**Trace Elements and Palynomorphs in the Core Sediments of a Tropical Urban Pond**

Sueli Yoshinaga Pereira, Melina Mara de Souza, Fresia Ricardi-Branco, Paulo Ricardo Brum Pereira, Fabio Cardinale Branco and Renato Zázera Francioso

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55703

## **1. Introduction**

Park Hermogenes de Freitas Leitao Filho is located in Campinas (SP), limited by the Cidade Universitaria I and Cidade Universitaria II neighbourhoods and the State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), in the Barão Geraldo district, whose population was estimated in 2011 to be around 60,000 inhabitants [1]. The park has an estimated area of 123,901.06 m2 and of this total, 80,111.17 m2 corresponds to the surface of a pond formed by the damming of two streams: one passes through the campus of UNICAMP, draining an area of 325.813 m2 . In recent decades, effluent from the University has been released into the pond. In 2004, this release was captured by the sewage system of the municipal sanitation company. Currently, the pond receives urban drainage water from the Cidade Universitária II neighbourhood and a Centro Médico Hospital, on the right bank, and the university campus and the Cidade Universitaria II neighbourhood on the left bank.

Thus, in this study we sought the presence of trace elements (As, Co, Cr, Cu, Ga, Ni, Pb, Th, V and Zn) and Al2O3, Fe2O3, MnO and Loss on Ignition (LOI, 105 ºC and 1,000 ºC) in recent sediments of the pond and correlate it with the occurrence of pollen and spores derived from the surrounding vegetation. Accordingly, a 65 cm-deep core, named T-UNICAMP, forming the subject matter of this article.

© 2013 Pereira et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 Pereira et al.; licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

## **2. Study area**

Park Hermogenes de Freitas Leitão Filho is located at the coordinates 22°48'40.20" S and 47°04'11.86" W (23k, 287000 to 287700 - 7475700 to 7476000 m) and it is one of the green leisure areas surrounding the University of Campinas, Campinas (SP) in the district of Barão Geraldo. **3. Material and method**

**4. Results**

**4.1. Description of sediments**

**4.2. Chemical analysis**

the sediments are oxidized to a depth of 30 cm.

chemical elements along the sampled profile.

The results of sediment analysis are presented in Table 1.

The 65 cm-depth core (T-UNICAMP) was removed near the pluvial exit of the Cidade Universitaria II neighbourhood. The material collected was predominantly sandy-clay.

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For the chemical analysis of the sediments, samples were taken every 10 cm, for a total of six samples. In these samples, the elements As, Co, Cr, Cu, Ga, Ni, Pb, Th, V and Zn, and Al2O3, Fe2O3, MnO were analysed by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (Philips PW 2404) and the Loss on Ignition (105°C and 1000°C) parameters at the Analytical Geochemistry Laboratory of the Geosciences Institute - UNICAMP. The larger elements were determined in the Uniquant

For pollen analysis, six samples were collected at the same intervals of depth for the analysis mentioned above. The palynology samples were processed according to the classical method of [2] for Quaternary sediments, which comprises the following steps: dissolution of silicates by HF; removal of silica colloidal with diluted HCl (hot); destruction of humic acids by 10% KOH solution; centrifugation and washing the sample with distilled water; blade mounting, with 50 microlitres of the sample, and observation under a Axioimager Zeiss microscope at

The sediments are predominantly sandy clay, for the interval 0 to 40 cm deep. The sediments then become silty clay, up to 51.5 cm. From this depth, fine sandy sediments occur. Note that

Figure 2 presents a description of the sediments, the distribution of the palynomorphs and the

**Depth 10 cm 20 cm 30 cm 40 cm 50 cm 65 cm** Al2O3 (%) 21.1 22.8 25.4 26.2 23.7 2.1 Fe2O3 (%) 2.4 2.5 1.3 1.2 15.3 0.3 MnO (%) 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.09 0.01 LOI (105oC) (%) 4.7 4.4 5.4 4.6 2.7 0.2 LOI (1000oC) (%) 20.2 17.2 17.0 14.0 12.9 0.9

program and the other elements were determined in Solo2007 – a Superq program.

the Palaeo Hydrogeology Laboratory of the Institute of Geosciences - UNICAMP.

The park and its surroundings have undergone significant changes in their vegetation cover and land use from the 1950s onwards, mainly because of the growth of the neighbourhood and the District of Barão Geraldo, as well as construction on the university campus and the urban expansion of the city of Campinas. The land use has changed from wood savannah (Brazilian Cerrado) to agricultural use (sugar cane crops and pasture), and eventually to urban use (residential and the university).The surrounding vegetation is represented by degraded fragments of wood savannah (Brazilian Cerrado) and garden vegetation.

Figure 1 shows the study area and the location of the analysed sample.

**Figure 1.** The study area and localization of the sample core

## **3. Material and method**

**2. Study area**

226 Climate Change and Regional/Local Responses

Park Hermogenes de Freitas Leitão Filho is located at the coordinates 22°48'40.20" S and 47°04'11.86" W (23k, 287000 to 287700 - 7475700 to 7476000 m) and it is one of the green leisure areas surrounding the University of Campinas, Campinas (SP) in the district of Barão Geraldo.

The park and its surroundings have undergone significant changes in their vegetation cover and land use from the 1950s onwards, mainly because of the growth of the neighbourhood and the District of Barão Geraldo, as well as construction on the university campus and the urban expansion of the city of Campinas. The land use has changed from wood savannah (Brazilian Cerrado) to agricultural use (sugar cane crops and pasture), and eventually to urban use (residential and the university).The surrounding vegetation is represented by degraded

fragments of wood savannah (Brazilian Cerrado) and garden vegetation.

Figure 1 shows the study area and the location of the analysed sample.

**Figure 1.** The study area and localization of the sample core

The 65 cm-depth core (T-UNICAMP) was removed near the pluvial exit of the Cidade Universitaria II neighbourhood. The material collected was predominantly sandy-clay.

For the chemical analysis of the sediments, samples were taken every 10 cm, for a total of six samples. In these samples, the elements As, Co, Cr, Cu, Ga, Ni, Pb, Th, V and Zn, and Al2O3, Fe2O3, MnO were analysed by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (Philips PW 2404) and the Loss on Ignition (105°C and 1000°C) parameters at the Analytical Geochemistry Laboratory of the Geosciences Institute - UNICAMP. The larger elements were determined in the Uniquant program and the other elements were determined in Solo2007 – a Superq program.

