**4. The father and the performance of his functions**

This category is related to the performance of the paternal role and the achievement of tasks and practices related to child care. The way each parent exercises his/her parental role depends on several factors, including welfare, availability and satisfaction of both mothers and fathers with their activities. Fathers and mothers tend to evaluate positively their performance of parental roles, and to feel satisfied, although not so competent, in relation to their functions. Stress and emotional well-being may interfere with their satisfaction and perception of their parental role (Ribas, Ribas Junior, & Valente, 2006).

**3.4. Puerperium**

breastfeeding.

depression.

& Bottoli, 2011; Oliveira & Brito, 2009).

44 Parenting in South American and African Contexts

One of the studies (Oliveira & Brito, 2009) investigated fathers' attitudes in the household during the postpartum period, and concluded that men take care of their partners and offer them advice concerning physical recovery and injury prevention. Fathers also recognize that the partner and the newborn require more dedication and time after birth, and develop attitudes of dedication and concern about the child's health. Their accounts also confirm they prepare financially for children's arrival, playing the role of main provider to the family (Jager

Another article (Maranhão, Gomes, & Oliveira, 2012) showed that during pregnancy men had performed tasks that require more physical effort (such as cooking, doing the laundry, and performing other heavy activities). When the baby was born, however, this concern disap‐ peared and fathers failed to assist mothers with household chores, while spending more time caring for their children, especially when they are older. In this way, one other study (Falceto, Fernandes, Baratojo, & Giugliani, 2008) involving 153 families with babies of four months, the authors concluded that there is a high prevalence of families in which the father is not actively involved in children's care, especially when the marital relationship is problematic and mothers do not have a paid job. The feeling of emotional detachment between the couple

Regarding breastfeeding, studies have indicated that men do not participate in encouraging this practice, because they did not have this experience in their own families, schools and/or health institutions. Hence, they do not recognize the importance of this act (Pontes, Alexan‐ drino, & Osório, 2008; Pontes, Alexandrino, & Osório, 2009). The authors propose the con‐ struction of a model to encourage fathers' involvement in this practice, and to design a health program with the goal of changing the culture of breastfeeding, increasing the duration of

Regarding the non-normative events in the puerperium, the differences in dyadic (motherinfant, father-infant and mother-father) and triadic relationships (father-mother-child) were investigated in families with and without maternal depression, during a session of free interaction (Frizzo & Piccinini, 2007 ). Only one category involving cognitive stimulation was significantly different between the mother-infant and father-child dyads in families with maternal depression, indicating that, despite the depression mothers stimulated their babies more than fathers. Families without the experience of depression also showed higher disen‐ gagement (less emotional involvement and responsiveness) in father-infant than in motherinfant dyads. For the authors, it is possible that fathers exercise a moderating role in the possible effects of maternal depression in the family, perhaps mitigating such effects in triadic contexts, once there seems to be a change in the family pattern in families with maternal

This category is related to the performance of the paternal role and the achievement of tasks and practices related to child care. The way each parent exercises his/her parental role depends

appears as a significant factor in the postpartum period (Maranhão, et al., 2012).

**4. The father and the performance of his functions**

In another study (Bruschini & Ricoldi, 2012), fathers reported to children's care and domestic tasks with their wives, even corroborating the role of others as providers and moral supervisors. Furthermore, men showed concern for being involved in tasks related to feeding, hygiene, and doing the homework. The traditional role often includes the affective dimension and fathers' concerns with children (Freitas et al., 2009; Pereira Junior, Si‐ queira, & Rezende, 2011). Although there is evidence of the increases paternal involve‐ ment in child care, the same is not true with respect to household chores, indicating the predominance of fathers' care to the child, but not of fathers as the main responsible for the home (Sutter & Bucher-Maluschke, 2008). Some fathers, even performing activities such as feeding, bathing and caring directly to their children, still refer to these activities as female responsibilities in children's lives, while considering themselves responsible for disciplining, guiding, and monitoring of children's conducts (Bustamante, 2005a; Romanel‐ li, 2003). Satisfaction in the relationship with their wives seems to favor the involvement of fathers with the child and increases their participation in basic care and responsibili‐ ties in raising children (Bustamante, 2005b). Participants reported that being a father includes functions that go beyond the responsibility as providers, thus involving being present and establishing limits and responsibilities to children.

In relation to educational practices, participants reported frequently adopting inductive practices - indicating to children the consequences of their behaviors to other people, while calling attention to logical aspects of the situation -, in contrast to coercive practices, charac‐ terized by the direct application of imposition to control children's behaviors (Piccinini, Frizzo, Alvarenga, Lopes, & Tudge, 2007). It was also found that participants displayed a profile closer to self-relational models in relation to their socialization goals. Parents wanted their children to be self-reliant, independent, and professionally successful, while valuing them being honest and executors of his duties with the family and society.

In synthesis, studies show changes in both paternal functions and parental roles, resulting from the increased participation of women in the labor market. It has been noted a greater paternal involvement in childcare and household chores, even if mothers continue to be identified as the main responsible for such activities. Although fathers and mothers have different roles, they seem to be complementary, and to express changes if their participation in children's care, moving from a traditional model of division of labor to the sharing of functions. The social, economic and family changes, the concepts of co-parenting and the notion of complementarity of parental functions are important factors to be considered in the study of parental involvement and in the characterization of maternity and paternity in contemporary family.

