquis. These rich forest ecosystems of Turkey provide habitats for a great number of endemic plant species, important bird species and other wildlife species. These ecosystems also include the wild relatives of many cultivated plants which are important for agricultural biological diversity [1].

Protection of Natural Plants and Their Use in Landscape Architecture Works 889

**Figure 1.** *Iris schachtii* Markgraf (Z. Dilaver)

**Figure 2.** *Crocus danfordiae* Maw.(Z. Dilaver)

**Mountain Ecosystems:** In Turkey, there are mountain systems formed by folding, faulting and volcanism. The types of the mountain ecosystems differ according to biogeographical regions, to patterns of formation and to altitudes [1].

**Inland Waters Ecosystems:** Turkey has very important inland water resources to maintain biological diversity with its rivers and lakes covering an area of about 10,000 km2. In studies conducted so far, 135 wetlands of international significance have been identified and 12 of them designated as Ramsar sites. In Turkey, there are 7 drainage basins including 26 river basins, and the ground waters are estimated at 94 billion m³. The average annual rainfall is about 640 mm, roughly one third of which reaches water reserves and thus contributes to the maintenance of wetlands. In Turkey's wetlands, plants such as *Typha* L., *Phragmites* L, *Schoenoplectus* (REICHB.) PALLA and *Juncus* L. form large communities. In addition, there are also plants that cover the water surface such as *Nymphae* L. and underwater plants that grow in shallow lakes such as *Phodophyllum* L., *Wolffia* Horkel ex Schleid., *Lemna* L. and *Ceratophyllum* L., *Myriophyllum* L. and *Potamogeton* L. [1].

**Coastal and Marine Ecosystems:** Different characteristics of the seas surrounding Turkey, namely the Black Sea, the Marmara, the Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean, have resulted in the diversification of the biological resources they contain. The Mediterranean, which has the highest salinity and temperature among the Turkish seas, is the area with the richest biological diversity. Coastal ecosystems are highly special ecosystems as they are important sudden transition zones (ecotones) where marine and terrestrial ecosystems intersect. Coastal ecosystems form 4.1 % of the terrestrial resources that make up the country's surface area. The fact that the patterns in which mountains come down to the sea, and the coastal topography, differ from each other in the coastal areas of our country have resulted in various coastal ecosystems such as dunes, caves, deltas, lagoons, marshes and calcerous terraces. Among all these coasts, particularly the coastal areas in the Eastern Mediterranean region are rich ecosystems with very high flora and fauna diversity [1].

## **4. Species diversity**

Turkey has a relatively rich flora (about 12 000 species) and still a great number of species are being described (Figure 1,2,3,4). In this flora, there are a lot of interesting species such as halophytic species, semi-desert plants, carnivorous plants and nickel hyperacumulators. In Turkey, the rate of endemism is relatively high when compared with other European countries. It is about 34 percent in Turkey while it is 14.9 percent in Greece, 2.9 percent in France, 18.6 percent in Spain and 0.1 percent in Poland. The number of endemic species in Turkey is greater than 3000 [3].

**Figure 1.** *Iris schachtii* Markgraf (Z. Dilaver)

**4. Species diversity** 

Turkey is greater than 3000 [3].

regions, to patterns of formation and to altitudes [1].

*Ceratophyllum* L., *Myriophyllum* L. and *Potamogeton* L. [1].

diversity [1].

(*Quercus* L, *Pinus nigra* Arnold and *Pinus brutia* Ten.) as well as shrubs and maquis. These rich forest ecosystems of Turkey provide habitats for a great number of endemic plant species, important bird species and other wildlife species. These ecosystems also include the wild relatives of many cultivated plants which are important for agricultural biological

**Mountain Ecosystems:** In Turkey, there are mountain systems formed by folding, faulting and volcanism. The types of the mountain ecosystems differ according to biogeographical

**Inland Waters Ecosystems:** Turkey has very important inland water resources to maintain biological diversity with its rivers and lakes covering an area of about 10,000 km2. In studies conducted so far, 135 wetlands of international significance have been identified and 12 of them designated as Ramsar sites. In Turkey, there are 7 drainage basins including 26 river basins, and the ground waters are estimated at 94 billion m³. The average annual rainfall is about 640 mm, roughly one third of which reaches water reserves and thus contributes to the maintenance of wetlands. In Turkey's wetlands, plants such as *Typha* L., *Phragmites* L, *Schoenoplectus* (REICHB.) PALLA and *Juncus* L. form large communities. In addition, there are also plants that cover the water surface such as *Nymphae* L. and underwater plants that grow in shallow lakes such as *Phodophyllum* L., *Wolffia* Horkel ex Schleid., *Lemna* L. and

**Coastal and Marine Ecosystems:** Different characteristics of the seas surrounding Turkey, namely the Black Sea, the Marmara, the Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean, have resulted in the diversification of the biological resources they contain. The Mediterranean, which has the highest salinity and temperature among the Turkish seas, is the area with the richest biological diversity. Coastal ecosystems are highly special ecosystems as they are important sudden transition zones (ecotones) where marine and terrestrial ecosystems intersect. Coastal ecosystems form 4.1 % of the terrestrial resources that make up the country's surface area. The fact that the patterns in which mountains come down to the sea, and the coastal topography, differ from each other in the coastal areas of our country have resulted in various coastal ecosystems such as dunes, caves, deltas, lagoons, marshes and calcerous terraces. Among all these coasts, particularly the coastal areas in the Eastern Mediterranean region are rich ecosystems with very high flora and fauna diversity [1].

Turkey has a relatively rich flora (about 12 000 species) and still a great number of species are being described (Figure 1,2,3,4). In this flora, there are a lot of interesting species such as halophytic species, semi-desert plants, carnivorous plants and nickel hyperacumulators. In Turkey, the rate of endemism is relatively high when compared with other European countries. It is about 34 percent in Turkey while it is 14.9 percent in Greece, 2.9 percent in France, 18.6 percent in Spain and 0.1 percent in Poland. The number of endemic species in

**Figure 2.** *Crocus danfordiae* Maw.(Z. Dilaver)

In terms of endemic plant species, the richest family of Turkey is Compositae, which has approximately 425 endemic species. The richest genus in terms of endemic species, on the other hand, is *Astragalus* L. with 250 species. It is followed by *Verbascum L.* with 185 species

Among the phytogeographical regions, the Irano-Turanian is the region having the highest number of endemic. Mediterranean Region is the second and the Euro-Siberian Region is the third in this regard. Turkey's richest region in terms of endemic plants unique to that region alone is the Mediterranean region with 800 or so species. In Eastern Anatolia 375, in Central Anatolia 275, in Black Sea 210 and in the Aegean Region 150 endemic species grow. Marmara (70) and Southeast Anatolia (35) Regions are the poorest geographical regions of Turkey in terms of endemics. The other endemics are distributed in more than one

"Red List of Threatened Species" is the most well-known study of the World Conservation Union (IUCN), which was last published in 2004. This red list is accepted to be the most comprehensive source about the latest status of threatened plant and animal species. IUCN

In our country, after being completed 9 volume of Flora of Turkey as a main source in 1985, a list similar with this was started to be constituted with the help of Turkish Association for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It was published in 1989 with the name of "List of Rare Threatened and Endemic Plants in Turkey". After this publication, more and more floristic studies -especially the project investigating endemic plants of Turkey in detailshowed that some data in the first list should be changed or at least could be updated. Thereupon "Red Data Book of Turkish Plants" which was prepared and published in 2000 became a national list using new threat categories of IUCN. This source is because it shows Turkey's biological diversity and the status of species in terms of the danger categories. In order to protect biological diversity it is necessary to know about it and to create its database. In this study 3504 endemic and 1096 rare plants were assessed and listed in accordance with appropriate danger categories. According to this list, 46.6 percent of 3504 endemic plants and 77.4 percent of 1096 rare plants is under threat. On the other hand, 13 plant taxon in total, of which 12 was endemic, and one was rare, already extinct. While 270 endemic and 244 rare plant taxon could not be placed under a danger category because of

lack of data and were listed under DD-Data deficient category [6].

[4].

geographical area [4].

1. Extinct,

4. Endangered 5. Vulnerable 6. Lower risk 7. Data deficient 8. Not evaluated [5].

cited the danger categories as:

2. Extinct in the wild, 3. Critically endangered

**Figure 3.** *Astragalus anthylloides* Lam. (Z. Dilaver)

**Figure 4.** *Scutellaria orientalis* L. (Z. Dilaver)

In terms of endemic plant species, the richest family of Turkey is Compositae, which has approximately 425 endemic species. The richest genus in terms of endemic species, on the other hand, is *Astragalus* L. with 250 species. It is followed by *Verbascum L.* with 185 species [4].

Among the phytogeographical regions, the Irano-Turanian is the region having the highest number of endemic. Mediterranean Region is the second and the Euro-Siberian Region is the third in this regard. Turkey's richest region in terms of endemic plants unique to that region alone is the Mediterranean region with 800 or so species. In Eastern Anatolia 375, in Central Anatolia 275, in Black Sea 210 and in the Aegean Region 150 endemic species grow. Marmara (70) and Southeast Anatolia (35) Regions are the poorest geographical regions of Turkey in terms of endemics. The other endemics are distributed in more than one geographical area [4].

"Red List of Threatened Species" is the most well-known study of the World Conservation Union (IUCN), which was last published in 2004. This red list is accepted to be the most comprehensive source about the latest status of threatened plant and animal species. IUCN cited the danger categories as:

1. Extinct,

890 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 3.** *Astragalus anthylloides* Lam. (Z. Dilaver)

**Figure 4.** *Scutellaria orientalis* L. (Z. Dilaver)


In our country, after being completed 9 volume of Flora of Turkey as a main source in 1985, a list similar with this was started to be constituted with the help of Turkish Association for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It was published in 1989 with the name of "List of Rare Threatened and Endemic Plants in Turkey". After this publication, more and more floristic studies -especially the project investigating endemic plants of Turkey in detailshowed that some data in the first list should be changed or at least could be updated. Thereupon "Red Data Book of Turkish Plants" which was prepared and published in 2000 became a national list using new threat categories of IUCN. This source is because it shows Turkey's biological diversity and the status of species in terms of the danger categories. In order to protect biological diversity it is necessary to know about it and to create its database. In this study 3504 endemic and 1096 rare plants were assessed and listed in accordance with appropriate danger categories. According to this list, 46.6 percent of 3504 endemic plants and 77.4 percent of 1096 rare plants is under threat. On the other hand, 13 plant taxon in total, of which 12 was endemic, and one was rare, already extinct. While 270 endemic and 244 rare plant taxon could not be placed under a danger category because of lack of data and were listed under DD-Data deficient category [6].


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There are two different methods that are widely accepted in the world, used in order to conserve biological diversity. First of these is the "In Situ" conservation that aims at protecting the plants within their own natural growth areas. The other system is the "Ex Situ" conservation that envisages the protection of biological diversity features outside their

Despite it is possible to protect a large number of plant species by moving them to the areas outside their ecosystems by means of ex-situ conservation methods, the most important way to protect plant species is to protect them in the habitats they live. The reason for this is that all living things depend on each other in an ecosystem. No species in nature has an isolated environment and the species interact with other in many ways. Another advantage of in situ conservation is that protecting an efficient species population in its own habitat is easier when compared with ex situ conservation. As a result, ex situ conservation methods appears to be only as supporting methods alongside the in situ conservation. However, the botanical gardens allowing you to see many species of plants together and learn about are important, especially in terms of education and scientific research. Likewise, seeds and tissue banks is increasingly gaining importance with the fast growing biotechnology methods. However, in species with the physical environment as a whole to protect ecosystems, the future will be

In the "In Situ" system, the restricted areas where the genetic material is found are protected

The rapid consumption of natural resources, the increasing amount of pollution and environmental problems that have reached a global dimension have brought the obligation for countries to act in cooperation. Today, protected areas are vital component of all global and National nature conservation efforts. Many areas that have rich biodiversity and natural - cultural values have been designated as a national park and other protection statues to

Protected areas are the cornerstone of biodiversity conservation; they maintain key habitats, provide refugia, allow for species migration and movement, and ensure the maintenance of natural processes across the landscape. Not only do protected areas secure biodiversity conservation, they also secure the well-being of humanity itself. Protected areas provide livelihoods for nearly 1.1 billion people are the primary source of drinking water for over a third of the world's largest cities and are a major factor in ensuring global food security. Well managed protected areas harboring participatory and equitable governance mechanisms yield significant benefits far beyond their boundaries, which can be translated into cumulative advantages across a National economy and contribute to poverty reduction and sustainable development including achievement of the Millennium Development Goals

**6. Conservation of biological diversity** 

natural living areas [7].

guaranteed [8].

**7. In Situ Conservation** 

support conservation [10].

[10].

by minimizing the human and animal effects [9].

**Table 1.** Taxon numbers of species and subspecies of various plant groups; endemism, rare and endangered species, extinct species

## **5. Genetic diversity**

Plant genetic diversity is of great importance for both Turkish and world agriculture. Turkey has a very special position in terms of plant genetic resources. Turkey is situated at the intersection of two important Vavilovian gene centers: Mediterranean and Near East. These two regions have a key role in the emergence of cereals and horticultural plants. Some of the cultivated plant species of Anatolian origin are the following: *Linum* L., *Allium* L., *Hordeum* L., *Triticum* L., *Avena* L., Cicer L., *Lens* Mill., *Pisum* L., *Vitis* L., *Amygladus* L, *Prunus* L., *Beta* L., etc. Turkey, situated where two different gene and diversity centres overlap, is the gene and origin centre of the following cultivated plants among others: *Triticum* L, *Hordeum* L, *Secale* L., *Avena* L., *Linum* L., *Allium* L., *Cicer* L., *Lens* Mill., *Pisum* L., *Medicago* L. and *Vicia* L. Turkey is the home of many decorative plants including *Tulipa* L. and *Galanthus* L. [1].

Turkey is also quite rich in gene resources, including the valuable gene resources of *Cedrus libani* A. Rich., *Picea orientalis* (L.) LINK and *Fagus orientalis* LIPSKY together with 5 *Pinus* L., 4 *Abies* Mill., 20 *Quercus* L. and 8 *Juniperus* L. species among the local forest trees of national and global importance. The important forest trees are as follows: *Pinus* L. species (*Pinus brutia* Ten., *P. nigra* Arnold, *P. sylvestris* L., *P. halepensis* Mill. and *P. pinea* L.), *Abies* Mill. species (*Abies nordmanniana* (STEV.) SPACH *subsp. nordmanniana* (STEV.) SPACH, *A. nordmanniana* (STEV.) SPACH *subsp. bornmulleriana* (mattf.) COODE ET CULLEN, *A. nordmanniana* (STEV.) SPACH *subsp. equitrojani* (ASCHERS. ET SINT. EX BOISS.) COOD ET C, *A. cilicica* (ANT. ET KOTSCHY) CARR. *subsp. cilicica* (ANT. ET KOTSCHY) CARR., *A. cilicica* (ANT. ET KOTSCHY) *subsp. isaurica* COODE ET CULLEN), *Cedrus libani* A. Rich., *Fagus orientalis* LIPSKY, *Picea orientalis* (L.) LINK, *Tilia* L., *Alnus* Mill. (2 species, a total of 6 taxons), Juniperus L. (8 species), and Quercus L. (about 20 species) [1].

## **6. Conservation of biological diversity**

892 Advances in Landscape Architecture

endangered species, extinct species

**5. Genetic diversity** 

**Table 1.** Taxon numbers of species and subspecies of various plant groups; endemism, rare and

Turkey is the home of many decorative plants including *Tulipa* L. and *Galanthus* L. [1].

taxons), Juniperus L. (8 species), and Quercus L. (about 20 species) [1].

Turkey is also quite rich in gene resources, including the valuable gene resources of *Cedrus libani* A. Rich., *Picea orientalis* (L.) LINK and *Fagus orientalis* LIPSKY together with 5 *Pinus* L., 4 *Abies* Mill., 20 *Quercus* L. and 8 *Juniperus* L. species among the local forest trees of national and global importance. The important forest trees are as follows: *Pinus* L. species (*Pinus brutia* Ten., *P. nigra* Arnold, *P. sylvestris* L., *P. halepensis* Mill. and *P. pinea* L.), *Abies* Mill. species (*Abies nordmanniana* (STEV.) SPACH *subsp. nordmanniana* (STEV.) SPACH, *A. nordmanniana* (STEV.) SPACH *subsp. bornmulleriana* (mattf.) COODE ET CULLEN, *A. nordmanniana* (STEV.) SPACH *subsp. equitrojani* (ASCHERS. ET SINT. EX BOISS.) COOD ET C, *A. cilicica* (ANT. ET KOTSCHY) CARR. *subsp. cilicica* (ANT. ET KOTSCHY) CARR., *A. cilicica* (ANT. ET KOTSCHY) *subsp. isaurica* COODE ET CULLEN), *Cedrus libani* A. Rich., *Fagus orientalis* LIPSKY, *Picea orientalis* (L.) LINK, *Tilia* L., *Alnus* Mill. (2 species, a total of 6

Plant genetic diversity is of great importance for both Turkish and world agriculture. Turkey has a very special position in terms of plant genetic resources. Turkey is situated at the intersection of two important Vavilovian gene centers: Mediterranean and Near East. These two regions have a key role in the emergence of cereals and horticultural plants. Some of the cultivated plant species of Anatolian origin are the following: *Linum* L., *Allium* L., *Hordeum* L., *Triticum* L., *Avena* L., Cicer L., *Lens* Mill., *Pisum* L., *Vitis* L., *Amygladus* L, *Prunus* L., *Beta* L., etc. Turkey, situated where two different gene and diversity centres overlap, is the gene and origin centre of the following cultivated plants among others: *Triticum* L, *Hordeum* L, *Secale* L., *Avena* L., *Linum* L., *Allium* L., *Cicer* L., *Lens* Mill., *Pisum* L., *Medicago* L. and *Vicia* L. There are two different methods that are widely accepted in the world, used in order to conserve biological diversity. First of these is the "In Situ" conservation that aims at protecting the plants within their own natural growth areas. The other system is the "Ex Situ" conservation that envisages the protection of biological diversity features outside their natural living areas [7].