For pollen analysis, six samples were collected at the same intervals of depth for the analysis mentioned above. The palynology samples were processed according to the classical method of [2] for Quaternary sediments, which comprises the following steps: dissolution of silicates by HF; removal of silica colloidal with diluted HCl (hot); destruction of humic acids by 10% KOH solution; centrifugation and washing the sample with distilled water; blade mounting, with 50 microlitres of the sample, and observation under a Axioimager Zeiss microscope at the Palaeo Hydrogeology Laboratory of the Institute of Geosciences - UNICAMP.

## **4. Results**

## **4.1. Description of sediments**

The sediments are predominantly sandy clay, for the interval 0 to 40 cm deep. The sediments then become silty clay, up to 51.5 cm. From this depth, fine sandy sediments occur. Note that the sediments are oxidized to a depth of 30 cm.

Figure 2 presents a description of the sediments, the distribution of the palynomorphs and the chemical elements along the sampled profile.

## **4.2. Chemical analysis**


The results of sediment analysis are presented in Table 1.


The Loss on Ignition parameter (105°C and 1000ºC) occurs in all the intervals, ranging from 0.2 to 5.4% and 0.9 to 20.2%, respectively. Thus, organic matter is present in the more superficial portions of the core to a depth of 50 cm, with a strong decrease in the sandy portion (65 cm

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As it can be seen in Figure 2, pollen grains were identified in two intervals: T-UNICAMP/32-35 cm and T-UNICAMP/42-46 cm. Figure 2 shows, in alphabetical order, the main pollen types distribuition found, of which 19 were Angiosperms and 3 were Pteridophytes (Figure 3). We observed the existence of 446 pollen grains distributed in 19 pollen types and 36 spores. Among the different taxonomic categories we considered as indeterminate those that could not be

The 42-46 cm interval is mainly characterized by a low concentration of pollen grains and the presence of spores. In this interval, we mainly observed the presence of Cyperaceae, Aralia‐ ceae, Poaceae and Myrtaceae. As for the spores, these were of the families Polypodiaceae

The 32-35 cm interval is characterized by a higher concentration and amount of pollen grains and the presence of rate indicators of wood savannah (Brazilian Cerrado). However, we did not observe a significant number of Pteridophytes spores. The predominant families in this interval were: Araliaceae, Asteraceae, Rubiaceae, Malpighiaceae, Myrtaceae, Fabaceae and Cyperaceae - featuring wood savannah (Brazilian Cerrado) - present in the remaining frag‐ ments of the vegetation surrounding the pond. As for the spores, we saw the presence of

Urban lakes suffer pollution problems arising primarily from the activities of their urban surroundings, which may contribute to the greater amount of trace elements, which are concentrated in the pond fine sediments. Trace elements such as Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn are toxic

The elements As, Cr, Cu, Ni and Zn (T.E.) were analysed taking as sediment toxicity screening values for aquatic life the TEL and PEL - according to [4] - indices adopted by the Sao Paulo state environmental agency. The acronym TEL means "Threshold Effect Level" and PEL means "Probable Effect Level". These values are guidelines for sediment quality, and differ in values for each parameter analysed, although both aim to protect life in aquatic environments. The proposed values of these bands are divided into three parts: below the minimum value suggested, where an adverse effect is rarely expected (<TEL); between the minimum and the maximum value, where the possibility of an adverse effect might be expected (> TEL and <PEL); and the higher than the maximum value suggested (> PEL), where an adverse effect is often expected. Thus, Table 2 presents the patterns of TEL and PEL for each element (As, Cr, Cu, Ni and Zn), the depths of their occurrence and their classification as to the quality of the sediments.

identified to family level, which amounted to 41 grains of pollen.

*(Polypodium)* and Cyatheaceae *(Cyathea).*

Cyatheaceae, Polypodiaceae and Dicksoniaceae.

and present adversity to aquatic organisms and humans [3].

interval).

**4.3. Pollen analysis**

**5. Discussion**

**Table 1.** Results of the chemical analysis of sediments.

The Al2O3 concentrations varied from 21.1 to 26.2% to a depth of 40 cm and a minimum value of 2.1 % on the basis of the core. The Fe2O3 concentration was found between 0.3 and 15.3 % at depths of 65 and 50 cm respectively. In the other depths, the concentration ranged from 1.2 to 2.5 %.

The MnO has concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 0.09%, which is highest in the sample at 50 cm deep.

The LOI values ranged from 0.2 to 5.4% (LOI 105°C) and 0.90 to 20.20 % (LOI 1000°C). The lowest values were found at the base of the core.

Regarding the trace elements, the concentrations of As ranged from 1.0 to 5.1 ppm, Co from 6.4 to 20.0 ppm, Cr from 18 to 204 ppm. The concentrations of Cu, Ga and Ni ranged from 6 to 166 ppm, 4.5 to 33.0 ppm and 3.2 to 42.0 ppm, respectively. The elements Pb, Th, V and Zn presented concentrations ranging from 6.1 to 41.0 ppm, 2.9 to 16.0 ppm, 23 to 359 ppm and 6 to 380 ppm, respectively.

On the basis of the core (interval from 65 to 50 cm), the lowest concentrations of the trace elements analysed are found in the most sandy portion.

In the 51.5 - 40 cm and 40 - 30 cm intervals, there is a higher proportion of clay in the reduced environment with organic matter, which favours the retention of trace elements such as Cr, Cu, Ga, Ni, Pb and V. The depth interval from 50 to 40 cm has higher concentrations of the chemical elements As, Co, Cu, Ni, V and Zn. The 20 - 0 cm interval presented a high concen‐ tration of Zn and significant concentrations of other elements.

The Al2O3 concentration due to the presence of clay has little variation (between 21.1 to 26.2 %) up to the 65 cm interval, which has the lowest value (2.1%) in the sandy portion. The Fe2O3 concentration is found in highest percentage in the interval of 50 cm, along with MnO.

The Loss on Ignition parameter (105°C and 1000ºC) occurs in all the intervals, ranging from 0.2 to 5.4% and 0.9 to 20.2%, respectively. Thus, organic matter is present in the more superficial portions of the core to a depth of 50 cm, with a strong decrease in the sandy portion (65 cm interval).

