**11. Discussion and conclusion**

One summary quantitative of articles analyzed are showed in the Table 1. The category 'The father in the context of pregnancy, birth, and postpartum' had the largest number of articles (n= 22, 24,5%). The majority of the articles was characterized by qualitative approach (n=64, 71%) and transversal research (n= 84, 93%). The survey was the method more used (n=68, 75%)

**Categories Approach Method Participants Transversal X**

Father and mother: 3 Stepfather: 1

Father: 13 Father and mother: 4 Pregnant adolescents: 1 Parturient: 1 Adolescent mothers: 1 Families: 2

Father and mother: 8 Father: 5 Child: 1 Father and mother and grandmother: 1 Father, mother and child: 1

Father and children: 1 Adolescent: 2 College students: 1

Survey: 3 Father: 3 Transversal: 3

Articles: 1 Men: 1 Father: 2

Father: 2 Mother: 2 Father and mother: 2 Children: 5 Mother and children: 1 Others: 3

> Father: 8 Mother: 1

Survey: 1 Study of case: 3

Survey: 20 Study of case: 1 Observation: 1

Survey: 15 Study of case: 1

Survey: 3 Study of case: 1

Study of case: 1

Survey: 10 Study of case: 5

Survey: 9 Study of case: 3 **Longitudinal**

Transversal: 4

Transversal: 21 Longitudinal: 1

Transversal: 16

Transversal: 4

Transversal: 4

Transversal: 14 Longitudinal: 1

Transversal: 12 Longitudinal: 1

and the father was the main participant in 54 researches (60% of studies).

Quanti: 1 Quali: 3

52 Parenting in South American and African Contexts

Quanti: 2 Quali: 17 Mixed: 3

Quanti: 5 Quali: 10 Mixed: 1

Quanti: 2 Quali: 2

Quanti: 2 Quali: 1

Quali: 10 Quanti: 4 Mixed: 1

Quanti: 1 Quali: 12

Quali: 4 Survey: 3

Family configurations

The father in the context of pregnancy, birth, and postpartum

The father and the performance of his

Impact of paternity on

Variables that affect the exercise of paternity (N = 3)

Gender identity

Perception and conception on paternal behavior

Father in the context of adolescence

(N=4)

(N= 15)

(N= 4)

(N = 22)

functions (N= 16)

children (N = 4)

The present study aimed to elucidate aspects of paternity in the Brazilian context through the scientific production published in Brazilian journals. The data analyzed showed that most of the existing research on paternity has been produced from 2000, and the interest of researchers seems to increase every year. The articles analyzed indicated that although mothers still appear as the main responsible for child care, fathers have been increasingly engaged in various aspects of their children's lives.

In Western societies, it is assumed that men and women's social roles have been changing, creating new expectations, beliefs and attitudes about how parents should act within the family (Jablonski, 2010; Wagner, et al., 2005). Specifically in Brazil, contemporary social changes, which include the entry of women in the labor market and new family configurations, modified the structure and patterns of family functioning, demanding from men a more active role as fathers. Such changes have implications to the family dynamics and to marital relationships, as well as to childcare, and have produced transformations in the roles and functions per‐ formed by each parent (Fleck & Wagner, 2003). The traditional view of fathers as main providers is changing, since women have been also exerting the role of family provider, while fathers have been gradually associated to greater participation in relation to child care (Gauthier, et al., 2004; Jablonski, 2010; Mendonça, et al., 2011; Perucchi & Beirão, 2007; Saraff & Srivastava, 2010; Wagner, et al., 2005).

However, the present review has shown that researches investigating different family configurations, such as divorced or adoptive parents indicate that men's attitudes seem to follow a pattern, regardless of the family configuration in which they are inserted as fathers or stepfathers. Generally, fathers, even when not biological, seem to be satisfied with their children. These results confirm the literature that show mothers to be the main responsible for children, while fathers are not usually responsible for children's daily care, appearing as adjuvants (Jablonski, 2010; Kamers, 2006).