Despite it is possible to protect a large number of plant species by moving them to the areas outside their ecosystems by means of ex-situ conservation methods, the most important way to protect plant species is to protect them in the habitats they live. The reason for this is that all living things depend on each other in an ecosystem. No species in nature has an isolated environment and the species interact with other in many ways. Another advantage of in situ conservation is that protecting an efficient species population in its own habitat is easier when compared with ex situ conservation. As a result, ex situ conservation methods appears to be only as supporting methods alongside the in situ conservation. However, the botanical gardens allowing you to see many species of plants together and learn about are important, especially in terms of education and scientific research. Likewise, seeds and tissue banks is increasingly gaining importance with the fast growing biotechnology methods. However, in species with the physical environment as a whole to protect ecosystems, the future will be guaranteed [8].

## **7. In Situ Conservation**

In the "In Situ" system, the restricted areas where the genetic material is found are protected by minimizing the human and animal effects [9].

The rapid consumption of natural resources, the increasing amount of pollution and environmental problems that have reached a global dimension have brought the obligation for countries to act in cooperation. Today, protected areas are vital component of all global and National nature conservation efforts. Many areas that have rich biodiversity and natural - cultural values have been designated as a national park and other protection statues to support conservation [10].

Protected areas are the cornerstone of biodiversity conservation; they maintain key habitats, provide refugia, allow for species migration and movement, and ensure the maintenance of natural processes across the landscape. Not only do protected areas secure biodiversity conservation, they also secure the well-being of humanity itself. Protected areas provide livelihoods for nearly 1.1 billion people are the primary source of drinking water for over a third of the world's largest cities and are a major factor in ensuring global food security. Well managed protected areas harboring participatory and equitable governance mechanisms yield significant benefits far beyond their boundaries, which can be translated into cumulative advantages across a National economy and contribute to poverty reduction and sustainable development including achievement of the Millennium Development Goals [10].

**Definition of Protected Area According to the IUCN (1994):** An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means [11].

Protection of Natural Plants and Their Use in Landscape Architecture Works 895

scenic value: and where safeguarding the integrity of this interaction is vital to protecting

Category VI - protected areas conserve ecosystems and habitats, together with associated cultural values and traditional natural resource management systems. They are generally large, with most of the area in a natural condition, where a proportion is under sustainable natural resource management and where low-level non-industrial use of natural resources compatible with nature conservation is seen as one of the main aims of

Besides these categories, it is observed that countries develop others based on their regulations and institutional structure. Also, there are other protected areas like UNESCO Biosphere Reserves, World Heritage Areas, and RAMSAR Areas. While there are protected areas managed by national legislations and specific laws that belongs to the areas, at the same time, those are affected by the international conventions and agreements which are relevant with the conservation of biodiversity and natural resources, management and

Protection initiatives in Turkey are mostly in the form of in situ protection. There are various protected areas in Turkey which are under different institutions' authority and supervision and defined under certain laws. Turkey has signed many international

In accordance with these conventions, by 2011, nearly 1800 sites had been identified by the Ministry of Forest and Water as warranted protection under the 1983 law (Table 2)

Turkey has 41 National Parks and approximately 37 percent of their total area is forest ecosystems (Figure 5,6,7). Besides, Turkey has 41 Nature Parks and approximately 25

and sustaining the area and its associated nature conservation and other values.

Category VI: Protected area with sustainable use of natural resources

sustainable use of the values and sustainable development [13].

conventions and protocols on Nature Protection. These conventions are;

Convention on Biodiversity Conservation (Rio Convention) (1997)

Protection of Cultural and National Heritage (1983)

percent of them are forest ecosystems (Figure 8) [15].

 Convention on Combating Erosion (1998) European Landscape Convention (2000)

the area.

*Protected Areas in Turkey* 

Cartagena Protocol (2004)

 Bern Convention(1984) Ramsar Convention (1994) Kyoto Protocol (2009) [14].

 Barcelona Convention (1988) Bucharest Convention (1994)

CITES (1996)

[14].

**Definition of Protected Area According to the IUCN (2008):** A clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values [12].

IUCN divided the protected areas into the following categories [12]:

Category I a: Strict nature reserve

Category I a - strictly protected areas set aside to protect biodiversity and also possibly geological/geomorphological features, where human visitation, use and impacts are strictly controlled and limited to ensure protection of the conservation values. Such protected areas can serve as indispensable reference areas for scientific research and monitoring.

Category I b: Wilderness area

Category I b - protected areas are usually large unmodified or slightly modified areas, retaining their natural character and influence, without permanent or significant human habitation, which are protected and managed so as to preserve their natural condition.

Category II: National park

Category II - protected areas are large natural or near natural areas set aside to protect largescale ecological processes, along with the complement of species and ecosystems characteristic of the area, which also provide a foundation for environmentally and culturally compatible spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and visitor opportunities.

Category III: Natural monument or feature

Category III - protected areas are set aside to protect a specific natural monument, which can be a landform, sea mount, submarine cavern, geological feature such as a cave or even a living feature such as an ancient grove. They are generally quite small protected areas and often have high visitor value.

Category IV: Habitat/species management area

Category IV - protected areas aim to protect particular species or habitats and management reflects this priority. Many category IV protected areas will need regular, active interventions to address the requirements of particular species or to maintain habitats, but this is not a requirement of the category.

Category V: Protected landscape/Seascape

Category V - protected areas where the interaction of people and nature over time has produced an area of distinct character with significant ecological, biological, cultural and scenic value: and where safeguarding the integrity of this interaction is vital to protecting and sustaining the area and its associated nature conservation and other values.

Category VI: Protected area with sustainable use of natural resources

Category VI - protected areas conserve ecosystems and habitats, together with associated cultural values and traditional natural resource management systems. They are generally large, with most of the area in a natural condition, where a proportion is under sustainable natural resource management and where low-level non-industrial use of natural resources compatible with nature conservation is seen as one of the main aims of the area.

Besides these categories, it is observed that countries develop others based on their regulations and institutional structure. Also, there are other protected areas like UNESCO Biosphere Reserves, World Heritage Areas, and RAMSAR Areas. While there are protected areas managed by national legislations and specific laws that belongs to the areas, at the same time, those are affected by the international conventions and agreements which are relevant with the conservation of biodiversity and natural resources, management and sustainable use of the values and sustainable development [13].

#### *Protected Areas in Turkey*

894 Advances in Landscape Architecture

means [11].

cultural values [12].

Category I a: Strict nature reserve

Category I b: Wilderness area

Category II: National park

often have high visitor value.

Category III: Natural monument or feature

Category IV: Habitat/species management area

this is not a requirement of the category.

Category V: Protected landscape/Seascape

**Definition of Protected Area According to the IUCN (1994):** An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective

**Definition of Protected Area According to the IUCN (2008):** A clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and

Category I a - strictly protected areas set aside to protect biodiversity and also possibly geological/geomorphological features, where human visitation, use and impacts are strictly controlled and limited to ensure protection of the conservation values. Such protected areas

Category I b - protected areas are usually large unmodified or slightly modified areas, retaining their natural character and influence, without permanent or significant human habitation, which are protected and managed so as to preserve their natural condition.

Category II - protected areas are large natural or near natural areas set aside to protect largescale ecological processes, along with the complement of species and ecosystems characteristic of the area, which also provide a foundation for environmentally and culturally compatible spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and visitor opportunities.

Category III - protected areas are set aside to protect a specific natural monument, which can be a landform, sea mount, submarine cavern, geological feature such as a cave or even a living feature such as an ancient grove. They are generally quite small protected areas and

Category IV - protected areas aim to protect particular species or habitats and management reflects this priority. Many category IV protected areas will need regular, active interventions to address the requirements of particular species or to maintain habitats, but

Category V - protected areas where the interaction of people and nature over time has produced an area of distinct character with significant ecological, biological, cultural and

can serve as indispensable reference areas for scientific research and monitoring.

IUCN divided the protected areas into the following categories [12]:

Protection initiatives in Turkey are mostly in the form of in situ protection. There are various protected areas in Turkey which are under different institutions' authority and supervision and defined under certain laws. Turkey has signed many international conventions and protocols on Nature Protection. These conventions are;


In accordance with these conventions, by 2011, nearly 1800 sites had been identified by the Ministry of Forest and Water as warranted protection under the 1983 law (Table 2) [14].

Turkey has 41 National Parks and approximately 37 percent of their total area is forest ecosystems (Figure 5,6,7). Besides, Turkey has 41 Nature Parks and approximately 25 percent of them are forest ecosystems (Figure 8) [15].


**Figure 6.** Munzur Valley National Park, Turkey [17].

**Figure 7.** Soğuksu National Park, Turkey [17].

**Table 2.** Protected areas which identified by the Ministry of Forest and Water [14].

**Figure 5.** National Parks in Turkey [16].

**Figure 6.** Munzur Valley National Park, Turkey [17].

896 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 5.** National Parks in Turkey [16].

**Table 2.** Protected areas which identified by the Ministry of Forest and Water [14].

**Figure 7.** Soğuksu National Park, Turkey [17].

provides insurance against loss of the wild population, whilst allowing biologists to develop germination protocols, propagation techniques etc. to support use of the species [22]. Tissue culture is the propagation, under controlled laboratory conditions, of rare and endangered plants that are difficult to propagate from seed or whose seed does not store well. Genetic analysis of rare species through various techniques, including, Microsatellites, Sequencing, AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism and ISSR (inter-simple sequence

Botanic gardens, which are the most significant applications of Ex situ protection methods, have been newly developing in Turkey. The first botanic garden to be established in Turkey is Istanbul University, Alfred Heilbronn Botanic Garden. It was established in 1935 under Istanbul University, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Department of Botany and it was given its current name in 2003. In this garden, there are 5 thousand genus and 6 thousand species belonging to 127 families, which are endemic and foreign homed. There are also seed banks and herbarium units in the garden. "Istanbul Botanic Garden Seeds Catalog" was published for the first time in 1935. The garden has been exchanging seeds with 373 botanic gardens from 63 countries. Istanbul University, Center for Research and Application of Natural Resources, established in relation with the Botanic Garden, aims at preventing the loss of rare and epidemic species of Turkish plant possessions by making them live in appropriate

Another important botanical garden in Turkey is Nezahat Gokyigit Botanical Garden (NGBB), located in Istanbul (Figure 9). NGBB is established on 32 hectares of parkland and it was opened to public in 2002. NGBB forms a space for breath-taking offering Istanbul 12

percent of its green space, and it is also a research, education and training center [19].

**Figure 9.** Nezahat Gökyigit Botanical Garden, Garden of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants [19].

repeats), is helping guide preservation and restoration activities [18].

*Ex Situ Conservation in Turkey* 

areas and conservatories [18].

**Figure 8.** Nature Parks in Turkey [16].

## **8. Ex Situ conservation**

This method is composed of;


Ex Situ conservation actions are an important complementary measure to In Situ habitat management. Ex situ conservation of wild plants is a central and unique role of botanic gardens. They have the appropriate facilities and staff expertise in botany and horticulture to be an 'insurance policy' against plant extinction. The Botanic Gardens ex situ program primarily employs three strategies: seed banking, tissue culture and genetic analysis of endangered plants. Seed banking is one of the most effective and useful ways of conserving genetic diversity ex situ, as the majority of wild plant species from dry land environments produce desiccation tolerant seeds that can be successfully stored for over 200 years. In most outbreeding species, the majority of the genetic diversity of the species may be captured by a single large seed sample. Conservation of population seed samples from these species provides insurance against loss of the wild population, whilst allowing biologists to develop germination protocols, propagation techniques etc. to support use of the species [22]. Tissue culture is the propagation, under controlled laboratory conditions, of rare and endangered plants that are difficult to propagate from seed or whose seed does not store well. Genetic analysis of rare species through various techniques, including, Microsatellites, Sequencing, AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism and ISSR (inter-simple sequence repeats), is helping guide preservation and restoration activities [18].

#### *Ex Situ Conservation in Turkey*

898 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**Figure 8.** Nature Parks in Turkey [16].

storage, production and replacement,

distribution and material exchange,

cooperation and organization steps [7].

Ex Situ conservation actions are an important complementary measure to In Situ habitat management. Ex situ conservation of wild plants is a central and unique role of botanic gardens. They have the appropriate facilities and staff expertise in botany and horticulture to be an 'insurance policy' against plant extinction. The Botanic Gardens ex situ program primarily employs three strategies: seed banking, tissue culture and genetic analysis of endangered plants. Seed banking is one of the most effective and useful ways of conserving genetic diversity ex situ, as the majority of wild plant species from dry land environments produce desiccation tolerant seeds that can be successfully stored for over 200 years. In most outbreeding species, the majority of the genetic diversity of the species may be captured by a single large seed sample. Conservation of population seed samples from these species

**8. Ex Situ conservation** 

This method is composed of;

 observation, gathering,

 assessment, documentation,

 preservation, education

Botanic gardens, which are the most significant applications of Ex situ protection methods, have been newly developing in Turkey. The first botanic garden to be established in Turkey is Istanbul University, Alfred Heilbronn Botanic Garden. It was established in 1935 under Istanbul University, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Department of Botany and it was given its current name in 2003. In this garden, there are 5 thousand genus and 6 thousand species belonging to 127 families, which are endemic and foreign homed. There are also seed banks and herbarium units in the garden. "Istanbul Botanic Garden Seeds Catalog" was published for the first time in 1935. The garden has been exchanging seeds with 373 botanic gardens from 63 countries. Istanbul University, Center for Research and Application of Natural Resources, established in relation with the Botanic Garden, aims at preventing the loss of rare and epidemic species of Turkish plant possessions by making them live in appropriate areas and conservatories [18].

Another important botanical garden in Turkey is Nezahat Gokyigit Botanical Garden (NGBB), located in Istanbul (Figure 9). NGBB is established on 32 hectares of parkland and it was opened to public in 2002. NGBB forms a space for breath-taking offering Istanbul 12 percent of its green space, and it is also a research, education and training center [19].

**Figure 9.** Nezahat Gökyigit Botanical Garden, Garden of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants [19].

Besides, "National Botanical Garden" is planned to be established in Ankara. The project covering an area of 2000 decare has started in 2008 and the construction work has begun in 2011.

Protection of Natural Plants and Their Use in Landscape Architecture Works 901

selection of plant materials that meet environmental conditions with minimal care should be

In Turkey, due to lack of work for cultivation of natural plants, obtaining plants from nurseries is not yet possible. In this case, it is not possible to provide the supply of plants for applications, as well as natural vegetation cannot become a sector generating income. Over the years, the greatest economic gain has been derived from the plants with bulb, tuber and corm, which have been pulled out from their natural areas. However, with their extensive use in landscape architecture natural plants will be an important branch of ornamental plant

Anatolia, throughout the history, has been the location where many natural species were cultivated for the first time. For example, it is known that the origin of 30 percent of the field corps is Anatolia. Besides the field crops, in many parts of Turkey, many natural plant species are collected directly from nature and used for nourishment. Plants are also used for

About 1000 species of Geophytes are grown in Turkey which constitute an important part in the biological richness of the country and majority of which have economic potential as ornamental plants and medicinal plants [21]. Collection of certain types of bulbs of these plants was initially in the form of a personal curiosity but afterwards it gained commercial importance with the collection of flower bulbs in bulk. This trade, which was conducted in Netherlands, Denmark, Switzerland, Germany, Italy and in various other European countries, reached fairly large quantities since the 1960s. While up to 15000 *Galanthus* L. bulbs were exported in the early 1970s after 10 years, the amount has exceeded two times of this amount. Although in some species, small-scale domestic production activities are carried out, *Galanthus* L., *Eranthis hyemalis* (L.) Salisb., *Anemone blanda* Schott et Kotschy, *Leucojum aestivum* L., *Cyclamen* L., *Fritillaria* L., et *Sternbergia* Waldst kit, *Lilium candidum* L. , *Tulipa humilis* Herbert L., *Arum, Dracunculus* Miller, *Geranium tuberosum* L., *Colchicum speciosum* Stev., *Muscari* Miller, *Ornithogalum nutans* L., *Scilla bifolia* L., *Gladiolus* L., *Oxalis* L., *Urginea maritima* (L.) Baker, *Pancratium maritimum* L. and *Narcissus* L. are largely collected from nature and became the species traded most [23]. However, in recent periods, controls over the onion pull-outs are from nature are conducted and cultivation of bulbous plants is carried out. Due to the measures taken after 1990s, the populations of geophytes sold abroad were brought back to their former levels and important progress was made in the production and exportation of *Lilium candidum* L., *Sternbergia lutea* (L.) KER-GAWL. EX SPRENGEL, *Fritillaria imperialis* L., *F. persica* L., *Leucojum aestivum* L. and *Cyclamen* 

Besides bulbous plants, some plant species are collected from the nature and consumed in the country or sold abroad, because of their medical and aromatic qualities. Plant species with scientifically identified medical feature and which are used by the people are numerous in the flora of Turkey. Aromatic plants such as *Origanum* L. and the plants used

preferred as an economic approach to planning.

