Preface

Chapter 8 **Emotion, Affection and Maternal Speech in**

Chapter 9 **Interventions for Enhancing Parenting Quality in**

Deise Maria Leal Fernandes Mendes and Luciana Fontes Pessôa

Jenny A. Ortiz M., Eva Diniz Bensaja dei Schiró, Olga Alicia Carbonell

**Parental Care 129**

**VI** Contents

**Early Infancy 147**

Blanco and Silvia H. Koller

Values, beliefs, goals, ethno-theories, and childrearing practices are part of children´s devel‐ opmental niche [1]. They vary between cultures and across diverse contexts in specific cul‐ tures. Parental styles also vary in different families in the same cultural context depending on socio-demographic characteristics such as educational level of its members. We need to understand aspects of those niches in order to explain development and developmental tra‐ jectories. Generally, this is part of studies in parenting and there is an extensive literature in this subject. However, most of the studies are from a minority of countries populations [2] from North America and Europe. This book has nine chapters and it aims at contributing to the literature, presenting data from African and South American contexts, such as Brazil, Colombia, Cameroon, Ghana, Liberia and Nigeria. Brazilian studies are from a variety of contexts across the country.

Seidl de Moura, Carvalho and Vieira´s chapter - Brazilian mothers' cultural models: Sociali‐ zation for autonomy and relatedness - focuses on evidence from Brazilian studies about mothers' parental models. Brazil is the largest South American country, with very distinct regions. The country hosts diverse historical and cultural backgrounds. Brazilian HDI has been growing equally in the three dimensions: health, education and income, but the coun‐ try still has a high index of concentration of income, despite federal government programs aiming at income distribution. The authors report evidence on mothers' beliefs and practices of care from several Brazilian cities located on diverse regions and of varied population size. The chapter introduction discusses the theoretical assumptions about human development and characteristics of the Brazilian context. The authors argue for the importance of studies of intra-cultural variations using varied methods to understand development in context and present and discuss mothers' socialization goals, maternal beliefs about practices of care of young children; mothers' "narrative envelope"; and mothers' ideas about their children.

Piccinini, Alvarenga, Marin and Sobreira present in their chapter - Child-rearing practices of Brazilian mothers and fathers: Predictors and impact on child development - various issues related to childrearing practices investigated by the Center for Children and Families (NU‐ DIF / UFRGS) to which the authors belong. They discuss the predictors of childrearing prac‐ tices related to cultural differences, parental values, socialization goals and social class; the predictors related to individual characteristics of parents and of children; and the impact of childrearing practices on children's social competence and behavior problems. The studies they review indicate that childrearing practices are linked to the cultural and social context in which families live, including variations inside one country, especially a large one such as Brazil. They discuss the difficulty in identifying childrearing practices most commonly used by mothers and fathers when data from different regions and cultural backgrounds is com‐ pared and report differences related to the mother's cultural background, type of situation, child's age and sex, besides the family´s SES are reported. Regarding predictors of practices involving parents' and children's characteristics, Piccinini et al present evidence of intergen‐ erational transmission, and similarities and differences in mother's and father's childrearing practices according to child's age, illness and birth order. The presence of chronic disease in childhood was also observed as a possible predictor factor of the quality of mother-child interaction.

nent". I believe that this contribution goes beyond that and that it may help us promote

Preface IX

Akinsola´s chapter - Cultural variations in parenting styles in the majority world: Evidences from Nigeria and Cameroon - contributes with further data from African countries, this time about parental styles in Nigeria and Cameroon. She points out that in Nigeria all the three single parenting styles discussed in the literature (authoritarian, authoritative and permis‐ sive) are observed. However, the emphasis is on obedience to authority and compliance with parental instructions. The author explains this tendency as a result of the collectivist, hierarchical and patriarchal model of Nigerian society, with values of respect for elders and authority figures. Parental authority is central and the father is the head of the family. How‐ ever such demands for obedience and compliance with orders are balanced by responsive‐ ness, love, care, sensitivity, reciprocal dialogue, and explanations for parental disciplinary actions. This combination leads Nigerian children to perceive their parents as both authori‐

In this chapter we also learn that Cameroon is a collectivistic society with different ethnic groups and parents present somewhat different cultural models from the Nigerian ones. Al‐ though diversity is observed between ethnic groups, certain values are common, including the importance attributed to learning by example / observation and through play. The pre‐ dominant family pattern in Cameroon is the patrilineal and extended or joint family which is argued to foster interdependence. The author focuses on Nsos who live in the Anglo‐ phone sector of Cameroon. She describes childrearing practices emphasizing relationship. To this group of Cameroonians, good parenting involves parents monitoring, instructing, training, directing and controlling infants' activities. Both the permissive and authoritarian parenting styles are reported. It is discussed that although Nigeria and Cameroon are both collectivistic societies, they present different parenting styles which are effective for each group. Amos points out the importance of the consistency of parenting behaviors in relation to cultural values, and how the positive or negative child development outcome related to a