Regarding pregnancy, the literature review demonstrates that, in general, men are in‐ volved in this stage of their partners' lives and report mixed feelings of joy and anxiety. They even refer to physical and emotional reactions during pregnancy and these feelings seem to be important to prepare themselves for fatherhood. However, some fathers demonstrate difficulties in performing the new paternal role of greater participation and involvement in the partners' pregnancy. This probably happens because the future father feels lost and confused with his new role, once he is caught in redefinition process: on one side there are the demands to perform fathers' traditional roles (as family providers), and on the other there are the new demands for greater engagement with the mother and the baby (Bustamante, 2005b). Studies show that male participation in children's lives starting from pregnancy contributes to the perception of pregnancy as a period of transition to the exercise of fatherhood, allows for a feeling of inclusion, and helps fathers to develop their new role in the life cycle (Bornholdt, et al., 2007).

concerning gender identity, Jablonski (2010) highlights that transformations in the perform‐ ance of parenting had implications on masculine identity, including aspects related to values and beliefs. Family transformations have been generating expectations and demands from men in terms of their roles as fathers and husbands, characterizing the phenomenon called "new paternity". Although it seems evident men's growing interest in participating, this interest does not materialize with the same force, once the division of child care still seems unbalanced between men and women (Brasileiro, Jablonski, & Féres-Carneiro, 2002; Jablonski, 2010;

Paternity in the Brazilian Context http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57027 55

In relation to the housework, the study carried out by Prado et al. (2007) points out to a contradiction in parents' perceptions: while mothers believe fathers should do more than what they assess to be their role in household chores, men believe their participation to be very close to the ideal one. Publications show that in addition to their low participation in household tasks, fathers hardly get involved in children's care, devoting their time only to games and physical play (Prado, et al., 2007). Other researches refer to greater male participation in child care than in domestic chores (Gomes & Resende, 2004). Although there had been significant changes in order to reduce the gap between men and women in regards to domestic activities, it remains a considerable gap between rhetoric and practice. Even men whose attitudes are positive towards the division of home tasks continue to adopt behaviors not consistent to such conviction (Brasileiro, et al., 2002; Jablonski, 2010; Kamers, 2006). Regarding paternal functions, there seems to be two models: one in which fathers share tasks with mothers, and another one in which mothers are the primary caregiver. Overall, studies argue that men do not see

On the performance of paternal functions, researchers have concluded that although we are in a process of changes in what is expected from fathers and mothers, the figure of fathers as financial providers to the family and of mothers as emotional and affective caregivers still remain (Dessen & Braz, 2000; Trindade & Menandro, 2002). Freitas et al. (2009) argue that fathers perceive paternity as a new social role still strongly linked to the function of moral and material provision for the family, even though they have been experiencing a transition process in which coexist the traditional model of paternity and the current model that includes also

The reviewed studies also suggest that paternal involvement can benefit children in emotional, behavioral and social terms. There is evidence that, especially with regards to the school performance, involved fathers contribute to children's satisfactory academic performance. These studies support international research indicating that fathers who are affectionate and able to impose rules and limits help children developing confidence that allows them to become responsible and cooperative with adults and peers in preschool, as well as developing

Although analyzed researches in this present revision show no consensus regarding the variables influencing paternity, studies indicate that fathers' personality characteristics, children's temperament, and the context may be important variables. Moreover, families' social-economic situation, fathers' educational background and can result in greater or lesser degree of paternal involvement. Reviewed studies suggest that fathers play different roles

social skills in academic school age (Paquette, Eugène, Dubeau, & Gagnon, 2009).

themselves only as providers, but also as responsible for raising children.

the dimensions of care and affection.

Kamers, 2006).

Concerning the participation in childbirth, there are fathers who wish to experience this moment and who see it as an opportunity unique. On the other hand, there are those who are afraid of being unprepared for the experience. Data also show that although mothers consider the presence of their partners in the parturition room as an important emotional reference (Motta & Crepaldi, 2005), fathers are not usually encouraged to do it, especially from the health team in charge. Even after the baby is born, men are not included in the routines of child care, and are very little motivated to do so. The articles call attention to the importance of providing encouragement to fathers' participation in the childbirth, which benefit both mother and baby. Along the same lines, Carvalho (2003) argues that fathers should be included in the process as a whole, and be encouraged to participate in prenatal care, childbirth, postpartum and pediatric appointments. The author still points to the need to formulate work policies that allow for the inclusion of fathers in health services. According to Crepaldi et al., (2006), the awareness of health and educational sectors is fundamental for the inclusion of fathers in child care.