## **4.3. Pollen analysis**

**Depth 10 cm 20 cm 30 cm 40 cm 50 cm 65 cm** As (ppm) 2.7 3.3 1.0 1.0 5.1 1.0 Co (ppm) 8.8 10.6 6.4 7.9 20.0 8.0 Cr (ppm) 77 78 202 204 77 18 Cu (ppm) 82 8 11 152 166 6 Ga (ppm) 26.0 27.0 33.0 32.0 30.0 4.5 Ni (ppm) 25.0 27.0 34.0 36.0 42.0 3.2 Pb (ppm) 29.0 24.0 34.0 41.0 26.0 6.1 Th (ppm) 11.6 12.3 16.0 15.7 10.5 2.9 V (ppm) 227 223 103 94 359 23 Zn (ppm) 118 380 57 40 171 6

The Al2O3 concentrations varied from 21.1 to 26.2% to a depth of 40 cm and a minimum value of 2.1 % on the basis of the core. The Fe2O3 concentration was found between 0.3 and 15.3 % at depths of 65 and 50 cm respectively. In the other depths, the concentration ranged from 1.2 to

The MnO has concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 0.09%, which is highest in the sample at 50

The LOI values ranged from 0.2 to 5.4% (LOI 105°C) and 0.90 to 20.20 % (LOI 1000°C). The

Regarding the trace elements, the concentrations of As ranged from 1.0 to 5.1 ppm, Co from 6.4 to 20.0 ppm, Cr from 18 to 204 ppm. The concentrations of Cu, Ga and Ni ranged from 6 to 166 ppm, 4.5 to 33.0 ppm and 3.2 to 42.0 ppm, respectively. The elements Pb, Th, V and Zn presented concentrations ranging from 6.1 to 41.0 ppm, 2.9 to 16.0 ppm, 23 to 359 ppm and 6

On the basis of the core (interval from 65 to 50 cm), the lowest concentrations of the trace

In the 51.5 - 40 cm and 40 - 30 cm intervals, there is a higher proportion of clay in the reduced environment with organic matter, which favours the retention of trace elements such as Cr, Cu, Ga, Ni, Pb and V. The depth interval from 50 to 40 cm has higher concentrations of the chemical elements As, Co, Cu, Ni, V and Zn. The 20 - 0 cm interval presented a high concen‐

The Al2O3 concentration due to the presence of clay has little variation (between 21.1 to 26.2 %) up to the 65 cm interval, which has the lowest value (2.1%) in the sandy portion. The Fe2O3 concentration is found in highest percentage in the interval of 50 cm, along with MnO.

LOI – Loss On Ignition

2.5 %.

cm deep.

to 380 ppm, respectively.

**Table 1.** Results of the chemical analysis of sediments.

228 Climate Change and Regional/Local Responses

lowest values were found at the base of the core.

elements analysed are found in the most sandy portion.

tration of Zn and significant concentrations of other elements.

As it can be seen in Figure 2, pollen grains were identified in two intervals: T-UNICAMP/32-35 cm and T-UNICAMP/42-46 cm. Figure 2 shows, in alphabetical order, the main pollen types distribuition found, of which 19 were Angiosperms and 3 were Pteridophytes (Figure 3). We observed the existence of 446 pollen grains distributed in 19 pollen types and 36 spores. Among the different taxonomic categories we considered as indeterminate those that could not be identified to family level, which amounted to 41 grains of pollen.

The 42-46 cm interval is mainly characterized by a low concentration of pollen grains and the presence of spores. In this interval, we mainly observed the presence of Cyperaceae, Aralia‐ ceae, Poaceae and Myrtaceae. As for the spores, these were of the families Polypodiaceae *(Polypodium)* and Cyatheaceae *(Cyathea).*

The 32-35 cm interval is characterized by a higher concentration and amount of pollen grains and the presence of rate indicators of wood savannah (Brazilian Cerrado). However, we did not observe a significant number of Pteridophytes spores. The predominant families in this interval were: Araliaceae, Asteraceae, Rubiaceae, Malpighiaceae, Myrtaceae, Fabaceae and Cyperaceae - featuring wood savannah (Brazilian Cerrado) - present in the remaining frag‐ ments of the vegetation surrounding the pond. As for the spores, we saw the presence of Cyatheaceae, Polypodiaceae and Dicksoniaceae.

## **5. Discussion**

Urban lakes suffer pollution problems arising primarily from the activities of their urban surroundings, which may contribute to the greater amount of trace elements, which are concentrated in the pond fine sediments. Trace elements such as Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn are toxic and present adversity to aquatic organisms and humans [3].

The elements As, Cr, Cu, Ni and Zn (T.E.) were analysed taking as sediment toxicity screening values for aquatic life the TEL and PEL - according to [4] - indices adopted by the Sao Paulo state environmental agency. The acronym TEL means "Threshold Effect Level" and PEL means "Probable Effect Level". These values are guidelines for sediment quality, and differ in values for each parameter analysed, although both aim to protect life in aquatic environments. The proposed values of these bands are divided into three parts: below the minimum value suggested, where an adverse effect is rarely expected (<TEL); between the minimum and the maximum value, where the possibility of an adverse effect might be expected (> TEL and <PEL); and the higher than the maximum value suggested (> PEL), where an adverse effect is often expected. Thus, Table 2 presents the patterns of TEL and PEL for each element (As, Cr, Cu, Ni and Zn), the depths of their occurrence and their classification as to the quality of the sediments.

The element As was found in concentrations below the TEL, where an adverse effect is rarely expected. Figure 2 shows the pollen diagram compared with the results of chemical analysis of the sediments. Thus, in the intervals 42 - 46 cm and 32 - 35 cm, the occurrence and preser‐ vation of palynomorphs is related to high levels of trace elements like As, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, V and Zn. This association may be related to an environment of reduced deposition [5, 6] where high concentrations above environmental standards - especially of Cr, Ni and Zn - present

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Thepresence offine sediments (clay andsilt) andorganicmatter whichmay come frombiomass killed by this toxicity favours the concentration of trace elements found in the depths [3, 7].

In the intervals sampled above 30 cm, the trace elements had concentrations above the environmental standards. However, oxidized sediments are presented by varying the water level of the pond, which would explain the non-preservation (absence) of palynomorphs in

At intervals below 50 cm, the absence of palynomorphs and the low concentration of trace elements is a consequence of the occurrence of sandy sediments, indicating an environment of higher energy; as such, it is more abrasive for palynomorphs and has a lower capacity to

**Figure 3.** Palynomorphs: 1) Apocynaceae; 2) Araceae; 3) Araliaceae; 4) Araliaceae; 5) Arecaceae; 6) Bombacaceae; 7) As‐ teraceae; 8) Convolvulaceae; 9) Cyperaceae; 10) Euphorbiaceae; 11) Fabaceae; 12) Mimosoideae; and 13) Myrtaceae.

toxicity to those microorganisms and invertebrates that feed on organic matter.

the upper levels of the core.

absorb the elements studied [5, 6].

**Figure 2.** Descriptive profile of the T-UNICAMP core featuring a pollen diagram and the distribution of trace elements (T.E.) in depth.