Costa, Afonso, Santos and Ramos present data about a Brazilian context in their chapter - Parenting in Amazonian riverside context. They studied two families from different com‐ munities. One of them is located at Araraiana's riverside and it is more isolated than the other, which is located near the city of Belém. In the first community, the population has little or no access to written media, television or radio, in the other, city life is available with‐ in 15 minutes by boat. Both Amazonian riverside communities live from the river and smallscale agricultural production. The Survey of Family Routines – SFR, adapted to use of the communities studied, was administered to all members of the participant families with the request that they describe the activities performed in the day previous to the interview, and the routine of the last Sunday. Family activities were described, identifying family tasks and who performs them, as well as the moments of meeting, of close coexistence or isolation. Similarities and differences were found between the two families indicating a more tradi‐

Cavalcante and Magalhães discuss values and beliefs from two generations in their chapter: Socialization goals of mothers and grandmothers of children in institutional shelter situation in the north of Brazil. Their data is also from an Amazonian context, the city of Belém. The authors discuss how in Brazil, nowadays, there are thousands of children in shelter institu‐

tional way of family life and one that shows a transition to an urban model.

child development in general.

tative and authoritarian.

particular parenting style depends on the culture.

According to the authors, results of their studies support evidences from the literature that guidance practice, assertive control and positive parental involvement to social competence, while coercive and permissive practices were found to be related to externalizing problems. The authors highlight the complexity of factors related to parents' childrearing practices and the need for a theoretical model that portrays the dynamic interaction of these factors.

Vieira, Crepaldi, Bossardi, Gomes, Bolze and Piccinini´s chapter - Paternity in the Brazilian context - also present a review of a group of Brazilian studies, but they orient their efforts toward paternity. The authors begin by discussing the changing roles of fathers and mothers in different countries and the concepts concerning to the relation of father with his child, proceeding to review studies on paternity in Brazil. They present data on contemporary family configurations, the participation of the father in the context of pregnancy, birth, and postpartum; the function of fathers; the effect of fathers in children´s development; variables related the exercise of paternity, gender identity; perception and conception of paternal be‐ havior; and specific cases such as paternity and adolescence and fathers of disabled or hos‐ pitalized children. The review is quite thorough and shows that the interest on paternity in Brazilian studies is increasing in the last 13 years. The authors conclude that participation of fathers in the raising of children has been augmenting and that this is altering family dy‐ namics and it is having an effect on children's development. They also point out the need of further studies to characterize the experiences of paternity in some specific situations such as caring for children with special needs; to understand the effect of sex and birth order in Brazilian family organization; and to understand how men perceive their roles as fathers. Other gaps in the literature are pointed out, contributing to future development of this field of studies.

The forth chapter brings some data from African studies - Parenting and culture: evidence from some African communities. Amos explores some of childrearing practices observed in some sub-Saharan countries (Ghana, Nigeria and Liberia) which she argues foster good pa‐ renting and she discusses them in terms of their relevance as perceived by Africans. She re‐ ports the prevalence of extended families and considers this is as a context that fosters the development of a strong sense of security and of social responsibility in the child from his early years. Folktales are another tool of good parenting in the selected countries. Amos gives lovely examples of folktales, transmitted across generations, told to children in pleas‐ ant contexts, helping to share beliefs, values and behavior considered important by the cul‐ tural group. Puberty rites are also considered a good parenting practice. Although variations are observed between countries, those ceremonies are seem as preventing teenage pregnancy, prostitution and the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, besides transmit‐ ting cultural values of responsibility and family care by women. In line of this, the author stresses the role of mothers in African families and the contribution of African cultural child‐ rearing models to healthy child development. She concludes "African culture is rich. We should not neglect it out rightly because it is that which makes us Africans. Let us embrace our good parenting practices so we can nurture responsible youth for the African conti‐ nent". I believe that this contribution goes beyond that and that it may help us promote child development in general.

child's age and sex, besides the family´s SES are reported. Regarding predictors of practices involving parents' and children's characteristics, Piccinini et al present evidence of intergen‐ erational transmission, and similarities and differences in mother's and father's childrearing practices according to child's age, illness and birth order. The presence of chronic disease in childhood was also observed as a possible predictor factor of the quality of mother-child

According to the authors, results of their studies support evidences from the literature that guidance practice, assertive control and positive parental involvement to social competence, while coercive and permissive practices were found to be related to externalizing problems. The authors highlight the complexity of factors related to parents' childrearing practices and the need for a theoretical model that portrays the dynamic interaction of these factors.

