**1. Introduction**

This chapter aims to report and discuss studies investigating paternity in the Brazilian context. Primarily, it presents a contextual and theoretical discussion about the changing roles of fathers and mothers in different countries and the concepts concerning to the relation of father with his child and, subsequently, it presents a review of studies on paternity in Brazil.

The economic and social transformations have changed the structure, roles and functions of family members in the context of various countries. In both national and international scenarios, the changes caused by the increase of female participation in the labor market have changed the traditional model of fathers as providers, who go out to work while women are dedicated to home and children care. Greater paternal involvement in child care has been evidenced and opened space for future research, especially regarding the determinants of father's involvement. Mothers' roles and attitudes towards their children and families have also changed over the years, given the economic transformations in family settings in many countries such as India, Canada, Argentina, France, United States of American (Bornstein et al., 1996; Mendonça, Cossette, Strayer, & Gravel, 2011), and Brazil (Jablonski, 2010; Wagner, Predebon, Mosmann, & Verza, 2005).

Considered as a social system, responsible for the transmission of values, beliefs, ideas and meanings, family, therefore has a strong influence in children's behavior (Kreppner, 2000). New and diverse family settings are outlined, for example, divorced families, remarried, adoptive parents, families headed exclusively by men or women, homosexual couples, among others. These changes in family arrangements will influence parental behavior and attitudes

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(Jablonski, 2010; Kamers, 2006). For instance, it is reasonable to think that the relationships in two-parent families with biological children differ from the relationships in remarried families, cohabiting stepfathers or stepmothers.

Nowadays, when referring to family configurations, some authors prefer, instead of focusing on the influence exerted by each parent, to emphasize the combined influence of both parents, through the definition of coparenting (Dubeau, Devault, & Paquette, 2009; Gomes & Resende, 2004; Silva & Piccinini, 2007). Coparenting is defined by the reciprocal and joint involvement of both parents in education, training and decisions regarding children's lives, meaning that father and mother share the leadership and support each other in their roles as householders and parents. In the current context of Western societies, in which father involvement has been increasingly valued, understanding how coparent‐ ing affects human development has become of great importance, either for theoretical or interventional purposes. Coparenting is influenced by individual characteristics of each parent (education, mental health, and well-being), the dynamics of marital relationships, family factors, and extra-family environment. It is composed by the agreement regarding parenting practices, the division of labor, and mutual support between the dyads (Frizzo,

Paternity in the Brazilian Context http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57027 37

Surveys show changes in parental roles as the result of women entering the labor market, and of greater paternal involvement in child care and household chores (Saraff & Srivastava, 2010; Silva & Piccinini, 2007; Wagner, et al., 2005). The increased participation of women in the labor market is seen as a factor that had led men to take more responsibility at home. Working outside the home reduces the contact established between the mother and her children. Thus, the father, who used to spend most of his time outside the home to ensure family support, is called to establish a more direct contact with his children. Although occurring at a much smaller scale than expected or desired, the participation and involvement of fathers in child care and household functions are being shown, even if the mother is still identified as the main

Several studies aim at characterizing paternal functions within the family and in child development, demonstrating an increase in paternal involvement and pointing to a movement for greater involvement of fathers in child care (Frizzo, et al., 2005; Goetz & Vieira, 2009; Pleck, 1997; Silva & Piccinini, 2007). Investigations on mothers', and especially on fathers' parenting, which have been recently gaining prominence, have been adopting different conceptualiza‐

The term investment comes from an evolutionary comprehension, considering the direct and indirect activities undertaken by fathers and mothers that contribute or not to the immediate survival of species (Hewlett, 1992; Trivers, 1972). The term involvement is understood as a type of investment that refers to activities in which parents interact directly or indirectly with children, seeking care (Lamb, 1997; Lamb, Pleck, Chanov, & Levine, 1985). The term engage‐ ment is the most recent in psychological literature, being introduced in studies of paternity,

The parental investment theory was proposed by Trivers (Trivers, 1972), who defines the term as the investment of energy, once the guarantee for species' survival and the chances of

Kreutz, Schmidt, Piccinini, & Bosa, 2005).

responsible for home and child care (Jablonski, 2010).

tions, which will be discussed below.

