**4. Adsorption of dyes**

thetic adsorbents are adsorbents prepared from Agricultural products and wastes, house hold wastes, Industrial wastes, sewage sludge and polymeric adsorbents. Each adsorbent has its own characteristics such as porosity, pore structure and nature of its adsorbing surfa‐ ces. Many waste materials used include fruit wastes, coconut shell, scrap tyres, bark and other tannin-rich materials, sawdust, rice husk, petroleum wastes, fertilizer wastes, fly ash, sugar industry wastes blast furnace slag, chitosan and seafood processing wastes, seaweed

Activated carbons as adsorbent for organic pollutants consists in their adsorption a complex process and there still exists considerable difficulty. The main cause of this difficulty results from the large number of variables involved. These include, for example, electrostatic, dis‐ persive and chemical interactions, intrinsic properties of the solute (for example solubility and ionization constant), intrinsic properties of the adsorbent (such pore size distribution),

Activated carbons (AC) (both granular activated carbon (GAC) and powdered activated car‐ bons (PAC)) are common adsorbents used for the removal of undesirable odor, color, taste, and other organic and inorganic impurities from domestic and industrial waste water owing to their large surface area, micro porous structure nonpolar character and due to its econom‐ ic viability.The major constituent of activated carbon is the carbon that accounts up to 95% of the mass weight In addition, active carbons contain other hetero atoms such as hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. These are derived from the source raw material or become as‐ sociated with the carbon during activation and other preparation procedures [13-14]. Putra et al. [15] investigated the removal of Amoxicillin (antibiotic) from pharmaceutical effluents using bentonite and activated carbon as adsorbents. The study was carried out at several pH values. Langmuir and Freundlich models were then employed to correlate the equilibria da‐ ta on which both models fitted the data equally well. While chemisorption is the dominant adsorption mechanism on the bentonite, both physicosorption and chemisorption played an

Adsorption of methane on granular activated carbon (GAC) was studied. The results showed that with decreasing temperature or increasing methane uptake by GAC the adsorption effica‐ cy decreased. Interactions between the methane molecules and the surface of carbon increase the density of adsorbed methane in respect to the density of compressed gas. The effect that the porosity and the surface chemistry of the activated carbons have on the adsorption of two VOC (benzene and toluene) at low concentration (200 ppm) was also studied. The results show that the volume of narrow micropores (size <0.7 nm) seems to govern the adsorption of VOC at low concentration, specially for benzene adsorption. AC with low content in oxygen surface groups has the best adsorption capacities. Among the AC tested, those prepared by chemical activation with hydroxides exhibit the higher adsorption capacities for VOC. The adsorption capacities achieved are higher than those previously shown in the literature for these conditions, especial‐ ly for toluene. Adsorption capacities as high as 34 g benzene/100 g AC or 64 g toluene/100 g AC

and algae, peat moss, clays, red mud, zeolites, sediment and soil, ore minerals etc.

solution properties (in particular, pH) and the temperature of the system [12].

important role for adsorption onto activated carbon.

170 Organic Pollutants - Monitoring, Risk and Treatment

have been achieved [16].

Adsorption techniques are used as high quality treatment processes for the removal of dis‐ solved organic pollutants, such as dyes, from industrial wastewater. Dyes consider as type of organic pollutants. The textile, pulp and paper industries are reported to utilize large quantities of a number of dyes, these pollutant may be found in wastewaters of many industries generat‐ ing considerable amounts of colored wastewaters, toxic and even carcinogenic, posing serious hazard to aquatic living organisms. Dyes represent one of the problematic groups; they are emitted into wastewater from various industrial branches, mainly from the dye manufacturing and textile finishing and also from food coloring, cosmetics, paper and carpet industries. It is well known that the dye effluents from dyestuff manufacturing and textile industries, may ex‐ hibit toxic effects on microbial populations and can be toxic and/or carcinogenic to mammalian animal. Most dyes used in textile industries are stable to light and are not biologically degrada‐ ble. Furthermore, they are resistant to aerobic digestion. [17].

On searching for economical and available starting materials; different low cost adsorbents were used for the removal of dyes. Activated rice husk was used as cheap adsorbent for col‐ or removal from wastewater [18]. Hamdaoui [19] reported that the maximum adsorption of basic dye, methylene blue, onto cedar sawdust and crushed brick was 60 and 40 mg L-1, re‐ spectively. Wood-shaving bottom ash (WBA) was used for the removal of Red Reactive 141 (RR141), and azo reactive dyes. WBA/H2O and WBA/H2SO4 adsorbents were made by treat‐ ing WBA with water and 0.1 M H2SO4, respectively; to increase adsorption capacity. The ef‐ fects of different parameters on adsorption ( effect of contact time, initial pH of solution, dissolved metals and elution ) were studied.The maximum dye adsorption capacities of WBA/H2O and WBA/H2SO4 obtained from a Langmuir model at 30 <sup>o</sup> C were 24.3, 29.9, and 41.5 mg l-1, respectively. In addition, WBA/H2O and WBA/H2SO4 could reduce colour and high chemical oxygen demand (COD) of real textile wastewater [20]. Beer brewery waste has been shown to be a low-cost adsorbent for the removal of methylene blue dye from the aqueous solution. The results of preliminary adsorption kinetics showed that the diatomite waste could be directly used as a potential adsorbent for removal of methylene blue on the basis of its adsorption–biosorption mechanisms [21].

Sewage sludge was applied for the preparation of activated carbon adsorbent. Activated car‐ bon adsorbent prepared from sewage sludge has being identified as a potentially attractive material for wastewater. Research studies has been conducted to demonstrate the uses of treated sewage sludge for the removal of dyes from wastewater and polluted water [22-27]. Otero et al. [27] produced activated carbon by chemically activation and pyrolysis of sewage sludge. The properties of this type of material was studied by liquid-phase adsorption using crystal violet, indigo carmine and phenol as adsorbates. Three prepared activated carbon,of different particle sizes, were used ASS-g1 (particle diameter<0.12 mm), ASS-g2 (0.12<particle diameter<0.5 mm) and PSS-g2(0.12<particle diameter<0.5 mm). Crystal violet dye adsorption has been higher (Qmax 263.2 mg/g using AAS, 270 mg/g using ASS and 184 mg/g using PPS) than indigo carmine (Qmax 60.04 mg/g using AAS, 54.8 mg/g using ASS and 30.8 mg/g using PPS). They proposed that activated carbons made from sewage sludge show promise for the removal of organic pollutants from aqueous streams.

**Dye Adsorbent Adsorption capacity Reference**

Adsorption Technique for the Removal of Organic Pollutants from Water and Wastewater

The utilization of fly ash in removing dyes from textile wastewater was investigated. A cal‐ cium-rich fly ash had been used as adsorbent for the removal of Congo red dye under differ‐ ent conditions. It was observed that the maximum adsorption obtained was between 93% and 98%. under the studies conditions [28]. Wang et al. [29] had reported the use of treated and non-treated fly ash for the removal of methylene blue and basic dye from a wastewater solution. The adsorption capacity for acid treated fly ash was found to be 2.4 x 10-5 mol/g, while non-treated fly ash showed an adsorption capacity of 1.4 x 10-5 mol/g. Wang et al. [30] in another investigation also found that the porous unburned carbon in the fly ash was re‐ sponsible for the adsorption of the dye, and not the fly ash itself. Table (1) shows selected

Since 1860, phenol has been in production, with its basic use as an antiseptic. During late 19th century and thereafter the use of phenol has been further extended to the synthesis of dyes, aspirin, plastics, pharmaceuticals, petrochemical and pesticide chemical industries. In fact, by 2001, the global phenol production has reached an impressive 7.8 million tons [44].

Among the different organic pollutants in wastewater, phenols are considered as priority pollutants since they are harmful to plants, animals and human, even at low concentrations. The major sources of phenolic are steel mills, petroleum refineries, pharmaceuticals,petro‐ chemical, coke oven plants, paints,coal gas, synthetic resins, plywood industries and mine discharge. The wastewater with the highest concentration of phenol (>1000 mg/L) is typical‐ ly generated from coke processing. Phonolic compounds are also emanated from resin plants with a concentration range of 12–300 mg/L. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has set a limit of 0.1 mg/L of phenol in wastewater. The World Health Organization (WHO) is stricter on phenol regulation. It sets a 0.001 mg/L as the limit of phenol concentration in

Adsorption of phenolic compounds from aqueous solutions by activated carbon is one of the most investigated of all liquid-phase applications of carbon adsorbents [45]. Several ad‐

890mg/g [41]

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54048

173

90.9 mg/g [42]

243.9 mg/g [43]

Methylene Blue activated carbon from

Methylene Blue activated carbon from from

Methylene Blue activated carbon from Oil

**Table 1.** Selected adsorbents used for dyes removal from polluted water

adsorbent used for dyes removal from polluted water

**5. Adsorption of phenols**

potable water.

flamboyant pods (Delonix regia)

Oil palm wood-based

palm shell-based



**Table 1.** Selected adsorbents used for dyes removal from polluted water

The utilization of fly ash in removing dyes from textile wastewater was investigated. A cal‐ cium-rich fly ash had been used as adsorbent for the removal of Congo red dye under differ‐ ent conditions. It was observed that the maximum adsorption obtained was between 93% and 98%. under the studies conditions [28]. Wang et al. [29] had reported the use of treated and non-treated fly ash for the removal of methylene blue and basic dye from a wastewater solution. The adsorption capacity for acid treated fly ash was found to be 2.4 x 10-5 mol/g, while non-treated fly ash showed an adsorption capacity of 1.4 x 10-5 mol/g. Wang et al. [30] in another investigation also found that the porous unburned carbon in the fly ash was re‐ sponsible for the adsorption of the dye, and not the fly ash itself. Table (1) shows selected adsorbent used for dyes removal from polluted water