**10. The utilization process of natural plants** 

different purposes other than nourishment [3].

*hederifolium* AITON abroad. [4].

industry.

Gene banks are also ex situ conservation units apart from the botanical gardens. Aegean Agricultural Research Institute Gene Bank and Plant Genetic Resources Unit of Field Crops Central Research Institute have been working for the conservation of genetic resources. In addition, the world's 3rd largest gene bank (Seed Gene Bank) after the U.S. and China was established in Ankara in 2010 with a storage capacity of 250 thousand samples.

## **9. Use of natural plants in landscape architecture in the scope of preserving biological diversity**

Years before, when the natural areas had not been this much damaged with the pressure from the settlement, industrial and even agricultural areas, people would find it absurd to use the natural vegetation species in plant design work. Furthermore, until recently, many natural samples were seen as weed. But today, it has been realized that especially in developed countries, cities and areas of cultural activities puts nature away from people. For this reason, people want to see natural plant samples around them in order to feel close to nature.

#### *Alpha*

The fact that the natural areas are confronted with an increasing pressure increases concerns over plants of natural vegetation. Today, some species are threatened and are in danger of extinction. For some, on the other hand, it is observed that their expansion areas are getting narrower and that they do not grow in areas where they have been previously observed. In this regard, the use of natural vegetation samples which are in danger of extinction or damaged, in landscape architecture is important. Transfer of natural samples to gardens, are important for providing these plants with protection areas, as well as for increasing the awareness of protection and their recognition by the people.

Native plants naturally occur in the region in which they evolved, while non-native plants might provide some of the above benefits, native plants have many additional advantages. Because native plants are adapted to local soils and climate conditions, they generally require less watering and fertilizing than non-natives. Natives are often more resistant to insects and disease as well, and so are less likely to need pesticides. Wildlife evolved with plants; therefore, they use native plant communities for food, cover and rearing young. Using native plants helps preserve the balance and beauty of natural ecosystems [20].

Non-native plants can be invasive. They have few or no naturally occurring measures to control them, such as insects or competitors. Invasive plants can spread rapidly and smother or out-compete native vegetation. Invasive, non-native plants are not effective in providing quality habitat [20].

Use of natural vegetation species in landscape architecture, creates a landscape harmonious with nature, and it is an application compatible with economic conditions. In this way, selection of plant materials that meet environmental conditions with minimal care should be preferred as an economic approach to planning.

In Turkey, due to lack of work for cultivation of natural plants, obtaining plants from nurseries is not yet possible. In this case, it is not possible to provide the supply of plants for applications, as well as natural vegetation cannot become a sector generating income. Over the years, the greatest economic gain has been derived from the plants with bulb, tuber and corm, which have been pulled out from their natural areas. However, with their extensive use in landscape architecture natural plants will be an important branch of ornamental plant industry.

## **10. The utilization process of natural plants**

900 Advances in Landscape Architecture

**preserving biological diversity** 

2011.

*Alpha* 

quality habitat [20].

Besides, "National Botanical Garden" is planned to be established in Ankara. The project covering an area of 2000 decare has started in 2008 and the construction work has begun in

Gene banks are also ex situ conservation units apart from the botanical gardens. Aegean Agricultural Research Institute Gene Bank and Plant Genetic Resources Unit of Field Crops Central Research Institute have been working for the conservation of genetic resources. In addition, the world's 3rd largest gene bank (Seed Gene Bank) after the U.S. and China was

Years before, when the natural areas had not been this much damaged with the pressure from the settlement, industrial and even agricultural areas, people would find it absurd to use the natural vegetation species in plant design work. Furthermore, until recently, many natural samples were seen as weed. But today, it has been realized that especially in developed countries, cities and areas of cultural activities puts nature away from people. For this reason,

The fact that the natural areas are confronted with an increasing pressure increases concerns over plants of natural vegetation. Today, some species are threatened and are in danger of extinction. For some, on the other hand, it is observed that their expansion areas are getting narrower and that they do not grow in areas where they have been previously observed. In this regard, the use of natural vegetation samples which are in danger of extinction or damaged, in landscape architecture is important. Transfer of natural samples to gardens, are important for providing these plants with protection areas, as well as for increasing the

Native plants naturally occur in the region in which they evolved, while non-native plants might provide some of the above benefits, native plants have many additional advantages. Because native plants are adapted to local soils and climate conditions, they generally require less watering and fertilizing than non-natives. Natives are often more resistant to insects and disease as well, and so are less likely to need pesticides. Wildlife evolved with plants; therefore, they use native plant communities for food, cover and rearing young.

Using native plants helps preserve the balance and beauty of natural ecosystems [20].

Non-native plants can be invasive. They have few or no naturally occurring measures to control them, such as insects or competitors. Invasive plants can spread rapidly and smother or out-compete native vegetation. Invasive, non-native plants are not effective in providing

Use of natural vegetation species in landscape architecture, creates a landscape harmonious with nature, and it is an application compatible with economic conditions. In this way,

established in Ankara in 2010 with a storage capacity of 250 thousand samples.

**9. Use of natural plants in landscape architecture in the scope of** 

people want to see natural plant samples around them in order to feel close to nature.

awareness of protection and their recognition by the people.

Anatolia, throughout the history, has been the location where many natural species were cultivated for the first time. For example, it is known that the origin of 30 percent of the field corps is Anatolia. Besides the field crops, in many parts of Turkey, many natural plant species are collected directly from nature and used for nourishment. Plants are also used for different purposes other than nourishment [3].

About 1000 species of Geophytes are grown in Turkey which constitute an important part in the biological richness of the country and majority of which have economic potential as ornamental plants and medicinal plants [21]. Collection of certain types of bulbs of these plants was initially in the form of a personal curiosity but afterwards it gained commercial importance with the collection of flower bulbs in bulk. This trade, which was conducted in Netherlands, Denmark, Switzerland, Germany, Italy and in various other European countries, reached fairly large quantities since the 1960s. While up to 15000 *Galanthus* L. bulbs were exported in the early 1970s after 10 years, the amount has exceeded two times of this amount. Although in some species, small-scale domestic production activities are carried out, *Galanthus* L., *Eranthis hyemalis* (L.) Salisb., *Anemone blanda* Schott et Kotschy, *Leucojum aestivum* L., *Cyclamen* L., *Fritillaria* L., et *Sternbergia* Waldst kit, *Lilium candidum* L. , *Tulipa humilis* Herbert L., *Arum, Dracunculus* Miller, *Geranium tuberosum* L., *Colchicum speciosum* Stev., *Muscari* Miller, *Ornithogalum nutans* L., *Scilla bifolia* L., *Gladiolus* L., *Oxalis* L., *Urginea maritima* (L.) Baker, *Pancratium maritimum* L. and *Narcissus* L. are largely collected from nature and became the species traded most [23]. However, in recent periods, controls over the onion pull-outs are from nature are conducted and cultivation of bulbous plants is carried out. Due to the measures taken after 1990s, the populations of geophytes sold abroad were brought back to their former levels and important progress was made in the production and exportation of *Lilium candidum* L., *Sternbergia lutea* (L.) KER-GAWL. EX SPRENGEL, *Fritillaria imperialis* L., *F. persica* L., *Leucojum aestivum* L. and *Cyclamen hederifolium* AITON abroad. [4].

Besides bulbous plants, some plant species are collected from the nature and consumed in the country or sold abroad, because of their medical and aromatic qualities. Plant species with scientifically identified medical feature and which are used by the people are numerous in the flora of Turkey. Aromatic plants such as *Origanum* L. and the plants used

as tea like *Salvia* L. and *Sideritis* L. are used in small residential gardens. In addition, with the spread of theme parks, gardens of medicinal and aromatic plants are organized in parks and botanical gardens. However, due to the difficulties in finding local plant samples foreign plants are more commonly found.

Protection of Natural Plants and Their Use in Landscape Architecture Works 903

there would be an important step taken for increasing people's consciousness. As people spend more time with natural plants, their protection motives and knowledge would

However, in order for providing these environments to people and increase their access to natural plants, more works and projects for improving cultivation and production of natural

[1] Ministry of Environment and Forestry, The National Biological Diversity Strategy and Action Plan, General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks, Department of Nature Conservation, ISBN: 978-605-393-030-3, Tasarm Ofset, Ankara.

[2] Fletcher, S.R., Biological Diversity: Issues Related to the Convention on Biodiversity,

[3] Avc, M. Çeşitlilik ve Endemizm Açsndan Türkiye'nin Bitki Örtüsü. İstanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Coğrafya Bölümü, Coğrafya Dergisi, Say 13, Sayfa 27-

[4] Türkiye Çevre Vakf, Türkiye'nin Biyolojik Zenginlikleri. TÇV Yayn No: 170, ISBN:

[5] Ekim, T., Koyuncu, M., Vural, M., Duman, H., Aytaç, Z. and Adgüzel, N., Red Data Book of Turkish Plants. Türkiye Tabiatn Koruma Derneği, Van Yüzüncü Yl

Tehlike Kategorileri ve Türkiye Floras. Korunan Doğal Alanlar Sempozyumu Sözlü

[7] Dokuzoğuz, M. Bitki Genetik Kaynaklar. Türkiye'nin Biyolojik Zenginlikleri. Türkiye

[8] Kaynak, S. Biyolojik Çeşitlilik ve Çevre Koruma Rehberi. Türkiye Tabiatn Koruma

[9] Yücel, M. Korunan Alanlarn Snflandrlmas ve Uzun Devreli Gelişme Planlar Yapmnda Yaşanan Sorunlar. Korunan Doğal Alanlar Sempozyumu Sözlü Bildiriler

[10] Gümüş, S.C., Şen, G., Toksoy, D., Ayaz, H. and Bahat, B. Nature Conservation and National Parks in Turkey. First Serbian Forestry Congress, 11-13 November 2010,

[6] Uzun, A., Palabaş, S., Terzioğlu, S., Anşin, R., Uluslararas Doğa Koruma Birliği

*Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

certainly increase.

plants are needed.

**Author details** 

**12. References** 

2008.

CRS Report for Congress. 1995.

975-7250-79-1, Ankara. 2005.

Üniversitesi, ISBN: 975-93611-0-8, Ankara. 2000.

Bildiriler Kitab, 8-10 Eylül 2005, Isparta. 2005.

Derneği, ISBN: 975-93611-1-6, Ankara. 2001.

Kitab, 8-10 Eylül 2005, Isparta. 2005.

Çevre Sorunlar Vakf Yayn, Önder Matbaa, Ankara. 1990.

55, İstanbul. 2005.

Belgrade. 2010.

Zuhal Dilaver

The most important condition for the promotion of the use of natural plants is conducting studies for their production; cultivation, variety creation and adaptation, as well as enabling users obtain them through nurseries. In recent years, studies on this issue have been increasing.

Some research has been being carried out at Atatürk Garden Culture Central Research Institute regarding the cultivation of various ornamental plants. In 2002, within the framework of the project on "Detection, Rehabilitation and Growing Techniques of Existing *Paeonia* L. Species in the Flora of Turkey" which was realized by the cooperation of private sector, university and public sector, species belonging to 11 taxon out of 55 populations were collected and preserved in peony gene resources garden [21].

Another important work was the "Cultivation of Some Natural Plants and the Inclusion of New Species and Varieties in Ornamental Plants Industry" project, carried out in 2006-2009. In the framework of the project which was conducted with the participation of 7 research institutes, 8 universities and 18 private sector organizations; 1166 population have been identified covering 241 species (177 geophytes species, 20 dune, and 44 outdoor plant species). Plant samples were subjected to pre-selection, moved to cultivation areas and preserved at responsible institution. Candidates of new varieties of existing species were determined at end of the study. The work under the project is continuing with variety creation activities [21].

In addition, a project has been initiated in 2010 called "Cultivation of Turkey's Geophytes, Providing New Species and Cultivars to the New Sectors. With this work it is aimed to collect the geophytes to be exhibited in "Turkey Geophyte Garden, to develop of varieties from the collected plants and to determine the biological activities of the plants collected. [21].

## **11. Conclusion**

Increasing human activity results in negative effects for the natural areas, threatening the existence of plants, animals, and other types of species. It is generally admitted that the extinctions of plant species are occurring at an unprecedented pace in recent years. Thus, conservation of biological diversity is an issue gaining greater importance in today's world.

Turkey is an important country in terms of biological diversity as it displays the character of a small continent having a rich flora. However, Turkey has been facing the same threats against its biological diversity and its conservation becomes more and more important. As described above, there are different ways and methods used for preserving plant diversity in Turkey. One method is to protect the endemic species and prevent their extinction by making use of these plants in gardens and other living environments of people. By doing so, there would be an important step taken for increasing people's consciousness. As people spend more time with natural plants, their protection motives and knowledge would certainly increase.

However, in order for providing these environments to people and increase their access to natural plants, more works and projects for improving cultivation and production of natural plants are needed.

## **Author details**

902 Advances in Landscape Architecture

increasing.

creation activities [21].

**11. Conclusion** 

[21].

foreign plants are more commonly found.

as tea like *Salvia* L. and *Sideritis* L. are used in small residential gardens. In addition, with the spread of theme parks, gardens of medicinal and aromatic plants are organized in parks and botanical gardens. However, due to the difficulties in finding local plant samples

The most important condition for the promotion of the use of natural plants is conducting studies for their production; cultivation, variety creation and adaptation, as well as enabling users obtain them through nurseries. In recent years, studies on this issue have been

Some research has been being carried out at Atatürk Garden Culture Central Research Institute regarding the cultivation of various ornamental plants. In 2002, within the framework of the project on "Detection, Rehabilitation and Growing Techniques of Existing *Paeonia* L. Species in the Flora of Turkey" which was realized by the cooperation of private sector, university and public sector, species belonging to 11 taxon out of 55 populations

Another important work was the "Cultivation of Some Natural Plants and the Inclusion of New Species and Varieties in Ornamental Plants Industry" project, carried out in 2006-2009. In the framework of the project which was conducted with the participation of 7 research institutes, 8 universities and 18 private sector organizations; 1166 population have been identified covering 241 species (177 geophytes species, 20 dune, and 44 outdoor plant species). Plant samples were subjected to pre-selection, moved to cultivation areas and preserved at responsible institution. Candidates of new varieties of existing species were determined at end of the study. The work under the project is continuing with variety

In addition, a project has been initiated in 2010 called "Cultivation of Turkey's Geophytes, Providing New Species and Cultivars to the New Sectors. With this work it is aimed to collect the geophytes to be exhibited in "Turkey Geophyte Garden, to develop of varieties from the collected plants and to determine the biological activities of the plants collected.

Increasing human activity results in negative effects for the natural areas, threatening the existence of plants, animals, and other types of species. It is generally admitted that the extinctions of plant species are occurring at an unprecedented pace in recent years. Thus, conservation of biological diversity is an issue gaining greater importance in today's world. Turkey is an important country in terms of biological diversity as it displays the character of a small continent having a rich flora. However, Turkey has been facing the same threats against its biological diversity and its conservation becomes more and more important. As described above, there are different ways and methods used for preserving plant diversity in Turkey. One method is to protect the endemic species and prevent their extinction by making use of these plants in gardens and other living environments of people. By doing so,

were collected and preserved in peony gene resources garden [21].

Zuhal Dilaver *Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

## **12. References**


[11] IUCN, Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories. IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas with the assistance of the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, ISBN 2-8317-0201-1, Cambridge, UK. 1994.