**1.1. Investment, involvement and engagement**

and used as a synonym for involvement (Dubeau, et al., 2009).

Changes in family structure and in the traditional family model (in which the father is identified as the provider, while the mother is responsible for the care of home and children) to a family functioning where household chores and child care are divided between father and mother, even if not in an egalitarian way, are identified as an outcome of female emancipation. Several researchers (Gauthier, Smeeding, & Furstenberg, 2004; Jablonski, 2010; Mendonça, et al., 2011; Perucchi & Beirão, 2007; Saraff & Srivastava, 2010; Wagner, et al., 2005) emphasize that the increased participation of women in the labor market generates changes in gender relations, late marriages, decrease in the number of children and greater autonomy and independence for women, which in turn cause changes in parental roles (Jablonski, 2007).

Maternal and paternal roles are multidimensional, complex and varied, and thus need to be considered in their cultural, historical and intergenerational dimensions, comprising a diversity of roles, modes of participation, and multiple determinants (Dessen & Silva Neto, 2000; Kreppner, 2000; Lamb, 1997). Father's role can be classified as: traditional (provider), modern (part of the academic and moral development of children) or emerging (sharing the activities with the mother wife) (Dessen & Lewis, 1998).

More studies about changes in paternal involvement may contribute to the understanding of how paternity is being configured (Fleck & Wagner, 2003). For that, fathers can be used as informants in an attempt to understand the activities they actually engage in with their children. Obtaining data from multiple informants with a multi-methodological approach, longitudinal, comparative and cross-cultural planning can promote advances in the field of family psychology. Rather than studying the types of family, it is important to establish a planning of interfamily studies to check the conditions within families and differences among family members (Dessen & Lewis, 1998; Dessen & Silva Neto, 2000; Kreppner, 2000).

Authors who write about modern families agree that among family settings – such as those composed by two-parents, single-parents, divorced or remarried parents, both men and women, for the most part, perform activities outside the home, or have a professional occu‐ pation. In these terms, it seems that the mother continues to assume the greatest responsibility at home and in caring for children, while the father participates in providing support in some tasks. Children suffer an important decrease in meeting their basic needs - emotional and entertaining - due to the reduction of hours spent in the company of parents (Fleck & Wagner, 2003; Jablonski, 2010; Mendonça, et al., 2011; Perucchi & Beirão, 2007).

Some studies published today focus on family issues related to parenting, but most of them still focus primary on motherhood, maybe because mothers continue to be the primary caregiver in various societies (Keller & Chasiotis, 2007). However, some literature review such as the one carried out by Souza and Benetti (Souza & Benetti, 2009) and Borsa and Nunes (Borsa & Nunes, 2011) show that studies concerned specifically on paternity has increased in recent decades. Further studies are needed to check if there are changes in parental relationships and, if they exist, their impact in family and society (Borsa & Nunes, 2011).

Nowadays, when referring to family configurations, some authors prefer, instead of focusing on the influence exerted by each parent, to emphasize the combined influence of both parents, through the definition of coparenting (Dubeau, Devault, & Paquette, 2009; Gomes & Resende, 2004; Silva & Piccinini, 2007). Coparenting is defined by the reciprocal and joint involvement of both parents in education, training and decisions regarding children's lives, meaning that father and mother share the leadership and support each other in their roles as householders and parents. In the current context of Western societies, in which father involvement has been increasingly valued, understanding how coparent‐ ing affects human development has become of great importance, either for theoretical or interventional purposes. Coparenting is influenced by individual characteristics of each parent (education, mental health, and well-being), the dynamics of marital relationships, family factors, and extra-family environment. It is composed by the agreement regarding parenting practices, the division of labor, and mutual support between the dyads (Frizzo, Kreutz, Schmidt, Piccinini, & Bosa, 2005).

