**1. Introduction**

#### **1.1. Theoretical overview**

#### *1.1.1. Bioremediation as green-tech solution for soil decontamination*

Pollution of soil (and water) is quite hot problem in the different places in the world due to its generation through variety of sources (waste dumps, petrol stations, underground storage, and accidents by pipelines) [1] and soil acts as a permanent residence for pollutants and the dynamic movements of hydrological cycle transports them to groundwater aquifer [2]. The pollutants can be removed using different physical methods, among them mechanical recovery of oil by the sorbents is one of the most promising countermeasures [3]. Washing with surfactant solutions has been shown to be effective for the removal of hydrophobic organic contaminants (PAH, hydrocarbons, PCB, chlorinated solvents) from soil [4, 5] but the degra‐ dation of pollutants is not carried out through it. Generally, removal of pollutants from soil using physical and chemical processes is quite expensive [6]. The different chemicals used for the chemical treatment can induce the secondary pollution of soil and/or groundwater.

The using of indigenous microorganisms is the greener solution for soil (and water) decontamination. The enhancement of natural biological degradation processes can be a preferred cost-effective method of removing contaminants from the contaminated environ‐ ments and the role of microorganisms has been shown to be essential in the remediation of organic pollution [7 - 9].

© 2013 Selberg et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Bioremediation technologies exploit the natural ability of microorganisms to degrade organic chemical contamination in soil and ground water [7, 10] and the goal of active bioremediation of soil is to enhance the microbial systems to efficiently remediate contaminated area and to decrease the impact of natural heterogeneity of environmental conditions [11]. The most widely used bioremediation procedure is the biostimulation of indigenous microorganisms by the addition of nutrients because the input of large quantities of carbon sources (i.e. organic pollutants) tends to result in a rapid depletion of the available pools of major inorganic nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus [12]. The most reliable way to achieve the successful bioremediation is to ensure that appropriate microorganisms are present in adequate numbers and that the physicochemical environmental conditions are optimized through appropriate site engineering design, to enhance microbial growth and activities [13].

bon degraders also play an essential role in the in situ decontamination of deep soil horizons in temperate climates [12]. In the sub-arctic soil with the higher level of contaminants (8,100 mg/kg) low soil temperature was probably the primary factor limiting field biodegradation and the maximum microbial activity occurred at about 21°C [31]. The CO2 production of tundra soils below 0°C is caused, at least partly, by a specialized ecological group of microorganisms adapted to extreme Arctic conditions and life at sub-zero temperatures [32]. The optimization of temperature could be good way to enhancement biodegradation of pollutants. For in situ remediation it is generally too expensive to increase the soil temperature, but for ex situ

Biodegradation and Leaching of Surfactants During Surfactant-Amended Bioremediation of Oil-Polluted Soil

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/56908

123

Biostimulation of the contaminated soil with air and mineral nutrients showed that both respiratory activity and the number of hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria sharply increased in the first two days of the treatment, in parallel with deep changes in the structure of the bacterial community as it was shown by population fingerprinting [36]. Biostimulation of microorgan‐ isms can be carried out through addition of different fertilizers, but chemical properties of used fertilizer have influence on the results: water-soluble fertilizers can be leached into the deeper layer if they are not consumed quite fast, but water insoluble fertilizers can be insufficiently available to consumers. For example, the experiment showed that combination of fast release and slow release phosphate sources may be the best for immediate treatment and long-term

The addition of nutrients could be quite easy to activate bioremediation, but the real biodegradation of pollutants is carried out by microorganisms. The lack of microbial growth factors [28] can be the reason for the low ultimate degradation rate of contaminants. The results of analysis showed that the biodegradation of petroleum products is more related to the inherent biodegradability of the constituting compounds (a low bioavailability of the contaminants [38]) than to the specific enzymatic capabilities of the microbiota [39]. At the same time the sites with high percentage of total petroleum hydrocarbon removal were characterized by the presence of high levels of estimated biomass and consisted of a large

The analysis of different soil environments confirmed that vegetation has been enhanced the rate and extent of biodegradation in the rhizosphere as root exudates provide carbon and energy, which increases the diversity and number of microbial species [41, 42]. The carbon and energy sources supplied by plants help sustain the microbial population that is degrading the contaminants, for example root exudates associated with vegetation can provide sufficient

[41]. Through the exudation of a wide variety of compounds, roots may regulate the soil microbial community in their immediate vicinity, cope with herbivores, encourage beneficial symbioses, change the chemical and physical properties of the soil and inhibit the growth of competing plant species [43, 44, 45]. The efficient attachments of microorganisms to host plants as well as the improvement of the degradation activity of microorganisms are critical factors