## **5. Impact of paternity on children**

This category deals with the impact of fathers in children's development and behavior. According to Benczik (Benczik, 2011), the literature indicates that the effective participation of fathers in family life promotes to children safety, self-esteem, emotional stability, and inde‐ pendence. Along these lines, some research in Brazil has shown the implications of fathers in the school context. Cia and Barham (2009), for instance, found a positive relationship between paternal involvement in children's school, cultural and leisure activities, and the academic performance of children in 6th and 7th grades. In one study conducted with parents of children enrolled at the 1st and 2nd grades, the authors found that paternal involvement was associated with low rates of hyperactivity and behavioral problems, and these children displayed more appropriate social skills.

figure, the mother occupies this role. However, it is not known what the implications are for

Paternity in the Brazilian Context http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57027 47

This category includes research dealing with variables that influence the exercise of paternity. The literature suggests that the characteristics of fathers and children, the family and social environment are factors that can increase or decrease fathers' participation in their children's lives. Three surveys constitute this category. Fathers' occupation is the focus in two of them (Fabiana Cia & Barham, 2008; Souza & Benetti, 2008). These studies investigate the influence of unemployment, as well as working conditions and work shifts (night or day), in the activities performed by fathers. Another survey (Silva & Guzzo, 2007) deals with the situation of incarcerated fathers and their children. Variables such as paternal depression, social-economic conditions (fathers' educational level and income), and family

Results of these three studies agree that the labor factor, as well as paternal educational level, conditions and social environment for family coexistence seem to be associated to paternal involvement. The higher father's educational level and the better his working conditions and income are the greater father's involvement. The existence of a high degree of affection between the father and his wife is also related to great involvement with his children. Living with their children can also affect the quality of paternal relationship. Incarcerated fathers, who maintain contact with their children through visits or letters, refer concerns about the lack of contact

Although the mentioned studies focus on the determinants or variables that affect fathers' engagement, it is possible to recognize many gaps in the literature regarding paternal engage‐ ment and its determinants. In terms of the variables influencing paternal behavior, it is necessary to emphasizes that the level of paternal commitment results from the dynamic interaction of factors such as fathers' characteristics (experiences from their own childhood, attitudes and beliefs about gender roles, feelings of competence and socio-demographic characteristics), family characteristics (relationship with their wives and mothers' attitudes and behavior towards paternity, including whether mothers encourage or inhibit paternal participation), children's characteristics (gender, age, and temperament) and characteristics of the social environment (life and working conditions, culture, and social policies). The rela‐ tionship with their wives, mothers' perception about the paternal role, maternal encourage‐ ment and facilitation of paternal participation can lead to variations in paternal involvement. Children's characteristics, such as gender, age and temperament can impact the level of paternal involvement. The social environment, such as financial instability and work charac‐ teristics can be associated with paternal behavior as well. It seems that employment instability and low income affect fathers' attitudes with children. Although these evidences were found in several studies, results are inconclusive and often contradictory, which means that new

youth of this change in the reference figure.

relationships are also investigated.

variables should be better investigated.

**6. Variables that affect the exercise of paternity**

with the children, as well as with their children's future.

However, inadequate paternal practices (such as hostile and antisocial behaviors) may have negative consequences for children (Jaffee, Moffitt, Caspi, & Taylor, 2003). One case study conducted with a family exposed to multiple adversities indicates that some aspects may function as protective factors; one of these factors is fathers' sensitivity to their children's needs (Silva, Lacharité, Silva, Lunardi, & Lunardi Filho, 2009). The authors also mention that fathers' accepting support in their roles as children's caregivers and providers emerged from the data as something significant, with a positive impact on both fathers (who felt supported) and children, who meet a safer father in performing his functions.

In synthesis, the father is a figure that has an important role to children. However, it is not only the father's presence that will ensure this importance, but the quality of the relationship established between fathers and children. The focus on quality also applies to the relationship mothers establish with children. For example, it has been found that parenting styles perceived by teens as neglectful, indulgent or authoritarian had significant association with drug use (Benchaya, Bisch, Moreira, Ferigolo, & Barros, 2011). When these educational styles are displayed by mothers, the chances for teenagers to use drugs increases in three times. The role performed by fathers, however, does not seem to have the same relevance. For instance, fathers' authoritative style is not associated with children's drug use.

If paternal involvement has a positive effect on children, one question that arises is what happens when the father is not present. In a literature review with data from Brazil and other countries, authors have indicate that due to current family structure fathers' absence is an increasing reality in families (Eizirik & Bergmann, 2004). This context may have behavioral and emotional implications for children. Thus, the authors conducted a case study and found that fathers' absence can lead to conflicts in children's psychological development. In that specific case, there was evidence of behavioral problems even considering the mother had played an important role in minimizing these problems. In another study, Lopes and Paula (2011) studied two groups of adolescents (one group lived with their fathers, while the other did not). The authors found that half of the sample of the group 1 chose a substitute figure for the father; the other half, in which this has not occurred, there was a strong influence of the maternal figure in their career choice. That is, in the absence of either the father or of a father figure, the mother occupies this role. However, it is not known what the implications are for youth of this change in the reference figure.