Surveys show changes in parental roles as the result of women entering the labor market, and of greater paternal involvement in child care and household chores (Saraff & Srivastava, 2010; Silva & Piccinini, 2007; Wagner, et al., 2005). The increased participation of women in the labor market is seen as a factor that had led men to take more responsibility at home. Working outside the home reduces the contact established between the mother and her children. Thus, the father, who used to spend most of his time outside the home to ensure family support, is called to establish a more direct contact with his children. Although occurring at a much smaller scale than expected or desired, the participation and involvement of fathers in child care and household functions are being shown, even if the mother is still identified as the main responsible for home and child care (Jablonski, 2010).

Several studies aim at characterizing paternal functions within the family and in child development, demonstrating an increase in paternal involvement and pointing to a movement for greater involvement of fathers in child care (Frizzo, et al., 2005; Goetz & Vieira, 2009; Pleck, 1997; Silva & Piccinini, 2007). Investigations on mothers', and especially on fathers' parenting, which have been recently gaining prominence, have been adopting different conceptualiza‐ tions, which will be discussed below.

#### **1.1. Investment, involvement and engagement**

(Jablonski, 2010; Kamers, 2006). For instance, it is reasonable to think that the relationships in two-parent families with biological children differ from the relationships in remarried families,

Changes in family structure and in the traditional family model (in which the father is identified as the provider, while the mother is responsible for the care of home and children) to a family functioning where household chores and child care are divided between father and mother, even if not in an egalitarian way, are identified as an outcome of female emancipation. Several researchers (Gauthier, Smeeding, & Furstenberg, 2004; Jablonski, 2010; Mendonça, et al., 2011; Perucchi & Beirão, 2007; Saraff & Srivastava, 2010; Wagner, et al., 2005) emphasize that the increased participation of women in the labor market generates changes in gender relations, late marriages, decrease in the number of children and greater autonomy and independence for women, which in turn cause changes in parental roles (Jablonski, 2007).

Maternal and paternal roles are multidimensional, complex and varied, and thus need to be considered in their cultural, historical and intergenerational dimensions, comprising a diversity of roles, modes of participation, and multiple determinants (Dessen & Silva Neto, 2000; Kreppner, 2000; Lamb, 1997). Father's role can be classified as: traditional (provider), modern (part of the academic and moral development of children) or emerging (sharing the

More studies about changes in paternal involvement may contribute to the understanding of how paternity is being configured (Fleck & Wagner, 2003). For that, fathers can be used as informants in an attempt to understand the activities they actually engage in with their children. Obtaining data from multiple informants with a multi-methodological approach, longitudinal, comparative and cross-cultural planning can promote advances in the field of family psychology. Rather than studying the types of family, it is important to establish a planning of interfamily studies to check the conditions within families and differences among

family members (Dessen & Lewis, 1998; Dessen & Silva Neto, 2000; Kreppner, 2000).

2003; Jablonski, 2010; Mendonça, et al., 2011; Perucchi & Beirão, 2007).

if they exist, their impact in family and society (Borsa & Nunes, 2011).

Authors who write about modern families agree that among family settings – such as those composed by two-parents, single-parents, divorced or remarried parents, both men and women, for the most part, perform activities outside the home, or have a professional occu‐ pation. In these terms, it seems that the mother continues to assume the greatest responsibility at home and in caring for children, while the father participates in providing support in some tasks. Children suffer an important decrease in meeting their basic needs - emotional and entertaining - due to the reduction of hours spent in the company of parents (Fleck & Wagner,

Some studies published today focus on family issues related to parenting, but most of them still focus primary on motherhood, maybe because mothers continue to be the primary caregiver in various societies (Keller & Chasiotis, 2007). However, some literature review such as the one carried out by Souza and Benetti (Souza & Benetti, 2009) and Borsa and Nunes (Borsa & Nunes, 2011) show that studies concerned specifically on paternity has increased in recent decades. Further studies are needed to check if there are changes in parental relationships and,

cohabiting stepfathers or stepmothers.