**Chapter 36** 

© 2013 Sahin, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Lawns and Ground Covers in Landscape Design** 

It is well known that the lawn is one of the basic elements of garden designs, linking together all the other planting trees, shrubs, flowers into a harmonies whole. However, a beautiful lawn has an emotional appeal that can be translated into spiritual comforts. Hence, the lawn typically offers peace and serenity, and an escape from the glare and hard surfaces

In suitable growing conditions, the grasses are one of the well lawn covering materials due to uniform in color and texture, soft and resilient, easy to take care of. In many areas, grasses can provide a surface that maintenance frees than paving. They can be walked on, sat on and used for many outdoor activities and sport activities such as; football, soccer, volleyball and related practices. However, although the green of a lawn is usually grass, but

It is also well established that the lawns can be made of almost any plant that spreads fairly to cover the ground, and in certain places ground covers other than grass are very popular, either as grass substitutes, or as companions for grass, to provide visual variety. However, despite the importance of the non-grass of ground covers, grass continues to be one of the favorite in open spaces and gardens. Hence, the leaves of the grasses are different in form and behavior from those of many other plants. They can grow from stem joints, first in one direction, then in another, and each leaf is divided into distinct parts. Moreover, many grasses flower in great clusters and individual flowers of which the clusters are composed are having neither fragrance nor bright color because these insect attracting characteristics are not needed. Grasses can be pollinated either by the wind or self-pollinating with their own seeds. A few-notably the bluegrasses often develop without fertilization and are able to

A fine lawn directly influences on suburban landscape practices that other ground covers have usually not considered. However, no other ground cover is as durable underfoot as a

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Candan Kus Sahin

**1. Introduction** 

of sidewalks.

not necessarily that.

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55768

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

reproduce either sexually or by a kind of self-pollination.


http://www.intechopen.com/books/landscape-planning/protected-areas, 2012.


## **Lawns and Ground Covers in Landscape Design**

## Candan Kus Sahin

904 Advances in Landscape Architecture

2005.

and National Parks.

Northern Cyprus.

[19] http://www.ngbb.org.tr, 2013.

US.pdf, İstanbul. 2010. [17] www.milliparklar.gov.tr

[11] IUCN, Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories. IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas with the assistance of the World Conservation

[12] Dudley, N. (Editor) Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories,

[13] Yaknklç, M.K., Yenilmez Arpa, N. Türkiye'deki Korunan Alanlar ve Ekoturizm. Korunan Doğal Alanlar Sempozyumu Sözlü Bildiriler Kitab, 8-10 Eylül 2005, Isparta.

[14] Özyavuz, M. Protected Areas, Landscape Planning, Dr. Murat Ozyavuz (Ed.), ISBN:

[16] Yalnklç, M.K. Protected Areas of Turkey. General Directorate of Nature Conservation

[18] Dilaver, Z. 2007. Conservation of Biological Diversity in the World and in Turkey. International Conference on Environment: Survival and Sustainability, Near East University, 19-24 February 2007, Proceedings, pp. 521-528, Nicosia- Turkish Republic of

[20] Slattery, Britt E., Kathryn Reshetiloff, and Susan M. Zwicker. Native Plants for Wildlife Habitat and Conservation Landscaping: Chesapeake Bay Watershed. U.S. Fish &

[21] Kaya, E. Kr Çiçeklerimizi Etkin Değerlendiriyoruz. Plant Peyzaj ve Süs Bitkileri

[22] Wyse Jackson, P.S. and Sutherland, L.A. International Agenda for Botanic Gardens in

Ekonomik Değer Taşyan Geofitleri Üzerinde Taksonomik ve Ekolojik Araştrmalar.

Wildlife Service, Chesapeake Bay Field Ofce, Annapolis, MD. 82 pp. 2003.

Conservation. Botanic Gardens Conservation International, U.K. 2000. [23] Ekim, T., Koyuncu, M., Güner, A., Erik, S., Yldz, B. Ve Vural, M. Türkiye'nin

Orman Genel Müdürlüğü Yayn Sra No: 669, Seri No: 65, Ankara. 1991.

Dergisi, Yl:3, Say:6, Nisan-Temmuz 2012, Adapazar. 2012.

http://cembit.dmi.gov.tr/FILES/doc/korunan- alanlar/turkiyenin\_korunan\_alanlari\_en-

http://www.intechopen.com/books/landscape-planning/protected-areas, 2012. [15] Ertürk, E. Protected Area Management in Turkey. Republic of Turkey, Ministry of

Monitoring Centre, ISBN 2-8317-0201-1, Cambridge, UK. 1994.

IUCN, 86 pp., ISBN 978-2-8317-1086-0, Gland, Switzerland. 2008.

978-953-51- 0654-8, InTech, Available from:

Environment and Forestry, Ankara. 2011.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55768

## **1. Introduction**

It is well known that the lawn is one of the basic elements of garden designs, linking together all the other planting trees, shrubs, flowers into a harmonies whole. However, a beautiful lawn has an emotional appeal that can be translated into spiritual comforts. Hence, the lawn typically offers peace and serenity, and an escape from the glare and hard surfaces of sidewalks.

In suitable growing conditions, the grasses are one of the well lawn covering materials due to uniform in color and texture, soft and resilient, easy to take care of. In many areas, grasses can provide a surface that maintenance frees than paving. They can be walked on, sat on and used for many outdoor activities and sport activities such as; football, soccer, volleyball and related practices. However, although the green of a lawn is usually grass, but not necessarily that.

It is also well established that the lawns can be made of almost any plant that spreads fairly to cover the ground, and in certain places ground covers other than grass are very popular, either as grass substitutes, or as companions for grass, to provide visual variety. However, despite the importance of the non-grass of ground covers, grass continues to be one of the favorite in open spaces and gardens. Hence, the leaves of the grasses are different in form and behavior from those of many other plants. They can grow from stem joints, first in one direction, then in another, and each leaf is divided into distinct parts. Moreover, many grasses flower in great clusters and individual flowers of which the clusters are composed are having neither fragrance nor bright color because these insect attracting characteristics are not needed. Grasses can be pollinated either by the wind or self-pollinating with their own seeds. A few-notably the bluegrasses often develop without fertilization and are able to reproduce either sexually or by a kind of self-pollination.

A fine lawn directly influences on suburban landscape practices that other ground covers have usually not considered. However, no other ground cover is as durable underfoot as a

© 2013 Sahin, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

grass lawn, or produces as satisfying a sense of orderliness. For a while, tufted grasses and bushes as well as a multitude of hybrids that plant breeders have developed over the years. In Figure 1, typical lawn and woody plant mixtures well organized in public area and effects value of its environments

Lawns and Ground Covers in Landscape Design 907

With-in these three broad categories, many individual species of grass have special

Cool-climate grasses have usually distributed east-west on the hemisphere. However, warm climate grasses predominate in the regions close to equator. On the other hand, the dry-land grasses are usually utilized in certain areas where the lack of moisture makes it difficult or impossible to grow other strains. Moreover, the territorial imperatives of the grasses are greatly influenced by elevation. While both cool- and warm-climate grasses can provide fine lawns, the dry-land grasses are coarse in texture and generally grayish-green in color.

Cool climate grasses survive during the winter months, decay in the heat of summer, but retain some trace of green during most of the year. There are a number of varieties for cool

Regular watering and fertilizing are essential, and so is attention to the control of disease on lawns. However, the bent grass is fine and soft, it is the grass often associated with well in the gentle, cool climate. Moreover, it is also host to much well known fungus that attacks

Typically, many of the cool climate lawns are planted in fescue and blue grass. Fescues are sturdy grasses that demand a well sharpened lawn mower. However, fescues tolerate sun or shade and can be grown in poor sandy soil, under dry conditions and with very little fertilizer. On the other hand, the blue grass is generally considered to be one of the best all purpose lawn grass because it combines both beauty and practicality. Its color is a clear, rich green and it produces a thick, soft turf that is both pleasant to walk on. Moreover, sturdy

The warm climate grasses suffer in hot weather and are killed by prolonged exposure to cool temperatures. Most of them survive mild frost, but when the weather gets cool in fall they become dormant and turn brown. The four most popular warm climate grasses are;

Of these Bermuda grass is most widely used because it spread very rapidly in a year.

Although, a lawn of one kind yields a superbly uniform turf, unvarying in color and habit of growth, and may be exceptionally resistant to certain kinds of lawn damage, the mixture of

properties of blue grass are one of the choices for the turf of football fields.

climate grasses but three major kinds are those most often utilized;

 Warm-climate grasses, Cool-climate grasses Dry-land grasses.

 Blue grasses, Fescues, Bent grasses.

lawn grass.

Bermuda grass,

 St. Augustine grass, Centipede grass.

**Selection of grasses for mixture** 

Zoysia,

preferences as to fertilizer and soil pH.

**Figure 1.** Typical lawn and woody plant mixtures in public area

## **2. Lawn properties**

### **Lawn variations**

The gardeners like to intervene in the plants natural distribution with their natural breeding processes whenever the demand for lawn grasses grew. However, the scientists search new grasses as well as cultivation of existing grasses and explorers the lifecycle of grasses in experiment stations to improve current strains and create hybrids. Moreover, the painstaking search for naturally produced new varieties still continues. But these days, it is becoming more practical to create improved grasses in the laboratory than before. For instance, the bluegrasses that multiply by a type of asexual reproduction; more than 90% of the time they produce viable seeds without normal fertilization.

The search for new varieties has led to lawn grasses that are better than those of even a generation ago. The way of crossing one strain with another is to catch a plant during flowers open, before the seeds start developing and at that moment to fertilize it with pollen from another plant. As a result of those, there are currently so many strains and mixtures of lawn grasses, each of which has its own advantages and drawbacks that can be a careful choice, whether is to nature the established lawn, replant a small section or start an entirely new lawn.

#### **Climate effects**

It is well known that the choice of a lawn grass is governed by a variety of things, and one of the most important things of these are climate. In the north hemisphere, the lawn grasses are usually grouped into three major climate categories;


value of its environments

**2. Lawn properties** 

**Lawn variations** 

new lawn.

**Climate effects** 

**Figure 1.** Typical lawn and woody plant mixtures in public area

the time they produce viable seeds without normal fertilization.

usually grouped into three major climate categories;

grass lawn, or produces as satisfying a sense of orderliness. For a while, tufted grasses and bushes as well as a multitude of hybrids that plant breeders have developed over the years. In Figure 1, typical lawn and woody plant mixtures well organized in public area and effects

The gardeners like to intervene in the plants natural distribution with their natural breeding processes whenever the demand for lawn grasses grew. However, the scientists search new grasses as well as cultivation of existing grasses and explorers the lifecycle of grasses in experiment stations to improve current strains and create hybrids. Moreover, the painstaking search for naturally produced new varieties still continues. But these days, it is becoming more practical to create improved grasses in the laboratory than before. For instance, the bluegrasses that multiply by a type of asexual reproduction; more than 90% of

The search for new varieties has led to lawn grasses that are better than those of even a generation ago. The way of crossing one strain with another is to catch a plant during flowers open, before the seeds start developing and at that moment to fertilize it with pollen from another plant. As a result of those, there are currently so many strains and mixtures of lawn grasses, each of which has its own advantages and drawbacks that can be a careful choice, whether is to nature the established lawn, replant a small section or start an entirely

It is well known that the choice of a lawn grass is governed by a variety of things, and one of the most important things of these are climate. In the north hemisphere, the lawn grasses are With-in these three broad categories, many individual species of grass have special preferences as to fertilizer and soil pH.

Cool-climate grasses have usually distributed east-west on the hemisphere. However, warm climate grasses predominate in the regions close to equator. On the other hand, the dry-land grasses are usually utilized in certain areas where the lack of moisture makes it difficult or impossible to grow other strains. Moreover, the territorial imperatives of the grasses are greatly influenced by elevation. While both cool- and warm-climate grasses can provide fine lawns, the dry-land grasses are coarse in texture and generally grayish-green in color.

Cool climate grasses survive during the winter months, decay in the heat of summer, but retain some trace of green during most of the year. There are a number of varieties for cool climate grasses but three major kinds are those most often utilized;


Regular watering and fertilizing are essential, and so is attention to the control of disease on lawns. However, the bent grass is fine and soft, it is the grass often associated with well in the gentle, cool climate. Moreover, it is also host to much well known fungus that attacks lawn grass.

Typically, many of the cool climate lawns are planted in fescue and blue grass. Fescues are sturdy grasses that demand a well sharpened lawn mower. However, fescues tolerate sun or shade and can be grown in poor sandy soil, under dry conditions and with very little fertilizer. On the other hand, the blue grass is generally considered to be one of the best all purpose lawn grass because it combines both beauty and practicality. Its color is a clear, rich green and it produces a thick, soft turf that is both pleasant to walk on. Moreover, sturdy properties of blue grass are one of the choices for the turf of football fields.

The warm climate grasses suffer in hot weather and are killed by prolonged exposure to cool temperatures. Most of them survive mild frost, but when the weather gets cool in fall they become dormant and turn brown. The four most popular warm climate grasses are;


Of these Bermuda grass is most widely used because it spread very rapidly in a year.

#### **Selection of grasses for mixture**

Although, a lawn of one kind yields a superbly uniform turf, unvarying in color and habit of growth, and may be exceptionally resistant to certain kinds of lawn damage, the mixture of the grass are usually combined together. But these have some drawbacks. Merion blue grass, for instance, requires more fertilizer than do other blue grasses. Also, a pure stand of grass makes a much more vulnerable lawn. However, one type may resist one disease or one kind of lawn trouble, its susceptibility to another leaves the lawn open to catastrophe. But, it is important to note that no single type of grass is likely to suit every part of a lawn.

Lawns and Ground Covers in Landscape Design 909

ground cover seem perfectly suitable on an open, rolling terrain and wholly out of place in a

Plants need conditions like those they enjoy in the wild, and the ground covers that can grow best in garden are those that naturally grow in a similar habitat. If the area wish to cover lies under a heavy roof of conifers, it should be best to use such typical forest ground covers as ferns or mosses. But if the area receives full sun and is unprotected from the wind, better to put plants that grow naturally on open fields, for instance bearberry or cotoneaster. Although nature provides ground covers for many conditions of climate, soil and moisture environment, these plants are usually categorized by their light requirements. Those growing on the forest floor and those growing in the wide open spaces even look different. As a general rule the forest habitats, the leaves of a dark green, indicating the added chlorophyll they contain to make the most of dim light for photosynthesis. However, plants that grow in full sun vary from the dark green of the cotoneaster to the red and yellow color. There are many cultivation techniques and grass varieties. However, the choice of different grass types is limitless. Every types of grass belong to the same botanical family and within that family only a few botanically distinct groups are used for lawns. But if gardeners decide to cover ground not with grass but with the plants that are loosely categorized as ground covers, the choice broadens. Many of ground covers are distinctly different from one another in appearance and habit. Moreover, ground covers often do what grasses do and are often thought of as grass substitutes. For instance, of dichondra, ground covers commonly used for lawns in the desert or warm climate areas and cannot stand cold weather. A very tiny evergreen vine with round cup shaped leaves creates a smooth, turf sturdy surface and

Grown covers could be rough or fine, smooth or billowy, green, gray or bright color. They grow in the places where grass can grow and in other places where grass can not deep shade, rocky or moist soil, steep, rain washed slopes. However, grown covers combined with the grasses, provide the variety that enables to make grounds enjoyable and admirable. It is well established that a well established lawn is pleasing when it is skillfully blended into the landscape. And its appearance is even more enhanced when some ground covers are blended in with the lawn itself. However, the possible variations are limited only by the availability of ivy and vines, juniper and bellflower, and all the other ground covers that can

One of the major advantages of many ground covers over grass is that they are colorful and decorative. The varied ornamental qualities of ground covers offer pleasing contrasts in texture and color. And they have added advantage of lasting longer than flowers. Evergreen ground covers are not only ornamental in areas where a lawn has turned brown for the

As esthetic considerations help in the selection and matching of ground covers. Boxwood and periwinkle, for example, blend naturally and have been used together. The choice of

be interspersed with and contrasted with the even carpets of lawn.

winter, but their bright berries add color at the time is most welcome.

confined area.

good enough to walk on.

Because mixture offers many advantages, but gardeners must consider their components carefully before establishing. It is well known that in mixture *"nurse"* grasses, fast growing types that provide a temporary cover of green until the slow growing, more permanent and more desirable grasses can develop. The commonly used for this purpose is rye grass. It comes in two forms, annual and perennial, and both have been favored upon by most turf experts. However, rye grass is cheap and its seeds are large and bulky, so that a mixture provides less grass per kg than finer seeds do. Gardeners usually feel that in the role of nurse grass, steal moisture and fertilizer from the more valued grasses and should properly be called a '*robber grass'*. Moreover, new improved rye grass strains, have more or less removed coarse bladed and unattractive structure. These rye grasses may still steal other grasses of some food and moisture, but it has shiny dark leaves and a fine texture, and it is longer lived than the older rye grasses.

For most lawns are started from pieces of living plants. However, many of the finer varieties of warm climate grasses are hybrids. They may provide seeds, but the seeds of hybrids seldom produce new plants. Most of the warm climate grasses spread by sending out lateral stems from which new plants take root and grow at intervals. The rhizomes if they creep along the surface, are simply placed in the ground to spread and grow together, forming a lawn.

