**9. Father in the context of adolescence**

**7. Gender identity**

48 Parenting in South American and African Contexts

traditional model on fatherhood.

Gender identity and the roles played by males are discussed in relation to parenting. The four articles that address this theme refer to a new father who arises as the result of a redefinition of male identity in response to social changes. With women's emancipation, new male roles are outlined, and current fathers are faced with the new challenge of responding social demands required from them. Fathers are investigated concerning their feelings towards identity and paternity in this context of social changes. Gradual changes in the male role, especially with regards to paternity, are noted over the years. From the 1960s men are held more accountable for their actions in the domestic sphere and with children and, in subsequent years, there have been valued gender equality and a model of participant fathers (Santos, Caldana, & Alves, 2001). Marriage reconfigures masculinity through paternity. Single men have an identity and responsibilities different from married men. Paternity is not only about having children, but is related as the ability to support and educate them (Almeida & Hardy, 2007; Freitas, Coelho, & Silva, 2007 ). The traditional model of paternity according to which fathers are defined exclusively as providers coexists with a new model where fathers' affective bonding is valued from pregnancy. It seems that fathers are asked to take on additional functions beyond those typically performed, thus modifying the meaning of paternity. Pregnancy constitutes a change in male role as well, since fathers can establish an emotional

bond with children from conception (Almeida & Hardy, 2007; Freitas, et al., 2007).

**8. Perception and conception on paternal behavior**

care activities (Crepaldi, Andreani, Hammes, Ristof, & Abreu, 2006).

Changes in parental involvement are also found in studies that focus on gender identity. Once more male and female roles are highlighted as products of social changes that produce the redefinition of male roles and identity. Fathers try to adapt to the expected new model, which is characterized by greater participation in their children's lives, thus distancing from the

The category refers to beliefs, values and cognitions related to paternity according to reports of mothers, children, fathers, and the media. Conceptions on paternity constructed by women who are heads of households refer to the valuation of present and participative fathers. These conceptions surpass the father/provider model and highlight their role as educators and authority figures, emphasizing the tasks of establishing limits and imposing rules of conduct. One study pointed to paternal involvement, especially in children's education, and as an essential factor in building children's personality (Perucchi & Beirão, 2007). While women interviewed perceived fathers' dedication in interacting with children, especially in joint activities, such as playing, singing, talking and going out, not all of them recognized these as

Three studies dealt with the concepts of real and ideal father (Goetz & Vieira, 2008; Goetz & Vieira, 2009; Prado, Piovanotti, & Vieira, 2007). Parents believe the ideal of paternal behavior to be far from the real behavior in relation to social interactions and educational dimensions. This category covers paternity in the context of adolescence. The articles analyzed here refer to teenage parents or parents who have children in their teens. In one of these articles (Trindade & Menandro, 2002), there are discussions about the planning and the desirability of pregnancy with the partner, and about the use of contraceptive methods and prevention, suggesting the need for public policy on sexual and reproductive rights that can guide teenagers to play their parental roles effectively.

On the other hand, the partner was identified as being responsible for the pregnancy or its prevention, which refers to an ancient pattern of reproductive allocation of responsibility to women. It was also pointed out the positive aspects of parenthood. Teenage parents were satisfied with their condition as fathers, and reported attachment to their children, even considering the increase of responsibility (Meincke & Carraro, 2009; Trindade & Menandro, 2002). For the subjects of these two studies, the father is the one who works and supports his children, as well as the one who accompanies, educates and prepares them for life.

parents of children with any health problems, such as congenital heart disease, leukemia and intellectual disabilities. It is highlighted the prevalence of Down Syndrome as one of the main focus of investigations (Henn & Piccinini, 2010; Pereira-Silva & Dessen, 2006). Overall, the researchers showed the importance of the father figure to children's development, and some of them emphasize the deep involvement of fathers in children's treatment (Chacon, 2011; Henn & Piccinini, 2010; Kruel & Lopes, 2012). Despite the deep involvement, the father usually performs the role of a collaborator in the task of caring for children and the home, providing occasional assistance to the mother (Canho, Neme, & Yamada, 2006; Chacon, 2011). It is possible to perceive the continuity of the traditional division of parental roles, as several studies that show fathers as the main providers of financial support to the family, thus having less time to stay with their children when compared to mothers (Canho, et al., 2006; Chacon,

