**1. Introduction**

velopment' in a homogeneous charge compression ignition engine Proc. IMechE Part

[86] Bradley, D, Morley, C, Gu, X. J, & Emerson, D. R. (2002). Amplified pressure waves

[87] Sheppard, C. G. W, Tolegano, S, & Wooley, R. (2002). On the nature of autoignition

[88] Tominaga, R, Morimoto, S, Kawabata, Y, Matsuo, S, & Amano, T. Effects of heteroge‐ neous EGR on the natural gas fueled HCCI engine using experiments, CFD and de‐

during autoignition: relevance to CAI engines. SAE paper 2002-01-2868.

leading to knock in HCCI engines. SAE paper 2002-01-2831.

D: J. Automobile Engineering, , 222, 2171-2183.

148 Advances in Internal Combustion Engines and Fuel Technologies

tailed kinetics, SAE paper 2004-01-0945.

The most difficult challenge for modern 4-Stroke high speed Diesel engines is the limitation of pollutant emissions without penalizing performance, overall dimensions and production costs, the last ones being already higher than those of the correspondent S.I. engines.

An interesting concept in order to meet the conflicting requirements mentioned above is the 2-Stroke cycle combined to Compression Ignition. Such a concept is widely applied to large bore engines, on steady or naval power-plants, where the advantages versus the 4-Stroke cycle in terms of power density and fuel conversion efficiency (in some cases higher than 50% [1]) are well known. In fact, the double cycle frequency allows the de‐ signer to either downsize (i.e. reduce the displacement, for a given power target) or "down-speed" (i.e. reduce engine speed, for a given power target) the 2-stroke engine. Furthermore, mechanical efficiency can be strongly improved, for 2 reasons: i) the gas ex‐ change process can be completed with piston controlled ports, without the losses associ‐ ated to a valve-train; ii) the mechanical power lost in one cycle is about halved, in comparison to a 4-Stroke engine of same design and size, while the indicated power can be the same: as a result, the weight of mechanical losses is lower.

Unfortunately, the 2-Stroke technology used on steady or naval power-plants cannot be sim‐ ply "scaled" on small bore engines, for a number of reasons. First of all, the increase of en‐ gine speed makes combustion completely different, in particular for what concerns the ignition delay; second, small Diesel engines are generally designed according to different targets and constraints (for instance, they have to be efficient and clean on a wider set of op‐ erating conditions, they must comply with specific emissions regulations, et cetera); third,

© 2013 Mattarelli et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 Mattarelli et al.; licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

most of the engine components (such as bearings, connecting rods, piston rings, et cetera) are generally different, at least from a structural point of view. As a result, a brand new en‐ gine design is mandatory to develop a successful 2-Stroke high speed CI engine.

Still in 2005, FEV announced the development of a four cylinder supercharged 2-Stroke Diesel engine, for military ground vehicles [7]. This engine, called OPOC (opposed-pis‐ ton, opposed-cylinder), features uniflow scavenging (intake and exhaust ports at oppo‐ site ends of the cylinder), asymmetric port timing (exhaust ports open and close before intake) and electrically-assisted boosting. FEV claims a very high power to weight ratio

Advances in The Design of Two-Stroke, High Speed, Compression Ignition Engines

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151

A 2-Stroke high speed engine concept has been developed also by the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia [8]. The core of the project is a brand new type of com‐ bustion system. As well known, conventional DI Diesel engines (both Two and Four Stroke) adopt a bowl in the piston, whose shape is optimized in order to generate an optimum mean and turbulent flow field around TDC, provided that a proper swirl motion is imparted to the intake flow. Conversely, in the new combustion system the combustion chamber is carved within the engine head, while the piston crown is flat. Furthermore, for the sake of compactness and cost, scavenging is obtained without poppet valves, but using piston controlled slots at the bottom of the cylinder liner. Since this scavenging is of the loop type, the combustion chamber and the injection system are designed in order to comply with a flow field characterized by a strong tumble vortex at exhaust port closing, that is going to destroy itself just before top dead center. The new combustion system is expected to yield some advantages, in comparison to the prototypes characterized by uniflow scavenging with on-head ex‐ haust poppet valves, and bowl in the piston. First, on-head exhaust valves are not used, with ensuing advantages in terms of overall compactness, cost, reliability, weight and friction losses. Second, the piston becomes simpler and lighter, while its thermal load is dramatically reduced. Third, heat transfer during expansion is strongly reduced