The addition of simple organic carbon sources (the simpler fatty acids [47] or methyl deriva‐ tives of vegetable oils called as biodiesel [48, 49]) has been identified as a useful technique for

vegetative microbes per gram of soil in the rhizosphere


for the efficient bioremediation by plant-microbe systems [46].

remediation, increasing temperature provides realistic option [33, 34, 35].

maintenance [37].

diversity of microorganisms [40].

carbon and energy to support ≈ 108

The activity of the indigenous microorganisms can be inhibited through the non optimal environmental conditions (content of oxygen, moisture and/or nutrients, pH) or insufficient availability (hydrophobic contaminants) or degradability (xenobiotics) of pollutants. There‐ fore it is necessary to optimize the conditions to activate the work of microorganisms [12, 14, 15]. Water activity is considered to be proportional to free water that is able to transport soluble nutrients to the biomass, in contrast with moisture which includes all water content (available and non-available) [14]. It is important to note that the contamination by hydrocarbons increased biochemical and microbial activities and improved soil structure [16].

It would be good to use commercial products of specified microorganisms to enhance the biodegradation of xenobiotic pollutants, but it needs monitoring for the influence of added microorganisms on the diversity of local (indigenous) organisms [17, 18]. During bioremedia‐ tion, the rate of degradation of hydrocarbons in the field is largely controlled by the rate of supply of nutrients and oxygen [19], which makes it difficult to extrapolate directly the results from the laboratory to bioremediation in the field [20].

The mineralization of pollutants is the best solution for the decontamination of polluted soil, but the level of the residual amounts, which is degraded very slowly, is very important for the applicability of the bioremediation process [10]. However, with a global political shift towards sustainable and green bioremediation technologies, the use of plant-associated bacteria to degrade toxic synthetic organic compounds in environmental soil may provide an efficient, economic, and sustainable green remediation technology for future environment [21].

#### *1.1.2. Environmentally friendly enhancement of bioremediation*

The addition of surfactants can increase the bioavailability of hydrophobic pollutants [22-25] and the toxicity of organic compounds is strongly linked to their bioavailability in the soil [26], but it is necessary to monitor the leaching of surfactants. Temperature is a very critical factor in determining microbial activity, although the optimum temperature for biodegradation of petroleum products has generally been found to be in the range of 20-30°C, local environmental conditions may select for a population with a lower optimum temperature [27-29]. The decontaminations of contaminated soils achieved at 10°C showed that, even at low tempera‐ tures, abiotic processes and cold-adapted indigenous soil microorganisms contribute to a great extent to diesel oil contaminations in alpine soils [28, 30]. Cold-adapted indigenous hydrocar‐ bon degraders also play an essential role in the in situ decontamination of deep soil horizons in temperate climates [12]. In the sub-arctic soil with the higher level of contaminants (8,100 mg/kg) low soil temperature was probably the primary factor limiting field biodegradation and the maximum microbial activity occurred at about 21°C [31]. The CO2 production of tundra soils below 0°C is caused, at least partly, by a specialized ecological group of microorganisms adapted to extreme Arctic conditions and life at sub-zero temperatures [32]. The optimization of temperature could be good way to enhancement biodegradation of pollutants. For in situ remediation it is generally too expensive to increase the soil temperature, but for ex situ remediation, increasing temperature provides realistic option [33, 34, 35].

Bioremediation technologies exploit the natural ability of microorganisms to degrade organic chemical contamination in soil and ground water [7, 10] and the goal of active bioremediation of soil is to enhance the microbial systems to efficiently remediate contaminated area and to decrease the impact of natural heterogeneity of environmental conditions [11]. The most widely used bioremediation procedure is the biostimulation of indigenous microorganisms by the addition of nutrients because the input of large quantities of carbon sources (i.e. organic pollutants) tends to result in a rapid depletion of the available pools of major inorganic nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus [12]. The most reliable way to achieve the successful bioremediation is to ensure that appropriate microorganisms are present in adequate numbers and that the physicochemical environmental conditions are optimized through appropriate

The activity of the indigenous microorganisms can be inhibited through the non optimal environmental conditions (content of oxygen, moisture and/or nutrients, pH) or insufficient availability (hydrophobic contaminants) or degradability (xenobiotics) of pollutants. There‐ fore it is necessary to optimize the conditions to activate the work of microorganisms [12, 14, 15]. Water activity is considered to be proportional to free water that is able to transport soluble nutrients to the biomass, in contrast with moisture which includes all water content (available and non-available) [14]. It is important to note that the contamination by hydrocarbons