The fact that mothers are considered the main interlocutors in these environments legitimates representations that fathers are unable to care for their children's issues, which position them as mere helpers for mothers and as family providers. In addition, it is noteworthy fathers' difficulties to engage with their children when they are born premature and need to stay in the Intensive Care Units (ICU). However, researches indicate that the experience of caring for a premature child can benefit father-child's bond (Tronchin & Tsunechiro, 2006). Hence, the support of the healthcare team should be reinforced.

In the puerperium phase, men seem unable to help much their partners, either with household chores or in breastfeeding. However, women in general report to be satisfied with men's behavior. Furthermore, although fathers do not carry out many functions soon after the baby's birth, they seem to have a role in mitigating the effects of postpartum depression when this event takes place (Frizzo & Piccinini, 2007 ). These results can be further investigated to understand the processes surrounding these aspects of paternal involvement.

Regarding gender roles, the articles analyzed demonstrate that men are required to get deeper engaged in their children's lives, as well as to share household chores due to social demands, mainly because, in general their wives also work outside the home. Thus, in relation to issues concerning gender identity, Jablonski (2010) highlights that transformations in the perform‐ ance of parenting had implications on masculine identity, including aspects related to values and beliefs. Family transformations have been generating expectations and demands from men in terms of their roles as fathers and husbands, characterizing the phenomenon called "new paternity". Although it seems evident men's growing interest in participating, this interest does not materialize with the same force, once the division of child care still seems unbalanced between men and women (Brasileiro, Jablonski, & Féres-Carneiro, 2002; Jablonski, 2010; Kamers, 2006).

They even refer to physical and emotional reactions during pregnancy and these feelings seem to be important to prepare themselves for fatherhood. However, some fathers demonstrate difficulties in performing the new paternal role of greater participation and involvement in the partners' pregnancy. This probably happens because the future father feels lost and confused with his new role, once he is caught in redefinition process: on one side there are the demands to perform fathers' traditional roles (as family providers), and on the other there are the new demands for greater engagement with the mother and the baby (Bustamante, 2005b). Studies show that male participation in children's lives starting from pregnancy contributes to the perception of pregnancy as a period of transition to the exercise of fatherhood, allows for a feeling of inclusion, and helps fathers to develop their

Concerning the participation in childbirth, there are fathers who wish to experience this moment and who see it as an opportunity unique. On the other hand, there are those who are afraid of being unprepared for the experience. Data also show that although mothers consider the presence of their partners in the parturition room as an important emotional reference (Motta & Crepaldi, 2005), fathers are not usually encouraged to do it, especially from the health team in charge. Even after the baby is born, men are not included in the routines of child care, and are very little motivated to do so. The articles call attention to the importance of providing encouragement to fathers' participation in the childbirth, which benefit both mother and baby. Along the same lines, Carvalho (2003) argues that fathers should be included in the process as a whole, and be encouraged to participate in prenatal care, childbirth, postpartum and pediatric appointments. The author still points to the need to formulate work policies that allow for the inclusion of fathers in health services. According to Crepaldi et al., (2006), the awareness of health and educational sectors is fundamental for the inclusion of fathers in child

The fact that mothers are considered the main interlocutors in these environments legitimates representations that fathers are unable to care for their children's issues, which position them as mere helpers for mothers and as family providers. In addition, it is noteworthy fathers' difficulties to engage with their children when they are born premature and need to stay in the Intensive Care Units (ICU). However, researches indicate that the experience of caring for a premature child can benefit father-child's bond (Tronchin & Tsunechiro, 2006). Hence, the

In the puerperium phase, men seem unable to help much their partners, either with household chores or in breastfeeding. However, women in general report to be satisfied with men's behavior. Furthermore, although fathers do not carry out many functions soon after the baby's birth, they seem to have a role in mitigating the effects of postpartum depression when this event takes place (Frizzo & Piccinini, 2007 ). These results can be further investigated to

Regarding gender roles, the articles analyzed demonstrate that men are required to get deeper engaged in their children's lives, as well as to share household chores due to social demands, mainly because, in general their wives also work outside the home. Thus, in relation to issues

understand the processes surrounding these aspects of paternal involvement.

new role in the life cycle (Bornholdt, et al., 2007).