While in the automobile field the 2-Stroke Diesel engine still hasn't found an application to industrial production, beside some exceptions (in 1999 Daihatsu proposed the "Sirion" car with a 3-cylinder 2-Stroke 1.0L engine), this concept is starting to be applied in the aeronau‐

The application of the 2-Stroke Diesel concept to aircraft engines is everything but a nov‐ elty: as just one example, Junkers built a very successful series of these engines in the late 19-'30's, named "JUMO". The main advantage offered by such an engine, in compar‐ ison to the contemporary piston engines was fuel efficiency: in 1938, the JUMO engine was capable of a Brake Specific Fuel Consumption of 213 g/kWh [15], an impressive fig‐ ure even by modern standards. It should be noticed that fuel consumption is very im‐ portant for aircraft performance, since a relevant portion of the aircraft total weight

In addition to the advantages already mentioned, the two-stroke cycle is a good match for aircraft engines, since it is possible to achieve high power density at low crankshaft speed, allowing direct coupling to the propeller without the need for a reduction drive (which is

because of the absence of swirl: as a result, heat losses are less.

tic field, to power light aircrafts [9-14].

(sometimes up to 50%) is due to fuel storage.

heavy and expensive, besides adsorbing energy).

(325HP, 125kg) and low fuel consumption.

The most interesting attempts in the automobile field started at the beginning of the '90. Be‐ sides the studies at the Queen's University of Belfast [2], one of the first relevant examples is the prototype developed by Toyota [3], converting a commercial 4-Stroke, 4-Cylinder 2500 cm3 engine into a 2-Stroke unit. Such a result was achieved by using the poppet valves as scavenging ports, and by boosting the engine through a Roots compressor. In comparison to the contemporary Diesel engines, Toyota claimed an increase of both maximum power and torque equal to 25 and 40%, respectively, while halving Nitrogen Oxides emissions.

In the second half of the '90, AVL [4] developed a 980 cm3 , three cylinder in-line proto‐ type following a different path. The engine features an uniflow scavenging, obtained by means of inlet ports on the cylinder wall and exhaust poppet valves on head. The com‐ bustion chamber is based on a traditional HSDI four stroke design (i.e. bowl in the pis‐ ton), fuel metering is provided by a Common Rail system while air boosting is obtained by a mechanical supercharging combined with a turbocharger. Combustion is assisted by a strong swirl motion whose strength can be set up by means of a proper design of the inlet ports. In the more advanced configuration, the engine shows a power density of 50 kW/l, a minimum specific fuel consumption of 235 g/kWh, along with relatively low incylinder peak pressures (120 bar). AVL claims that the engine is much lighter than a four stroke unit of the same top power and with similar single cylinder displacement (the total weight is less than 80kg). As far as emissions are concerned, the behavior of this two stroke engine does not differ from a four-stroke counterpart, and additional ad‐ vantages have been found in terms of noise and NOx reduction.

The 2-Stroke High Speed Diesel engine concept was investigated in 1999 also by Yamaha, who built a 1000 cm3 , 2-Cylinder engine, with crank-case loop scavenging [5]. The most pe‐ culiar issue of this prototype is the combustion system, made up of a pre-chamber, connect‐ ed to the cylinder through four holes. During compression, these holes impart a swirling motion to the charge entering the pre-chamber, while, during expansion, they allow the gas to expand in the cylinder, with limited flow losses, in comparison to traditional indirect Die‐ sel engines. Even if power output was not particularly high (33 kW@4000rpm), this engine featured compact dimensions, along with very low fuel consumption and engine-out emis‐ sions, at least in in comparison to the contemporary 4-Stroke engines.

In 2005, Daihatsu [6] announced a 2-cylinder, 1200 cm3 of capacity automotive engine, exhibiting a maximum power of 65kW and a maximum torque of 230N.m. Daihatsu claimed that the prototype was very fuel efficient and clean, being able to comply with EURO V regulations. The scavenging and the air metering system are like the ones pre‐ viously mentioned about the AVL prototype, with particular care devoted to reduce the mechanical loss of the supercharger, as well as to generate a moderate swirling motion within the chamber. The engine featured a cooled EGR device and the latest Common Rail injection system.