It would be good to use commercial products of specified microorganisms to enhance the biodegradation of xenobiotic pollutants, but it needs monitoring for the influence of added microorganisms on the diversity of local (indigenous) organisms [17, 18]. During bioremedia‐ tion, the rate of degradation of hydrocarbons in the field is largely controlled by the rate of supply of nutrients and oxygen [19], which makes it difficult to extrapolate directly the results

The mineralization of pollutants is the best solution for the decontamination of polluted soil, but the level of the residual amounts, which is degraded very slowly, is very important for the applicability of the bioremediation process [10]. However, with a global political shift towards sustainable and green bioremediation technologies, the use of plant-associated bacteria to degrade toxic synthetic organic compounds in environmental soil may provide an efficient, economic, and sustainable green remediation technology for future environment [21].

The addition of surfactants can increase the bioavailability of hydrophobic pollutants [22-25] and the toxicity of organic compounds is strongly linked to their bioavailability in the soil [26], but it is necessary to monitor the leaching of surfactants. Temperature is a very critical factor in determining microbial activity, although the optimum temperature for biodegradation of petroleum products has generally been found to be in the range of 20-30°C, local environmental conditions may select for a population with a lower optimum temperature [27-29]. The decontaminations of contaminated soils achieved at 10°C showed that, even at low tempera‐ tures, abiotic processes and cold-adapted indigenous soil microorganisms contribute to a great extent to diesel oil contaminations in alpine soils [28, 30]. Cold-adapted indigenous hydrocar‐

site engineering design, to enhance microbial growth and activities [13].

122 Applied Bioremediation - Active and Passive Approaches

increased biochemical and microbial activities and improved soil structure [16].

from the laboratory to bioremediation in the field [20].

*1.1.2. Environmentally friendly enhancement of bioremediation*

Biostimulation of the contaminated soil with air and mineral nutrients showed that both respiratory activity and the number of hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria sharply increased in the first two days of the treatment, in parallel with deep changes in the structure of the bacterial community as it was shown by population fingerprinting [36]. Biostimulation of microorgan‐ isms can be carried out through addition of different fertilizers, but chemical properties of used fertilizer have influence on the results: water-soluble fertilizers can be leached into the deeper layer if they are not consumed quite fast, but water insoluble fertilizers can be insufficiently available to consumers. For example, the experiment showed that combination of fast release and slow release phosphate sources may be the best for immediate treatment and long-term maintenance [37].

The addition of nutrients could be quite easy to activate bioremediation, but the real biodegradation of pollutants is carried out by microorganisms. The lack of microbial growth factors [28] can be the reason for the low ultimate degradation rate of contaminants. The results of analysis showed that the biodegradation of petroleum products is more related to the inherent biodegradability of the constituting compounds (a low bioavailability of the contaminants [38]) than to the specific enzymatic capabilities of the microbiota [39]. At the same time the sites with high percentage of total petroleum hydrocarbon removal were characterized by the presence of high levels of estimated biomass and consisted of a large diversity of microorganisms [40].

The analysis of different soil environments confirmed that vegetation has been enhanced the rate and extent of biodegradation in the rhizosphere as root exudates provide carbon and energy, which increases the diversity and number of microbial species [41, 42]. The carbon and energy sources supplied by plants help sustain the microbial population that is degrading the contaminants, for example root exudates associated with vegetation can provide sufficient carbon and energy to support ≈ 108 -109 vegetative microbes per gram of soil in the rhizosphere [41]. Through the exudation of a wide variety of compounds, roots may regulate the soil microbial community in their immediate vicinity, cope with herbivores, encourage beneficial symbioses, change the chemical and physical properties of the soil and inhibit the growth of competing plant species [43, 44, 45]. The efficient attachments of microorganisms to host plants as well as the improvement of the degradation activity of microorganisms are critical factors for the efficient bioremediation by plant-microbe systems [46].