People who prefer a green lawn in winter use a technique known as *over seeding*. With this approach, they spread over the existing turf seeds of a cool-climate grass, usually an annual such as rye grass during the fall. The cool-climate grass quickly germinates and grows well, its green hiding the dormant brown, until warm weather returns and the permanent grass of the lawn takes over once more. One of the example as; Zoysia, which loses its green color at the autumn frost and stays brown until after the spring.

#### **Ground covers selection and blending in lawns**

Ground covers such as shrubs are as useful and decorative as grass, and sometimes more so, in many areas around the homes. However, the term *"ground cover"* applies to any vegetation that blankets the soil, from moss to forest. In horticulture, however, it means lowgrowing plants in close proximity, used to ornament lands that otherwise would have only grass.

For an average-size home a low-growing cover might be anything up to 30 cm high; for a small one it would probably not exceed 7 cm. On the other hand, Santa Cruz fire thorn, which attains approximately 100 cm in height, or Tamarix juniper, which may grow 60 cm tall, might well qualify as a low-growing ground cover on large lands. In any event, there are no rigid rules, and overall appearance as well as actual size might make a particular ground cover seem perfectly suitable on an open, rolling terrain and wholly out of place in a confined area.

908 Advances in Landscape Architecture

longer lived than the older rye grasses.

the autumn frost and stays brown until after the spring.

**Ground covers selection and blending in lawns** 

lawn.

grass.

the grass are usually combined together. But these have some drawbacks. Merion blue grass, for instance, requires more fertilizer than do other blue grasses. Also, a pure stand of grass makes a much more vulnerable lawn. However, one type may resist one disease or one kind of lawn trouble, its susceptibility to another leaves the lawn open to catastrophe. But, it is important to note that no single type of grass is likely to suit every part of a lawn.

Because mixture offers many advantages, but gardeners must consider their components carefully before establishing. It is well known that in mixture *"nurse"* grasses, fast growing types that provide a temporary cover of green until the slow growing, more permanent and more desirable grasses can develop. The commonly used for this purpose is rye grass. It comes in two forms, annual and perennial, and both have been favored upon by most turf experts. However, rye grass is cheap and its seeds are large and bulky, so that a mixture provides less grass per kg than finer seeds do. Gardeners usually feel that in the role of nurse grass, steal moisture and fertilizer from the more valued grasses and should properly be called a '*robber grass'*. Moreover, new improved rye grass strains, have more or less removed coarse bladed and unattractive structure. These rye grasses may still steal other grasses of some food and moisture, but it has shiny dark leaves and a fine texture, and it is

For most lawns are started from pieces of living plants. However, many of the finer varieties of warm climate grasses are hybrids. They may provide seeds, but the seeds of hybrids seldom produce new plants. Most of the warm climate grasses spread by sending out lateral stems from which new plants take root and grow at intervals. The rhizomes if they creep along the surface, are simply placed in the ground to spread and grow together, forming a

People who prefer a green lawn in winter use a technique known as *over seeding*. With this approach, they spread over the existing turf seeds of a cool-climate grass, usually an annual such as rye grass during the fall. The cool-climate grass quickly germinates and grows well, its green hiding the dormant brown, until warm weather returns and the permanent grass of the lawn takes over once more. One of the example as; Zoysia, which loses its green color at

Ground covers such as shrubs are as useful and decorative as grass, and sometimes more so, in many areas around the homes. However, the term *"ground cover"* applies to any vegetation that blankets the soil, from moss to forest. In horticulture, however, it means lowgrowing plants in close proximity, used to ornament lands that otherwise would have only

For an average-size home a low-growing cover might be anything up to 30 cm high; for a small one it would probably not exceed 7 cm. On the other hand, Santa Cruz fire thorn, which attains approximately 100 cm in height, or Tamarix juniper, which may grow 60 cm tall, might well qualify as a low-growing ground cover on large lands. In any event, there are no rigid rules, and overall appearance as well as actual size might make a particular Plants need conditions like those they enjoy in the wild, and the ground covers that can grow best in garden are those that naturally grow in a similar habitat. If the area wish to cover lies under a heavy roof of conifers, it should be best to use such typical forest ground covers as ferns or mosses. But if the area receives full sun and is unprotected from the wind, better to put plants that grow naturally on open fields, for instance bearberry or cotoneaster.

Although nature provides ground covers for many conditions of climate, soil and moisture environment, these plants are usually categorized by their light requirements. Those growing on the forest floor and those growing in the wide open spaces even look different. As a general rule the forest habitats, the leaves of a dark green, indicating the added chlorophyll they contain to make the most of dim light for photosynthesis. However, plants that grow in full sun vary from the dark green of the cotoneaster to the red and yellow color.

There are many cultivation techniques and grass varieties. However, the choice of different grass types is limitless. Every types of grass belong to the same botanical family and within that family only a few botanically distinct groups are used for lawns. But if gardeners decide to cover ground not with grass but with the plants that are loosely categorized as ground covers, the choice broadens. Many of ground covers are distinctly different from one another in appearance and habit. Moreover, ground covers often do what grasses do and are often thought of as grass substitutes. For instance, of dichondra, ground covers commonly used for lawns in the desert or warm climate areas and cannot stand cold weather. A very tiny evergreen vine with round cup shaped leaves creates a smooth, turf sturdy surface and good enough to walk on.

Grown covers could be rough or fine, smooth or billowy, green, gray or bright color. They grow in the places where grass can grow and in other places where grass can not deep shade, rocky or moist soil, steep, rain washed slopes. However, grown covers combined with the grasses, provide the variety that enables to make grounds enjoyable and admirable.

It is well established that a well established lawn is pleasing when it is skillfully blended into the landscape. And its appearance is even more enhanced when some ground covers are blended in with the lawn itself. However, the possible variations are limited only by the availability of ivy and vines, juniper and bellflower, and all the other ground covers that can be interspersed with and contrasted with the even carpets of lawn.

One of the major advantages of many ground covers over grass is that they are colorful and decorative. The varied ornamental qualities of ground covers offer pleasing contrasts in texture and color. And they have added advantage of lasting longer than flowers. Evergreen ground covers are not only ornamental in areas where a lawn has turned brown for the winter, but their bright berries add color at the time is most welcome.

As esthetic considerations help in the selection and matching of ground covers. Boxwood and periwinkle, for example, blend naturally and have been used together. The choice of

dichondra, which can flourish in rocky crevices, is perfect for the stone terrace, as is the use of arid-resistant for a low drive way border in the dry desert climates. However, contrasting ground covers are more effective than complementing ones, especially when the aim is to create borders upon borders, as in the case of the differing textures and zig zag patterns. In choosing a ground cover, it should be considering first the effect it may produce; then, among the plants that can achieve the effect.

Lawns and Ground Covers in Landscape Design 911

With a few exceptions, the planting procedures for ground covers are more less the same as

There might be fewer opportunities to alter them after the ground cover is in place. In Figure 2, typical well organized lawn in selected area and effects value of its environments

Maintaining a lawn involves using well planned approaches throughout the growing season. The following things should be considered all the time for a dense, healthy, well-

 However, fall lawn care somewhat depending on the location and type of grass. The cool season grasses, such as; Kentucky blue grass, fescue, and bentgrass, are as much green as in the cooler weather of spring and fall. These grasses usually sourt during the summer, the time of the year when the warm season species such as Bermuda grass, St. Augustine, and Zoysia hit their stride. But conversely, the warm season grasses turn completely brown when the temperature begins to decrease. On the orther hand, the warm season lawns,

because of their earlier onset of dormancy, don't need much of autumn care.

those for grass. However, the following issues should be handled with care;

 Irrigation, Drainage, Soil preparation.

quality lawn. Mowing, Fertilizing, Irrigation, Thatch control, Repearing,

 Restoring bare spots, Rebuilding from scratch,

**Figure 2.** A well organized a lawn in historical sites

**3. Lawn and ground cover maintenance**

A practical approach and a general rule from the point of view of landscape design are: create a border, which is planted in periwinkle, beside each path. Because periwinkle tolerates the shade of the boxwood hedge better than most grass would. However, annual periwinkle, which has rose, pink or white blossoms, is often preferred for its longer blooming season. It begins to flower soon after being set out in spring and continues to blossom until autumn.

However, apart from height distribution, ground covers vary in many ways. Evergreen ground covers such as ground covers that are herbaceous perennials-nonwoody plants die in the ground in late fall and reappear the following spring. Moreover, their foliage may range in color from the dark green through the gray green and in shape from smooth edged to serrate. Each of them does an outstanding function under the conditions for which it is best suited and each of them also deserves to be appreciated for its beauty as well as its utility.

If ground covers are chosen with well planned way, the opportunities for enriching grounds with beauty and interest are limitless. Hence, ground covers usually make a well contribution to the overall design of the landscape than grass can. A slope might look well if planted in green plants or yellow blossoms. A hot, dry area carpeted in any one of a number of plants that are capable of turning this garden liability.

However, ground covers can lighten the burden of lawn on step slopes and rocky terrain, where mowing is sometimes dangerous and where a lot of hand clipping is generally required. Hence, ground covers need to be groomed less frequently than grass needs to be mowed. The sight of a billowing surface of Sprenger asparagus is pleasing, while a billowing stand of uncut blue grass is not. The ground covers need care, and the work usually done by hand. Unlike grass, which heals quickly when stepped on, most ground covers needs further attentions.

Typically, ground covers are useful plants for trying different configurations. However, there are ground covers that can grow in wetter or drier places than grass can tolerate. Many of the ground covers usually prefer dense shade to sunlight, and over the years have acquired the ability to compete successfully with the roots of trees for the available supply of nutrients and moisture. Moreover, ground covers are a natural protect soil erosion. Hence, their roots stabilize the soil, but their thick foliage breaks the force of lashing rains and channels it into gentle dripping onto the ground beneath. They are also provided living mulch for rhododendrons, azaleas and clematis. In a bed of spring-flowering bulbs an evergreen ground cover not only sets off the blossoms, it also hides the fading leaves after the bloom is past.

With a few exceptions, the planting procedures for ground covers are more less the same as those for grass. However, the following issues should be handled with care;

Irrigation,

910 Advances in Landscape Architecture

blossom until autumn.

covers needs further attentions.

the bloom is past.

utility.

among the plants that can achieve the effect.

of plants that are capable of turning this garden liability.

dichondra, which can flourish in rocky crevices, is perfect for the stone terrace, as is the use of arid-resistant for a low drive way border in the dry desert climates. However, contrasting ground covers are more effective than complementing ones, especially when the aim is to create borders upon borders, as in the case of the differing textures and zig zag patterns. In choosing a ground cover, it should be considering first the effect it may produce; then,

A practical approach and a general rule from the point of view of landscape design are: create a border, which is planted in periwinkle, beside each path. Because periwinkle tolerates the shade of the boxwood hedge better than most grass would. However, annual periwinkle, which has rose, pink or white blossoms, is often preferred for its longer blooming season. It begins to flower soon after being set out in spring and continues to

However, apart from height distribution, ground covers vary in many ways. Evergreen ground covers such as ground covers that are herbaceous perennials-nonwoody plants die in the ground in late fall and reappear the following spring. Moreover, their foliage may range in color from the dark green through the gray green and in shape from smooth edged to serrate. Each of them does an outstanding function under the conditions for which it is best suited and each of them also deserves to be appreciated for its beauty as well as its

If ground covers are chosen with well planned way, the opportunities for enriching grounds with beauty and interest are limitless. Hence, ground covers usually make a well contribution to the overall design of the landscape than grass can. A slope might look well if planted in green plants or yellow blossoms. A hot, dry area carpeted in any one of a number

However, ground covers can lighten the burden of lawn on step slopes and rocky terrain, where mowing is sometimes dangerous and where a lot of hand clipping is generally required. Hence, ground covers need to be groomed less frequently than grass needs to be mowed. The sight of a billowing surface of Sprenger asparagus is pleasing, while a billowing stand of uncut blue grass is not. The ground covers need care, and the work usually done by hand. Unlike grass, which heals quickly when stepped on, most ground

Typically, ground covers are useful plants for trying different configurations. However, there are ground covers that can grow in wetter or drier places than grass can tolerate. Many of the ground covers usually prefer dense shade to sunlight, and over the years have acquired the ability to compete successfully with the roots of trees for the available supply of nutrients and moisture. Moreover, ground covers are a natural protect soil erosion. Hence, their roots stabilize the soil, but their thick foliage breaks the force of lashing rains and channels it into gentle dripping onto the ground beneath. They are also provided living mulch for rhododendrons, azaleas and clematis. In a bed of spring-flowering bulbs an evergreen ground cover not only sets off the blossoms, it also hides the fading leaves after


There might be fewer opportunities to alter them after the ground cover is in place. In Figure 2, typical well organized lawn in selected area and effects value of its environments

**Figure 2.** A well organized a lawn in historical sites

## **3. Lawn and ground cover maintenance**

Maintaining a lawn involves using well planned approaches throughout the growing season. The following things should be considered all the time for a dense, healthy, wellquality lawn.


 However, fall lawn care somewhat depending on the location and type of grass. The cool season grasses, such as; Kentucky blue grass, fescue, and bentgrass, are as much green as in the cooler weather of spring and fall. These grasses usually sourt during the summer, the time of the year when the warm season species such as Bermuda grass, St. Augustine, and Zoysia hit their stride. But conversely, the warm season grasses turn completely brown when the temperature begins to decrease. On the orther hand, the warm season lawns, because of their earlier onset of dormancy, don't need much of autumn care.

Although there are a few ground covers that can grow in wet or soggy soil, the majority of them prefers well drained soil. Hence, the ground covers need frequent and regular supplemental moisture and good drainage. However, with the sprinklers, the drainage should be considered when the grading is done, particularly if water does not drain off from the site naturally.

Lawns and Ground Covers in Landscape Design 913

Mowing is one of the most repetitious and time-consuming maintenance practice. It is typically influence on the turf density, uniformity and aesthetic quality of a lawn. However, lower mowing encourages broadleaf weed invasion and invasion from grassy weeds such as creeping bentgrass and annual bluegrass. Hence, low mowing produces a shallow root system, making the lawn susceptible to arid stress. But, cutting a new lawn too short could

Weed invasion can be kept to a minimum if a lawn is mowed in a timely period, at the proper mowing height, fertilized and irrigated properly. Due to dry grass cuts cleanly, and clippings distribute more evenly, it is best to mow a lawn when the leaves are dry. Moreover, if leaves are excessively heavy, they should be rake up and remove. On the other hand, clippings include nutrients and water, breakdown rapidly and do not contribute significantly to thatch. The amount of fertilizer (especially nitrogen) can be reduced by 15-

The sensitive young plants of a new lawn need gentle treatment. However, weed killers should not be applied for about a year after sowing seed. Nor should the lawn be mowed for some time. It should be waiting until the grass is almost half again as high as its recommended mowing height such as; 7 to 10 cm high if it contains grasses such as bluegrasses or fescues, which should normally be moved to 5 to 8 cm. Then mow no lower

The sharp bladed mower cuts should be useful with a scissors action without pulling at the grass plants. If a rotary mower use, its blades could be very sharp; otherwise it may jar the

Understanding and implementing a well-balanced fertilizer practices are one of the most important factors in maintaining an healthy lawn. Typically, there are three main nutrients

Nitrogen (N): It promotes dark green colour, leaf and blade development, and density

Phosphorus (P; P2O5): It is important for good root and rhizome development and

Potassium (K; K2O): It contributes to the general vigour of the plant and promotes wear,

However, a lawn maintenance should be begun with a test to determine the soil's level of pH, which determines how easily grass can get nutrients from the soil. Moreover, a soil test can provide the amount of phosphorus, potassium, sulphur or lime required. Since potassium and phosphorus, along with nitrogen, are standard ingredients in all lawn fertilizer mixtures, chances are that a soil being treated for nitrogen deficiency can also be

damage the young plants permanently by preventing deep root growth as well.

**Lawn moving** 

30% by leaving the clippings on.

than the recommended height.

**Fertilizing** 

for lawns;

of the turf.

promotes plant maturity.

drought tolerance and winter hardiness.

receiving adequate amounts of the other two chemicals.

tender plants, tear their blades and dislodge their tiny roots.

For supplemental moisture, the spray heads can be set to the proper height and should be 7- 10 cm above the height of the ground cover at maturity and there should be enough spray heads to cover the whole bed evenly. From time to time most ground covers develop one or two stem that must be clipped off, and occasionally a rambling branch can fail to come through the winter. However, pruning unwanted stems and branches is a regular routine of ground cover care and should be performed early in the spring. Moreover, species like Aarons beard, St.-John's-worth and Algerian and English ivy generally produce a dense mat of low-growing fresh foliage. Pruning is also vital for such fast-growing, invasive vines as Hall's Japanese honeysuckle, a useful semi evergreen ground cover that has a tendency to grow so rapidly that it can very easily get quite out of hand.

The tools for grooming ground covers vary with the plant and the size of the grooming problem. For one or two dead branch, a small pruning tool can be useful, but if the clipping the surface of an entire bed, the most efficient tool is hedge shears. Low-growing ground covers like dichondra, which do not decay easily and are common grass substitutes in hot climate regions, can be cut with a rotary lawn mower. In Figure 3, ground covers, grass and shrubs shown together in a small home garden areas.

**Figure 3.** Ground covers, shrubs and grass together in home garden

#### **Lawn moving**

912 Advances in Landscape Architecture

the site naturally.

Although there are a few ground covers that can grow in wet or soggy soil, the majority of them prefers well drained soil. Hence, the ground covers need frequent and regular supplemental moisture and good drainage. However, with the sprinklers, the drainage should be considered when the grading is done, particularly if water does not drain off from

For supplemental moisture, the spray heads can be set to the proper height and should be 7- 10 cm above the height of the ground cover at maturity and there should be enough spray heads to cover the whole bed evenly. From time to time most ground covers develop one or two stem that must be clipped off, and occasionally a rambling branch can fail to come through the winter. However, pruning unwanted stems and branches is a regular routine of ground cover care and should be performed early in the spring. Moreover, species like Aarons beard, St.-John's-worth and Algerian and English ivy generally produce a dense mat of low-growing fresh foliage. Pruning is also vital for such fast-growing, invasive vines as Hall's Japanese honeysuckle, a useful semi evergreen ground cover that has a tendency to

The tools for grooming ground covers vary with the plant and the size of the grooming problem. For one or two dead branch, a small pruning tool can be useful, but if the clipping the surface of an entire bed, the most efficient tool is hedge shears. Low-growing ground covers like dichondra, which do not decay easily and are common grass substitutes in hot climate regions, can be cut with a rotary lawn mower. In Figure 3, ground covers, grass and

grow so rapidly that it can very easily get quite out of hand.

shrubs shown together in a small home garden areas.

**Figure 3.** Ground covers, shrubs and grass together in home garden

Mowing is one of the most repetitious and time-consuming maintenance practice. It is typically influence on the turf density, uniformity and aesthetic quality of a lawn. However, lower mowing encourages broadleaf weed invasion and invasion from grassy weeds such as creeping bentgrass and annual bluegrass. Hence, low mowing produces a shallow root system, making the lawn susceptible to arid stress. But, cutting a new lawn too short could damage the young plants permanently by preventing deep root growth as well.

Weed invasion can be kept to a minimum if a lawn is mowed in a timely period, at the proper mowing height, fertilized and irrigated properly. Due to dry grass cuts cleanly, and clippings distribute more evenly, it is best to mow a lawn when the leaves are dry. Moreover, if leaves are excessively heavy, they should be rake up and remove. On the other hand, clippings include nutrients and water, breakdown rapidly and do not contribute significantly to thatch. The amount of fertilizer (especially nitrogen) can be reduced by 15- 30% by leaving the clippings on.

The sensitive young plants of a new lawn need gentle treatment. However, weed killers should not be applied for about a year after sowing seed. Nor should the lawn be mowed for some time. It should be waiting until the grass is almost half again as high as its recommended mowing height such as; 7 to 10 cm high if it contains grasses such as bluegrasses or fescues, which should normally be moved to 5 to 8 cm. Then mow no lower than the recommended height.

The sharp bladed mower cuts should be useful with a scissors action without pulling at the grass plants. If a rotary mower use, its blades could be very sharp; otherwise it may jar the tender plants, tear their blades and dislodge their tiny roots.

#### **Fertilizing**

Understanding and implementing a well-balanced fertilizer practices are one of the most important factors in maintaining an healthy lawn. Typically, there are three main nutrients for lawns;


However, a lawn maintenance should be begun with a test to determine the soil's level of pH, which determines how easily grass can get nutrients from the soil. Moreover, a soil test can provide the amount of phosphorus, potassium, sulphur or lime required. Since potassium and phosphorus, along with nitrogen, are standard ingredients in all lawn fertilizer mixtures, chances are that a soil being treated for nitrogen deficiency can also be receiving adequate amounts of the other two chemicals.

Typically 1.5-2.0 kg/100 m2 of nitrogen can be applied throughout the season, split into 2-4 applications. There are three numbers on the fertilizer bag represent the amount of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in that order. For example, the 20-5-10 fertilizer ratio represents 20% N, 5% P and 10% K respectively. On the other hand, without a soil test, a 4-1-2 ratio (N-P-K) such as 20-5-10% is recommended. It is important to note that nitrogen must be applied every year, while phosphorus and potassium are stable in the soil. However, on newly established lawns and sand soils, higher levels of phosphorus and potassium applications could be used.

Lawns and Ground Covers in Landscape Design 915

Thatch is simply referred to the mat of dead stems and clippings that collected along the surface of lawns. Hence, it is a layer of organic matter made up of decaying grass leaves, stems and roots that build up in between the lawn and soil surface. However, it is a common problem that has been established for several years and over watered and over fertilized lawns. Heavy watering and fertilizing could cause some new vigorous growing grasses produce such thick turf that, particularly if clippings are not raked up. Thatching associated primarily with warm-climate creeping grasses like Zoysia and

For a typical lawn, it is beneficial to have a shallow layer of dead plant material around the base of the grass plants. This layer acts as a mulch to retain moisture and keep soil temperatures cool; it discourages germination of weed seeds; and its decay adds nutrients to the soil. But when the layer becomes more than 1.5 cm thick, it acts like a thatched roof; air, water, soil additives and fertilizers cannot pass. It also harbours insects and diseases and can restrict grass roots from growing into the soil root zone, resulting in a shallow rooted

However, a thick lawn is one of the best prevention approach against weed invasion. A dense stand of turf can compete successfully with weed seedlings for light and nutrients. But a well maintained lawn can be defense against insect invasion due to the fact that insect damage is usually less severe on well-watered lawns. On the other hand, insects damage of lawns are usually difficult to notice and their presence goes undetected until significant destroy has been done. If the lawn remains brown or shows signs of thinning out despite watering, closer examination for insects should be made. Regular control of the lawn including leaves, stems, roots, thatch and soil will help to determine if the problem is insect-

A lawn repair practice should be begun with a test to determine the soil's pH level, which determines how grass can get nutrients from the soil. Typically, there are two equally simple corrective steps such as; raise the cutting height of the mower 1 to 3 cm, and give the lawn an extra application of fertilizer. These practical approaches usually result in dramatic improvement. However, it is usually difficult to determine what a disaster in lawn. Some lawns do not thrive because they are planted in the wrong grasses. The lawn problem

All these three conditions interfere with root development by cutting off the roots' supply of

**Thatch control** 

Bermuda grass.

lawn.

related.

may be;

Poor drainage,

Thatching

Tightly compacted soil

moisture and air, and all these are controlable.

**Repearing** 

The timing of fertilizer application is determined by the total amount of fertilizer required to use in lawn. However, late-fall practices with a quick-release nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial for home lawns. It can be applied when the lawn has stopped growing but is still green. These approaches can be effects:


However, the added organic material creates a problem as it decomposes it uses up the soil's nitrogen. The practical way to compensate the loss of nitrogen is to mix in with the organic matter double the usual amount of fertilizer. In addition to the temporary deficiency in nitrogen that may be caused by the addition of organic matter, many soils typically lack other nutrients such as; iron, an important ingredient in the manufacture of chlorophyll, the green substance that makes grass grow. The acid-alkaline balance may require redressing with lime or sulfur. Iron is commonly added to soils in the form of iron sulfate. The usual dosage for iron sulfate is approximately 2 kg per 100 m2 land area.

## **Irrigation**

It should be kept in mind that to ensure lawn quality, the lawn must be watered. Even a mulched lawn needs regular watering, especially during hot or windy weather. The water should fall on the ground as a gentle mist without wash the seed loose; such a fine spray can be produced by any of several types of sprinklers. However, during the growing season, grass goes dormant and turns brown if normal rainfall does not provide enough moisture. The best time for watering and better water distribution is in the early morning during a day when there is little or no wind. However, evening watering may cause disease development due to most disease causing fungi require several hours of leaf wetness for infections. Moreover, too much water can cause thatch, fertilizer leaching, increased grassy weed problems (i.e., creeping bentgrass, annual bluegrass or rough bluegrass). In contary, too little water applications can cause shallow rooting of the turf, which makes the lawn susceptible to disease, drought stress or winter injury. It is well established that the amount of water required to achieve clearly depends on soil characteristics. Hence, the water should be use with required amount to be ensure healty lawn. The lawn areas such as¸ slopes, areas near buildings, curbs, sidewalks and light soils needing more water while low-lying areas, shaded areas and heavy soils may not need as frequent irrigation.

### **Thatch control**

914 Advances in Landscape Architecture

could be used.

**Irrigation** 

These approaches can be effects:

promotes a thicker lawn

increases fall and spring root growth

results in an early spring green-up

Typically 1.5-2.0 kg/100 m2 of nitrogen can be applied throughout the season, split into 2-4 applications. There are three numbers on the fertilizer bag represent the amount of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in that order. For example, the 20-5-10 fertilizer ratio represents 20% N, 5% P and 10% K respectively. On the other hand, without a soil test, a 4-1-2 ratio (N-P-K) such as 20-5-10% is recommended. It is important to note that nitrogen must be applied every year, while phosphorus and potassium are stable in the soil. However, on newly established lawns and sand soils, higher levels of phosphorus and potassium applications

The timing of fertilizer application is determined by the total amount of fertilizer required to use in lawn. However, late-fall practices with a quick-release nitrogen fertilizer is beneficial for home lawns. It can be applied when the lawn has stopped growing but is still green.

However, the added organic material creates a problem as it decomposes it uses up the soil's nitrogen. The practical way to compensate the loss of nitrogen is to mix in with the organic matter double the usual amount of fertilizer. In addition to the temporary deficiency in nitrogen that may be caused by the addition of organic matter, many soils typically lack other nutrients such as; iron, an important ingredient in the manufacture of chlorophyll, the green substance that makes grass grow. The acid-alkaline balance may require redressing with lime or sulfur. Iron is commonly added to soils in the form of iron sulfate. The usual

It should be kept in mind that to ensure lawn quality, the lawn must be watered. Even a mulched lawn needs regular watering, especially during hot or windy weather. The water should fall on the ground as a gentle mist without wash the seed loose; such a fine spray can be produced by any of several types of sprinklers. However, during the growing season, grass goes dormant and turns brown if normal rainfall does not provide enough moisture. The best time for watering and better water distribution is in the early morning during a day when there is little or no wind. However, evening watering may cause disease development due to most disease causing fungi require several hours of leaf wetness for infections. Moreover, too much water can cause thatch, fertilizer leaching, increased grassy weed problems (i.e., creeping bentgrass, annual bluegrass or rough bluegrass). In contary, too little water applications can cause shallow rooting of the turf, which makes the lawn susceptible to disease, drought stress or winter injury. It is well established that the amount of water required to achieve clearly depends on soil characteristics. Hence, the water should be use with required amount to be ensure healty lawn. The lawn areas such as¸ slopes, areas near buildings, curbs, sidewalks and light soils needing more water while low-lying areas,

dosage for iron sulfate is approximately 2 kg per 100 m2 land area.

shaded areas and heavy soils may not need as frequent irrigation.

Thatch is simply referred to the mat of dead stems and clippings that collected along the surface of lawns. Hence, it is a layer of organic matter made up of decaying grass leaves, stems and roots that build up in between the lawn and soil surface. However, it is a common problem that has been established for several years and over watered and over fertilized lawns. Heavy watering and fertilizing could cause some new vigorous growing grasses produce such thick turf that, particularly if clippings are not raked up. Thatching associated primarily with warm-climate creeping grasses like Zoysia and Bermuda grass.

For a typical lawn, it is beneficial to have a shallow layer of dead plant material around the base of the grass plants. This layer acts as a mulch to retain moisture and keep soil temperatures cool; it discourages germination of weed seeds; and its decay adds nutrients to the soil. But when the layer becomes more than 1.5 cm thick, it acts like a thatched roof; air, water, soil additives and fertilizers cannot pass. It also harbours insects and diseases and can restrict grass roots from growing into the soil root zone, resulting in a shallow rooted lawn.

However, a thick lawn is one of the best prevention approach against weed invasion. A dense stand of turf can compete successfully with weed seedlings for light and nutrients. But a well maintained lawn can be defense against insect invasion due to the fact that insect damage is usually less severe on well-watered lawns. On the other hand, insects damage of lawns are usually difficult to notice and their presence goes undetected until significant destroy has been done. If the lawn remains brown or shows signs of thinning out despite watering, closer examination for insects should be made. Regular control of the lawn including leaves, stems, roots, thatch and soil will help to determine if the problem is insectrelated.

#### **Repearing**

A lawn repair practice should be begun with a test to determine the soil's pH level, which determines how grass can get nutrients from the soil. Typically, there are two equally simple corrective steps such as; raise the cutting height of the mower 1 to 3 cm, and give the lawn an extra application of fertilizer. These practical approaches usually result in dramatic improvement. However, it is usually difficult to determine what a disaster in lawn. Some lawns do not thrive because they are planted in the wrong grasses. The lawn problem may be;


All these three conditions interfere with root development by cutting off the roots' supply of moisture and air, and all these are controlable.

#### **Restoring bare spots**

If a lawn has bare patches that need seeding, Autumn is the best time to do for cool-season grasses. It is well established that it's hard to put in new seeds in the spring because the soil heats up too fast and even with watering, the root usually dry up before they get achance to develop. Warm-season grasses, however, are best sown in late spring or early summer months.

Lawns and Ground Covers in Landscape Design 917

and hold water as well. Most land has a general slope in one direction, and a well-planned lawn and its surroundings (house) are placed to take advantage of it. It is well established that the following steps should be considered all the time for a new, healthy lawn

The preparation of soil for lawn foundation has some steps. The first step is to loosening of the subsoil because the heavy traffic may have packed the soil hard that nothing less than a pickax can penetrate it. Obviously neither water nor roots can pass such a compacted soil. Thus, after the rough grading is done, but before the topsoil is replaced, it is recommend that the entire area be tilled with a rotary tiller to a depth of 10-15 cm. These effects the

Organic matter, with proper fertilizer, can convert subsoil into a satisfactory growing medium for grass. Hence, in heavy clay soils organic matter opens the soil's structure, improving drainage and allowing air and water easier access to the root zone. In light,

Aeration is also important step and done by a machine called an aerator (a drum-shaped device) that fitted with hollow tines, pulls plugs of soil from the lawn, leaving holes that permit movement of air, nutrients, beneficial microorganisms, and water as well as creating more growing room for the grass roots. However, when rough grading is completed and topsoil put back, the soil conditioning should be start immediately. Some organic material to improve the soil's texture, with a fertilizer may be needed to bring the soil into the proper pH range. Moreover, soil amendment may be needed to alter the pH factor at this stage. It can reduce future maintenance if in selecting a ground cover that pH preferences are close to the natural pH of the soil. Hence a numbers of organic materials are suitable for ground covers such as; well-rotted manure, spent mushroom soil, compost, leaf mold etc.. One of

A 5-8 cm layer of peat moss spread evenly on the surface and thoroughly incorporated to a depth of 15-20 cm could be adequate for most soils. However, it is important to note that ground covers do not have the same fertilizer requirements as grass. But it is advisable to add some nutrients to the soil to get the young plants off. Moreover, ground cover fertilizers, have less nitrogen and higher amounts of phosphorus and potassium than grass fertilizers. These produce strong roots and healthy top growth. Hence, the fertilizer should

sandy soils it can acts as a sponge, soaking up and holding moisture and nutrients.

foundation. They are;

 Soil preparation Plants preparation Nutrition adding The Bed preparation

**Soil preparation** 

 The time selection for plant grass Seeds selection and sowing Springs, Plugs and Sodding

health of the lawn subsequently planted in the area.

the most popular and most widely available types is peat moss.

If the spots are larger than 20-30 cm across, however, new grass must be put in them. Sodding is a reliable way to cover the spots immediately. But many gardeners are put off by the high price of sod and use springs, plugs or seed. Any of these methods work well-if the suitable procedure has been followed.

Sprigged and plugged grasses spread by moving along or under the ground on lateral stems called rhizomes. Thus pieces of plant set in at intervals soon fill the bare spots between them.

### **Rebuilding from scratch**

An old lawn, no matter how bad its appearance, still consists of a dense mat of dead and living plants together. However, when dug up of that, this turf becomes a mass of root filled parts that may not disintegrate and cannot be raked smooth. Hence, if gardener decides to establish the lawn again, it must first strip off this turf with a sod cutter, or chop it up into small pieces with a rotary tilling machine.

However, the sod cutter slices off the top of lawn, taking with it the heaviest part of the root growth, and thus practically eliminates the material that forms clods. The drawbacks of the sod cutter lead to utilize rotary tiller. Moreover, the rotary tiller does two jobs at once, chops up the turf and tills the soil. From this point onward the task of preparing the ground is practically the same for rebuilding an old lawn as for starting a new one.