Vieira, Crepaldi, Bossardi, Gomes, Bolze and Piccinini´s chapter - Paternity in the Brazilian context - also present a review of a group of Brazilian studies, but they orient their efforts toward paternity. The authors begin by discussing the changing roles of fathers and mothers in different countries and the concepts concerning to the relation of father with his child, proceeding to review studies on paternity in Brazil. They present data on contemporary family configurations, the participation of the father in the context of pregnancy, birth, and postpartum; the function of fathers; the effect of fathers in children´s development; variables related the exercise of paternity, gender identity; perception and conception of paternal be‐ havior; and specific cases such as paternity and adolescence and fathers of disabled or hos‐ pitalized children. The review is quite thorough and shows that the interest on paternity in Brazilian studies is increasing in the last 13 years. The authors conclude that participation of fathers in the raising of children has been augmenting and that this is altering family dy‐ namics and it is having an effect on children's development. They also point out the need of further studies to characterize the experiences of paternity in some specific situations such as caring for children with special needs; to understand the effect of sex and birth order in Brazilian family organization; and to understand how men perceive their roles as fathers. Other gaps in the literature are pointed out, contributing to future development of this field

The forth chapter brings some data from African studies - Parenting and culture: evidence from some African communities. Amos explores some of childrearing practices observed in some sub-Saharan countries (Ghana, Nigeria and Liberia) which she argues foster good pa‐ renting and she discusses them in terms of their relevance as perceived by Africans. She re‐ ports the prevalence of extended families and considers this is as a context that fosters the development of a strong sense of security and of social responsibility in the child from his early years. Folktales are another tool of good parenting in the selected countries. Amos gives lovely examples of folktales, transmitted across generations, told to children in pleas‐ ant contexts, helping to share beliefs, values and behavior considered important by the cul‐ tural group. Puberty rites are also considered a good parenting practice. Although variations are observed between countries, those ceremonies are seem as preventing teenage pregnancy, prostitution and the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, besides transmit‐ ting cultural values of responsibility and family care by women. In line of this, the author stresses the role of mothers in African families and the contribution of African cultural child‐ rearing models to healthy child development. She concludes "African culture is rich. We should not neglect it out rightly because it is that which makes us Africans. Let us embrace our good parenting practices so we can nurture responsible youth for the African conti‐

interaction.

VIII Preface

of studies.

Akinsola´s chapter - Cultural variations in parenting styles in the majority world: Evidences from Nigeria and Cameroon - contributes with further data from African countries, this time about parental styles in Nigeria and Cameroon. She points out that in Nigeria all the three single parenting styles discussed in the literature (authoritarian, authoritative and permis‐ sive) are observed. However, the emphasis is on obedience to authority and compliance with parental instructions. The author explains this tendency as a result of the collectivist, hierarchical and patriarchal model of Nigerian society, with values of respect for elders and authority figures. Parental authority is central and the father is the head of the family. How‐ ever such demands for obedience and compliance with orders are balanced by responsive‐ ness, love, care, sensitivity, reciprocal dialogue, and explanations for parental disciplinary actions. This combination leads Nigerian children to perceive their parents as both authori‐ tative and authoritarian.

In this chapter we also learn that Cameroon is a collectivistic society with different ethnic groups and parents present somewhat different cultural models from the Nigerian ones. Al‐ though diversity is observed between ethnic groups, certain values are common, including the importance attributed to learning by example / observation and through play. The pre‐ dominant family pattern in Cameroon is the patrilineal and extended or joint family which is argued to foster interdependence. The author focuses on Nsos who live in the Anglo‐ phone sector of Cameroon. She describes childrearing practices emphasizing relationship. To this group of Cameroonians, good parenting involves parents monitoring, instructing, training, directing and controlling infants' activities. Both the permissive and authoritarian parenting styles are reported. It is discussed that although Nigeria and Cameroon are both collectivistic societies, they present different parenting styles which are effective for each group. Amos points out the importance of the consistency of parenting behaviors in relation to cultural values, and how the positive or negative child development outcome related to a particular parenting style depends on the culture.

Costa, Afonso, Santos and Ramos present data about a Brazilian context in their chapter - Parenting in Amazonian riverside context. They studied two families from different com‐ munities. One of them is located at Araraiana's riverside and it is more isolated than the other, which is located near the city of Belém. In the first community, the population has little or no access to written media, television or radio, in the other, city life is available with‐ in 15 minutes by boat. Both Amazonian riverside communities live from the river and smallscale agricultural production. The Survey of Family Routines – SFR, adapted to use of the communities studied, was administered to all members of the participant families with the request that they describe the activities performed in the day previous to the interview, and the routine of the last Sunday. Family activities were described, identifying family tasks and who performs them, as well as the moments of meeting, of close coexistence or isolation. Similarities and differences were found between the two families indicating a more tradi‐ tional way of family life and one that shows a transition to an urban model.

Cavalcante and Magalhães discuss values and beliefs from two generations in their chapter: Socialization goals of mothers and grandmothers of children in institutional shelter situation in the north of Brazil. Their data is also from an Amazonian context, the city of Belém. The authors discuss how in Brazil, nowadays, there are thousands of children in shelter institu‐

tions, and many parents do not live in desirable social conditions. They studied socialization goals of a group of mothers and grandmothers of children who are institutionalized. Two open ended questions focusing on the qualities the participants want their children to have in the future and how should they be achieved were used. The results indicate that both mothers and grandmothers mentioned predominantly traces of a socio-centric cultural mod‐ el, valuing characteristics of interdependence and promotion of well being for the collectivi‐ ty. To the second question "What do you think it is necessary for him/her to develop these qualities?" different strategies were mentioned by mothers and grandmothers. The answers were grouped accordingly to the categories: centered in the self, centered in the child, or centered in the context. It was observed a convergence between the strategies mentioned by the two groups. The most cited were the ones in the category centered in the self. Although their children were living in a shelter institution and their ability to protect and educate them was being temporarily questioned from the social and judicial standpoint, according to the child social protection legislation, they still think of themselves as the main responsible for their development. The second category valued is of factors associated to the context. They stress the importance of available resources in the family and social environments, seen as fundamental to achieve their valued socialization goals. Those resources can either attenuate what might be prejudicial for the child, or support networks formed by people and institutions (such as shelters and preschool). The study is important for the develop‐ ment of social policies that promote child development in underprivileged conditions in‐ cluding the empowerment of members of their family.

This set of chapters brings a contribution to the literature on parenting, presenting theoreti‐ cal models that consider the biological and cultural nature of this process and evidence from a sample of countries from the "majority world". We hope that our readers find them useful for the development of more research projects dealing with the populations from countries from this part of the world and inspiring for the construction and implementation of good

[1] Harkness, S. & Super, C. M. Parents´ cultural beliefs systems: their origins, expressions,

[2] Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral

and consequences. Introduction (pp.1-23). New York: The Guilford Press, 1996

**Maria Lucia Seidl de Moura**

Preface XI

University of the State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

intervention programs that promote healthy development of children.

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, December, 9, 2013.

and Brain Sciences, 33, 61-135, 2010.

**References**

The eighth chapter is Emotion, affection and maternal speech in parental care by Mendes and Pessôa. It discusses the role of emotions and affective communication in childrearing of care and the relevance of these components in children development. The authors stress the importance of considering different development trajectories as related to culture. Accord‐ ing to the authors, the literature indicates the role of affective parent-child exchanges in pro‐ moting healthy development. Mothers´ affective speech is also discussed and how it affects language development. The literature is reviewed by the authors, including some studies developed with Brazilian dyads. The chapter brings a contribution in widening the focus on parenting to include emotional aspects besides cognitive ones.

The last chapter - Interventions for enhancing parenting quality in early infancy – by Mu‐ ñoz, Schiró, Blanco and Koller is directed to an important issue: how effective interventions promoting child development can be constructed and implemented. Considering the impor‐ tance of early childhood for building biological and psychological resources aiming at healthy human development, they stress the need for social, economic and political commit‐ ment. The development of social policies has to be based on good theoretical explanations the role of early experiences on subsequent human development and expertise on the crea‐ tion of interventions. The authors argue that those two efforts need to be integrated. They use Bronfenbrenner's proposals about the ecology of development and the proximal proc‐ esses as central in human development, namely by the establishment of emotional attach‐ ment bonds, as a theoretical model. Based on that, they discuss the role of the caregiver as central in interventions to promote healthy child development. Muñoz and colleagues con‐ sider risk contexts in Latin-America and present very interesting and effective intervention programs in Colombia and Brazil: Primeira Infancia Melhor and Formación en Ambiente. Those programs can be the base for further initiatives to promote development in risk and underprivileged contexts.

This set of chapters brings a contribution to the literature on parenting, presenting theoreti‐ cal models that consider the biological and cultural nature of this process and evidence from a sample of countries from the "majority world". We hope that our readers find them useful for the development of more research projects dealing with the populations from countries from this part of the world and inspiring for the construction and implementation of good intervention programs that promote healthy development of children.