The addition of simple organic carbon sources (the simpler fatty acids [47] or methyl deriva‐ tives of vegetable oils called as biodiesel [48, 49]) has been identified as a useful technique for further stimulating the biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons by an indigenous microbial biomass. Even in the optimal conditions the biodegradation of pollutants takes place more readily when the target contaminants are dissolved in an aqueous solution and the improve‐ ment of the bioavailability of hydrocarbons is performed through the use of surfactants and both non ionic and anionic surfactants increase the solubility of hydrocarbons by forming micelles [22, 24, 25, 38].

types of biosurfactants and insoluble substrates (including hydrocarbons) induce the biosur‐

Biodegradation and Leaching of Surfactants During Surfactant-Amended Bioremediation of Oil-Polluted Soil

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/56908

125

Soil washing is a commonly utilized soil remediation technology which is performed on excavated soil and it can be adapted to fit different masses and different contaminant content by changing the composition of the soil washing fluid [65, 66, 67]. The ecotoxicological evaluation (by Microtox®) demonstrated that all soil washing treatments (chelating agent and non ionic surfactant) increased the toxicity of soil leachates, possibly due to increased availa‐

One of the main limitations for a wider application for surfactants in soil remediation is the lack of knowledge about environmental fate and toxicity of surfactant itself [22, 25, 68]. The application of surfactants to enhance soil remediation requires precise knowledge of soil microbial ecology as well as of the fate and transport of contaminants and surfactants in environmental systems [52] including the use of biodegradable surfactants [69]. Biosurfactants have been increasingly used in soil washing and oil removal from contaminated areas [70, 71] and in enhancing the biodegradation of oil by increasing the bioavailability of hydrophobic

In the absence of toxicity, the net effect of addition of surfactant to a contaminated soil depends on the benefits that result from enhanced solubility of target compounds versus the reduction in direct adhesion of bacteria to the NAPL [38] and several surfactants were toxic to the test

Beside of concentration the influence of surfactants depends on the composition and properties of surfactants as well. The commercial linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) which is widely used anionic surfactant is primary the Na salt, but occurrence of Ca and Mg salts in the environment might cause precipitation of Ca and Mg salts, which have lower bioavailability

The growing use of non ionic surfactants is related to their good detergent performance, which is not affected by water hardness, and to their low toxicity and they can be mixed with ionic and amphoteric surfactants [22, 25, 75]. The experiments with endosulfan proved that *Pseudomonas aeruginosa* combined with non ionic surfactant Tween 80 was able to achieve 94% degradation of endosulfan in contaminated soil [76]. Tween 80 influenced the sorption of

Surfactant biodegradability is a factor that can have negative and positive effects in the use of surfactants for bioremediation [22, 25]. The negative effects can be connected with depletion of minerals and/or oxygen, toxicity of surfactants or their intermediates and preferential degradation of the surfactant [24]. The most obvious positive effect of surfactant degradation is the removal of the surfactant from the polluted site. Another positive effect is fact that a degradable surfactant might be used as a primary substrate when the pollutant is degraded

The study of biodegradation of petro-anionic sulfonate X-100 showed that the presence of organic contaminants apparently enhanced surfactant biodegradation, suggesting a probable

pyrene on the bacterial cell and thus enhanced the degradation of pyrene [77].

and thereby influence the toxicity and biodegradation [74].

bility of contaminants and toxicity of soil washing solutions to the test organism [66].

factant production [64].

pollutants [55, 72].

co-metabolically [33].

bacteria [73].

More often the enhancing of solubility of organic hydrophobic contaminants in soil is carried out by using synthetic surfactants [50], but problems can be associated with reduced availa‐ bility of compounds sequestered into micelles, their toxicity and ultimate resistance to biodegradation leading increased secondary pollution [23, 51-53]. The toxicity of the surfactant and its potential degradation products is one of the most important criteria for the selection of surfactant in soil clean-up [24, 25, 33]. There are many advantages of biosurfactants compared to their chemically synthesized counterparts and it is discussed by different authors [50, 52, 54 - 56].

The use of surfactants is widely studied to increase the bioavailability of PAH which solubility is very low [7, 57-59] and a significant PAH amount (>94%) was removed from the soil solid phase to surfactants solution of Tween 80 and approximately 0.8 mg of Tween 80 was needed per milligram of total PAH removal from the soil solid phase with five successive washing [58]. Soil organic matter (such as humic acids) is a very important adsorbent for cationic surfactants and the sorbed surfactant obviously enhanced the soil sorption of PAHs [60].

The experiments showed that the biosurfactants had similar PAH bioavailability-enhancing properties to synthetic surfactants but with the advantage of being biodegradable and nontoxic to PAH-degrading bacteria and additional advantages of some biosurfactants were the lack of a true micellar formation at high surfactant concentrations [52].

The main factor that works against the wide production of truly natural surfactants (biosur‐ factants) is the cost of their work-up (separation and purification) [54, 56]. Nowadays the approach to the use of renewable resources increases the interest in the ability of humic acids to sequester organic pollutants, because humic acids can be used as natural surfactants for technological purposes [23]. The effectiveness of surfactants in improving contaminant biodegradation is a combination of the solubilizing power of the surfactant and the bioavail‐ ability of micellar contaminant [33, 52].