54 Parenting in South American and African Contexts

support of the healthcare team should be reinforced.

care.

In relation to the housework, the study carried out by Prado et al. (2007) points out to a contradiction in parents' perceptions: while mothers believe fathers should do more than what they assess to be their role in household chores, men believe their participation to be very close to the ideal one. Publications show that in addition to their low participation in household tasks, fathers hardly get involved in children's care, devoting their time only to games and physical play (Prado, et al., 2007). Other researches refer to greater male participation in child care than in domestic chores (Gomes & Resende, 2004). Although there had been significant changes in order to reduce the gap between men and women in regards to domestic activities, it remains a considerable gap between rhetoric and practice. Even men whose attitudes are positive towards the division of home tasks continue to adopt behaviors not consistent to such conviction (Brasileiro, et al., 2002; Jablonski, 2010; Kamers, 2006). Regarding paternal functions, there seems to be two models: one in which fathers share tasks with mothers, and another one in which mothers are the primary caregiver. Overall, studies argue that men do not see themselves only as providers, but also as responsible for raising children.

On the performance of paternal functions, researchers have concluded that although we are in a process of changes in what is expected from fathers and mothers, the figure of fathers as financial providers to the family and of mothers as emotional and affective caregivers still remain (Dessen & Braz, 2000; Trindade & Menandro, 2002). Freitas et al. (2009) argue that fathers perceive paternity as a new social role still strongly linked to the function of moral and material provision for the family, even though they have been experiencing a transition process in which coexist the traditional model of paternity and the current model that includes also the dimensions of care and affection.

The reviewed studies also suggest that paternal involvement can benefit children in emotional, behavioral and social terms. There is evidence that, especially with regards to the school performance, involved fathers contribute to children's satisfactory academic performance. These studies support international research indicating that fathers who are affectionate and able to impose rules and limits help children developing confidence that allows them to become responsible and cooperative with adults and peers in preschool, as well as developing social skills in academic school age (Paquette, Eugène, Dubeau, & Gagnon, 2009).

Although analyzed researches in this present revision show no consensus regarding the variables influencing paternity, studies indicate that fathers' personality characteristics, children's temperament, and the context may be important variables. Moreover, families' social-economic situation, fathers' educational background and can result in greater or lesser degree of paternal involvement. Reviewed studies suggest that fathers play different roles depending on the cultural context in which they are inserted, and these roles are multidimen‐ sional and complex. Furthermore, issues related to personality traits, relationship with wives and family, as well as the social environment must be considered in understanding parental involvement (Turcotte & Gaudet, 2009).

transmission of parenting. Other family configurations, besides father-mother families, need to be more emphasized in research, especially with regards to the role of fathers in divorced and remarried families. Moreover, the issue of co-parenting is a topic that has been gaining researchers' attention, but is still very recent in the literature. It is necessary to invest in research to identify which aspects of paternal involvement effectively indicate a co-parental relation‐

One special thanks goes to CNPq and CAPES for financial support via scholarship to the

, Carina Nunes Bossardi1

,

Paternity in the Brazilian Context http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57027 57

and César-Augusto Piccinini2

ship and the effects of this relationship to children.

, Maria Aparecida Crepaldi1

, Simone Dill Azeredo Bolze1

1 Psychology Department, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil

2 Institute of Psychogy, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil

em homens adolescentes. *Revista de Saúde Pública, 41*(4), 565-572.

centes. *Jornal de Pediatria (RJ), 87*(3), 238-244.

fantil. *Revista Psicopedagogia, 28*(85), 67-75.