**Table 2.** TEL and PEL results from a comparative analysis of the trace elements' (T.E.) distribution in depth.

The most adverse concentrations of Cr (> PEL) are found in depths of 30 and 40 cm. At the depth of 50 cm, Ni concentrations exceed the PEL index and at the depth of 20 cm, the element Zn is greater than the PEL index. Above the TEL index, but below the PEL, samples from depths of 10, 20, 30 and 40 cm present Cu and Ni elements within this range of values. Nonetheless, within this PEL / TEL interval, at the depth of 50 cm, there are Ni and Zn elements.

In the sand fraction at the greater sampled depth (65 cm), we found lower concentrations of the elements studied (<TEL).

The element As was found in concentrations below the TEL, where an adverse effect is rarely expected. Figure 2 shows the pollen diagram compared with the results of chemical analysis of the sediments. Thus, in the intervals 42 - 46 cm and 32 - 35 cm, the occurrence and preser‐ vation of palynomorphs is related to high levels of trace elements like As, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, V and Zn. This association may be related to an environment of reduced deposition [5, 6] where high concentrations above environmental standards - especially of Cr, Ni and Zn - present toxicity to those microorganisms and invertebrates that feed on organic matter.

Thepresence offine sediments (clay andsilt) andorganicmatter whichmay come frombiomass killed by this toxicity favours the concentration of trace elements found in the depths [3, 7].

In the intervals sampled above 30 cm, the trace elements had concentrations above the environmental standards. However, oxidized sediments are presented by varying the water level of the pond, which would explain the non-preservation (absence) of palynomorphs in the upper levels of the core.

At intervals below 50 cm, the absence of palynomorphs and the low concentration of trace elements is a consequence of the occurrence of sandy sediments, indicating an environment of higher energy; as such, it is more abrasive for palynomorphs and has a lower capacity to absorb the elements studied [5, 6].

**T.E.**

(T.E.) in depth.

TEL (ppm)

As 5.9 17

230 Climate Change and Regional/Local Responses

the elements studied (<TEL).

PEL (ppm) <TEL (depth)

Cr 37.3 90 65 cm 10, 20, 50 cm 30 and 40 cm

**Table 2.** TEL and PEL results from a comparative analysis of the trace elements' (T.E.) distribution in depth.

within this PEL / TEL interval, at the depth of 50 cm, there are Ni and Zn elements.

The most adverse concentrations of Cr (> PEL) are found in depths of 30 and 40 cm. At the depth of 50 cm, Ni concentrations exceed the PEL index and at the depth of 20 cm, the element Zn is greater than the PEL index. Above the TEL index, but below the PEL, samples from depths of 10, 20, 30 and 40 cm present Cu and Ni elements within this range of values. Nonetheless,

In the sand fraction at the greater sampled depth (65 cm), we found lower concentrations of

Cu 35.7 197 65 cm 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 cm-Ni 18 36 65 cm 10, 20, 30 and 40 cm 50 cm Zn 123 315 10, 30, 40 and 65 cm50 cm 20 cm

10, 20, 30, 40, 50

**Figure 2.** Descriptive profile of the T-UNICAMP core featuring a pollen diagram and the distribution of trace elements

"/>TEL and <PEL (depth)

and 65 cm - -

"/>PEL (depth)

**Figure 3.** Palynomorphs: 1) Apocynaceae; 2) Araceae; 3) Araliaceae; 4) Araliaceae; 5) Arecaceae; 6) Bombacaceae; 7) As‐ teraceae; 8) Convolvulaceae; 9) Cyperaceae; 10) Euphorbiaceae; 11) Fabaceae; 12) Mimosoideae; and 13) Myrtaceae.

## **6. Conclusion**

The urban lake of Park Hermogenes Leitão Filho has sediments with adverse registers for the elements Cr, Ni and Zn, possibly due to sewage discharge from urban occupation and services surrounding the pond. The presence of clay and organic matter contributed to a higher retention of these elements and palynomorphs in the sediments.

[5] Lebreton, V, Messager, E, Marquer, L, & Renault-Miskovsky, J. (2010). A neotapho‐ nomic experiment in pollen oxidation and its implications for archaeopalynology. *Re‐*

Trace Elements and Palynomorphs in the Core Sediments of a Tropical Urban Pond

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233

[6] Twiddle, C. L, & Bunting, M. J. (2010). Experimental investigations into the preserva‐ tion of pollen grains: A pilot study of four pollen types. *Review of Palaeobotany and*

[7] Bilali, L. E, Rasmussen, P. E, Hall, G. E. M, & Fortin, D. (2002). Role of sediment com‐ position in trace metal distribution in lake sediments. *Applied Geochemistry.* 17, ,

*view of Palaeobotany and Palynology*. 162. , 29-38.

*Palynology*. 162. , 621-630.

1171-1181.

The study showed that in those areas strongly impacted by human activities the concentration of toxic elements in fine and anoxic sediments, the preservation of the assemblages of paly‐ nomorphs may occur, since this polluted environment does not allow for the survival of microorganisms and invertebrates that feed on organic matter.

## **Author details**

Sueli Yoshinaga Pereira1 , Melina Mara de Souza1 , Fresia Ricardi-Branco1 , Paulo Ricardo Brum Pereira2 , Fabio Cardinale Branco3 and Renato Zázera Francioso1

\*Address all correspondence to: fresia@ige.unicamp.br

1 Institute of Geosciences, State University of Campinas, Brazil

2 Forestry Institute, Sao Paulo State Environmental Secretariat, Brazil

3 EnvironMentality – Conceitos Ambientais LTDA, Brazil

## **References**


[5] Lebreton, V, Messager, E, Marquer, L, & Renault-Miskovsky, J. (2010). A neotapho‐ nomic experiment in pollen oxidation and its implications for archaeopalynology. *Re‐ view of Palaeobotany and Palynology*. 162. , 29-38.

**6. Conclusion**

232 Climate Change and Regional/Local Responses

**Author details**

**References**

328p.

Sueli Yoshinaga Pereira1

Paulo Ricardo Brum Pereira2

September 20, (2011).

The urban lake of Park Hermogenes Leitão Filho has sediments with adverse registers for the elements Cr, Ni and Zn, possibly due to sewage discharge from urban occupation and services surrounding the pond. The presence of clay and organic matter contributed to a higher

The study showed that in those areas strongly impacted by human activities the concentration of toxic elements in fine and anoxic sediments, the preservation of the assemblages of paly‐ nomorphs may occur, since this polluted environment does not allow for the survival of

, Fresia Ricardi-Branco1

,

and Renato Zázera Francioso1

retention of these elements and palynomorphs in the sediments.

microorganisms and invertebrates that feed on organic matter.