It is mentioned that a residual fraction of contaminants remained undegraded in the soil even when optimal biodegradation conditions are provided [61]. The influence of the nature of the soil and of the presence of specialized microorganisms on both the degradation rate and the residual concentration was tentatively singled out [62].

#### *1.1.3. Dual application of surfactants*

Surfactants are amphiphilic molecules that tend to partition preferentially at the interface between phases of different polarity and water bonding. Surfactants increase the aqueous solubility of non-aqueous-phase liquids (NAPLs) by reducing their surface/interfacial tension at air-water and water-oil interfaces [24, 63]. Many microbes are capable to synthesize different types of biosurfactants and insoluble substrates (including hydrocarbons) induce the biosur‐ factant production [64].

further stimulating the biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons by an indigenous microbial biomass. Even in the optimal conditions the biodegradation of pollutants takes place more readily when the target contaminants are dissolved in an aqueous solution and the improve‐ ment of the bioavailability of hydrocarbons is performed through the use of surfactants and both non ionic and anionic surfactants increase the solubility of hydrocarbons by forming

More often the enhancing of solubility of organic hydrophobic contaminants in soil is carried out by using synthetic surfactants [50], but problems can be associated with reduced availa‐ bility of compounds sequestered into micelles, their toxicity and ultimate resistance to biodegradation leading increased secondary pollution [23, 51-53]. The toxicity of the surfactant and its potential degradation products is one of the most important criteria for the selection of surfactant in soil clean-up [24, 25, 33]. There are many advantages of biosurfactants compared to their chemically synthesized counterparts and it is discussed by different authors

The use of surfactants is widely studied to increase the bioavailability of PAH which solubility is very low [7, 57-59] and a significant PAH amount (>94%) was removed from the soil solid phase to surfactants solution of Tween 80 and approximately 0.8 mg of Tween 80 was needed per milligram of total PAH removal from the soil solid phase with five successive washing [58]. Soil organic matter (such as humic acids) is a very important adsorbent for cationic surfactants

The experiments showed that the biosurfactants had similar PAH bioavailability-enhancing properties to synthetic surfactants but with the advantage of being biodegradable and nontoxic to PAH-degrading bacteria and additional advantages of some biosurfactants were the

The main factor that works against the wide production of truly natural surfactants (biosur‐ factants) is the cost of their work-up (separation and purification) [54, 56]. Nowadays the approach to the use of renewable resources increases the interest in the ability of humic acids to sequester organic pollutants, because humic acids can be used as natural surfactants for technological purposes [23]. The effectiveness of surfactants in improving contaminant biodegradation is a combination of the solubilizing power of the surfactant and the bioavail‐

It is mentioned that a residual fraction of contaminants remained undegraded in the soil even when optimal biodegradation conditions are provided [61]. The influence of the nature of the soil and of the presence of specialized microorganisms on both the degradation rate and the

Surfactants are amphiphilic molecules that tend to partition preferentially at the interface between phases of different polarity and water bonding. Surfactants increase the aqueous solubility of non-aqueous-phase liquids (NAPLs) by reducing their surface/interfacial tension at air-water and water-oil interfaces [24, 63]. Many microbes are capable to synthesize different

and the sorbed surfactant obviously enhanced the soil sorption of PAHs [60].

lack of a true micellar formation at high surfactant concentrations [52].

ability of micellar contaminant [33, 52].

*1.1.3. Dual application of surfactants*

residual concentration was tentatively singled out [62].

micelles [22, 24, 25, 38].

124 Applied Bioremediation - Active and Passive Approaches

[50, 52, 54 - 56].

Soil washing is a commonly utilized soil remediation technology which is performed on excavated soil and it can be adapted to fit different masses and different contaminant content by changing the composition of the soil washing fluid [65, 66, 67]. The ecotoxicological evaluation (by Microtox®) demonstrated that all soil washing treatments (chelating agent and non ionic surfactant) increased the toxicity of soil leachates, possibly due to increased availa‐ bility of contaminants and toxicity of soil washing solutions to the test organism [66].

One of the main limitations for a wider application for surfactants in soil remediation is the lack of knowledge about environmental fate and toxicity of surfactant itself [22, 25, 68]. The application of surfactants to enhance soil remediation requires precise knowledge of soil microbial ecology as well as of the fate and transport of contaminants and surfactants in environmental systems [52] including the use of biodegradable surfactants [69]. Biosurfactants have been increasingly used in soil washing and oil removal from contaminated areas [70, 71] and in enhancing the biodegradation of oil by increasing the bioavailability of hydrophobic pollutants [55, 72].