Paternity in the Brazilian Context http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57027 51

It appears that there are differences in parents' time for assimilating children's disability (Pereira-Silva & Dessen, 2006). The information is usually given by the doctor. However, when the disability does not have a high degree of visibility and prejudice, it will only be seen over time. The shock of the discovery, as well as behaviors and feelings of rejection are reported by both fathers (Chacon, 2011; Kruel & Lopes, 2012) and mothers (Kruel & Lopes, 2012). However, even if fathers have similar feelings than related to the diagnosis of children, cultural beliefs about male behavior seem to affect the exercise of paternity (Chacon, 2011). In this sense, the research of Canho et al. (2006) revealed that fathers have used denial, repression of feelings and rationalization as the main defense mechanisms when facing the diagnosis of children with hearing problems. The paternal figure also seems to adopt an attitude of companion and protection towards the baby and the mother, in addition to being the main responsible for maintaining the optimism of the entire family

Most parents refer to the feeling of fear to generate other children with disabilities, as well as low expectations in terms of their total independence. Among parents who have more than one child, most of them acknowledge the existence of differential treatment of the sick child on the basis of his disability (Chacon, 2011). It is stressed the importance of investing the relationship established between parents and health professionals, promoting their participa‐ tion in children's treatment and informing them on how to properly stimulate their children. There is a lack of national surveys on variables related to fathers in families with children with

In synthesis, it has been noted concern by researchers in investigating paternal participation in various contexts, such as in the cases of different family configurations and adolescence, as discussed previously. Other unusual context is related in having children with disabilities or hospitalized. These situations configure a peculiarity that may cause changes in both the family development and the parenting. Such situations require specific interaction and care from the father with the child, and that even in this kind of situations the traditional roles held by father

2011; Henn & Piccinini, 2010).

and mother are displayed.

with regards to the sick child (Kruel & Lopes, 2012).

special needs, indicating a promising field for future studies.

Furthermore, family support and encouragement were central to the exercise of adolescent fatherhood. It is emphasized the importance of supporting men at this stage, so that they can experience responsible parenthood with all the changes it encompasses. Family contributes to both providing support and transmitting parental role models (Meincke & Carraro, 2009).

On the other hand, two other articles (Levandowski & Piccinini, 2002, 2006) compared adult and adolescents' fatherhood, and the results showed similar outcome in the two groups, suggesting that age did not appear to be a determining factor in the experience of parenthood. Parents appeared to be responsive to their children, living with them and their mothers (Levandowski & Piccinini, 2002, 2006).

Among the studies analyzed, one refers to the father who had child in his adolescent (Faria, 2007). The major difficulties reported by fathers were the affective approach, the establishment of limits, the aggressiveness, and the construction of adolescent autonomy. Being a parent of a teenager can make the man review his life. Even when this moment is experienced as distressing and conflicting, it can result in a positive solution for the father because of the broader approach to life, and to his child, because of the gain of autonomy.

In two studies, teenagers answered about the father. In one of them (Wagner, Falcke, Silveira, & Mosmann, 2002), about the family relationship, teenagers show little or no talk to the father, compared to the conversation with the mother, which shows a wide discrepancy between the parental figures. While being evaluated positively, father seems to occupy a peripheral place in adolescents livels' in regards to matters of personal and intimate contact. The other study (Sena & Farias, 2010) presents the importance of paternal role in disciplining and transmitting social norms to adolescents. When this function is not assumed, adolescents demonstrate intolerance and lack of boundaries that culminate in violence displayed in the school context.

Based on the assumption that parental involvement is understood as a complex and multide‐ termined phenomenon, the context of adolescence appears to be the focus of studies in the Brazilian scenario because it represents one important aspect of parental participation nowadays, which it involves specific risk and protective factors.
