Preface

With the advancement of science and technology, wide range of toxic and hazardous (T&H) chemicals are being synthesized and produced by man on grand scale for its use in agricultur‐ al, commercial, household and industrial systems. Consequently, these entities emanate large volume of wastes containing T&H chemicals ranging from heavy metals to hydrocarbons, pesticides, phenols, PAHs, cyanides, PCBs, etc. Most of these chemicals are recalcitrant and xenobiotic in nature. If managed inappropriately in terms of handling, storage, transport, treatment and disposal, T&H wastes can get mobilized and carried into the food web as a result of leaching from waste dumps, contaminated soils and waters. This might led to delete‐ rious irreversible, incapacitating and intangible impact on the overall human health, environ‐ ment and ecology. This has originated to challenging problems confronting the present day so called 'technological society'. Since waste is inevitable, it has to be managed in precise manner before it is discharged or recycled to safeguard the environment. Conventionally, numerous physical-chemical processes are being adopted for the treatment industrial effluents and con‐ taminated soil/land systems. Although efficient these methods are beset with several prob‐ lems like high capital investment, high operational cost, reduced efficiency of treatment in the presence of complex chemical matrix, high sludge production, handling, processing and dis‐ posal, requirement of special equipment's, need of human skills, risk to human health and highly energy intensive. Such processes are therefore always on the back foot as far its use in most of the Asian countries is concerned. Thus, there is a big technological breach, which needs to be bridged immediately. Furthermore, environmental regulations in most countries demand strict actions against haphazard waste disposal.

Biological treatment technologies (bioremediation), in the recent times, are gaining immense credibility in the field of waste management. It is known that microorganisms (both prokar‐ yotes and eukaryotes) in nature have immense potential to interact, utilize, degrade and de‐ toxify range of pollutants/substances and therefore being explored by the researchers worldwide. They offer several advantages over conventional methods in terms of cost effec‐ tiveness, efficiency, low sludge production and also provides eco-compatible means of treat‐ ing industrial effluents and reclaiming land. Other than microorganisms, plants and waste biomass from different sources also play crucial role in the management of waste. Biomass of all types are known for their capability of interacting and confronting with pollutants in both active (live) and passive (dead) way; thereby offering numerous opportunities of ex‐ ploring them for environmental clean-up. Biomass, whether dead or alive, differ in their in‐ trinsic capabilities and the mechanism of pollutant removal. They can degrade and remove variety of organic pollutants from waste by utilizing it as a suitable growth substrate. Bio‐ mass interaction with inorganics (especially heavy metals) can be based on the localization site of pollutant such as extracellular, exocellular and intracellular. Biomass, especially mi‐ croorganisms are capable of mobilizing, precipitating, reducing, transforming, accumulat‐ ing, coordinating, exchanging and adsorbing the inorganic pollutants and form complexes depending upon the nature of pollutant. Biomass surfaces are also usually charged. Func‐ tional groups like carboxyl, hydroxyl, phosphoryl and sulphahydryl, membrane proteins, lipids and other cell wall components are responsible for adsorption of diverse contami‐ nants. At times, biodegradation using live microorganisms/biomass are subject to toxicity of T&H pollutants, which is completely dependent on the nature and concentration of pollu‐ tant in the given system. In such cases, employing passive biomass for the removal of con‐ taminants from water and soil environment may be of choice.

acknowledge the cooperation and support of all the contributing authors as well as the offi‐ cials of InTech Publishing Group for encouragement and help throughout the preparation of

> **Dr Yogesh Patil, Editor Dr Prakash Rao, Co-Editor**

Preface XI

Symbiosis International University (SIU), Pune, India

this volume.