In the absence of toxicity, the net effect of addition of surfactant to a contaminated soil depends on the benefits that result from enhanced solubility of target compounds versus the reduction in direct adhesion of bacteria to the NAPL [38] and several surfactants were toxic to the test bacteria [73].

Beside of concentration the influence of surfactants depends on the composition and properties of surfactants as well. The commercial linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) which is widely used anionic surfactant is primary the Na salt, but occurrence of Ca and Mg salts in the environment might cause precipitation of Ca and Mg salts, which have lower bioavailability and thereby influence the toxicity and biodegradation [74].

The growing use of non ionic surfactants is related to their good detergent performance, which is not affected by water hardness, and to their low toxicity and they can be mixed with ionic and amphoteric surfactants [22, 25, 75]. The experiments with endosulfan proved that *Pseudomonas aeruginosa* combined with non ionic surfactant Tween 80 was able to achieve 94% degradation of endosulfan in contaminated soil [76]. Tween 80 influenced the sorption of pyrene on the bacterial cell and thus enhanced the degradation of pyrene [77].

Surfactant biodegradability is a factor that can have negative and positive effects in the use of surfactants for bioremediation [22, 25]. The negative effects can be connected with depletion of minerals and/or oxygen, toxicity of surfactants or their intermediates and preferential degradation of the surfactant [24]. The most obvious positive effect of surfactant degradation is the removal of the surfactant from the polluted site. Another positive effect is fact that a degradable surfactant might be used as a primary substrate when the pollutant is degraded co-metabolically [33].

The study of biodegradation of petro-anionic sulfonate X-100 showed that the presence of organic contaminants apparently enhanced surfactant biodegradation, suggesting a probable synergistic effect of organic contaminants [78]. Environmental risk assessment revealed that after 23 days in the case of LAS and 56 days in the case of nonylphenolic compounds (NPE) potential toxic effects could not be expected [79]. Cyclodextrins are natural, non-toxic com‐ pounds that are harmless to microorganisms and free enzymes, and their employment to form inclusion complexes with hydrophobic molecules gives opportunity to use cyclodextrins for the enhancement of biodegradation of aliphatic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [80].

introduced along with the organic material [10]. The mixing of polluted soil with different organic material will be the better solution to enhance the biodegradation of xenobiotic pollutants and that technique is called cocomposting as it is the process of simultaneous

Biodegradation and Leaching of Surfactants During Surfactant-Amended Bioremediation of Oil-Polluted Soil

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/56908

127

In contrast to composting, compost can be added to polluted soil after its maturation for remediation purposes as composts are capable of sustaining diverse populations of microor‐ ganisms (bacteria including bacilli, pseudomonads, mesophilic and thermophilic actinomy‐ cetes and lignin-degrading fungi), all with the potential to degrade a variety of aromatic pollutants, but the use of composts has not been widely applied as a method for bioremediation [6, 87]. The amount and nature of soil organic matter has been proposed by many workers as being one of the most significant factors dominating organic compound interactions within

Biodegradation pathways of organic pollutants may vary in accordance with the chemical structure of the pollutant and the particular degrading microbial species present and that

Composting and the use of composted materials have both been successfully applied to the bioremediation of PCP-contaminated soil and the principal vector of PCP loss under both bioremediation regimes was mineralization and the changes in molecular weight distribution during the composting indicated that most of the removal of organic chlorine compounds occurred in the low molecular weight fractions [95, 96]. Whereas 90% losses of TNT from contaminated soil during composting was reported although no mineralization took place [97]. Nutrient provision is an important factor for the degradation of pollutants, but low C/N ratios should favor carbon utilization and thus enhance the total mineral oil and grease degradation as it was proved by substantially increased degradation of soil-derived mineral oil and grease as the C/N ratio was reduced from 49 to 17 [87]. Maintenance of thermophilic conditions in traditional composting is generally considered to be necessary, but more total mineral oil and grease was degraded when temperature profile was maintained at 23°C rather than imposing a 5-day plateau at 50°C [87]. The kinetic parameters of composting showed that the composting temperature (in concert with the microorganisms) accounted for 82.5% of the observed reduction in the composting treatment, while only 17.5% of this reduction could be attributed to additional composting-related factors (nutrients, organic matter, abundance of microor‐