Still in 2005, FEV announced the development of a four cylinder supercharged 2-Stroke Diesel engine, for military ground vehicles [7]. This engine, called OPOC (opposed-pis‐ ton, opposed-cylinder), features uniflow scavenging (intake and exhaust ports at oppo‐ site ends of the cylinder), asymmetric port timing (exhaust ports open and close before intake) and electrically-assisted boosting. FEV claims a very high power to weight ratio (325HP, 125kg) and low fuel consumption.

most of the engine components (such as bearings, connecting rods, piston rings, et cetera) are generally different, at least from a structural point of view. As a result, a brand new en‐

The most interesting attempts in the automobile field started at the beginning of the '90. Be‐ sides the studies at the Queen's University of Belfast [2], one of the first relevant examples is the prototype developed by Toyota [3], converting a commercial 4-Stroke, 4-Cylinder 2500

 engine into a 2-Stroke unit. Such a result was achieved by using the poppet valves as scavenging ports, and by boosting the engine through a Roots compressor. In comparison to the contemporary Diesel engines, Toyota claimed an increase of both maximum power and

type following a different path. The engine features an uniflow scavenging, obtained by means of inlet ports on the cylinder wall and exhaust poppet valves on head. The com‐ bustion chamber is based on a traditional HSDI four stroke design (i.e. bowl in the pis‐ ton), fuel metering is provided by a Common Rail system while air boosting is obtained by a mechanical supercharging combined with a turbocharger. Combustion is assisted by a strong swirl motion whose strength can be set up by means of a proper design of the inlet ports. In the more advanced configuration, the engine shows a power density of 50 kW/l, a minimum specific fuel consumption of 235 g/kWh, along with relatively low incylinder peak pressures (120 bar). AVL claims that the engine is much lighter than a four stroke unit of the same top power and with similar single cylinder displacement (the total weight is less than 80kg). As far as emissions are concerned, the behavior of this two stroke engine does not differ from a four-stroke counterpart, and additional ad‐

The 2-Stroke High Speed Diesel engine concept was investigated in 1999 also by Yamaha,

culiar issue of this prototype is the combustion system, made up of a pre-chamber, connect‐ ed to the cylinder through four holes. During compression, these holes impart a swirling motion to the charge entering the pre-chamber, while, during expansion, they allow the gas to expand in the cylinder, with limited flow losses, in comparison to traditional indirect Die‐ sel engines. Even if power output was not particularly high (33 kW@4000rpm), this engine featured compact dimensions, along with very low fuel consumption and engine-out emis‐

In 2005, Daihatsu [6] announced a 2-cylinder, 1200 cm3 of capacity automotive engine, exhibiting a maximum power of 65kW and a maximum torque of 230N.m. Daihatsu claimed that the prototype was very fuel efficient and clean, being able to comply with EURO V regulations. The scavenging and the air metering system are like the ones pre‐ viously mentioned about the AVL prototype, with particular care devoted to reduce the mechanical loss of the supercharger, as well as to generate a moderate swirling motion within the chamber. The engine featured a cooled EGR device and the latest Common

, 2-Cylinder engine, with crank-case loop scavenging [5]. The most pe‐

, three cylinder in-line proto‐

gine design is mandatory to develop a successful 2-Stroke high speed CI engine.

torque equal to 25 and 40%, respectively, while halving Nitrogen Oxides emissions.

In the second half of the '90, AVL [4] developed a 980 cm3

150 Advances in Internal Combustion Engines and Fuel Technologies

vantages have been found in terms of noise and NOx reduction.

sions, at least in in comparison to the contemporary 4-Stroke engines.

cm3

who built a 1000 cm3

Rail injection system.

A 2-Stroke high speed engine concept has been developed also by the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia [8]. The core of the project is a brand new type of com‐ bustion system. As well known, conventional DI Diesel engines (both Two and Four Stroke) adopt a bowl in the piston, whose shape is optimized in order to generate an optimum mean and turbulent flow field around TDC, provided that a proper swirl motion is imparted to the intake flow. Conversely, in the new combustion system the combustion chamber is carved within the engine head, while the piston crown is flat. Furthermore, for the sake of compactness and cost, scavenging is obtained without poppet valves, but using piston controlled slots at the bottom of the cylinder liner. Since this scavenging is of the loop type, the combustion chamber and the injection system are designed in order to comply with a flow field characterized by a strong tumble vortex at exhaust port closing, that is going to destroy itself just before top dead center. The new combustion system is expected to yield some advantages, in comparison to the prototypes characterized by uniflow scavenging with on-head ex‐ haust poppet valves, and bowl in the piston. First, on-head exhaust valves are not used, with ensuing advantages in terms of overall compactness, cost, reliability, weight and friction losses. Second, the piston becomes simpler and lighter, while its thermal load is dramatically reduced. Third, heat transfer during expansion is strongly reduced because of the absence of swirl: as a result, heat losses are less.