If the soil has not been properly prepared with sufficient nutrituent and organic matter, sodded grass soon thins out and loses vigor. And if the soil is bumpy or uneven, the sod may conform, producing a lawn that is bumpy and uneven as well.

Sodding is an excellent way to patch persistent bare spots and to establish lawns on steep slopes and the crests of embankments, where seeds tend to wash out with the first rain. Hence, sodding provides a lawn immediately, and for this reason it is used everywhere, on cool-climate as well as warm-climate lawns. However, in laying sod the time that elapses between cutting and laying is critical for success.

## **4. New lawn foundation**

The foundation of a problem-free lawn is land that has been proper drainage and watering system. However, the ground should slope gently and evenly so that rain water is carried steadily away from the land. Moreover, there should be no low spots in the lawn to collect and hold water as well. Most land has a general slope in one direction, and a well-planned lawn and its surroundings (house) are placed to take advantage of it. It is well established that the following steps should be considered all the time for a new, healthy lawn foundation. They are;

Soil preparation

916 Advances in Landscape Architecture

suitable procedure has been followed.

small pieces with a rotary tilling machine.

**Rebuilding from scratch** 

If a lawn has bare patches that need seeding, Autumn is the best time to do for cool-season grasses. It is well established that it's hard to put in new seeds in the spring because the soil heats up too fast and even with watering, the root usually dry up before they get achance to develop. Warm-season grasses, however, are best sown in late spring or early summer

If the spots are larger than 20-30 cm across, however, new grass must be put in them. Sodding is a reliable way to cover the spots immediately. But many gardeners are put off by the high price of sod and use springs, plugs or seed. Any of these methods work well-if the

Sprigged and plugged grasses spread by moving along or under the ground on lateral stems called rhizomes. Thus pieces of plant set in at intervals soon fill the bare spots between

An old lawn, no matter how bad its appearance, still consists of a dense mat of dead and living plants together. However, when dug up of that, this turf becomes a mass of root filled parts that may not disintegrate and cannot be raked smooth. Hence, if gardener decides to establish the lawn again, it must first strip off this turf with a sod cutter, or chop it up into

However, the sod cutter slices off the top of lawn, taking with it the heaviest part of the root growth, and thus practically eliminates the material that forms clods. The drawbacks of the sod cutter lead to utilize rotary tiller. Moreover, the rotary tiller does two jobs at once, chops up the turf and tills the soil. From this point onward the task of preparing the ground is

If the soil has not been properly prepared with sufficient nutrituent and organic matter, sodded grass soon thins out and loses vigor. And if the soil is bumpy or uneven, the sod

Sodding is an excellent way to patch persistent bare spots and to establish lawns on steep slopes and the crests of embankments, where seeds tend to wash out with the first rain. Hence, sodding provides a lawn immediately, and for this reason it is used everywhere, on cool-climate as well as warm-climate lawns. However, in laying sod the time that elapses

The foundation of a problem-free lawn is land that has been proper drainage and watering system. However, the ground should slope gently and evenly so that rain water is carried steadily away from the land. Moreover, there should be no low spots in the lawn to collect

practically the same for rebuilding an old lawn as for starting a new one.

may conform, producing a lawn that is bumpy and uneven as well.

between cutting and laying is critical for success.

**4. New lawn foundation** 

**Restoring bare spots** 

months.

them.


#### **Soil preparation**

The preparation of soil for lawn foundation has some steps. The first step is to loosening of the subsoil because the heavy traffic may have packed the soil hard that nothing less than a pickax can penetrate it. Obviously neither water nor roots can pass such a compacted soil. Thus, after the rough grading is done, but before the topsoil is replaced, it is recommend that the entire area be tilled with a rotary tiller to a depth of 10-15 cm. These effects the health of the lawn subsequently planted in the area.

Organic matter, with proper fertilizer, can convert subsoil into a satisfactory growing medium for grass. Hence, in heavy clay soils organic matter opens the soil's structure, improving drainage and allowing air and water easier access to the root zone. In light, sandy soils it can acts as a sponge, soaking up and holding moisture and nutrients.

Aeration is also important step and done by a machine called an aerator (a drum-shaped device) that fitted with hollow tines, pulls plugs of soil from the lawn, leaving holes that permit movement of air, nutrients, beneficial microorganisms, and water as well as creating more growing room for the grass roots. However, when rough grading is completed and topsoil put back, the soil conditioning should be start immediately. Some organic material to improve the soil's texture, with a fertilizer may be needed to bring the soil into the proper pH range. Moreover, soil amendment may be needed to alter the pH factor at this stage. It can reduce future maintenance if in selecting a ground cover that pH preferences are close to the natural pH of the soil. Hence a numbers of organic materials are suitable for ground covers such as; well-rotted manure, spent mushroom soil, compost, leaf mold etc.. One of the most popular and most widely available types is peat moss.

A 5-8 cm layer of peat moss spread evenly on the surface and thoroughly incorporated to a depth of 15-20 cm could be adequate for most soils. However, it is important to note that ground covers do not have the same fertilizer requirements as grass. But it is advisable to add some nutrients to the soil to get the young plants off. Moreover, ground cover fertilizers, have less nitrogen and higher amounts of phosphorus and potassium than grass fertilizers. These produce strong roots and healthy top growth. Hence, the fertilizer should contain N, P and K elements in the right proportion. Spread the fertilizer evenly over the soil at the rate of 10 to 15 kg per 100 m2 area it in thoroughly along with the peat moss. The peat moss, fertilizer with other materials can be useful into the soil quite satisfactorily with a four-tined spading fork if the area is small; when the area to be useful is of any appreciable size, it is easier to use a rotary tiller.

Lawns and Ground Covers in Landscape Design 919

12 0C), they should have rooted by spring. At this point it is better to plant them outdoors in a protected spot until they have become well established; the following year they will be

Another method of propagating, especially for herbaceous plants, is by division these plants develop thick crowns of roots and stems, which can be broken apart. Plant the separated sections quickly, before the roots dry, watering thoroughly, and they should flourish as

A third method of propagating is by layering. However, layering is best begun in early spring. To layer a woody plant, notch the underside of a stem and dust it with rooting hormone powder, then pin it against the ground with a forked stick or a loop of wire and cover it with a mound of soil. Moreover, the soil should be kept steadily damp. Roots will eventually sprout from the notched section of the stem, which can then be removed from the

Ground covers, like other plants, benefit from an annual application of fertilizer in the spring just as their season of new growth begins. As mention above, a typical fertilizer application would be 10-15 kg per 100 m2 used in setting out the plants. However, fertilizer should be sprinkled over the surface of the ground on a day when the foliage is completely

After that, maintenance is of minor concern for the balance of the season. About the only left is the removal of leaves that fall among ground cover plants, and they can be dispatched

The simplest way to get these soil supplements into the ground is to till them in all in one operation. For that, first spread them on the topsoil. Then, with a rotary tiller, go over the soil in a crisscross pattern until the added materials and existing soil are well blended to a depth of 10 or 15 cm. After the surface dries out, it should be raked with a garden rake to remove stray roots and stones. However, this is one that many gardeners find frustrating,

Raking, no matter how carefully it is done, often leaves small irregularities in the soil's surface. However, the best way to level out these high and low spots is to use a drag a ladder. The texture of the top of the soil need not be very fine; in fact, it helps if the soil clumps are a little rough, 0,3 to 2,0 cm in diameter, so that the grass seeds will fall into the

However, most new beds of ground cover benefit from a mulch to help hold down weeds and keep the soil moist. Not only does the mulch shade the ground to prevent weed seeds from sprouting, its soft texture also makes stray weeds easier to pull out. Moreover, weeds can be very troublesome in ground cover because they are so inaccessible, and perennial

dry, and watered in thoroughly as a result none remains on the foliage to burn it.

sturdy enough to flourish.

**Nutrition adding** 

**The bed preparation** 

crevices in the surface.

additional plants in your ground-cover bed.

easily with a stream of water from a garden hose.

mainly because they do not handle the rake properly.

ground, severed from the parent plant and set out as a new plant.

After the soil is prepared, the land should be prepared for planting. However, on slopes, a diamond pattern can help prevent gullies forming during a rainfall. For that reason, there are two steps that should be taken to protect the soil around the roots of new plants.


### **Plants preparation**

It is well known that the cost of ground covers is important criteria for selection. However, although some varieties can be started from seed, for quicker results most are purchased as young plants, and plants in large numbers can be expensive. But gardeners who want to economize can purchase only enough stock for one small area, and then propagate their own new plants from that parent stock. Moreover, many ground covers root and transplant rather easily.

One of the most common form of propagation is to take cutting from the ends of the stems. A cutting should be 7-15 cm long. Strip the cutting of its lower leaves and dip the end of the cutting in a rooting hormone powder. Then plant the cutting in a 7 cm pot filled with coarse sand, peat moss, perlite or a mixture of equal parts of coarse sand and peat moss. Water the cutting well and then slip it, pot and all, inside a clear plastic bag that will serve for the rooting period as an individual *"greenhouse."* However, the place the encased cutting in a warm, partly shaded place until new growth begins, indicating that roots have formed. If a number of cuttings are being grown, they can be set in a flat, a shallow box in which seedlings are started, filled to within 2 cm of the top with damp rooting medium. Once the roots have formed, remove the cutting from the plastic bag or the glass-topped rooting medium, knock it out of the pot, soil mixture and plant it wherever need in the garden. It is also important to note that the ground covers should not transplant any rooted cutting outdoors later than two months before frost is expected. Hence, if in complicated situations, it is a good idea to keep the plants through the winter in a cold frame and set them out in the spring.

However, there are some ground covers that should not take cuttings until before frost, when the growth is mature. The best rooting bed for these cuttings is a flat, 7 to 10 cm deep, containing a mixture of equal parts of peat moss and coarse sand. If kept in a cool place (512 0C), they should have rooted by spring. At this point it is better to plant them outdoors in a protected spot until they have become well established; the following year they will be sturdy enough to flourish.

Another method of propagating, especially for herbaceous plants, is by division these plants develop thick crowns of roots and stems, which can be broken apart. Plant the separated sections quickly, before the roots dry, watering thoroughly, and they should flourish as additional plants in your ground-cover bed.

A third method of propagating is by layering. However, layering is best begun in early spring. To layer a woody plant, notch the underside of a stem and dust it with rooting hormone powder, then pin it against the ground with a forked stick or a loop of wire and cover it with a mound of soil. Moreover, the soil should be kept steadily damp. Roots will eventually sprout from the notched section of the stem, which can then be removed from the ground, severed from the parent plant and set out as a new plant.

### **Nutrition adding**

918 Advances in Landscape Architecture

size, it is easier to use a rotary tiller.

bark is more appropriate.

**Plants preparation** 

rather easily.

the spring.

contain N, P and K elements in the right proportion. Spread the fertilizer evenly over the soil at the rate of 10 to 15 kg per 100 m2 area it in thoroughly along with the peat moss. The peat moss, fertilizer with other materials can be useful into the soil quite satisfactorily with a four-tined spading fork if the area is small; when the area to be useful is of any appreciable

After the soil is prepared, the land should be prepared for planting. However, on slopes, a diamond pattern can help prevent gullies forming during a rainfall. For that reason, there

The first step; setting the plants into scooped-out pockets, which serve as catch basins

 The second step; the entire area should be mulched. The kind of mulch depends on the size and scale of the plant. Around woody plants like juniper and bearberry, coarse mulch like wood chips is suitable. On the other hand, for small creeping plants like Corsican mint or thyme, fine-textured mulch like buckwheat hulls or finely ground

It is well known that the cost of ground covers is important criteria for selection. However, although some varieties can be started from seed, for quicker results most are purchased as young plants, and plants in large numbers can be expensive. But gardeners who want to economize can purchase only enough stock for one small area, and then propagate their own new plants from that parent stock. Moreover, many ground covers root and transplant

One of the most common form of propagation is to take cutting from the ends of the stems. A cutting should be 7-15 cm long. Strip the cutting of its lower leaves and dip the end of the cutting in a rooting hormone powder. Then plant the cutting in a 7 cm pot filled with coarse sand, peat moss, perlite or a mixture of equal parts of coarse sand and peat moss. Water the cutting well and then slip it, pot and all, inside a clear plastic bag that will serve for the rooting period as an individual *"greenhouse."* However, the place the encased cutting in a warm, partly shaded place until new growth begins, indicating that roots have formed. If a number of cuttings are being grown, they can be set in a flat, a shallow box in which seedlings are started, filled to within 2 cm of the top with damp rooting medium. Once the roots have formed, remove the cutting from the plastic bag or the glass-topped rooting medium, knock it out of the pot, soil mixture and plant it wherever need in the garden. It is also important to note that the ground covers should not transplant any rooted cutting outdoors later than two months before frost is expected. Hence, if in complicated situations, it is a good idea to keep the plants through the winter in a cold frame and set them out in

However, there are some ground covers that should not take cuttings until before frost, when the growth is mature. The best rooting bed for these cuttings is a flat, 7 to 10 cm deep, containing a mixture of equal parts of peat moss and coarse sand. If kept in a cool place (5-

are two steps that should be taken to protect the soil around the roots of new plants.

for rainfall and act as moisture reservoirs for the young plants.

Ground covers, like other plants, benefit from an annual application of fertilizer in the spring just as their season of new growth begins. As mention above, a typical fertilizer application would be 10-15 kg per 100 m2 used in setting out the plants. However, fertilizer should be sprinkled over the surface of the ground on a day when the foliage is completely dry, and watered in thoroughly as a result none remains on the foliage to burn it.

After that, maintenance is of minor concern for the balance of the season. About the only left is the removal of leaves that fall among ground cover plants, and they can be dispatched easily with a stream of water from a garden hose.

#### **The bed preparation**

The simplest way to get these soil supplements into the ground is to till them in all in one operation. For that, first spread them on the topsoil. Then, with a rotary tiller, go over the soil in a crisscross pattern until the added materials and existing soil are well blended to a depth of 10 or 15 cm. After the surface dries out, it should be raked with a garden rake to remove stray roots and stones. However, this is one that many gardeners find frustrating, mainly because they do not handle the rake properly.

Raking, no matter how carefully it is done, often leaves small irregularities in the soil's surface. However, the best way to level out these high and low spots is to use a drag a ladder. The texture of the top of the soil need not be very fine; in fact, it helps if the soil clumps are a little rough, 0,3 to 2,0 cm in diameter, so that the grass seeds will fall into the crevices in the surface.

However, most new beds of ground cover benefit from a mulch to help hold down weeds and keep the soil moist. Not only does the mulch shade the ground to prevent weed seeds from sprouting, its soft texture also makes stray weeds easier to pull out. Moreover, weeds can be very troublesome in ground cover because they are so inaccessible, and perennial

weeds can be a particular problem because they will continue to sprout from any stray pieces of root left in the ground. In pulling a perennial weed, always pull all of them properly.

Lawns and Ground Covers in Landscape Design 921

weeds are easier to deal with. While many such as common chickweed, mayweed and pepper grass compete with grasses in early spring, all slow or stop their growth in fall.

In cool-climate regions, it is typically practices; one of the best possible times to sow grass seeds in cool-climates is in late summer or early fall, up to two months before the ground freezes. From that point on, it is advisable to start planting early spring. However, seeds may be sown after the ground is frozen, so that they will begin to grow with the first warm

In warm-climate regions, it is better to start new lawn not with seed but with pieces of

However, the habits of grasses dictate planting times, and variations in weed growth structure cannot easily be taken advantage of warm-climate grasses, such as Bermuda grass, Centipede grass, Zoysia grass, St. Augustine grass, Carpet grass and Bahia grass, are at their best during the hot days of summer. The time to start a new lawn in warm regions is just before this period of rapid growth begins, in the spring or early summer. Hence, grasses started then from sprigs and given proper care will become well established before they

As mention above, mixtures contain some grasses that thrive in sun and others that grow in shade, since most lawns have areas of both; each type of grass eventually predominates in the area best suited to it. But before establishing a mixture, it is better to know about the

Most grass seed is usually sold by weight, and the package specifies what percentage of the total weight is accounted for by each type grass, as well as how large an area the seed should cover. Kentucky bluegrass, for instance, has about 5,000,000 seeds per kg; fescues average 1,200,000 seeds per kg; rye grasses contain only 500,000 seeds per kg. Thus a mixture labeled 52 per cent bluegrass, 80 per cent germination; 35 per cent creeping red fescue, 80 per cent germination; 35 per cent creeping red fescue, 80 per cent germination; and 10 per cent Chewings fescue, 85 per cent germination, might seem to contain about half bluegrasses, a sun-loving type, and half fescues, which are shade tolerant (the remaining 3 per cent is inert matter). In fact the mixture contains more than four times as many useful

Once a seed selected, there are two important things to consider when using it. That are;

a turn-around areas, than overlap all rows slightly to prevent bare strips.