Rhizodegradation of pollutants in soil becomes promising for the areas where plants can grow because plant rhizospheres are the most biologically active microsites in soil [98, 99] and it can be used to remediate heavily oil-polluted soils where composting with optimal organic amendments amounts (2:1) and C/N ratio (15:1) effectively reduced total petroleum hydro‐ carbon concentration and allowed dominant plant species to grow in the remediated soil [100]. The experiments of diesel oil degradation during contaminated soil composting showed that volatilization loss of total petroleum hydrocarbons was only about 2% of initial hydrocarbons [91]. No significant effect of the bioaugmendation on the composting process of petroleumcontaminated soil was observed as well as none of the introduced organisms were re-isolated

pathways are described by Neilson and Allard [94].

stabilizing organic matter and degrading toxic compounds (pollutants) [14, 90, 91].

soil [92, 93].

ganisms) [90].

The biosurfactant BS-UC produced by *Candida antarctica* from *n*-undecane had the capacity of changing the hydrophobicity and the zeta potential of the cell surface, but the biosurfactant enhanced the biodegradation of the organic compound whose structure was similar to that of the biosurfactant produced from [81].

In respirometric experiments, oxidation of all parts of the chemical will lead to oxygen consumption, which is the parameter used to quantify ultimate biodegradation [82].

Although the sorption of surfactants is very complex, especially for anionic surfactants, it is partly correlated with the organic carbon content in soil [83]. The adsorption of surfactants by soil components may lead to a significant reduction in their effectiveness to remove the contaminants from the soil and because it is important to consider surfactant tendency to be adsorbed by the soil or sediment to be decontaminated [84, 85].

#### *1.1.4. Polluted soil composting — The easiest technological approach*

Composting is an aerobic process that relies on the actions of microorganisms to degrade organic materials, resulting in the thermogenesis and production of organic and inorganic compounds [6]. Whereas the primary benefit from composting of household waste is the reduction of volume, hygienization and stabilization for recycling or ultimate disposal, the objective of composting hazardous materials is solely to convert these substances into an innocuous end-product [86]. Microorganisms consume the supplied substrates as well as the contaminants, possibly by co-metabolisms and many hazardous wastes have been also converted into innocuous end-products in this manner [87].

There are variety of composting systems and most of them utilize bulking agents (such as bark chips, straw and chopped sugar beet), which increases the porosity and, therefore, aerobicity of medium under treatment and decrease the moisture levels [88]. Composting bioremediation strategy relies on mixing the primary ingredients of composting with the contaminated soil, wherein as the compost matures, the pollutants are degraded by the active microflora within mixture [6].

Soil composting pile is a promising approach of oil-contaminated soil and it was possible to degrade up to 60% of total petroleum hydrocarbon of heavy-contaminated soil during the first eight months [89].

Contaminated soil is often poor in organic matter and has a general low microbial activity, but usually the indigenous bacterial community is adapted to the presence of the contaminant. By adding an organic matrix to contaminated soil the general microbial activity is enhanced and also the activity of specific degraders, which may be found in the contaminated soil or introduced along with the organic material [10]. The mixing of polluted soil with different organic material will be the better solution to enhance the biodegradation of xenobiotic pollutants and that technique is called cocomposting as it is the process of simultaneous stabilizing organic matter and degrading toxic compounds (pollutants) [14, 90, 91].

synergistic effect of organic contaminants [78]. Environmental risk assessment revealed that after 23 days in the case of LAS and 56 days in the case of nonylphenolic compounds (NPE) potential toxic effects could not be expected [79]. Cyclodextrins are natural, non-toxic com‐ pounds that are harmless to microorganisms and free enzymes, and their employment to form inclusion complexes with hydrophobic molecules gives opportunity to use cyclodextrins for the enhancement of biodegradation of aliphatic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [80].

The biosurfactant BS-UC produced by *Candida antarctica* from *n*-undecane had the capacity of changing the hydrophobicity and the zeta potential of the cell surface, but the biosurfactant enhanced the biodegradation of the organic compound whose structure was similar to that of

In respirometric experiments, oxidation of all parts of the chemical will lead to oxygen

Although the sorption of surfactants is very complex, especially for anionic surfactants, it is partly correlated with the organic carbon content in soil [83]. The adsorption of surfactants by soil components may lead to a significant reduction in their effectiveness to remove the contaminants from the soil and because it is important to consider surfactant tendency to be