36 Parenting in South American and African Contexts

activities with the mother wife) (Dessen & Lewis, 1998).

The term investment comes from an evolutionary comprehension, considering the direct and indirect activities undertaken by fathers and mothers that contribute or not to the immediate survival of species (Hewlett, 1992; Trivers, 1972). The term involvement is understood as a type of investment that refers to activities in which parents interact directly or indirectly with children, seeking care (Lamb, 1997; Lamb, Pleck, Chanov, & Levine, 1985). The term engage‐ ment is the most recent in psychological literature, being introduced in studies of paternity, and used as a synonym for involvement (Dubeau, et al., 2009).

The parental investment theory was proposed by Trivers (Trivers, 1972), who defines the term as the investment of energy, once the guarantee for species' survival and the chances of reproductive success depend on a high investment, as well as on the amount of energy involved in that process. Thus, parental investment is understood as the degree in which each sex invests in their offspring, meaning any investment parents (father and mother) make in favor of the offspring to increase survival and reproduction, thus reinforcing the link between parental investment and sexual selection. The sex who invests more in the offspring (female) is the most demanding in terms of partners' choice, while the sex who invests less (male) competes more actively with members of the opposite sex to ensure reproductive success (Borrione & Lordelo, 2005; Trivers, 1972).

conceptualization of each parent's engagement, and the involvement of mothers had been

Paternity in the Brazilian Context http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57027 39

In summary, parenting over time and in different societies has changed. This situation is potentiated in relation to paternity. On the other hand, different terms and concepts are used to describe the dimension or factors related to this phenomenon (the father in the familiar context), which are linked with different theories and epistemological perspectives. In the next section is showed the specificities of paternity in the Brazilian context. Through an integrative review of the literature will show the extent and nature of parental involvement in the family

Between 1960 and 1976, only 3% of the Brazilian studies on child development included the father (Dessen & Lewis, 1998). The results of these studies were similar, in some extension, to that detached by other authors (for example, Lamb, 1997), in other contexts, emphasizing that the main father's role was to play with the children and that the greater impact of father involvement on children's development consisted in the promotion of girls' social develop‐ ment and children's sexual identity formation. Only in the 80's the themes related to the social construction of masculinity and their influence in the performance of parenting emerged more consistently in the literature, indicating a more effective participation of Brazilian fathers in the family routine (Hennigen & Guareschi, 2002). However, until the late 90's few studies had effectively investigated paternal behavior and father-child relationship, since most research on child development and well-being remained focused on the mother-child dyad (Lewis & Dessen, 1999). It is since the beginning of the 21st century that scientific research has been demonstrating the new characterization father's role more emotionally involved and commit‐ ted to their children, and as capable as mothers to educate their children (Souza & Benetti, 2009), even if it remains in the social imaginary the traditional structure of the provider parent. Review studies of scientific literature on paternity are crucial to identify which aspects of the subject are investigated by researches in a specific society. In this sense, this chapter aims at presenting an overview of the Brazilian scientific production, through the publication of empirical articles related to paternal behavior and experience. Considering that the choice for a research topic aims at contributing to the advancement of knowledge in a specific field, reviews of literature are helpful in indicating how the configuration of fatherhood in a society is. Furthermore, it may allow us to take a more objective perspective on data regarding the

current reality of paternity in the family and their relationship with children.

