**Author details**

Kenneth J. McLeod1 and Carolyn Pierce2

\*Address all correspondence to: kmcleod@binghamton.edu

1 Clinical Science and Engineering Research Center Watson School of Engineering and Applied Science, USA

2 Decker School of Nursing, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, U.S.A.

#### **References**


[4] Vasan, R. S, Larson, M. G, Benhamin, E. J, Evans, J. C, Reiss, C. K, & Levy, D. Conges‐ tive heart failure in subjects with normal versus reduced left ventricular ejection frac‐ tion: Prevalence and morality in a population based cohort. J Am Coll Cardiol (1999). , 33, 1948-1955.

**8. Summary and conclusions**

278 Cardiomyopathies

**Acknowledgements**

at Binghamton University.

**Author details**

Kenneth J. McLeod1

Applied Science, USA

(2012). , 21, 365-371.

Coll Cardiol (2009). , 54, 491-498.

**References**

Second heart failure, which occurs in close to 50% of women, represents a common etiology in extrinsic heart failure and cardiopathy. Clinical recognition of this condition opens the opportunity for early diagnosis and intervention, reducing the long term risk for this substan‐ tial subpopulation of women, with the potential to maintain a much higher quality of life into old age. Simple office tests of temporal changes in blood pressure and heart rate over 30 minutes of quiet sitting can reveal significant pooling associated with failed second heart activity. Augmenting venous return to the right heart to improve atrial refilling will allow for improved stroke volume and thus improved peripheral and cerebral blood flow. Early interventions can include specific exercises to train up the soleus muscle, lifestyle changes which challenge the postural reflexes; or utilization of extrinsic stimulation technology.

The authors acknowledge the support of the Clinical Science and Engineering Research Center

1 Clinical Science and Engineering Research Center Watson School of Engineering and

[1] Maron, B. J. The 2006 American Heart Association classification of cardiomyopathies

[2] Kemp, C. D, & Conte, J. V. The pathophysiology of heart failure. Cardiovasc Pathol

[3] Hsich, E. M, & Pina, I. L. Heart failure in women: A need for prospective data. J Am

2 Decker School of Nursing, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, U.S.A.

is the gold standard. Circ Heart Fail (2008). , 1, 72-76.

and Carolyn Pierce2

\*Address all correspondence to: kmcleod@binghamton.edu


[18] Goddard, A. A, Pierce, C. S, & Mcleod, K. J. Reversal of lower limb edema by calf muscle pump stimulation. J Cardiopulm Rehabil Prev (2008). , 28, 174-179.

**Chapter 14**

**Pediatric Cardiomyopathies**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55820

**1. Introduction**

*1.2.1. Blood islands*

*1.2.2. Heart tube*

to form blood vessels (fig 1).

Aspazija Sofijanova and Olivera Jordanova

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

**1.1. Development of the cardiovascular system**

**1.2. Early development of the circulatory system**

**fetus,** and 2) **immediately start functionining after birth.**

The development of the cardiovascular system is an early embryological event. From fertili‐ zation, it takes eight weeks for the human heart to develop into its definitive fetal structure. During this period the system develops so it can 1) **supply nutrients and oxygen to the**

During the third week of gestation angioblastic blood islands of mesoderm (angiogenic clusters) appear in the yolk sac, chorion and body stalk. The innermost cells of these blood islands are hematopoietic cells that give rise to the blood cell lines. The outermost cells give rise to the endothelial cell layer of blood vessels. A series of blood islands eventually coalesce

By the middle of the third week of gestation angioblastic blood islands from the splanchnic mesoderm appear and form a plexus of vessels lying deep into the horseshoe-shaped pro‐ spective pericardial cavity (fig 2). These small vessels develop into paired endocardial heart tubes. The splanchnic mesoderm proliferates and develops into the myocardial mantle, which gives rise to the myocardium. The epicardium develops from cells that migrate over the

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 Sofijanova and Jordanova; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

myocardial mantle from areas adjacent to the developing heart (fig 3,4).


**Chapter 14**