Composting is an aerobic process that relies on the actions of microorganisms to degrade organic materials, resulting in the thermogenesis and production of organic and inorganic compounds [6]. Whereas the primary benefit from composting of household waste is the reduction of volume, hygienization and stabilization for recycling or ultimate disposal, the objective of composting hazardous materials is solely to convert these substances into an innocuous end-product [86]. Microorganisms consume the supplied substrates as well as the contaminants, possibly by co-metabolisms and many hazardous wastes have been also

There are variety of composting systems and most of them utilize bulking agents (such as bark chips, straw and chopped sugar beet), which increases the porosity and, therefore, aerobicity of medium under treatment and decrease the moisture levels [88]. Composting bioremediation strategy relies on mixing the primary ingredients of composting with the contaminated soil, wherein as the compost matures, the pollutants are degraded by the active microflora within

Soil composting pile is a promising approach of oil-contaminated soil and it was possible to degrade up to 60% of total petroleum hydrocarbon of heavy-contaminated soil during the first

Contaminated soil is often poor in organic matter and has a general low microbial activity, but usually the indigenous bacterial community is adapted to the presence of the contaminant. By adding an organic matrix to contaminated soil the general microbial activity is enhanced and also the activity of specific degraders, which may be found in the contaminated soil or

consumption, which is the parameter used to quantify ultimate biodegradation [82].

adsorbed by the soil or sediment to be decontaminated [84, 85].

*1.1.4. Polluted soil composting — The easiest technological approach*

converted into innocuous end-products in this manner [87].

mixture [6].

eight months [89].

the biosurfactant produced from [81].

126 Applied Bioremediation - Active and Passive Approaches

In contrast to composting, compost can be added to polluted soil after its maturation for remediation purposes as composts are capable of sustaining diverse populations of microor‐ ganisms (bacteria including bacilli, pseudomonads, mesophilic and thermophilic actinomy‐ cetes and lignin-degrading fungi), all with the potential to degrade a variety of aromatic pollutants, but the use of composts has not been widely applied as a method for bioremediation [6, 87]. The amount and nature of soil organic matter has been proposed by many workers as being one of the most significant factors dominating organic compound interactions within soil [92, 93].

Biodegradation pathways of organic pollutants may vary in accordance with the chemical structure of the pollutant and the particular degrading microbial species present and that pathways are described by Neilson and Allard [94].

Composting and the use of composted materials have both been successfully applied to the bioremediation of PCP-contaminated soil and the principal vector of PCP loss under both bioremediation regimes was mineralization and the changes in molecular weight distribution during the composting indicated that most of the removal of organic chlorine compounds occurred in the low molecular weight fractions [95, 96]. Whereas 90% losses of TNT from contaminated soil during composting was reported although no mineralization took place [97].

Nutrient provision is an important factor for the degradation of pollutants, but low C/N ratios should favor carbon utilization and thus enhance the total mineral oil and grease degradation as it was proved by substantially increased degradation of soil-derived mineral oil and grease as the C/N ratio was reduced from 49 to 17 [87]. Maintenance of thermophilic conditions in traditional composting is generally considered to be necessary, but more total mineral oil and grease was degraded when temperature profile was maintained at 23°C rather than imposing a 5-day plateau at 50°C [87]. The kinetic parameters of composting showed that the composting temperature (in concert with the microorganisms) accounted for 82.5% of the observed reduction in the composting treatment, while only 17.5% of this reduction could be attributed to additional composting-related factors (nutrients, organic matter, abundance of microor‐ ganisms) [90].

Rhizodegradation of pollutants in soil becomes promising for the areas where plants can grow because plant rhizospheres are the most biologically active microsites in soil [98, 99] and it can be used to remediate heavily oil-polluted soils where composting with optimal organic amendments amounts (2:1) and C/N ratio (15:1) effectively reduced total petroleum hydro‐ carbon concentration and allowed dominant plant species to grow in the remediated soil [100].

The experiments of diesel oil degradation during contaminated soil composting showed that volatilization loss of total petroleum hydrocarbons was only about 2% of initial hydrocarbons [91]. No significant effect of the bioaugmendation on the composting process of petroleumcontaminated soil was observed as well as none of the introduced organisms were re-isolated by traditional plating techniques and because it is more important to create suitable conditions for the indigenous bacteria than to introduce new species [10]. The germination tests showed that no immediate phytotoxic properties could be attributed to the compost after 12 weeks of composting fresh biowaste together with the diesel-contaminated soil (10%) [90].

#### *1.1.5. Objectives of experimental work*

The main objective of the experimental work was to study the behavior of surfactants in oil-polluted soil and soil compost. The sub-objectives for achieving the main goal are the following:

