**6. Variables that affect the exercise of paternity**

**5. Impact of paternity on children**

46 Parenting in South American and African Contexts

appropriate social skills.

This category deals with the impact of fathers in children's development and behavior. According to Benczik (Benczik, 2011), the literature indicates that the effective participation of fathers in family life promotes to children safety, self-esteem, emotional stability, and inde‐ pendence. Along these lines, some research in Brazil has shown the implications of fathers in the school context. Cia and Barham (2009), for instance, found a positive relationship between paternal involvement in children's school, cultural and leisure activities, and the academic performance of children in 6th and 7th grades. In one study conducted with parents of children enrolled at the 1st and 2nd grades, the authors found that paternal involvement was associated with low rates of hyperactivity and behavioral problems, and these children displayed more

However, inadequate paternal practices (such as hostile and antisocial behaviors) may have negative consequences for children (Jaffee, Moffitt, Caspi, & Taylor, 2003). One case study conducted with a family exposed to multiple adversities indicates that some aspects may function as protective factors; one of these factors is fathers' sensitivity to their children's needs (Silva, Lacharité, Silva, Lunardi, & Lunardi Filho, 2009). The authors also mention that fathers' accepting support in their roles as children's caregivers and providers emerged from the data as something significant, with a positive impact on both fathers (who felt supported) and

In synthesis, the father is a figure that has an important role to children. However, it is not only the father's presence that will ensure this importance, but the quality of the relationship established between fathers and children. The focus on quality also applies to the relationship mothers establish with children. For example, it has been found that parenting styles perceived by teens as neglectful, indulgent or authoritarian had significant association with drug use (Benchaya, Bisch, Moreira, Ferigolo, & Barros, 2011). When these educational styles are displayed by mothers, the chances for teenagers to use drugs increases in three times. The role performed by fathers, however, does not seem to have the same relevance. For instance,

If paternal involvement has a positive effect on children, one question that arises is what happens when the father is not present. In a literature review with data from Brazil and other countries, authors have indicate that due to current family structure fathers' absence is an increasing reality in families (Eizirik & Bergmann, 2004). This context may have behavioral and emotional implications for children. Thus, the authors conducted a case study and found that fathers' absence can lead to conflicts in children's psychological development. In that specific case, there was evidence of behavioral problems even considering the mother had played an important role in minimizing these problems. In another study, Lopes and Paula (2011) studied two groups of adolescents (one group lived with their fathers, while the other did not). The authors found that half of the sample of the group 1 chose a substitute figure for the father; the other half, in which this has not occurred, there was a strong influence of the maternal figure in their career choice. That is, in the absence of either the father or of a father

children, who meet a safer father in performing his functions.

fathers' authoritative style is not associated with children's drug use.

This category includes research dealing with variables that influence the exercise of paternity. The literature suggests that the characteristics of fathers and children, the family and social environment are factors that can increase or decrease fathers' participation in their children's lives. Three surveys constitute this category. Fathers' occupation is the focus in two of them (Fabiana Cia & Barham, 2008; Souza & Benetti, 2008). These studies investigate the influence of unemployment, as well as working conditions and work shifts (night or day), in the activities performed by fathers. Another survey (Silva & Guzzo, 2007) deals with the situation of incarcerated fathers and their children. Variables such as paternal depression, social-economic conditions (fathers' educational level and income), and family relationships are also investigated.

Results of these three studies agree that the labor factor, as well as paternal educational level, conditions and social environment for family coexistence seem to be associated to paternal involvement. The higher father's educational level and the better his working conditions and income are the greater father's involvement. The existence of a high degree of affection between the father and his wife is also related to great involvement with his children. Living with their children can also affect the quality of paternal relationship. Incarcerated fathers, who maintain contact with their children through visits or letters, refer concerns about the lack of contact with the children, as well as with their children's future.

Although the mentioned studies focus on the determinants or variables that affect fathers' engagement, it is possible to recognize many gaps in the literature regarding paternal engage‐ ment and its determinants. In terms of the variables influencing paternal behavior, it is necessary to emphasizes that the level of paternal commitment results from the dynamic interaction of factors such as fathers' characteristics (experiences from their own childhood, attitudes and beliefs about gender roles, feelings of competence and socio-demographic characteristics), family characteristics (relationship with their wives and mothers' attitudes and behavior towards paternity, including whether mothers encourage or inhibit paternal participation), children's characteristics (gender, age, and temperament) and characteristics of the social environment (life and working conditions, culture, and social policies). The rela‐ tionship with their wives, mothers' perception about the paternal role, maternal encourage‐ ment and facilitation of paternal participation can lead to variations in paternal involvement. Children's characteristics, such as gender, age and temperament can impact the level of paternal involvement. The social environment, such as financial instability and work charac‐ teristics can be associated with paternal behavior as well. It seems that employment instability and low income affect fathers' attitudes with children. Although these evidences were found in several studies, results are inconclusive and often contradictory, which means that new variables should be better investigated.