In the 21st century, the entire world is witnessing a paradigm shift in the overall waste man‐ agement practices, which is rapidly changing its face and orientation. Waste is no longer con‐ sidered as waste but is recognized as a valuable 'Resource'. This lost resource could potentially be recovered from the wastes using suitable strategies using bioremediation tech‐ nologies. One such novel strategy could be the use of combined active-passive biomass for the development of integrated bioremediation technology, which in the editor's and co-editor's opinion is desperate need of the hour. Application of such concepts in the modern day biore‐ mediation processes can certainly lead to overall resource conservation and sustainable eco‐ nomic development. In view of this, the present edited book on bioremediation will certainly add to the advancement of knowledge in the broad field of sustainable development and in particular in the area of industrial pollution management and land/soil reclamation. This will further help the profitability of business community at large. Moreover, this book will also provide the required valuable resource and stimulus to the researchers worldwide. Bioreme‐ diation technologies require interdisciplinary knowledge of science and management, involv‐ ing microbiology, chemistry, hydrogeology, engineering, plant sciences, geology and ecology, economics, operations management, etc. In the past biological remediation technologies have been successfully used to treat polluted soils, oily sludge's, cyanide, heavy metals, nitriles, groundwater contaminated by petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides and other chem‐ icals and have been implemented at a relatively low cost.

This edited book on "Applied Bioremediation - Active and Passive Approaches" consists of diverse mix of interesting chapters that focusses on use of active as well as passive biomass for the development of bioremediation technologies for the management of industrial effluents and contaminated land. Topics in the book include - bioremediation of chlorobenzoic acids, resource recovery from industrial waste by passive bioremediation approach, bioremediation of olive mill wastewater, nutrients and organic matter removal by constructed wetlands, bio‐ remediation of oil polluted site, hexavalent chromium removal by natural biomass, bioreme‐ diation of radiotoxic elements, rhizoremediation, biodegradation of profenofos, removal of acrylamide by microorganisms, bioremediation of thiocyanate, purification and characteriza‐ tion of a thermostable enzymes, persistent organics, scientific swift in bioremediation, in situ bioaugmentation process, and biosorbents for heavy metal removal from wastes.

Research scientists and experts in the area of chemistry, biotechnology, bioremediation, en‐ vironmental microbiology, energy and environmental management from diverse institu‐ tions and universities world across have contributed to this book. This book on "Applied Bioremediation - Active and Passive Approaches" should prove to be useful to the graduate and postgraduate students, research scholars, professors, scientists and bioremediation pro‐ fessionals in the diverse areas of life sciences like biotechnology, microbiology, biochemis‐ try, molecular biology, and soil and environmental sciences and management. We gratefully acknowledge the cooperation and support of all the contributing authors as well as the offi‐ cials of InTech Publishing Group for encouragement and help throughout the preparation of this volume.

croorganisms are capable of mobilizing, precipitating, reducing, transforming, accumulat‐ ing, coordinating, exchanging and adsorbing the inorganic pollutants and form complexes depending upon the nature of pollutant. Biomass surfaces are also usually charged. Func‐ tional groups like carboxyl, hydroxyl, phosphoryl and sulphahydryl, membrane proteins, lipids and other cell wall components are responsible for adsorption of diverse contami‐ nants. At times, biodegradation using live microorganisms/biomass are subject to toxicity of T&H pollutants, which is completely dependent on the nature and concentration of pollu‐ tant in the given system. In such cases, employing passive biomass for the removal of con‐

In the 21st century, the entire world is witnessing a paradigm shift in the overall waste man‐ agement practices, which is rapidly changing its face and orientation. Waste is no longer con‐ sidered as waste but is recognized as a valuable 'Resource'. This lost resource could potentially be recovered from the wastes using suitable strategies using bioremediation tech‐ nologies. One such novel strategy could be the use of combined active-passive biomass for the development of integrated bioremediation technology, which in the editor's and co-editor's opinion is desperate need of the hour. Application of such concepts in the modern day biore‐ mediation processes can certainly lead to overall resource conservation and sustainable eco‐ nomic development. In view of this, the present edited book on bioremediation will certainly add to the advancement of knowledge in the broad field of sustainable development and in particular in the area of industrial pollution management and land/soil reclamation. This will further help the profitability of business community at large. Moreover, this book will also provide the required valuable resource and stimulus to the researchers worldwide. Bioreme‐ diation technologies require interdisciplinary knowledge of science and management, involv‐ ing microbiology, chemistry, hydrogeology, engineering, plant sciences, geology and ecology, economics, operations management, etc. In the past biological remediation technologies have been successfully used to treat polluted soils, oily sludge's, cyanide, heavy metals, nitriles, groundwater contaminated by petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides and other chem‐