As like spreading fertilizer; first lay down a double swath of seeds at each and of the lawn as

 Plugs, which are small pieces of sod each about 5 to 10 cm across and 5 cm deep, Springs, which are bits of stems with several blades of grass and bits of root attached.

weather of spring and get an early start in their competition with weeds.

growing grass. Live grass can be installed in three forms: Sod, large rectangles of turf cut free of the ground,

enter their dormant period and turn brown in fall.

**Seeds selection and sowing** 

nature of each of its ingredients.

bluegrasses as fescue seeds.

 Sow the seed as evenly as possible, Cover it with a very thin layer of soil.

Mulching not only keeps weeds away from ground covers but also insulates the soil, keeping it cool and moist. However, even after the ground cover has overgrown it, the mulch will continue to serve as a water absorbing medium beneath the plants. For the first year or so, a bed of ground cover will usually need a frequently watering even in areas where the annual rainfall is sufficient. This is especially important during dry spells. Moreover, mulching protects the soil and seeds from driving rain, especially on slopes, holding them in place until the grass roots are well developed.

One of the cleanest mulch for a lawn is straw. One bale of straw is enough to cover 100 m2, since only a thin layer is needed, three or four straws deep. The soil should still be visible through the mulch. However, straw has one drawback: it may contain seeds of undesirable plants. It is better, therefore, to put the straw several weeks in advance, and to open it and wet it down; this will allow any grain or weed seeds to germinate and die before using the straw on the lawn. But, it is important to notice that not use hay instead of straw. Straw is the stems of cereal grains wheat, buckwheat, oats all of which are annual plants that die after one season and there is no trouble for lawn. But hay is full of seeds of wild perennial meadow grasses and their presence can create problems for years. Moreover, salt hay is the exception which is native to shore areas and its seeds normally do not germinate in ordinary garden soil.

In windy locations, straw mulch should be anchored with string stretched between pegs and kept moist so that it will not blow away. Natural mulches like straw can be left in place to rot into the soil, or can be raked up when the seedlings are 3-4 cm high.

In cold climates, the aim of winter protection is not to keep the ground warm, but to prevent it from thawing and freezing, with the resultant heaving that forces plant roots out of the soil. However, one of the best protections any ground cover can have is a blanket of snow. The protective covering should not put before the ground is frozen, and do not remove it until the ground has thawed in the spring.

#### **The time selection for plant grass**

The ideal time to plant a lawn is at the beginning of a period when grass growth is most aggressive and weed growth is slow. Although, this period varies with the region and the climate, cool-climate grasses begin new growth in early spring, reach a peak of activity during the late spring and early summer, and then lapse into relative inactivity during midsummer. But by summer's end, when autumn rains begin, they grow luxuriantly again until slowed by cold weather late in the fall.

Perennial weeds such as; mouse ear, chickweed, dandelion, ground ivy and others developed in cool weather; they are in direct competition with desirable grasses throughout the year and the choice of planting time has no effect on competition from them. But annual weeds are easier to deal with. While many such as common chickweed, mayweed and pepper grass compete with grasses in early spring, all slow or stop their growth in fall.

In cool-climate regions, it is typically practices; one of the best possible times to sow grass seeds in cool-climates is in late summer or early fall, up to two months before the ground freezes. From that point on, it is advisable to start planting early spring. However, seeds may be sown after the ground is frozen, so that they will begin to grow with the first warm weather of spring and get an early start in their competition with weeds.

In warm-climate regions, it is better to start new lawn not with seed but with pieces of growing grass. Live grass can be installed in three forms:


However, the habits of grasses dictate planting times, and variations in weed growth structure cannot easily be taken advantage of warm-climate grasses, such as Bermuda grass, Centipede grass, Zoysia grass, St. Augustine grass, Carpet grass and Bahia grass, are at their best during the hot days of summer. The time to start a new lawn in warm regions is just before this period of rapid growth begins, in the spring or early summer. Hence, grasses started then from sprigs and given proper care will become well established before they enter their dormant period and turn brown in fall.

#### **Seeds selection and sowing**

920 Advances in Landscape Architecture

properly.

garden soil.

weeds can be a particular problem because they will continue to sprout from any stray pieces of root left in the ground. In pulling a perennial weed, always pull all of them

Mulching not only keeps weeds away from ground covers but also insulates the soil, keeping it cool and moist. However, even after the ground cover has overgrown it, the mulch will continue to serve as a water absorbing medium beneath the plants. For the first year or so, a bed of ground cover will usually need a frequently watering even in areas where the annual rainfall is sufficient. This is especially important during dry spells. Moreover, mulching protects the soil and seeds from driving rain, especially on slopes,

One of the cleanest mulch for a lawn is straw. One bale of straw is enough to cover 100 m2, since only a thin layer is needed, three or four straws deep. The soil should still be visible through the mulch. However, straw has one drawback: it may contain seeds of undesirable plants. It is better, therefore, to put the straw several weeks in advance, and to open it and wet it down; this will allow any grain or weed seeds to germinate and die before using the straw on the lawn. But, it is important to notice that not use hay instead of straw. Straw is the stems of cereal grains wheat, buckwheat, oats all of which are annual plants that die after one season and there is no trouble for lawn. But hay is full of seeds of wild perennial meadow grasses and their presence can create problems for years. Moreover, salt hay is the exception which is native to shore areas and its seeds normally do not germinate in ordinary

In windy locations, straw mulch should be anchored with string stretched between pegs and kept moist so that it will not blow away. Natural mulches like straw can be left in place to

In cold climates, the aim of winter protection is not to keep the ground warm, but to prevent it from thawing and freezing, with the resultant heaving that forces plant roots out of the soil. However, one of the best protections any ground cover can have is a blanket of snow. The protective covering should not put before the ground is frozen, and do not remove it

The ideal time to plant a lawn is at the beginning of a period when grass growth is most aggressive and weed growth is slow. Although, this period varies with the region and the climate, cool-climate grasses begin new growth in early spring, reach a peak of activity during the late spring and early summer, and then lapse into relative inactivity during midsummer. But by summer's end, when autumn rains begin, they grow luxuriantly again until

Perennial weeds such as; mouse ear, chickweed, dandelion, ground ivy and others developed in cool weather; they are in direct competition with desirable grasses throughout the year and the choice of planting time has no effect on competition from them. But annual

rot into the soil, or can be raked up when the seedlings are 3-4 cm high.

until the ground has thawed in the spring.

**The time selection for plant grass** 

slowed by cold weather late in the fall.

holding them in place until the grass roots are well developed.

As mention above, mixtures contain some grasses that thrive in sun and others that grow in shade, since most lawns have areas of both; each type of grass eventually predominates in the area best suited to it. But before establishing a mixture, it is better to know about the nature of each of its ingredients.

Most grass seed is usually sold by weight, and the package specifies what percentage of the total weight is accounted for by each type grass, as well as how large an area the seed should cover. Kentucky bluegrass, for instance, has about 5,000,000 seeds per kg; fescues average 1,200,000 seeds per kg; rye grasses contain only 500,000 seeds per kg. Thus a mixture labeled 52 per cent bluegrass, 80 per cent germination; 35 per cent creeping red fescue, 80 per cent germination; 35 per cent creeping red fescue, 80 per cent germination; and 10 per cent Chewings fescue, 85 per cent germination, might seem to contain about half bluegrasses, a sun-loving type, and half fescues, which are shade tolerant (the remaining 3 per cent is inert matter). In fact the mixture contains more than four times as many useful bluegrasses as fescue seeds.

Once a seed selected, there are two important things to consider when using it. That are;


As like spreading fertilizer; first lay down a double swath of seeds at each and of the lawn as a turn-around areas, than overlap all rows slightly to prevent bare strips.

Seeds of fine-textured grasses, which make the most attractive lawns, should be covered with soil to a depth no greater than 2-8 cm; more than that and the seeds may not germinate. There are two methods for covering seeds lightly; neither covers all the seeds, but the first watering will carry most of the unburied seeds down into the soil crevices.

Lawns and Ground Covers in Landscape Design 923

Avcoğlu, R., 1997. Çim Tekniği; Yeşil Alanlarn Ekimi Dikimi ve Bakm. Ege Üniversitesi

Crockett, J. U. 1971. Annuals. Robert M. Jones (Ed.), The Time-Life Encyclopedia of

Evans, H. 1986. Gardening Through Years, ISBN: 0-06-181257-9, Herper & Row Publ. Inc.,

Gülez, S., 1989. Park Bahçe ve Peyzaj Mimarisi, Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi Orman

Gürsan, K., 1997. Çim Alanlarn Peyzaj Mimarlğndaki Önemi ve Tesisi. Atatürk Bahçe

Hill, L. and Hill, N., 1988. Successful Perennial Gardening A Practical Guide. A Garden Way

Moscow, H. 1975. Lawns and Ground Covers, Robert M. Jones (Ed.), The Time-Life

Newberry, L. and Handley, G. 1997. Boston Mills Press, Ontario, CA, ISBN: 1-55046-205-9,

Orçun, E., 1972. İlkbahar ve Yaz Çiçekleri. Süs Bitkileri, Cilt II, Ders Kitab. Ege Üniversitesi

Peterson, A., Beckett, K.A. 1990. Reader's digest guide to creative gardening, ISBN

Prentice, H.K. 1990. The Gardens of Southern California, ISBN:0-87701-709-3, Chronicle

Sarbaş, M., 1999. Bahçe ve Sera Çiçekleri. Ders Notu, Karaelmas Üniversitesi Yayn No:11,

Seçkin, Ö. B., 2003. Peyzaj Uygulama Tekniği. İstanbul Üniversitesi Yayn No:4105, Orman

Tanrverdi, F., 2001. Peyzaj Mimarlğ Bahçe Sanatnn Temel İlkeleri ve Uygulama Metodlar. Atatürk Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Ofset Tesisi, Ziraat Fakültesi Yaynlar

Tanrverdi, F., 1975. Peyzaj Mimarlğ Bahçe Sanatnn Temel İlkeleri ve Uygulama Metotlar

Uluocak, N., 1994. Yerörtücü Bitkiler. Ders Kitab. İstanbul Üniversitesi Yayn No:3824,

Uzun, G., 1999. Peyzaj Mimarlğnda Çim ve Spor Alanlar Yapm. Çukurova Üniversitesi

Ders Kitab. A.Ü. Yayn No:418, Ziraat Fakültesi Yayn No:196, Ankara.

Bayçn Korkut, A., Şişman, E. E., Özyavuz, M., 2011. Peyzaj Mimarlğ. Verda Yaynclk. Crockett, J. U. 1972. Perennials, Robert M. Jones (Ed.), The Time-Life Encyclopedia of

Ebcioğlu, N., 2004. Biryllk ve Çokyllk Bahçe Çiçekleri, Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul.

Publishing Book, Storey Communications, Inc. Pownal, Vermont.

Proctor, R., 1997. Naturalizing Bulbs. Henry Holt and Company, New York.

Matbaas, Bornova, İzmir

Gardening, 160 p. New York.

Gardening, 160 p. New York.

Fakültesi Ders Teksirleri Serisi No:29, Trabzon.

Kültürleri Merkez Araştrma Enstitüsü, Yalova.

Ziraat Fakltesi Yayn No:142, Bornova, İzmir.

Bartn Orman Fakültesi Yayn No:5, Bartn.

Orman Fakültesi Yyayn No:428, İstanbul.

Ziraat Fakültesi Ders Kitab No: D-20, Adana.

Encyclopedia of Gardening, 159 p.

New York, 192 p.

120 p.

0276352238, 384p.

Books, San Francisco, 255p.

Fakültesi Yayn No:453, İstanbul.

No:291, Erzurum, 169-177.

A practical approach especially useful for small areas as; a leaf rake is inverted and dragged with slight pressure across the seeded surface; the inverted tines bury some seeds and leave behind small stripes into which others fall, to be covered when the stripes disintegrate during the first sprinkling. However, for larger areas, employs a piece of chain link fencing or a flexible wire and rubber door mat, to which a rope is attached. When it is pulled, it tumbles the soil, covering seeds as well as footprints and leaving behind a crumbly surface percipient to moisture.

Another approaches as; after seeding a lawn it has been rolled it once lightly. It is suggested that simply water the lawn; sprinkling is necessary, and it will settle the surface sufficiently in most cases.

### **Springs, Plugs and Sodding**

Springs are cheaper than plugs. However, plugs are easier to handle. Springs are generally set 15 cm apart, plugs 9 cm apart, on a planting grid marked in the soil. Plugs are set into the ground upright, with the leaf bases level with at least part of the leafy portion above the surface. After planting, firm the surrounding soil to assure contact between the dirt and the roots, then water the lawn gently but thoroughly. Mulching is not necessary because the plants spread rapidly and soon come together. Until they do, weeds can e kept down by hoeing; using weed killing chemicals on a newly sprigged or plugged lawn is as dangerous as it is on a newly seeded one.

Sodding that are laying a growing turf in place piece by piece, is one of the fastest way to create a lawn. However, sod can be supplied from sod farms and nurseries in strips a 30 cm to 40 cm wide and up to 2.0 m. long. Ideally, the strips should be cut from their original growing bed so that the root zone in the strips is no deeper than 2 cm. This requirement may seem contrary to good garden practice, which ordinarily demands the deepest roots possible for transplanting. But in fact, thick sod will take a long time to push roots down into the soil beneath and take hold, while a 2 cm sod, given plenty of moisture, will begin to send out new feeder roots that will knit to the soil beneath it in a few days.

## **Author details**

Candan Kus Sahin *Suleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

## **5. References**

Acartürk, R., 2001. Park ve Bahçe Peyzajnda Süs Bitkileri ve Yer Örtücüler, OGEM Vakf, Ankara.


percipient to moisture.

**Springs, Plugs and Sodding** 

as it is on a newly seeded one.

**Author details** 

Candan Kus Sahin

**5. References** 

Ankara.

in most cases.

Seeds of fine-textured grasses, which make the most attractive lawns, should be covered with soil to a depth no greater than 2-8 cm; more than that and the seeds may not germinate. There are two methods for covering seeds lightly; neither covers all the seeds, but the first

A practical approach especially useful for small areas as; a leaf rake is inverted and dragged with slight pressure across the seeded surface; the inverted tines bury some seeds and leave behind small stripes into which others fall, to be covered when the stripes disintegrate during the first sprinkling. However, for larger areas, employs a piece of chain link fencing or a flexible wire and rubber door mat, to which a rope is attached. When it is pulled, it tumbles the soil, covering seeds as well as footprints and leaving behind a crumbly surface

Another approaches as; after seeding a lawn it has been rolled it once lightly. It is suggested that simply water the lawn; sprinkling is necessary, and it will settle the surface sufficiently

Springs are cheaper than plugs. However, plugs are easier to handle. Springs are generally set 15 cm apart, plugs 9 cm apart, on a planting grid marked in the soil. Plugs are set into the ground upright, with the leaf bases level with at least part of the leafy portion above the surface. After planting, firm the surrounding soil to assure contact between the dirt and the roots, then water the lawn gently but thoroughly. Mulching is not necessary because the plants spread rapidly and soon come together. Until they do, weeds can e kept down by hoeing; using weed killing chemicals on a newly sprigged or plugged lawn is as dangerous

Sodding that are laying a growing turf in place piece by piece, is one of the fastest way to create a lawn. However, sod can be supplied from sod farms and nurseries in strips a 30 cm to 40 cm wide and up to 2.0 m. long. Ideally, the strips should be cut from their original growing bed so that the root zone in the strips is no deeper than 2 cm. This requirement may seem contrary to good garden practice, which ordinarily demands the deepest roots possible for transplanting. But in fact, thick sod will take a long time to push roots down into the soil beneath and take hold, while a 2 cm sod, given plenty of moisture, will begin to send out

*Suleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture, Turkey* 

Acartürk, R., 2001. Park ve Bahçe Peyzajnda Süs Bitkileri ve Yer Örtücüler, OGEM Vakf,

new feeder roots that will knit to the soil beneath it in a few days.

watering will carry most of the unburied seeds down into the soil crevices.


Vick, R. 1990. Gardening Plains & upper Midwest, ISBN: 1-55591-068-8, Fulcrum Publihing, Golden, Colorado, 363 p.

Golden, Colorado, 363 p.

Vick, R. 1990. Gardening Plains & upper Midwest, ISBN: 1-55591-068-8, Fulcrum Publihing,

## *Edited by Murat Özyavuz*

Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor and public spaces to achieve environmental, socio-behavioral, and/or aesthetic outcomes. It involves the systematic investigation of existing social, ecological, and geological conditions and processes in the landscape, and the design of interventions that will produce the desired outcome. The scope of the profession includes: urban design; site planning; town or urban planning; environmental restoration; parks and recreation planning; visual resource management; green infrastructure planning and provision; and private estate and residence landscape master planning and design - all at varying scales of design, planning and management. This book contains chapters on recent developments in studies of landscape architecture. For this reason I believe the book would be useful to the relevant professional disciplines.

Advances in Landscape Architecture

Advances in

Landscape Architecture

*Edited by Murat Özyavuz*

Photo by welcomia / iStock