In order to characterize the research on paternity in Brazil, it was conducted an integrative review of the literature, which it is a research method that allows the search, critical evaluation and synthesis of the available evidence on a topic investigated. The revision was based on publications found in the following databases: The Scientific Electronic Library Online (SciELO), Electronic Journals in Psychology (PePSIC) and INDEXPsi Technical and Scientific Journals, all indexed in the portal Virtual Library of Psychology (BVS-Psi). The descriptors selected for screening publications were *father, paternity, and paternal.* Previously to the definition of descriptors it was conducted a consultation in the Terminology Psychology BVS-

**1.2. Scientific literature on paternity in Brazil: An overview**

already studied for years.

context in Brazil.

More specifically, the parental investment involves both evolutionary and cultural aspects (Geary, 2000). Among the factors associated with the evolution of parental investment are: the survival of offspring, mating opportunities, and certainty of paternity (or maternity). Cultural factors relate to the desire for social equality among maternal and paternal functions, meaning the understanding that both men and women should contribute to the welfare of children. The integrative perspective between the two dimensions (evolution and culture) can be a factor important to better understand the complexity of parental investment. However, is necessary also to understand how the individuals experiencing the maternity and paternity currently. In this case are used different terms such as involvement and engagement.

Regarding the term involvement, the definition mostly adopted in the literature refers to the concept of Lamb, Pleck, Charnov, and Levine (Lamb, et al., 1985), which define its' three dimensions: accessibility (presence and availability of the parent to the child, though without direct interaction between them), interaction (engagement or direct contact with the child in care and shared activities, such as play or leisure), and responsibility (parental role in provid‐ ing care and resources, such as taking the child to the doctor or attending meeting at school).

The term paternal engagement is adopted by some authors (Dubeau, et al., 2009) (and is similar, in some extend to the concept of paternal involvement). It is defined as participation and ongoing concern of the biological father or stepfather, regarding the physical and psycholog‐ ical development and well-being of his children. Engagement is expressed in different forms: 1) Interaction: the presence of the father with the child, directly or indirectly, 2) Basic care: share of everyday tasks, 3) Affectionate: provides gestures and words that reassure and encourage the child; 4) Responsibility: performs tasks for the development of the child; 5) Provider: promotes financial support for the child's needs and 6) Evocative / significant: father who thinks about the child.

Futhermore, Turcotte and Gaudet (Turcotte & Gaudet, 2009) performed an analysis of the forms and terms most used in the paternal studies which are interconnected: 1) parental participation, and especially fathers' participation, has been defined by the intensity of the relationship established with the child (how long the parent spends with the child); 2) the nature of the relationship with the child (what the parent does with the child) and 3) the quality of the relationship established with the child (how the parent does with the child).

Since the term engagement is recent in the psychological literature, it is not frequently adopted, especially by the Brazilian literature (Gomes, Bossardi, Crepaldi, & Vieira, 2010). It was originally introduced in studies of paternity, since social changes paved the way for the conceptualization of each parent's engagement, and the involvement of mothers had been already studied for years.

In summary, parenting over time and in different societies has changed. This situation is potentiated in relation to paternity. On the other hand, different terms and concepts are used to describe the dimension or factors related to this phenomenon (the father in the familiar context), which are linked with different theories and epistemological perspectives. In the next section is showed the specificities of paternity in the Brazilian context. Through an integrative review of the literature will show the extent and nature of parental involvement in the family context in Brazil.

#### **1.2. Scientific literature on paternity in Brazil: An overview**

reproductive success depend on a high investment, as well as on the amount of energy involved in that process. Thus, parental investment is understood as the degree in which each sex invests in their offspring, meaning any investment parents (father and mother) make in favor of the offspring to increase survival and reproduction, thus reinforcing the link between parental investment and sexual selection. The sex who invests more in the offspring (female) is the most demanding in terms of partners' choice, while the sex who invests less (male) competes more actively with members of the opposite sex to ensure reproductive success

More specifically, the parental investment involves both evolutionary and cultural aspects (Geary, 2000). Among the factors associated with the evolution of parental investment are: the survival of offspring, mating opportunities, and certainty of paternity (or maternity). Cultural factors relate to the desire for social equality among maternal and paternal functions, meaning the understanding that both men and women should contribute to the welfare of children. The integrative perspective between the two dimensions (evolution and culture) can be a factor important to better understand the complexity of parental investment. However, is necessary also to understand how the individuals experiencing the maternity and paternity currently.