[1] Almeida, A. F. F., & Hardy, E. (2007). Vulnerabilidade de gênero para a paternidade

[2] Andrade, R. P., Costa, N. R. A., & Rossetti-Ferreira, M. C. (2006). Significações de pa‐ ternidade adotiva: um estudo de caso. *Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 16*(34), 241-252.

[3] Benchaya, M. C., Bisch, N. K., Moreira, T. C., Ferigolo, M., & Barros, H. M. T. (2011). Pais não autoritativos e o impacto no uso de drogas: a percepção dos filhos adoles‐

[4] Benczik, E. B. P. (2011). A importância da figura paterna para o desenvolvimento in‐

[5] Bornholdt, E. A., Wagner, A., & Staud, A. C. P. (2007). A vivência da gravidez do pri‐

[6] Bornstein, M. H., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Parcual, L., Haynes, O. M., Painter, K. M., Galperín, C. Z., & Pêcheux, M. G. (1996). Ideas about parenting in Argentina, France and the United States. *International Journal of Behavior Development, 19*(2), 347-367.

meiro filho à luz da perspectiva paterna. *Psicologia Clínica, 19*(1), 75-92.

**Acknowledgements**

authors of the paper.

**Author details**

Mauro Luís Vieira1

**References**

Lauren Beltrão Gomes1

When dealing with the perception and conception of paternal behavior, the reviewed publi‐ cations indicate that fathers report being involved with their children, especially in leisure activities, and in imposing discipline. However, Goetz and Vieira (2008) found that children perceive the real father to be far from the ideal one regarding his functions of care and interaction, especially in cases where parents are separated. The authors point out that children's expectations towards their parents are a reflection of the culture in which they live. Hence, if the pattern in contemporary culture is related to a more involved and active father, then children will require these behaviors from fathers. Concerning the imposition of disci‐ pline, parents (mothers and fathers) seem to agree that fathers are important in the imposition of rules, limits and transmitting concepts on "what is right and what is wrong." Thus, fathers play an important role in relation to children's appropriate behavior in the social sphere (Goetz & Vieira, 2008).

In relation to adolescence, in this present review, researches have demonstrated that many teenage fathers report being satisfied and demonstrate responsibility for their children and partners. In terms of future studies, it is necessary to investigate more thoroughly teenagers' expectations and feelings, as well as their marital relationships and their relation with the baby (Levandowski & Piccinini, 2002, 2006).

On the other hand, fathers of disabled or hospitalized children, despite the difficulties of having a sick child, are described as deeply involved with their children. However, they describe themselves as helping mothers in child care, while women are perceived to be primary caregivers. In addition, they refer to be responsible for the family economical support. These findings show that fathers, regardless of having healthy or sick children, still position them‐ selves in the traditional role of providers (Dessen & Lewis, 1998).

Therefore, it seems that paternity has been increasingly attracting researchers' attention, possibly because the theme is of both scientific and social relevance. Paternal participation in the family context has been increasing and this greater involvement has repercussions in family dynamics and children's development. However, due to the complexity of the theme, much still has to be done in order to build a broader and more accurate perspective on the reality of fathers in Brazil.

For instance, more studies are necessary to characterize the experiences of paternity in the context of children with disabilities, as well as possible implications of children with special needs, sex and birth order in the family organization. In addition, it is necessary to increase the amount of researches on fathers' perceptions regarding their roles. Another demand is related to the participation of fathers whose children belongs to different age groups, consid‐ ering that demands of children change over time, and the specificities of paternal involvement during childhood development. In relation to participants, future research should incorporate data from other generations of participants in order to investigate the intergenerational transmission of parenting. Other family configurations, besides father-mother families, need to be more emphasized in research, especially with regards to the role of fathers in divorced and remarried families. Moreover, the issue of co-parenting is a topic that has been gaining researchers' attention, but is still very recent in the literature. It is necessary to invest in research to identify which aspects of paternal involvement effectively indicate a co-parental relation‐ ship and the effects of this relationship to children.