While in the automobile field the 2-Stroke Diesel engine still hasn't found an application to industrial production, beside some exceptions (in 1999 Daihatsu proposed the "Sirion" car with a 3-cylinder 2-Stroke 1.0L engine), this concept is starting to be applied in the aeronau‐ tic field, to power light aircrafts [9-14].

The application of the 2-Stroke Diesel concept to aircraft engines is everything but a nov‐ elty: as just one example, Junkers built a very successful series of these engines in the late 19-'30's, named "JUMO". The main advantage offered by such an engine, in compar‐ ison to the contemporary piston engines was fuel efficiency: in 1938, the JUMO engine was capable of a Brake Specific Fuel Consumption of 213 g/kWh [15], an impressive fig‐ ure even by modern standards. It should be noticed that fuel consumption is very im‐ portant for aircraft performance, since a relevant portion of the aircraft total weight (sometimes up to 50%) is due to fuel storage.

In addition to the advantages already mentioned, the two-stroke cycle is a good match for aircraft engines, since it is possible to achieve high power density at low crankshaft speed, allowing direct coupling to the propeller without the need for a reduction drive (which is heavy and expensive, besides adsorbing energy).

Supercharging further improves power density and fuel efficiency, as well as enhancing alti‐ tude performance. Diesel combustion allows a higher boosting level, in comparison to Spark Ignited engines, limited by knocking. In addition, high octane aviation gasoline is expected to be subject to strong limitations, due to its polluting emissions of lead, while a Diesel en‐ gine can burn a variety of fuels: besides automotive Diesel, also turbine fuels such as JP4 and JP5, and Jet A. Further advantages in comparison to gasoline power-plants are: reduced fire and explosion hazard, better in-flight reliability (no mixture control problems), no car‐ buretor icing problems and safe cabin heating from exhaust stacks (less danger of Carbon Monoxide intoxication).

**FEATURES**

C=Average, D=Poor

when power rating is low.

of reference in recent projects.

solutions are #1 and #8.

**CONFIGURATIONS**

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153

**1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8**

Advances in The Design of Two-Stroke, High Speed, Compression Ignition Engines

Scavenging quality B+ A- A B+ D D B+ B+

Thermal efficiency A- C- C- C- C- A C- A

Mechanical efficiency B B B A- B B A A

Engineering cost B B C B+ A- D A- D

Injection system cost B A A A A B A B

Overall dimensions B B A A B B A A

Power density A B B D C B- B- A

**Table 1.** Comparison among the different designs listed in the previous section. Grades: A=Excellent, B=Good,

limitation on power rating due to smoke emissions at high speed and load.

From the scavenging quality point of view, uniflow scavenging is generally better than loop, even if the necessity of imparting a swirling motion to the inlet flow can spoil the advantage a little bit. Since the swirl requirement is more stringent for direct injection, DI Uniflow scav‐ enging configurations generally yield lower trapping and scavenging efficiency than Uni‐ flow IDI designs. Another advantage of the IDI design is the cost of the injection system, that can be of the mechanical type. The downsides are the low thermal efficiency and the

When scavenging is obtained only by means of piston controlled ports, the valve-train is absent. However, the advantage in terms of mechanical efficiency can be spoiled without a proper lubrication, or in the case of a double crankshaft (opposed piston design). Par‐ ticular care must be devoted when using a crankcase pump, since some oil uniformly dispersed in the airflow is generally not sufficient at high load. On the other hand, the combination of loop scavenging and crankcase pump enables a very compact design

Except for the opposed pistons configuration, the piston-controlled ports design implies that a tumble motion is generated within the cylinder. The same type of flow field can be found in the designs with inlet and exhaust poppet valves, referred to as 5 and 6. The optimization of a DI combustion system without swirl is far from trivial and it requires a strong support by simulation and specific experiments, with ensuing rise of the engineering costs. The same problem may be faced in the development of an opposed piston design, because of the lack

In general, every solution presented in table 1 has its own pros and cons, so that the best choice depends on the project specifics. In the authors' opinion, the most balanced