Regarding the term involvement, the definition mostly adopted in the literature refers to the concept of Lamb, Pleck, Charnov, and Levine (Lamb, et al., 1985), which define its' three dimensions: accessibility (presence and availability of the parent to the child, though without direct interaction between them), interaction (engagement or direct contact with the child in care and shared activities, such as play or leisure), and responsibility (parental role in provid‐ ing care and resources, such as taking the child to the doctor or attending meeting at school).

The term paternal engagement is adopted by some authors (Dubeau, et al., 2009) (and is similar, in some extend to the concept of paternal involvement). It is defined as participation and ongoing concern of the biological father or stepfather, regarding the physical and psycholog‐ ical development and well-being of his children. Engagement is expressed in different forms: 1) Interaction: the presence of the father with the child, directly or indirectly, 2) Basic care: share of everyday tasks, 3) Affectionate: provides gestures and words that reassure and encourage the child; 4) Responsibility: performs tasks for the development of the child; 5) Provider: promotes financial support for the child's needs and 6) Evocative / significant: father

Futhermore, Turcotte and Gaudet (Turcotte & Gaudet, 2009) performed an analysis of the forms and terms most used in the paternal studies which are interconnected: 1) parental participation, and especially fathers' participation, has been defined by the intensity of the relationship established with the child (how long the parent spends with the child); 2) the nature of the relationship with the child (what the parent does with the child) and 3) the quality

Since the term engagement is recent in the psychological literature, it is not frequently adopted, especially by the Brazilian literature (Gomes, Bossardi, Crepaldi, & Vieira, 2010). It was originally introduced in studies of paternity, since social changes paved the way for the

of the relationship established with the child (how the parent does with the child).

In this case are used different terms such as involvement and engagement.

(Borrione & Lordelo, 2005; Trivers, 1972).

38 Parenting in South American and African Contexts

who thinks about the child.

Between 1960 and 1976, only 3% of the Brazilian studies on child development included the father (Dessen & Lewis, 1998). The results of these studies were similar, in some extension, to that detached by other authors (for example, Lamb, 1997), in other contexts, emphasizing that the main father's role was to play with the children and that the greater impact of father involvement on children's development consisted in the promotion of girls' social develop‐ ment and children's sexual identity formation. Only in the 80's the themes related to the social construction of masculinity and their influence in the performance of parenting emerged more consistently in the literature, indicating a more effective participation of Brazilian fathers in the family routine (Hennigen & Guareschi, 2002). However, until the late 90's few studies had effectively investigated paternal behavior and father-child relationship, since most research on child development and well-being remained focused on the mother-child dyad (Lewis & Dessen, 1999). It is since the beginning of the 21st century that scientific research has been demonstrating the new characterization father's role more emotionally involved and commit‐ ted to their children, and as capable as mothers to educate their children (Souza & Benetti, 2009), even if it remains in the social imaginary the traditional structure of the provider parent.

Review studies of scientific literature on paternity are crucial to identify which aspects of the subject are investigated by researches in a specific society. In this sense, this chapter aims at presenting an overview of the Brazilian scientific production, through the publication of empirical articles related to paternal behavior and experience. Considering that the choice for a research topic aims at contributing to the advancement of knowledge in a specific field, reviews of literature are helpful in indicating how the configuration of fatherhood in a society is. Furthermore, it may allow us to take a more objective perspective on data regarding the current reality of paternity in the family and their relationship with children.