\*Address all correspondence to: fresia@ige.unicamp.br

1 Institute of Geosciences, State University of Campinas, Brazil

3 EnvironMentality – Conceitos Ambientais LTDA, Brazil

esses. *Applied Geochemistry.* 23. , 2496-2511.

http://st-ts.ccme.ca/,Retrieved October 13, (2011).

2 Forestry Institute, Sao Paulo State Environmental Secretariat, Brazil

, Melina Mara de Souza1

, Fabio Cardinale Branco3

[1] Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE) Censo Demográfico 2000. http:// www.ibge.gov.br/english/estatistica/populacao/default\_censo\_2000.shtm[Retrieved‐

[2] Faegri, K, & Iversen, J. (1989). *Textbook of Pollen Analysis.* The Blackburn Press. 4th Ed.

[3] Das, S. K, Routh, J, & Roychoudhury, A. N. (2008). Major and trace element geo‐ chemistry in Zeekoevlei, South Africa: A lacustrine record of present and past proc‐

[4] Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) *Environmental Quality Guidelines- sediment quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic life. Summary Table*.


**Chapter 10**

**Mapping of Lineaments for**

**Groundwater Targeting and**

**Sustainable Water Resource**

Pothiraj Prabu and Baskaran Rajagopalan

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55702

Lineament definition and history

**1. Introduction**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

productivity and distance to the identified features.

**Hydrogeological Environment Using RS- GIS**

Numerous definitions of the term 'lineament' are given in the literature and various attributes are sometimes linked to the term - such as 'geologic lineament', 'tectonic lineament', 'photo lineament' or 'geophysical lineament' - either describing the assumed origin of the linear feature or sometimes the data source from which it has been derived. Some researchers also use the term 'fracture trace' or 'photo linear' as an alternative term. The work by Lattman and Parizek (1964) is commonly regarded as pioneering work in groundwater exploration; they mapped linear features (fracture traces) on stereo-pairs of aerial photographs in carbonate terrain in the eastern United States and subsequently showed the correlation between well

Lineament mapping was used long before this work in other geological applications and the first usage of the term lineament in geology is probably from a paper by Hobbs (1904, 1912), who defined lineaments as significant lines of landscape caused by joints and faults, revealing the architecture of the rock basement. This was later used by O' Leary et al. (1976) as a basis for developed definitions. Lineaments have been defined as extended mappable linear or curvilinear features of a surface whose parts align in straight or nearly straight relationships that may be the expression of folds, fractures or faults in the subsurface. These features are

> © 2013 Prabu and Rajagopalan; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 Prabu and Rajagopalan; licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Management in Hard Rock**

**Mapping of Lineaments for Groundwater Targeting and Sustainable Water Resource Management in Hard Rock Hydrogeological Environment Using RS- GIS**

Pothiraj Prabu and Baskaran Rajagopalan

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55702

**1. Introduction**

Lineament definition and history

Numerous definitions of the term 'lineament' are given in the literature and various attributes are sometimes linked to the term - such as 'geologic lineament', 'tectonic lineament', 'photo lineament' or 'geophysical lineament' - either describing the assumed origin of the linear feature or sometimes the data source from which it has been derived. Some researchers also use the term 'fracture trace' or 'photo linear' as an alternative term. The work by Lattman and Parizek (1964) is commonly regarded as pioneering work in groundwater exploration; they mapped linear features (fracture traces) on stereo-pairs of aerial photographs in carbonate terrain in the eastern United States and subsequently showed the correlation between well productivity and distance to the identified features.

Lineament mapping was used long before this work in other geological applications and the first usage of the term lineament in geology is probably from a paper by Hobbs (1904, 1912), who defined lineaments as significant lines of landscape caused by joints and faults, revealing the architecture of the rock basement. This was later used by O' Leary et al. (1976) as a basis for developed definitions. Lineaments have been defined as extended mappable linear or curvilinear features of a surface whose parts align in straight or nearly straight relationships that may be the expression of folds, fractures or faults in the subsurface. These features are

© 2013 Prabu and Rajagopalan; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 Prabu and Rajagopalan; licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

mappable at various scales, from local to continental, and can be utilized in mineral, oil and gas, and groundwater exploration studies.

Linear features on the Earth's surface have attracted the attention of geologists for many years. This interest has grown most rapidly in geological studies since the introduction of aerial photographs and satellite images. At the beginning, to the middle of the twentieth century, several geologists recognized the existence and significance of linear geomorphic features that were the surface expression of zones of weakness or structural displacement in the crust of the Earth.

Studies revealed a close relationship between lineaments and groundwater flow and yield (Mabee et al., 1994; Magowe and Carr, 1999; Fernandes and Rudolph, 2001). Generally lineaments are underlain by zones of localized weathering and increased permeability and porosity. Meanwhile, some researchers studied relationships between groundwater productivity and the number of lineaments within specifically designated areas or linea‐ ment density rather than the lineament itself (Hardcastle, 1995). Therefore, mapping of lineaments closely related to groundwater occurrence and yield is essential to groundwa‐ ter surveys, development and management. In the last two decades remote sensing and GIS have been widely used for preparation of different types of thematic layers and their integration for different purposes.

This research work focuses on developing the remote sensing and Geographic Informa‐ tion Systems (GIS) methodology for regional groundwater potential evaluation. The objectives of this study are to (i) produce a regional structural lineament map of the study area from remotely sensed data, (ii) determine the hydro geological implication of the lineaments by integrating them with the available ancillary data (Digital Elevation Model [DEM] and geological map), (iii) analyse the lineament trend distribution of the study area using rose diagrams, lineament density maps and lineament intersection maps.

**Figure 1 Location of the Study area**

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The Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) ID, Linear Image Self-Scanning (LISS) III of geocoded False Colour Composites (FCC), generated from the bands 2, 3 and 4 on 1:50,000 scale was used for the present study. The application of higher-resolution 30- m Ad‐ vanced Space borne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) imagery yielded better results in lineament interpretation compared to IRS 1D imagery due to improved spatial resolution. Lineament mapping is normally undertaken based on geomorphologi‐ cal features such as aligned ridges and valleys, displacement of ridge lines, scarp faces and river passages, straight drainage channel segments, pronounced breaks in crystalline rock masses and aligned surface depression For the study area, the main interest was topograph‐ ically negative lineaments, which may represent joints, faults and probably shear zones (Juhari and Ibrahim 1997; Koch and Mather 1997; Solomon and Ghebreab 2006). To eliminate the non-geological elements, such as paths, roads, power cables and field boundaries in the study area, geographical maps and field checking were undertaken using the method

**Figure 1.** Location of the study area with ASTER 30m DEM

**3. Methodology**

suggested by Yassaghi (2006).