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, December, 9, 2013.

#### **Maria Lucia Seidl de Moura**

University of the State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

#### **References**

tions, and many parents do not live in desirable social conditions. They studied socialization goals of a group of mothers and grandmothers of children who are institutionalized. Two open ended questions focusing on the qualities the participants want their children to have in the future and how should they be achieved were used. The results indicate that both mothers and grandmothers mentioned predominantly traces of a socio-centric cultural mod‐ el, valuing characteristics of interdependence and promotion of well being for the collectivi‐ ty. To the second question "What do you think it is necessary for him/her to develop these qualities?" different strategies were mentioned by mothers and grandmothers. The answers were grouped accordingly to the categories: centered in the self, centered in the child, or centered in the context. It was observed a convergence between the strategies mentioned by the two groups. The most cited were the ones in the category centered in the self. Although their children were living in a shelter institution and their ability to protect and educate them was being temporarily questioned from the social and judicial standpoint, according to the child social protection legislation, they still think of themselves as the main responsible for their development. The second category valued is of factors associated to the context. They stress the importance of available resources in the family and social environments, seen as fundamental to achieve their valued socialization goals. Those resources can either attenuate what might be prejudicial for the child, or support networks formed by people and institutions (such as shelters and preschool). The study is important for the develop‐ ment of social policies that promote child development in underprivileged conditions in‐

The eighth chapter is Emotion, affection and maternal speech in parental care by Mendes and Pessôa. It discusses the role of emotions and affective communication in childrearing of care and the relevance of these components in children development. The authors stress the importance of considering different development trajectories as related to culture. Accord‐ ing to the authors, the literature indicates the role of affective parent-child exchanges in pro‐ moting healthy development. Mothers´ affective speech is also discussed and how it affects language development. The literature is reviewed by the authors, including some studies developed with Brazilian dyads. The chapter brings a contribution in widening the focus on

The last chapter - Interventions for enhancing parenting quality in early infancy – by Mu‐ ñoz, Schiró, Blanco and Koller is directed to an important issue: how effective interventions promoting child development can be constructed and implemented. Considering the impor‐ tance of early childhood for building biological and psychological resources aiming at healthy human development, they stress the need for social, economic and political commit‐ ment. The development of social policies has to be based on good theoretical explanations the role of early experiences on subsequent human development and expertise on the crea‐ tion of interventions. The authors argue that those two efforts need to be integrated. They use Bronfenbrenner's proposals about the ecology of development and the proximal proc‐ esses as central in human development, namely by the establishment of emotional attach‐ ment bonds, as a theoretical model. Based on that, they discuss the role of the caregiver as central in interventions to promote healthy child development. Muñoz and colleagues con‐ sider risk contexts in Latin-America and present very interesting and effective intervention programs in Colombia and Brazil: Primeira Infancia Melhor and Formación en Ambiente. Those programs can be the base for further initiatives to promote development in risk and

cluding the empowerment of members of their family.

X Preface

parenting to include emotional aspects besides cognitive ones.

underprivileged contexts.

[1] Harkness, S. & Super, C. M. Parents´ cultural beliefs systems: their origins, expressions, and consequences. Introduction (pp.1-23). New York: The Guilford Press, 1996

[2] Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 61-135, 2010.

**Chapter 1**

**Brazilian Mothers' Cultural Models: Socialization for**

Brazil is the largest South American country, with a population of 190,732,694 inhabitants

12.3% in a decade. Most of the population lives in urban centers (84%) (Brazil, 2012); in the decade of 1960 Brazil had an urbanization index of 44.7% of its population. Two decades later,

**Census Year Urbanization index Population growth Urban growth** 1900 - - - 16.55 % 43.08 % - 26.35 % 33.46 % 37.19 % 36.16 % 25.70 % 72.46 % 45.52 % 35.13 % 70.13 % 56.80 % 32.69 % 65.55 % 68.86 % 27.87 % 55.02 % 73.80 % 26.28 % 35.33 % 81.00 % 12.90 % 31.36 % 84.10 % 12.33 % 13.74 %

, with very distinct regions. There had been a population growth of

© 2013 Seidl-de-Moura et al.; licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Autonomy and Relatedness**

Rafael Vera Cruz de Carvalho and Mauro Luís Vieira

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

67.6% of the population was living in cities (see table 1).

**Table 1.** Data about urbanization in the country

Maria Lucia Seidl-de-Moura,

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57083

**1. Introduction**

living in 8,514,877 km2