In order to characterize the research on paternity in Brazil, it was conducted an integrative review of the literature, which it is a research method that allows the search, critical evaluation and synthesis of the available evidence on a topic investigated. The revision was based on publications found in the following databases: The Scientific Electronic Library Online (SciELO), Electronic Journals in Psychology (PePSIC) and INDEXPsi Technical and Scientific Journals, all indexed in the portal Virtual Library of Psychology (BVS-Psi). The descriptors selected for screening publications were *father, paternity, and paternal.* Previously to the definition of descriptors it was conducted a consultation in the Terminology Psychology BVS- Psi and the site of the Health Sciences Descriptors (DeCS), BVS. The terms *father* and *paterni‐ ty* were indexed in at least one of the sites mentioned above. We chose to add the search function on the *paternal* descriptor that makes specific reference to the variable of interest in this study.

actively in the labor market, starting to head up their families, and being responsible for livelihood as well. These findings show the coexistence with traditional family arrangements of single parent homes, consisting of one parent (usually the mother), as well as divorced or remarried families, who do not require the coexistence of a parent with the child. In such cases, in most studies the father is focused as the parental figure who leaves home and starts living with another family - with biological children or not, which is reconstituted through remar‐ riage (Jablonski, 2010; Kamers, 2006; Wagner, et al., 2005). Research indicates that even in cases of non-biological children, such as adoption and the existence of stepfathers, parental involve‐ ment and participation become possible through the construction of emotional bonds that overcome the limitation of consanguinity. Even in divorced, remarried families, or with adoptive parents, mothers' role in caring for children seems to be more expressive, while fathers assume traditional roles in supporting mothers and children. Therefore, the mother appears as the primary responsible and the father as a helper in this process (Perucchi & Beirão,

Paternity in the Brazilian Context http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57027 41

**3. The father in the context of pregnancy, birth, and postpartum**

It is subdivided into the subcategories described below:

This category includes Brazilian studies on paternal involvement during periods of pregnancy, birth, and postpartum, encompassing topics such as breastfeeding and non-normative events, such as postpartum depression, prematurity, and admission to neonatal intensive care units.

The pregnancy of wife or partner was the subject of seven studies. One of the studies (Piccinini, Silva, Gonçalves, Lopes, & Tudge, 2004) included as participants men who were expecting their first child and the results indicate that fathers were involved in different ways during the pregnancy of their partners, being emotionally connected to both the mother and the baby. However, some of these fathers still found difficulties of involve‐ ment with their children, seemingly not perceiving them as real and showing low emotion‐ al connection to pregnancy. In contrast, one of the studies (Piccinini, Levandowski, Gomes, Lindenmeyer, & Lopes, 2009) investigated the expectations and feelings of future fathers about their babies and the authors concluded that few fathers reported difficulty imagin‐ ing the baby: they had built a mental image of the baby, including their physical and psychological characteristics. Moreover, they had participated in the choice of name and raised concerns about the child's health. Another paper (Krob, Piccinini, & Silva, 2009 ) was characterized as a longitudinal study that investigated the expectation of men during the last trimester of the partner's pregnancy, as well as feelings about fatherhood during the second month of the baby's life. Results indicate that pregnancy was experienced as emotionally intense, characterized by joy, anxiety, and conflict. Men also reported con‐ cerns about the baby and the partner's health, as well as feelings of exclusion. After the child's birth, the sense of exclusion persisted. However, fathers reported positive feelings

2007; Wagner, et al., 2005).

**3.1. Pregnancy**

Regarding the limits of the search, the studies selected for analysis comprised only scientific articles published between the years from 2000 until 2012, with full text available and that provide results and discussions about the father figure, even when paternity was not the central theme. We excluded books, book chapters, reviews, theses, dissertations, and articles without full text available. From a total of 1447 documents found, 90 complete articles were chosen to be analyzed in function of their contributions to the production of knowledge of fatherhood in Brazil. The analysis of the articles was carried out in according to the structure of nine categories which represent the major topics of interest on fathers and fatherhood research in the Brazilian context. The following we describe each category and present the main finds.