## **2. Description of study area**

The Vaigai sub-basin extends over approximately 849 km2 and lies between 090 30` 00'' and 100 00` 00''N latitudes and 770 15` 10''and 770 45 00` E longitudes in the western part of Tamilnadu, India. It originates at the altitude of 1661m in the Western Ghats of Tamilna‐ du in the Theni district (Figure 1). The basin is generally hot and dry except during the winter season. The maximum and minimum temperature for the basin is 40.7 0 C and 16.0 0 C. The area receives an average annual rainfall of about 384 mm. The surface runoff goes to stream as instant flow. Rainfall is the direct recharge source and the irrigation return flow is the indirect source of groundwater in the Vaigai sub-basin. The study area de‐ pends mainly on the north-east monsoon rains which are brought by the troughs of low pressure established in the Bay of Bengal. Most of the farmers depend on the groundwa‐ ter for their irrigational needs. There are a few tanks across these drainages, however, most of these remain dry.

Mapping of Lineaments for Groundwater Targeting and Sustainable Water Resource Management in Hard Rock… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55702 237

**Figure 1 Location of the Study area**

**Figure 1.** Location of the study area with ASTER 30m DEM

## **3. Methodology**

mappable at various scales, from local to continental, and can be utilized in mineral, oil and

Linear features on the Earth's surface have attracted the attention of geologists for many years. This interest has grown most rapidly in geological studies since the introduction of aerial photographs and satellite images. At the beginning, to the middle of the twentieth century, several geologists recognized the existence and significance of linear geomorphic features that were the surface expression of zones of weakness or structural displacement

Studies revealed a close relationship between lineaments and groundwater flow and yield (Mabee et al., 1994; Magowe and Carr, 1999; Fernandes and Rudolph, 2001). Generally lineaments are underlain by zones of localized weathering and increased permeability and porosity. Meanwhile, some researchers studied relationships between groundwater productivity and the number of lineaments within specifically designated areas or linea‐ ment density rather than the lineament itself (Hardcastle, 1995). Therefore, mapping of lineaments closely related to groundwater occurrence and yield is essential to groundwa‐ ter surveys, development and management. In the last two decades remote sensing and GIS have been widely used for preparation of different types of thematic layers and their

This research work focuses on developing the remote sensing and Geographic Informa‐ tion Systems (GIS) methodology for regional groundwater potential evaluation. The objectives of this study are to (i) produce a regional structural lineament map of the study area from remotely sensed data, (ii) determine the hydro geological implication of the lineaments by integrating them with the available ancillary data (Digital Elevation Model [DEM] and geological map), (iii) analyse the lineament trend distribution of the study area

The Vaigai sub-basin extends over approximately 849 km2 and lies between 090 30` 00'' and 100 00` 00''N latitudes and 770 15` 10''and 770 45 00` E longitudes in the western part of Tamilnadu, India. It originates at the altitude of 1661m in the Western Ghats of Tamilna‐ du in the Theni district (Figure 1). The basin is generally hot and dry except during the

C. The area receives an average annual rainfall of about 384 mm. The surface runoff goes to stream as instant flow. Rainfall is the direct recharge source and the irrigation return flow is the indirect source of groundwater in the Vaigai sub-basin. The study area de‐ pends mainly on the north-east monsoon rains which are brought by the troughs of low pressure established in the Bay of Bengal. Most of the farmers depend on the groundwa‐ ter for their irrigational needs. There are a few tanks across these drainages, however, most

C and 16.0

using rose diagrams, lineament density maps and lineament intersection maps.

winter season. The maximum and minimum temperature for the basin is 40.7 0

gas, and groundwater exploration studies.

236 Climate Change and Regional/Local Responses

in the crust of the Earth.

integration for different purposes.

**2. Description of study area**

0

of these remain dry.

The Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) ID, Linear Image Self-Scanning (LISS) III of geocoded False Colour Composites (FCC), generated from the bands 2, 3 and 4 on 1:50,000 scale was used for the present study. The application of higher-resolution 30- m Ad‐ vanced Space borne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) imagery yielded better results in lineament interpretation compared to IRS 1D imagery due to improved spatial resolution. Lineament mapping is normally undertaken based on geomorphologi‐ cal features such as aligned ridges and valleys, displacement of ridge lines, scarp faces and river passages, straight drainage channel segments, pronounced breaks in crystalline rock masses and aligned surface depression For the study area, the main interest was topograph‐ ically negative lineaments, which may represent joints, faults and probably shear zones (Juhari and Ibrahim 1997; Koch and Mather 1997; Solomon and Ghebreab 2006). To eliminate the non-geological elements, such as paths, roads, power cables and field boundaries in the study area, geographical maps and field checking were undertaken using the method suggested by Yassaghi (2006).

#### **3.1. Geology**

Eleven geologic features were identified and mapped by the Geological Survey of India, shown in Figure 2.

**3.2. Lineament analysis**

The mapped structural lineaments were mapped and analysed using the lineament density (LD), lineament frequency (LF) and lineament intersection (LI) parameters. The results of the analysis are presented as the lineament map, lineament density map, rose diagram, lineament

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frequency map and lineament intersection map (Figures 3, 4, 5, 6 & 7) respectively.

**Figure 3.** Lineament map of the study area **Figure 3 Lineament map of the Study area**

**Figure 2 Geology of the Study area Figure 2.** Geology of the study area

## **3.2. Lineament analysis**

**3.1. Geology**

238 Climate Change and Regional/Local Responses

in Figure 2.

Eleven geologic features were identified and mapped by the Geological Survey of India, shown

**Figure 2 Geology of the Study area Figure 2.** Geology of the study area

The mapped structural lineaments were mapped and analysed using the lineament density (LD), lineament frequency (LF) and lineament intersection (LI) parameters. The results of the analysis are presented as the lineament map, lineament density map, rose diagram, lineament frequency map and lineament intersection map (Figures 3, 4, 5, 6 & 7) respectively.

**Figure 3.** Lineament map of the study area **Figure 3 Lineament map of the Study area**

**Figure 5.** Lineament rose plot in the study area **Figure 5 Lineaments rose plot in the study area**

The lineament and frequency map (Fig. 3 and Fig. 6) shows that the lineaments/fracture distribution is hardly homogeneous. The lineament density variation map (Fig. 6) shows the lineament numbers to be in the range of 0 and 7. The majority of the fractures are located on lithologies that correspond to the term "hard rocks", which generally refers to igneous and metamorphic rocks (Krasny 1996, 2002). Therefore, the discussed character represents an initial indication for the unified tectonic and hydrogeologic behaviour of the hard rock environment. The majority of the lineaments/fractures are located on the Hornblend biotite gneiss and

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The orientation of the lineaments is analysed by constructing rose diagrams (Fig.5). Even though these diagrams are not length-weighted, they can indicate on each occasion what the

minority of the lineaments/fractures are located on the Pink Migmatite (Table 1).

**4.1. Frequency and spatial location of the fractures**

**4. Results and discussion**

**4.2. Orientation of the lineaments**

**Figure 4 Lineament density of the Study**

**Figure 4.** Lineament density of the study area

**Figure 5.** Lineament rose plot in the study area **Figure 5 Lineaments rose plot in the study area**

## **4. Results and discussion**

#### **4.1. Frequency and spatial location of the fractures**

The lineament and frequency map (Fig. 3 and Fig. 6) shows that the lineaments/fracture distribution is hardly homogeneous. The lineament density variation map (Fig. 6) shows the lineament numbers to be in the range of 0 and 7. The majority of the fractures are located on lithologies that correspond to the term "hard rocks", which generally refers to igneous and metamorphic rocks (Krasny 1996, 2002). Therefore, the discussed character represents an initial indication for the unified tectonic and hydrogeologic behaviour of the hard rock environment. The majority of the lineaments/fractures are located on the Hornblend biotite gneiss and minority of the lineaments/fractures are located on the Pink Migmatite (Table 1).

#### **4.2. Orientation of the lineaments**

**Figure 4 Lineament density of the Study**

**Figure 4.** Lineament density of the study area

240 Climate Change and Regional/Local Responses

The orientation of the lineaments is analysed by constructing rose diagrams (Fig.5). Even though these diagrams are not length-weighted, they can indicate on each occasion what the most dominant directions of the fractures are. This analysis is very critical for the study of groundwater flow, as in most cases the orientation of the fractures is identical to the orientation of the preferential flow path.

Km/ Sq.km2

), and quartz in areas where combination of more lithological features dominate.

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243

Mapping of Lineaments for Groundwater Targeting and Sustainable Water Resource Management in Hard Rock…

**Figure 6 Lineament Frequency of the Study**

**Figure 6.** Lineament frequency of the study area

This verifies that these lithologies are affected by tectonic activity.

The faults rose plot indicates two sets of orientation classes. The main two classes have NE and SW strike, while others have NW and SE strike. The uniformity of fracture orientation becomes an additional indication for the hydrogeologic regime.


**Table 1.** Total length of lineaments in each geological feature

#### **4.3. Size of the lineaments**

Fracture dimensions (aperture and apparent aperture) are very difficult to define and the depth of the apertures makes the measurements even more complicated. Nevertheless, length measurements can be taken relatively easily and they are also significant, since a fracture with a greater length affects the groundwater flow in a more dominant way than those of smaller length. The calculated total length of lineament/fracture per unit area in each lithology are shown in Table 1.

#### **4.4. Density of the lineaments**

The purpose of the fracture density analysis is to calculate frequency of the fractures per unit area. With this analysis a map has been produced showing concentrations of the lineaments over the study area (Fig. 4). The map in Figure 3 shows that very high density is observed in areas of Hornblende biotite gneiss and Charnockite (7 Km/ Sq.km2 ), indicates the high degree of hydraulic interconnection between the above lithologic units as surface water circulates through these discontinuities. This is verified in the next consideration (degree of fractures intersection). On the other hand, very low density is observed in calcareous sand and clay (1 Km/ Sq.km2 ), and quartz in areas where combination of more lithological features dominate. This verifies that these lithologies are affected by tectonic activity.

**Figure 6 Lineament Frequency of the Study Figure 6.** Lineament frequency of the study area

most dominant directions of the fractures are. This analysis is very critical for the study of groundwater flow, as in most cases the orientation of the fractures is identical to the orientation

The faults rose plot indicates two sets of orientation classes. The main two classes have NE and SW strike, while others have NW and SE strike. The uniformity of fracture orientation

**No Description Frequency Percent (%) Length (Km) Percent (%)**

Total 370 100.00 487.13 100.00

Fracture dimensions (aperture and apparent aperture) are very difficult to define and the depth of the apertures makes the measurements even more complicated. Nevertheless, length measurements can be taken relatively easily and they are also significant, since a fracture with a greater length affects the groundwater flow in a more dominant way than those of smaller length. The calculated total length of lineament/fracture per unit area in each lithology are

The purpose of the fracture density analysis is to calculate frequency of the fractures per unit area. With this analysis a map has been produced showing concentrations of the lineaments over the study area (Fig. 4). The map in Figure 3 shows that very high density is observed in

of hydraulic interconnection between the above lithologic units as surface water circulates through these discontinuities. This is verified in the next consideration (degree of fractures intersection). On the other hand, very low density is observed in calcareous sand and clay (1

), indicates the high degree

areas of Hornblende biotite gneiss and Charnockite (7 Km/ Sq.km2

 Hornblend biotite gneiss 163 44.05 221.68 45.51 Charnockite 104 28.11 158.27 32.49 Alluvium 54 14.59 57.81 11.87 Garnet-biotite-sillimanite-gneiss 26 7.03 28.60 5.87 Calcareous Sand and Clay 7 1.89 14.17 2.91 Quartz 11 2.97 3.17 0.65 Pyroxene granulite 1 0.27 1.43 0.29 Grey granitic gneiss 2 0.54 1.16 0.24 Calc-granulite/Limestone 1 0.27 0.55 0.11 Pink migmatite 1 0.27 0.28 0.06

becomes an additional indication for the hydrogeologic regime.

**Table 1.** Total length of lineaments in each geological feature

**4.3. Size of the lineaments**

**4.4. Density of the lineaments**

shown in Table 1.

of the preferential flow path.

242 Climate Change and Regional/Local Responses

degree of interconnection where groundwater flow is smoother and more uniform. Fracture intersection density is a map showing the frequency of intersections that occur in a unit area. The purpose of using intersection density maps is to estimate the areas of diverse fracture orientations. If the fractures do not intersect in an area, the resultant map will be represented by a plain map with almost no density contours and the fractures are almost parallel or subparallel in an area. The lineament intersection map of the study area (Fig. 7) indicates high and very high intersection in the same areas where there is very high density of lineaments. The zones of high lineament intersection over the study area are feasible zones for groundwater

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Groundwater studies on hard formations often require extraction of data from images and remote sensing, and GIS. Due to insufficient data, maps of lineament and structural elements are important tools that may reveal points of groundwater recharge and discharge, flow and development. In particular, groundwater occurrences in hard formations are mainly controlled by the lineaments corresponding to fractures, joints and faults. Furthermore, the distribution of lineament is closely related to groundwater discharge points and their concentration.

Remote sensing has proved to be a useful tool in lineament identification and mapping. This study demonstrates the application of remotely sensed data for lineament interpretation in a hard rock hydrogeological environment. A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) was generated to improve the interpretation. The lineament analysis has been effectively done in a GIS envi‐ ronment. Thematic maps, such as lineament frequency, lineament density and lineament

The results from the study show that the remote sensing technique is capable of extracting lineament trends in an inaccessible tropical forest. The study has led to the delineation of areas where groundwater occurrences are most promising for sustainable supply, suggesting where further geophysical surveys can be concentrated. It is therefore suggested that the high lineament intersection and density should be combed with detailed geoelectrical surveys for quantitative evaluation of the groundwater potential of the study area. Properly sited wells in drought-stricken areas could change the lives of many and the remote-sensing analysts and

lineament interpreters around the world are without doubt important in this process.

Department of Industries and Earth Sciences, Tamil University, Thanjavur, Tamilnadu, In‐

intersection, were prepared using the interpolation technique.

potential evaluation.

**5. Conclusions**

**Author details**

dia

Pothiraj Prabu and Baskaran Rajagopalan

**Figure 7.** Lineament intersection of the study area

#### **4.5. Degree of lineaments intersection**

The density of lineaments along with the degree of lineament intersection determine the degree of anisotropy of groundwater flow in the fracture network, as in environments with a high

**Figure 7 Lineament intersection of the Study area**

degree of interconnection where groundwater flow is smoother and more uniform. Fracture intersection density is a map showing the frequency of intersections that occur in a unit area. The purpose of using intersection density maps is to estimate the areas of diverse fracture orientations. If the fractures do not intersect in an area, the resultant map will be represented by a plain map with almost no density contours and the fractures are almost parallel or subparallel in an area. The lineament intersection map of the study area (Fig. 7) indicates high and very high intersection in the same areas where there is very high density of lineaments. The zones of high lineament intersection over the study area are feasible zones for groundwater potential evaluation.

## **5. Conclusions**

Groundwater studies on hard formations often require extraction of data from images and remote sensing, and GIS. Due to insufficient data, maps of lineament and structural elements are important tools that may reveal points of groundwater recharge and discharge, flow and development. In particular, groundwater occurrences in hard formations are mainly controlled by the lineaments corresponding to fractures, joints and faults. Furthermore, the distribution of lineament is closely related to groundwater discharge points and their concentration.

Remote sensing has proved to be a useful tool in lineament identification and mapping. This study demonstrates the application of remotely sensed data for lineament interpretation in a hard rock hydrogeological environment. A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) was generated to improve the interpretation. The lineament analysis has been effectively done in a GIS envi‐ ronment. Thematic maps, such as lineament frequency, lineament density and lineament intersection, were prepared using the interpolation technique.

The results from the study show that the remote sensing technique is capable of extracting lineament trends in an inaccessible tropical forest. The study has led to the delineation of areas where groundwater occurrences are most promising for sustainable supply, suggesting where further geophysical surveys can be concentrated. It is therefore suggested that the high lineament intersection and density should be combed with detailed geoelectrical surveys for quantitative evaluation of the groundwater potential of the study area. Properly sited wells in drought-stricken areas could change the lives of many and the remote-sensing analysts and lineament interpreters around the world are without doubt important in this process.

## **Author details**

**Figure 7 Lineament intersection of the Study area**

The density of lineaments along with the degree of lineament intersection determine the degree of anisotropy of groundwater flow in the fracture network, as in environments with a high

**Figure 7.** Lineament intersection of the study area

244 Climate Change and Regional/Local Responses

**4.5. Degree of lineaments intersection**

Pothiraj Prabu and Baskaran Rajagopalan

Department of Industries and Earth Sciences, Tamil University, Thanjavur, Tamilnadu, In‐ dia

## **References**

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[14] Yassaghi, A. (2006). Integration of Landsat imagery interpretation and geomagnetic data on verification of deep-seated transverse fault lineaments in SE Zagrosa, Iran In‐

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247

ternational Journal of Remote Sensing, , 27, 4529-4544.


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[2] Hardcastle, K. C. (1995). Photolineament factor: A new computer-aided method for remotely sensed fractured. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing 61 (6),

[3] Hobbs, W. H. (1904). Lineaments of the Atlantic border region. Geological Society of

[4] Hobbs, W. H. (1912). Earth Features and Their Meaning: An Introduction to Geology

[5] Juhari, M. A, & Ibrahim, A. (1997). Geological Applications of Landsat Thematic Mapper Imagery: Mapping and Analysis of Lineaments in NW Peninsula Malaysia.

[6] Koch, M, & Mathar, P. M. (1997). Lineament mapping for groundwater resource as‐ sessment: a comparison of digital Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imagery and ster‐ eoscopic Large Format Camera (LFC) photographs in the Red Sea Hills, Sudan.

[7] Krasny, J. (2002). Hard Rock Hydrogeology. 1st Workshop on Fissured Rocks Hydro‐

[8] Krasny, J. (1996). Hydrogeological Environment in Hard Rocks: An attempt at its schematizing and terminological consideration. Acta Univesitatis Carolinae Geologi‐

[9] Lattman, L. H, & Parizek, R. R. (1964). Relationship between fracture traces and the occurrence of groundwater in carbonate rocks. Journal Hydrology , 2, 73-91.

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[11] Magowe, M, & Carr, J. R. (1999). Relationship between lineaments and ground water

[12] Leary, O, Freidman, D. W, Pohn, J. D, & Lineaments, H. A. linear, lineation-some proposed new standards for old terms. Geological Society of America Bulletin , 87,

[13] Solomon, S, & Ghebreab, W. (2006). Lineament characterization and their tectonic significance using Landsat TM data and field studies in the central highlands of Eri‐

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## *Edited by Yuanzhi Zhang and Pallav Ray*

Understanding climate change requires analysis of its effects in specific contexts, and the case studies in this volume offer examples of such issues. Its chapters cover tropical cyclones in East Asia, study of a fossil in Brazil's Araripe Basin and the fractal nature of band-thickness in an iron formation of Canada's Northwest Territories. One chapter examines the presence of trace elements and palynomorphs in the sediments of a tropical urban pond. Examples of technologies used include RS- GIS to map lineaments for groundwater targeting and sustainable water-resource management, the ALADIN numerical weather-prediction model used to forecast weather and use of grids in numerical weather and climate models. Finally, one chapter models sea level rises resulting from ice sheets melting.

Climate Change and Regional/Local Responses

Climate Change and

Regional/Local Responses

*Edited by Yuanzhi Zhang and Pallav Ray*

Photo by lowe99 / iStock