This edited book on "Applied Bioremediation - Active and Passive Approaches" consists of diverse mix of interesting chapters that focusses on use of active as well as passive biomass for the development of bioremediation technologies for the management of industrial effluents and contaminated land. Topics in the book include - bioremediation of chlorobenzoic acids, resource recovery from industrial waste by passive bioremediation approach, bioremediation of olive mill wastewater, nutrients and organic matter removal by constructed wetlands, bio‐ remediation of oil polluted site, hexavalent chromium removal by natural biomass, bioreme‐ diation of radiotoxic elements, rhizoremediation, biodegradation of profenofos, removal of acrylamide by microorganisms, bioremediation of thiocyanate, purification and characteriza‐ tion of a thermostable enzymes, persistent organics, scientific swift in bioremediation, in situ

Research scientists and experts in the area of chemistry, biotechnology, bioremediation, en‐ vironmental microbiology, energy and environmental management from diverse institu‐ tions and universities world across have contributed to this book. This book on "Applied Bioremediation - Active and Passive Approaches" should prove to be useful to the graduate and postgraduate students, research scholars, professors, scientists and bioremediation pro‐ fessionals in the diverse areas of life sciences like biotechnology, microbiology, biochemis‐ try, molecular biology, and soil and environmental sciences and management. We gratefully

bioaugmentation process, and biosorbents for heavy metal removal from wastes.

taminants from water and soil environment may be of choice.

X Preface

icals and have been implemented at a relatively low cost.

**Dr Yogesh Patil, Editor Dr Prakash Rao, Co-Editor** Symbiosis International University (SIU), Pune, India

**Chapter 1**

**Bioremediation of Chlorobenzoic Acids**

Chlorobenzoic acids (CBAs) can be released into the environment from many different sources. One possible source of CBAs is usage as herbicides or insecticides in agriculture. As a herbicide was used 2,3,6-CBA [1]. CBAs may also be formed as intermediates during the degradation of same herbicides. Namely 2,6-CBA is formed as an intermediate during microbial degradation of dichlobenil [2], 2,5-CBA in the chlorambene degradation [3] or 4-CBA is a final degradation

Another large group of substances from whose metabolism in living organisms including mammals arise CBAs, are drugs such as indomethacin, bupropion or benzafibrate. Indome‐ thacin is an anti-inflammatory drug used to reduce fever, pain, stiffness and swelling by inhibition of the production of prostaglandins, compounds that cause these problems. From the decomposition of indomethacin arises 5-methoxy-2-methylindoleacetic acid and the same quantity of 4-CBA [5]. In the case of antidepressant bupropion just small amount (0.3%) of 3- CBA is formed next to threohydrobupropion, erythrohydrobupropion and hydroxybupropion [6, 7]. Decomposition of bezafibrate, an anti-obesity drug, leads to the formation of equal

Well known is the formation of CBAs during degradation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). PCBs are degraded by bacteria by the so called upper degradation pathway when CBAs are formed as final degradation products (Figure 1.) [10-12]. CBAs are also formed during degradation of PCBs by white rot fungi [13] [14]. The result of these metabolic pathways is a mixture of CBAs with different position and number of chlorine atoms on benzene ring in

The accumulation of this way formed CBAs in waste water or in soil can lead to the deceleration or inhibition of degradation of substances of which the CBAs are degradation products [15,

> © 2013 Vrchotová et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

quantity of 4-CBA and 4-(2-aminoethyl)-α,α dimethyl-benzeneacetic acid. [8].

dependence of chlorination of the degraded PCB congeners [9].

Blanka Vrchotová, Martina Macková, Tomáš Macek and Kateřina Demnerová

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/56394

product of the insecticide DDT [4].

**1. Introduction**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter
