**Oxidation and Antioxidants in Fish and Meat from Farm to Fork**

## Sabine Sampels

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53169

## **1. Introduction**

Both in meat and especially in fish there is a high risk of quality loss due to oxidation [1, 2]. Lip‐ id oxidation in meat and fish-products leads to rancid taste and off flavor and development of many different substances from which some have even adverse effects to human health e.g. [3]. Oxidation limits storage time and thereby also affects marketing and distribution of both fish and meat products. Especially fish, being rich in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) is sus‐ ceptible to peroxidation of PUFA resulting in restriction of storage and processing possibili‐ ties [4]. Furthermore, peroxidative products, particularly aldehydes, can react with specific amino acids to form carbonyls [5] and protein aggregates [6], causing additional nutritional losses. In red meat and also in red fish like salmon oxidation will not only deteriorate the lip‐ ids, but also the color [7, 8] and thereby affect visual consumer acceptability.

The addition of antioxidants is therefore necessary to increase storage stability, sensory quality and nutritional value of animal products [9, 10]. Due to the positive health effects of long chain n-3 PUFA, there is an increased interest to produce fish and meat products rich in n-3 PUFA [11]. Increasing the amount of easily oxidized PUFA in animal products however will also require a higher content of antioxidants in the end-product to protect the nutrition‐ al valuable fatty acids (FA). The importance of a well-balanced combination of PUFA and antioxidants, both for product stability and human nutrition, was also emphasized by [12]. Beside the traditionally used antioxidants in meat and fish also a wide variation of herbs, spices and fruits are used more and more as additives with antioxidative capacity [13-17]. In the recent years a lot of research has been carried out evaluating these natural substances as antioxidative additives in food products leading to novel combinations of antioxidants and the development of novel food products [17-20]. The high antioxidant capacity of these plant parts is particularly due to their content of different phenols, anthocyanins and ascorbic acid, which can act as radical scavengers [21].

© 2013 Sampels; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

In addition to their antioxidative capacity, many of this natural substances have positive ef‐ fects in the human body and documented health benefits and are therefore highly appreciat‐ ed food additives [22-27]. So a combination of foods rich in omega 3 PUFA and plant substances rich in phenols and anthocyanins might result in nutritionally very valuable nov‐ el food products. These products could play and important role in the prevention of specific chronic-health problems beside dietary supplements where PUFA, probiotics and superfruits are achieving particular interest in the recent time [23, 28]. Finally nutritionally dense meals may be of interest and importance for people with particularly high nutritional de‐ mands, e.g. suffering from malnutrition [29].

the number of carbon atoms in the chain, Y the number of double bonds and z the number

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The n stands in spoken language for omega so a FA with the last double bond at the third carbon atom from the methyl end is an omega 3 FA while the one with the last double bond at the sixth carbon atom from the methyl group is an omega 6 FA and so on. A very good in depth review about the classification and chemistry of FA and also about their biological

The reactivity of unsaturated FA increases with their chain length and number of double bounds [37, 38]. Beside the number of double bonds also the placing of the double bonds and the form of the FA determine their oxidative reactivity. In general the n-3 FA are more prone to oxidation than the n-6 and those are more prone to oxidation than the n-9 FA [38].

In animal tissues the lipids are usually divided into two main classes: polar lipids (PL) and neutral lipids (NL). NL consist mainly of triacylglycerols (TAG) which are three FA bound to a glycerol molecule, and minor amounts of mono- and diacylglycerols, whereas PL in‐ clude mainly phospholipids which are diacylglycerols including a phosphatic acid derivate [39]. TAG serve mainly as an energy source, whereas phospholipids are mainly constituents of the cell and organelle membranes being essential for their functionality and fluidity [39-41]. Phospholipids are in general more unsaturated due to their functionality and there‐ fore also more prone to oxidation. In addition free FA (FFA) can occur in raw or processed tissues due to enzymatic breakdown of acylglycerols or phospholipids. The reactivity to oxi‐

The complicated thing about oxidation is that once it started a cascade of reactions will oc‐ cur with each new molecule increasing the reaction speed and variability (Fig. 2). The kinet‐

of the last carbon atom with a double bond counted from the methyl end (see Fig. 1).

**Figure 1.** Linolenic acid, 18:3 n-3

functions has been done by [35, 36].

**2.2. Reactivity of lipids to oxidation**

dation is in general TAG>phospholipids>FFA.

For animal foods there are always two possible ways to include antioxidants: Via the feed or post mortem during the processing. Depending on the type of antioxidant, the one or the other way will be more effective. In general fat soluble antioxidants like tocopherol are more effective when present in the feed, while water soluble ones like vitamin C are more effec‐ tive when added during processing [30, 31]. In addition there are synergistic effects between different antioxidants as for example shown for tocopherol and ascorbic acid [32] so a good combination of all available tools might be able to boost antioxidative protection for certain products.

The present chapter will give an overview of the main used and tested antioxidants, syner‐ gistic effects and the possible increased nutritional value. Feeding effects as well as a varia‐ tion of processing and preserving methods for animal products from both very traditional and most recent techniques will be presented and their influence on oxidative stability will be elucidated.

## **2. General effects of lipid oxidation in meat and fish**

Lipid oxidation is omnipresent in meat and fish and their products. Especially in products with a high amount of unsaturated FA, oxidation leads to rancidity, off-flavour and taste and to the formulation of toxic substances [2, 33, 34]. In the food industry a great deal of research and attention is spend on the on-going oxidative processes. The main aim is always to protect the raw material and the products as good as possible from oxidation through the whole process and during storage.

### **2.1. Short introduction to lipids**

In order to get a whole picture about lipid oxidation, it is important to know some basics about lipids and FA. FA consist of carbon chains with a methyl (CH3) group at one end and a carboxyl (COOH) group at the other. The C atoms in the chain can either be saturated or unsaturated meaning they form double bonds between each other. The FA which do not have double bonds are called saturated FA (SFA), those having one double bond are called monounsaturated FA (MUFA) and those with two or more double bonds are called polyun‐ saturated FA (PUFA) (Fig. 1). The FA are generally named in the scheme X:Y n-z where X is the number of carbon atoms in the chain, Y the number of double bonds and z the number of the last carbon atom with a double bond counted from the methyl end (see Fig. 1).

**Figure 1.** Linolenic acid, 18:3 n-3

In addition to their antioxidative capacity, many of this natural substances have positive ef‐ fects in the human body and documented health benefits and are therefore highly appreciat‐ ed food additives [22-27]. So a combination of foods rich in omega 3 PUFA and plant substances rich in phenols and anthocyanins might result in nutritionally very valuable nov‐ el food products. These products could play and important role in the prevention of specific chronic-health problems beside dietary supplements where PUFA, probiotics and superfruits are achieving particular interest in the recent time [23, 28]. Finally nutritionally dense meals may be of interest and importance for people with particularly high nutritional de‐

For animal foods there are always two possible ways to include antioxidants: Via the feed or post mortem during the processing. Depending on the type of antioxidant, the one or the other way will be more effective. In general fat soluble antioxidants like tocopherol are more effective when present in the feed, while water soluble ones like vitamin C are more effec‐ tive when added during processing [30, 31]. In addition there are synergistic effects between different antioxidants as for example shown for tocopherol and ascorbic acid [32] so a good combination of all available tools might be able to boost antioxidative protection for certain

The present chapter will give an overview of the main used and tested antioxidants, syner‐ gistic effects and the possible increased nutritional value. Feeding effects as well as a varia‐ tion of processing and preserving methods for animal products from both very traditional and most recent techniques will be presented and their influence on oxidative stability will

Lipid oxidation is omnipresent in meat and fish and their products. Especially in products with a high amount of unsaturated FA, oxidation leads to rancidity, off-flavour and taste and to the formulation of toxic substances [2, 33, 34]. In the food industry a great deal of research and attention is spend on the on-going oxidative processes. The main aim is always to protect the raw material and the products as good as possible from oxidation through the

In order to get a whole picture about lipid oxidation, it is important to know some basics about lipids and FA. FA consist of carbon chains with a methyl (CH3) group at one end and a carboxyl (COOH) group at the other. The C atoms in the chain can either be saturated or unsaturated meaning they form double bonds between each other. The FA which do not have double bonds are called saturated FA (SFA), those having one double bond are called monounsaturated FA (MUFA) and those with two or more double bonds are called polyun‐ saturated FA (PUFA) (Fig. 1). The FA are generally named in the scheme X:Y n-z where X is

**2. General effects of lipid oxidation in meat and fish**

mands, e.g. suffering from malnutrition [29].

products.

116 Food Industry

be elucidated.

whole process and during storage.

**2.1. Short introduction to lipids**

The n stands in spoken language for omega so a FA with the last double bond at the third carbon atom from the methyl end is an omega 3 FA while the one with the last double bond at the sixth carbon atom from the methyl group is an omega 6 FA and so on. A very good in depth review about the classification and chemistry of FA and also about their biological functions has been done by [35, 36].

#### **2.2. Reactivity of lipids to oxidation**

The reactivity of unsaturated FA increases with their chain length and number of double bounds [37, 38]. Beside the number of double bonds also the placing of the double bonds and the form of the FA determine their oxidative reactivity. In general the n-3 FA are more prone to oxidation than the n-6 and those are more prone to oxidation than the n-9 FA [38].

In animal tissues the lipids are usually divided into two main classes: polar lipids (PL) and neutral lipids (NL). NL consist mainly of triacylglycerols (TAG) which are three FA bound to a glycerol molecule, and minor amounts of mono- and diacylglycerols, whereas PL in‐ clude mainly phospholipids which are diacylglycerols including a phosphatic acid derivate [39]. TAG serve mainly as an energy source, whereas phospholipids are mainly constituents of the cell and organelle membranes being essential for their functionality and fluidity [39-41]. Phospholipids are in general more unsaturated due to their functionality and there‐ fore also more prone to oxidation. In addition free FA (FFA) can occur in raw or processed tissues due to enzymatic breakdown of acylglycerols or phospholipids. The reactivity to oxi‐ dation is in general TAG>phospholipids>FFA.

The complicated thing about oxidation is that once it started a cascade of reactions will oc‐ cur with each new molecule increasing the reaction speed and variability (Fig. 2). The kinet‐ ics of oxidation in meat and meat products are described by [38] and [42]. Oxidation leads to the formation of lipid radicals (L.) that react further to lipid peroxides (LOO. ) and hydroper‐ oxides (LOOH). Auto oxidation in meat and fish can be initiated by light, heat, presence of metal ions and radicals. Very low concentrations of radicals are needed to start the reaction. Once initiated, oxidation propagates in a chain reaction (steps 2-6). In the termination reac‐ tions, lipid peroxides (LOO. ) will react freely, forming a wide range of more stable products including aldehydes, alkanes and conjugated diens.

$$\text{Inition} \quad \text{LH} + \text{Initiator} \to \text{L} \tag{1}$$

**•** Volatile lipid oxidation products by Headspace GC-MS: During the last decade also more advanced methods have been used more and more for evaluation of oxidation. Content of Hexanal and other volatiles has been shown to give a quite good picture of oxidation sta‐ tus and mechanisms [45, 46]. However as these measurement are quite time consuming

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**•** Free fatty acids: The amount of free FA (FFA) is actually a value for lipolysis. But as the FFA are oxidised faster than bound FA, they can be regarded as a measurement for in‐

and expensive they are still not used routinely.

creased oxidative reactivity of the muscle or product.

**Figure 2.** Hypothetical autoxidation of a polyunsaturated lipid as a function of time [47]

Antioxidants can be introduced into the muscle by different means. Coming first in the nat‐ ural chain from farm to fork would be to add the antioxidants via the feed. Also in the feed antioxidants are needed, to stabilize the lipids in the feed during storage, especially true is

The main used antioxidant in feeds is the fat soluble Vitamin E, normally added in the form of tocopherol acetate. Vitamin E is a generic name for all substances that have the biological function of α-tocopherol. These include the tocopherols with a saturated phytyl side-chain, (Fig. 3) and tocotrienols with an unsaturated isoprenoid side-chain, substituted to a chro‐ man head. The different forms of tocopherols and tocotrienols are specified by the use of the Greek letters α, β, γ and δ, to denote the number and position of methyl groups linked to the

**3. Antioxidants in feeds**

chroman head [48].

that for fish feed with high contents of PUFA.

$$\text{Propagation} \quad \text{L} \vdash \text{O}\_2 \rightarrow \text{LCO} \tag{2}$$

$$\text{H}\_{\cdot} + \text{LH} \rightarrow \text{LCOH} + \text{L} \tag{3}$$

$$\text{Termination} \quad \text{LOO} + \text{LOOnon-radial products} \tag{4}$$

$$1.\,\text{+LOron-radial products}\tag{5}$$

$$\text{LCO}^{\text{+L}}\text{ products}\tag{6}$$

In meat and muscle there are different possibilities to measure the degree of oxidation. The most used ones are listed very briefly here to facilitate the understanding of oxidation pa‐ rameters used in this chapter:


**Figure 2.** Hypothetical autoxidation of a polyunsaturated lipid as a function of time [47]

## **3. Antioxidants in feeds**

ics of oxidation in meat and meat products are described by [38] and [42]. Oxidation leads to

oxides (LOOH). Auto oxidation in meat and fish can be initiated by light, heat, presence of metal ions and radicals. Very low concentrations of radicals are needed to start the reaction. Once initiated, oxidation propagates in a chain reaction (steps 2-6). In the termination reac‐

.

In meat and muscle there are different possibilities to measure the degree of oxidation. The most used ones are listed very briefly here to facilitate the understanding of oxidation pa‐

**•** The peroxide value: determines the amount of hydroperoxides, which are among the pri‐ mary products. However, as the peroxides are not stable and react further the results have to be evaluated carefully as, with on-going oxidation the peroxides first increase and reach a maximum but after a while the reaction speed towards secondary oxidation prod‐

**•** TBARS: Another very frequently method is the measurement of thiobarbituric reactive substances (TBARS). Thiobarbituricacid (TBA) reacts with malondialdehyd a secondary oxidation product from PUFA with 3 or more double bonds to a pink complex that can be measured at 532 nm. However the problem with that method is, that other substances al‐ so form coloured complexes with TBA and might result in wrong estimation of the oxida‐

**•** Iodine value: A very traditional method which is still used sometimes to measure the io‐ dine value as a number for the amount of lipid double bonds and the decrease of that

ucts is faster and the peroxide value decreases again [43].

number over time as a sign for oxidation.

) will react freely, forming a wide range of more stable products

Initiation LH + Initiator L ® (1)

<sup>2</sup> Propagation L + O LOO ® (2)

. . Termination LOO + LOO non-radical products (4)

. . + LH LOOH + L ® (3)

. . + LO non-radical products (5)

. + L. LOO products (6)

) and hydroper‐

the formation of lipid radicals (L.) that react further to lipid peroxides (LOO.

tions, lipid peroxides (LOO.

118 Food Industry

rameters used in this chapter:

tion status [44].

including aldehydes, alkanes and conjugated diens.

Antioxidants can be introduced into the muscle by different means. Coming first in the nat‐ ural chain from farm to fork would be to add the antioxidants via the feed. Also in the feed antioxidants are needed, to stabilize the lipids in the feed during storage, especially true is that for fish feed with high contents of PUFA.

The main used antioxidant in feeds is the fat soluble Vitamin E, normally added in the form of tocopherol acetate. Vitamin E is a generic name for all substances that have the biological function of α-tocopherol. These include the tocopherols with a saturated phytyl side-chain, (Fig. 3) and tocotrienols with an unsaturated isoprenoid side-chain, substituted to a chro‐ man head. The different forms of tocopherols and tocotrienols are specified by the use of the Greek letters α, β, γ and δ, to denote the number and position of methyl groups linked to the chroman head [48].

Squalene is triterpene (30 C atoms) (Fig.7) that is present in plants and animal tissues as a key intermediate in the biosynthetic pathway to steroids. It has similar to the carotenoids conjugated double bonds and can hence build stable radicals and has been investigated as possible antioxidant [50]. Significant amounts of squalene in plant sources are detected in e.g. olive oil, wheat germ oil, bran oil and yeast [51] as well as in *Amaranthus* grain and

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As mentioned before, there is also a growing interest to use novel sources of natural antioxi‐ dants for feeds, as for example from diverse vegetables [53, 54] or spices [55] or from more exotic sources as algae and lichen [56, 57]. [56] showed for example that feeding chicken with microalgae did not only increase muscle content of the long chain omega 3 FA docosa‐ hexaenoic acid, but also increased content of carotenoids and squalene. [58] supplemented pigs with cranberry powder and found both pro- and anti-oxidative effects, most possibly

Moreover, there are also always interactions between different nutrients [59-61], which have to be taken into consideration when planning how to achieve antioxidative protec‐ tion of animal foods. For example did high dietary lipid increase also muscle astaxanthin accumulation in salmon (*Salmo salar*) [60]. Astaxanthin is a carotenoid that gives the pink colour to salmon muscle but can also act as an antioxidant. In another study [48] showed that dietary intake of sesamin increased uptake of α-tocopherol in rats, which suggests that it is possible to increase the bioavailability of antioxidants through feed composi‐ tion. However, if this mechanism is also valid for fish and other mammals, remains to be

Concerning the oxidation occurring in the feeds during storage [62] showed that ascorbic

Also for the nutritional status of the animals the dietary added antioxidants are of impor‐ tance. [63] was able to increase the survival of juvenile angelfish (*Pterophylum scalare*) with a combination of supplemented tocopherol and ascorbic acid in comparison to only tocopherol in the feed. Low dietary vitamin C content has shown to increase require‐ ment of vitamin E in juvenile salmon [64], suggesting that the deficiency of one antioxi‐ dant will lead to the increased use of the available ones. However, bioavailability, efficiency and interactions with other substances might vary between different species as

acid could protect vitamin E from oxidation in the diet for hybrid tilapia.

*Ecchium* plants [52].

**Figure 7.** Structure of squalene

investigated.

summarized by [63].

depending on muscle origin and later processing.

**Figure 3.** Structure of α-tocopherol

The water soluble vitamin C, ascorbic acid is another antioxidant used in feeds (Fig. 4). However studies have shown that in the live animal tocopherol shows a greater effect, while ascorbic acid works better added post mortem [30, 31].

**Figure 4.** Structure of ascorbic acid

A third group of natural occurring antioxidants are the also fat soluble carotenoids, the pre‐ cursors of retinol (vitamin A). They are for example found in corn. Carotenoids are hydro‐ carbons built from eight isoprene bodies (40 C atoms) (Fig. 5). Due to their structure and the conjugated double bonds, both vitamin E and the carotenoids, are radical scavengers that can build relatively stable radicals. In addition, carotenoids, tocopherols and tocotrienols are quenchers for singlet oxygen.

**Figure 5.** Structure of α-carotene

Carnosine (Fig. 6), a dipeptide, occurring in skeletal muscle which has also been tested as potential antioxidant, however added post mortem [49]. For example [30] suggested using a combination of feed additives and post mortem added antioxidants as for example a feed supplementation with a-tocopheryl acetate and post mortem applied carnosine.

**Figure 6.** Structure of carnosine

Squalene is triterpene (30 C atoms) (Fig.7) that is present in plants and animal tissues as a key intermediate in the biosynthetic pathway to steroids. It has similar to the carotenoids conjugated double bonds and can hence build stable radicals and has been investigated as possible antioxidant [50]. Significant amounts of squalene in plant sources are detected in e.g. olive oil, wheat germ oil, bran oil and yeast [51] as well as in *Amaranthus* grain and *Ecchium* plants [52].

**Figure 7.** Structure of squalene

**Figure 3.** Structure of α-tocopherol

120 Food Industry

**Figure 4.** Structure of ascorbic acid

quenchers for singlet oxygen.

**Figure 5.** Structure of α-carotene

**Figure 6.** Structure of carnosine

ascorbic acid works better added post mortem [30, 31].

The water soluble vitamin C, ascorbic acid is another antioxidant used in feeds (Fig. 4). However studies have shown that in the live animal tocopherol shows a greater effect, while

A third group of natural occurring antioxidants are the also fat soluble carotenoids, the pre‐ cursors of retinol (vitamin A). They are for example found in corn. Carotenoids are hydro‐ carbons built from eight isoprene bodies (40 C atoms) (Fig. 5). Due to their structure and the conjugated double bonds, both vitamin E and the carotenoids, are radical scavengers that can build relatively stable radicals. In addition, carotenoids, tocopherols and tocotrienols are

Carnosine (Fig. 6), a dipeptide, occurring in skeletal muscle which has also been tested as potential antioxidant, however added post mortem [49]. For example [30] suggested using a combination of feed additives and post mortem added antioxidants as for example a feed

supplementation with a-tocopheryl acetate and post mortem applied carnosine.

As mentioned before, there is also a growing interest to use novel sources of natural antioxi‐ dants for feeds, as for example from diverse vegetables [53, 54] or spices [55] or from more exotic sources as algae and lichen [56, 57]. [56] showed for example that feeding chicken with microalgae did not only increase muscle content of the long chain omega 3 FA docosa‐ hexaenoic acid, but also increased content of carotenoids and squalene. [58] supplemented pigs with cranberry powder and found both pro- and anti-oxidative effects, most possibly depending on muscle origin and later processing.

Moreover, there are also always interactions between different nutrients [59-61], which have to be taken into consideration when planning how to achieve antioxidative protec‐ tion of animal foods. For example did high dietary lipid increase also muscle astaxanthin accumulation in salmon (*Salmo salar*) [60]. Astaxanthin is a carotenoid that gives the pink colour to salmon muscle but can also act as an antioxidant. In another study [48] showed that dietary intake of sesamin increased uptake of α-tocopherol in rats, which suggests that it is possible to increase the bioavailability of antioxidants through feed composi‐ tion. However, if this mechanism is also valid for fish and other mammals, remains to be investigated.

Concerning the oxidation occurring in the feeds during storage [62] showed that ascorbic acid could protect vitamin E from oxidation in the diet for hybrid tilapia.

Also for the nutritional status of the animals the dietary added antioxidants are of impor‐ tance. [63] was able to increase the survival of juvenile angelfish (*Pterophylum scalare*) with a combination of supplemented tocopherol and ascorbic acid in comparison to only tocopherol in the feed. Low dietary vitamin C content has shown to increase require‐ ment of vitamin E in juvenile salmon [64], suggesting that the deficiency of one antioxi‐ dant will lead to the increased use of the available ones. However, bioavailability, efficiency and interactions with other substances might vary between different species as summarized by [63].

## **4. Antioxidants added during processing/effect of processing techniques**

Fresh fish is usually transported and sold on flaked ice, keeping the temperature slightly above 0°C; more recently also ice slurries have been used [2, 73]. To make these ice slurries even more effective different additives to fish as well as to the ice slurry have been used. Examples are natural antioxidants, ozone or organic acid mixtures. [73] evaluated the effect of organic acids mixed into the ice slurry on lipid oxidation and found slightly decreased oxidation. On the other hand [74] showed a significant decrease of lipid oxidation when fish was stored in ice made with water extracts from rosemary or oregano. [2] gives a good re‐ view on different additives to slurry ice and summarizes among others that addition of ozone declined microbial spoilage and did not increase oxidation. Addition of antioxidants

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Super chilling or deep chilling means in general to chill the products to a temperature close to or just below the initial freezing point, which is for the most food products between -0.5 and – 2.8 °C (reviewed by [75]). In regard to lipid oxidation it is important that there are no ice crystals formed, as they can destroy organelle membranes and thereby release enzymes and enhance oxidation potential [76]. This technique is used for example for deer meat ex‐ ported from New Zealand to Europe. The international trading demands new techniques to provide longer storage times. Due to long transport distances and high export quantities, deer meat from New Zealand is stored in vacuum packages and deep chilled to -1.5 °C, and can be considered as fresh meat up to 14 weeks after slaughter [77]. The low temperatures, combined with vacuum, retard bacterial growth, lipid oxidation and color deterioration. There is not done much work on lipid oxidation during deep chilling, however [75] suggest‐ ed that the improved shelf life and quality reported from deep chilled foods is also indirect

Also in fish and seafood deep chilling has been applied successfully and shown to retard mi‐ crobial growth and extend shelf life of for example prawn (*Penaeus japonicas*) [78] salmon and cod (*Gadus morhua*) [79, 80], however without investigating the effects on lipid oxidation.

Frozen storage has since long been a method considered sufficient to preserve meat over longer time periods [81], however freezing can also negatively influence structural and chemical properties of meat, e.g. increase content of FFA and lipid oxidation products [82, 83]. [83] reviews some aspects related to lipid oxidation during and after freezing and de‐ scribes the amount of unfrozen water as one important factor for primary oxidation. The amount of unfrozen water depends on the freezing temperature and in line with that an op‐ timum freezing temperature for meats of -40°C has been suggested by [84]. At this tempera‐ ture only a minor fraction of the water is unfrozen. In agreement with that [85] showed a significant increase of lipid oxidation products in pork stored at -18°C. Besides the tempera‐ ture, the formation of ice crystals during freezing is a critical point [76] and the larger ice crystals are formed the higher is the risk of membrane disruption and increased oxidation.

directly to the fish will be discussed further on in this chapter.

*4.2.2. Super chilling or deep chilling*

resulted by a reduction of lipid deterioration.

*4.2.3. Freezing*

### **4.1. Oxidation factors in muscle and product**

#### *4.1.1. Metals*

Oils and animal foods always contain a small amount of metals which are too difficult to remove, as for example iron from myoglobin, hemoglobin and the iron storage protein ferri‐ tin, or copper, zinc and heavy metals that are present in enzymes and metalloproteins [40, 65]. Another source of metals in animal food products are the machines used during proc‐ essing, from which minor amounts of iron can get into the products either by abrasion or due to acidic dissolving of metals from the surface. A third source can be migration of met‐ als from the packaging. These metals are present in so low amounts that they do not have a physiological effect; however, they can have pro oxidative effects [66].

### *4.1.2. Salt*

Salt is used for the preservation of meat and fish. Due to its water activity lowering effect and the withdrawl of free water, salt decreases the solubility of oxygen as well as the activi‐ ty of enzymes and bacteria. In addition chloride ions are also toxic to certain microorgan‐ isms. However it is also a pro-oxidant [67].

#### *4.1.3. Oxygen, light and temperature*

The more and longer a product is exposed to light and oxygen, the higher is the risk and speed of oxidation. When fish or meat is cut into pieces or minced, the surface is substantial‐ ly increased and thereby the accessibility for oxygen. As light and increased temperature en‐ hance oxidation [40, 68], during processing temperature and the processing time should be kept as low and short as possible respectively.

#### **4.2. Different preservation and processing techniques:**

Various processes including cooling, salting, drying, smoking and heating have been used for a long time to preserve meat and fish and to obtain a variety of products with characteristic or‐ ganoleptic characteristic [2, 69, 70] Processing is a primarily way to preserve meat, but also adds to its value. However, different processing steps can also negatively affect meat quality, and change for example lipid quality traits. Heating of meat and meat products e.g. hot smok‐ ing, can disrupt the cell membranes and promote lipid oxidation [71], which affects the nutri‐ tional and sensory properties of the meat product. Use of antioxidants during processing or alternative more gentle processing methods can reduce these negative effects.

#### *4.2.1. Chilling or cooling*

Fresh meat is sold chilled at a temperature of about +4 °C. Preservation of meat quality is an im‐ portant criterion for its shelf life, since raw, chilled meat has traditionally been a perishable product [1, 72]. In order to prolong the chilled storage time advanced packing techniques or various additives are used in addition, which will be described in more detail in the following.

Fresh fish is usually transported and sold on flaked ice, keeping the temperature slightly above 0°C; more recently also ice slurries have been used [2, 73]. To make these ice slurries even more effective different additives to fish as well as to the ice slurry have been used. Examples are natural antioxidants, ozone or organic acid mixtures. [73] evaluated the effect of organic acids mixed into the ice slurry on lipid oxidation and found slightly decreased oxidation. On the other hand [74] showed a significant decrease of lipid oxidation when fish was stored in ice made with water extracts from rosemary or oregano. [2] gives a good re‐ view on different additives to slurry ice and summarizes among others that addition of ozone declined microbial spoilage and did not increase oxidation. Addition of antioxidants directly to the fish will be discussed further on in this chapter.

### *4.2.2. Super chilling or deep chilling*

**4. Antioxidants added during processing/effect of processing techniques**

Oils and animal foods always contain a small amount of metals which are too difficult to remove, as for example iron from myoglobin, hemoglobin and the iron storage protein ferri‐ tin, or copper, zinc and heavy metals that are present in enzymes and metalloproteins [40, 65]. Another source of metals in animal food products are the machines used during proc‐ essing, from which minor amounts of iron can get into the products either by abrasion or due to acidic dissolving of metals from the surface. A third source can be migration of met‐ als from the packaging. These metals are present in so low amounts that they do not have a

Salt is used for the preservation of meat and fish. Due to its water activity lowering effect and the withdrawl of free water, salt decreases the solubility of oxygen as well as the activi‐ ty of enzymes and bacteria. In addition chloride ions are also toxic to certain microorgan‐

The more and longer a product is exposed to light and oxygen, the higher is the risk and speed of oxidation. When fish or meat is cut into pieces or minced, the surface is substantial‐ ly increased and thereby the accessibility for oxygen. As light and increased temperature en‐ hance oxidation [40, 68], during processing temperature and the processing time should be

Various processes including cooling, salting, drying, smoking and heating have been used for a long time to preserve meat and fish and to obtain a variety of products with characteristic or‐ ganoleptic characteristic [2, 69, 70] Processing is a primarily way to preserve meat, but also adds to its value. However, different processing steps can also negatively affect meat quality, and change for example lipid quality traits. Heating of meat and meat products e.g. hot smok‐ ing, can disrupt the cell membranes and promote lipid oxidation [71], which affects the nutri‐ tional and sensory properties of the meat product. Use of antioxidants during processing or

Fresh meat is sold chilled at a temperature of about +4 °C. Preservation of meat quality is an im‐ portant criterion for its shelf life, since raw, chilled meat has traditionally been a perishable product [1, 72]. In order to prolong the chilled storage time advanced packing techniques or various additives are used in addition, which will be described in more detail in the following.

alternative more gentle processing methods can reduce these negative effects.

physiological effect; however, they can have pro oxidative effects [66].

**4.1. Oxidation factors in muscle and product**

isms. However it is also a pro-oxidant [67].

kept as low and short as possible respectively.

**4.2. Different preservation and processing techniques:**

*4.1.3. Oxygen, light and temperature*

*4.2.1. Chilling or cooling*

*4.1.1. Metals*

122 Food Industry

*4.1.2. Salt*

Super chilling or deep chilling means in general to chill the products to a temperature close to or just below the initial freezing point, which is for the most food products between -0.5 and – 2.8 °C (reviewed by [75]). In regard to lipid oxidation it is important that there are no ice crystals formed, as they can destroy organelle membranes and thereby release enzymes and enhance oxidation potential [76]. This technique is used for example for deer meat ex‐ ported from New Zealand to Europe. The international trading demands new techniques to provide longer storage times. Due to long transport distances and high export quantities, deer meat from New Zealand is stored in vacuum packages and deep chilled to -1.5 °C, and can be considered as fresh meat up to 14 weeks after slaughter [77]. The low temperatures, combined with vacuum, retard bacterial growth, lipid oxidation and color deterioration. There is not done much work on lipid oxidation during deep chilling, however [75] suggest‐ ed that the improved shelf life and quality reported from deep chilled foods is also indirect resulted by a reduction of lipid deterioration.

Also in fish and seafood deep chilling has been applied successfully and shown to retard mi‐ crobial growth and extend shelf life of for example prawn (*Penaeus japonicas*) [78] salmon and cod (*Gadus morhua*) [79, 80], however without investigating the effects on lipid oxidation.

#### *4.2.3. Freezing*

Frozen storage has since long been a method considered sufficient to preserve meat over longer time periods [81], however freezing can also negatively influence structural and chemical properties of meat, e.g. increase content of FFA and lipid oxidation products [82, 83]. [83] reviews some aspects related to lipid oxidation during and after freezing and de‐ scribes the amount of unfrozen water as one important factor for primary oxidation. The amount of unfrozen water depends on the freezing temperature and in line with that an op‐ timum freezing temperature for meats of -40°C has been suggested by [84]. At this tempera‐ ture only a minor fraction of the water is unfrozen. In agreement with that [85] showed a significant increase of lipid oxidation products in pork stored at -18°C. Besides the tempera‐ ture, the formation of ice crystals during freezing is a critical point [76] and the larger ice crystals are formed the higher is the risk of membrane disruption and increased oxidation.

An important element to avoid increased oxidation after thawing should therefore be the formation of small ice crystals during freezing. The faster and more homogeneous the freez‐ ing happens, the smaller and more uniform the formed ice crystals will be [86]. Some recent developed fast freezing techniques suitable for muscle foods are high pressure freezing, pressure shift freezing, cryogenic freezing and the already since longer time used air-blast freezing [86, 87]. [87] showed that substantial smaller ice crystals were formed in Norway Lobster (*Nephrops norvegicus*) when pressure shift freezing was used compared to air blast freezing. However, most of the papers, studying effects of freezing, evaluate only texture, drip loss and sensory, therefore not much is known about the effects of different techniques on lipid oxidation.

Salting of fish is very commonly used traditional preservation process [91]. In many cases as for example in the traditional salted herring, salting and ripening takes a quite long ripening time. However [91] showed also that only a modest increase of peroxide values occurred during the ripening time. However as the FFA increased substantially in the brine and as peroxide values show only primary oxidation products substantial oxidation might have happened undetected. An indicator for oxidative stress during the ripening process is the drop of α- tocopherol to approximately 50% after 371 days in that study. However as also pointed out in the section about drying in this chapter, part of the oxidation products might

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[66] investigated the effect of trace metals in the used salt during the salting of cod, showing a significant increase of TBARS with increasing copper concentration and during the salting time. Various attempts have been made to study oxidation during various salting processes and to find ways to inhibit or decrease lipid oxidation. [92] showed that salting initially pro‐ tected chub mackerel (*Scomber japonicus)* from oxidation, however after 12 days of storage TBARS values were significantly higher in salted non-smoked fish compared to unsalted non-smoked fish. However, [93] showed that partial replacement of NaCl with KCl de‐ creased lipid oxidation in salted mackerel as well as addition of ascorbic acid to brine solu‐ tion. [94] found that EDTA prevented copper induced oxidation in salt brined cod, while

Besides the use of salting for preservation, fish is sometimes mildly salted to improve senso‐ ry characteristics and water holding capacity, where contents of only 0.1-0.3% can give sig‐ nificantly improved water holding capacity [17] but also resulted in increased oxidation

Dry curing and drying of meat also involve pro-oxidative factors, as there are: long expo‐ sure to air, dehydration and absence of nitrite [95]. Enzymatic activity can lead to high amounts of FFA, which are more prone to oxidation than TAG [34, 88]. In products such as dry-cured ham or dry-cured salami, a certain amount of volatiles, lipid oxidation com‐ pounds and lipolysis products is desired since they are responsible for the particular taste of these products [4, 96]. In line with this [97] showed that the traditional drying process of reindeer meat led to significantly increased oxidation parameters compared to the raw meat or smoked reindeer meat. On the other hand, excessive amounts of oxidation products re‐

[70] reviewed that in dry cured hams the lipases stay active for several month and hence can produce high amounts of FFA in the tissue. [99] confirmed this in their experiment showing a constant increase of FFA during 24 month of aging of dry cured hams. However TBA val‐ ues did not increase significantly during that time. Evaluating how to avoid excessive oxida‐ tion in dry cured Parma hams, [100] showed that dietary tocopherol could decrease

added citrate enhanced oxidation and ascorbate had no effect in that study.

sult in off-flavors and rancid taste [98] and should hence be avoided.

oxidation even in hams with an increased proportion of unsaturated FA.

be part of the desired characteristic organoleptic properties.

levels in herring (*Clupea harengus*).

*4.2.5. Drying*

Once frozen, it is important for the maintenance of the small ice crystals that a stable tempera‐ ture is kept, as thawing and refreezing as well as temperature fluctuations lead to formation of bigger ice crystals [86 1895]. Beside different techniques of the freezing itself, the injection or dip‐ ping of antifreeze proteins for both meat and fish has shown some success to force the forma‐ tion of preferably small ice crystals (reviewed by [86]). Addition of antifreeze proteins has also shown to inhibit recrystallization of small ice crystals into bigger ones (reviewed by [86]).

#### *4.2.4. Salting and curing*

Meat curing and salting of fish are among the oldest preservation techniques man has used [88]. As described above salt has pro-oxidative effects. A demonstration of the pro-oxidative effect of salt in muscle foods can be found in [89]. During the process of meat curing with salt, nitrite is usually added to keep the nice pink color of the meat. The nitrite exchanges the oxygen ligand in the oxymyoglobin (Fig. 8), which is responsible for the bright red col‐ our of fresh meat, and builds another very stable pink colored complex, the nitrosylmyoglo‐ bin [88]. [90] showed in addition an antioxidative effect of nitrite in meat and discussed different possible reaction mechanisms.

**Figure 8.** Structure of oxymyoglobine

Salting of fish is very commonly used traditional preservation process [91]. In many cases as for example in the traditional salted herring, salting and ripening takes a quite long ripening time. However [91] showed also that only a modest increase of peroxide values occurred during the ripening time. However as the FFA increased substantially in the brine and as peroxide values show only primary oxidation products substantial oxidation might have happened undetected. An indicator for oxidative stress during the ripening process is the drop of α- tocopherol to approximately 50% after 371 days in that study. However as also pointed out in the section about drying in this chapter, part of the oxidation products might be part of the desired characteristic organoleptic properties.

[66] investigated the effect of trace metals in the used salt during the salting of cod, showing a significant increase of TBARS with increasing copper concentration and during the salting time. Various attempts have been made to study oxidation during various salting processes and to find ways to inhibit or decrease lipid oxidation. [92] showed that salting initially pro‐ tected chub mackerel (*Scomber japonicus)* from oxidation, however after 12 days of storage TBARS values were significantly higher in salted non-smoked fish compared to unsalted non-smoked fish. However, [93] showed that partial replacement of NaCl with KCl de‐ creased lipid oxidation in salted mackerel as well as addition of ascorbic acid to brine solu‐ tion. [94] found that EDTA prevented copper induced oxidation in salt brined cod, while added citrate enhanced oxidation and ascorbate had no effect in that study.

Besides the use of salting for preservation, fish is sometimes mildly salted to improve senso‐ ry characteristics and water holding capacity, where contents of only 0.1-0.3% can give sig‐ nificantly improved water holding capacity [17] but also resulted in increased oxidation levels in herring (*Clupea harengus*).

#### *4.2.5. Drying*

An important element to avoid increased oxidation after thawing should therefore be the formation of small ice crystals during freezing. The faster and more homogeneous the freez‐ ing happens, the smaller and more uniform the formed ice crystals will be [86]. Some recent developed fast freezing techniques suitable for muscle foods are high pressure freezing, pressure shift freezing, cryogenic freezing and the already since longer time used air-blast freezing [86, 87]. [87] showed that substantial smaller ice crystals were formed in Norway Lobster (*Nephrops norvegicus*) when pressure shift freezing was used compared to air blast freezing. However, most of the papers, studying effects of freezing, evaluate only texture, drip loss and sensory, therefore not much is known about the effects of different techniques

Once frozen, it is important for the maintenance of the small ice crystals that a stable tempera‐ ture is kept, as thawing and refreezing as well as temperature fluctuations lead to formation of bigger ice crystals [86 1895]. Beside different techniques of the freezing itself, the injection or dip‐ ping of antifreeze proteins for both meat and fish has shown some success to force the forma‐ tion of preferably small ice crystals (reviewed by [86]). Addition of antifreeze proteins has also shown to inhibit recrystallization of small ice crystals into bigger ones (reviewed by [86]).

Meat curing and salting of fish are among the oldest preservation techniques man has used [88]. As described above salt has pro-oxidative effects. A demonstration of the pro-oxidative effect of salt in muscle foods can be found in [89]. During the process of meat curing with salt, nitrite is usually added to keep the nice pink color of the meat. The nitrite exchanges the oxygen ligand in the oxymyoglobin (Fig. 8), which is responsible for the bright red col‐ our of fresh meat, and builds another very stable pink colored complex, the nitrosylmyoglo‐ bin [88]. [90] showed in addition an antioxidative effect of nitrite in meat and discussed

on lipid oxidation.

124 Food Industry

*4.2.4. Salting and curing*

different possible reaction mechanisms.

**Figure 8.** Structure of oxymyoglobine

Dry curing and drying of meat also involve pro-oxidative factors, as there are: long expo‐ sure to air, dehydration and absence of nitrite [95]. Enzymatic activity can lead to high amounts of FFA, which are more prone to oxidation than TAG [34, 88]. In products such as dry-cured ham or dry-cured salami, a certain amount of volatiles, lipid oxidation com‐ pounds and lipolysis products is desired since they are responsible for the particular taste of these products [4, 96]. In line with this [97] showed that the traditional drying process of reindeer meat led to significantly increased oxidation parameters compared to the raw meat or smoked reindeer meat. On the other hand, excessive amounts of oxidation products re‐ sult in off-flavors and rancid taste [98] and should hence be avoided.

[70] reviewed that in dry cured hams the lipases stay active for several month and hence can produce high amounts of FFA in the tissue. [99] confirmed this in their experiment showing a constant increase of FFA during 24 month of aging of dry cured hams. However TBA val‐ ues did not increase significantly during that time. Evaluating how to avoid excessive oxida‐ tion in dry cured Parma hams, [100] showed that dietary tocopherol could decrease oxidation even in hams with an increased proportion of unsaturated FA.

Also various dried fish products exist, however most work done on dried fish products deals with microbial spoilage or sensory aspects as for example in cod [101, 102] and only few works also evaluate lipid oxidation. But [103] compared different drying methods for dried milkfish (*Chanos chanos*), a traditional Taiwanese product. In their study cold air dry‐ ing resulted in significant lower TBA values than the traditional sun drying or hot air dry‐ ing. They conclude that both light and temperature were important factors which induce increased oxidation. These results agreed with [104] who evaluated different drying meth‐ ods on dried yellow corvenia (*Pseudosciaena manchurica*) and found higer oxidation in prod‐ ucts made by the traditional sun drying process. Other works found on dried fish [66, 94] investigated heavily salted cod, and are hence discussed in the previous section about salt.

concentration of CO2 at the same time. For the different types of meat and fish the perfect gas mixture differs. A good overview is given by [110]. In fat fish due to the high oxidation risk a gas mixture without oxygen is generally recommended. [49] tried to use various anti‐ oxidants combined with modified atmosphere and showed increased lipid and color stabili‐

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Examples for the application of vacuum packing technique are given by [111] for fish bur‐ gers and by [80] for salmon fillets. Unfortunately these studies have not investigated oxida‐ tion in normal versus vacuum packing. However [112] investigated the effect of different storage conditions on oxidation in burgers made from rabbit meat and found decreased oxi‐

Low dose irradiation is a very effective method to kill many bacteria including *Salmonella* and *Escherichia coli*, but it is also known to generate hydroxyl radicals and could hence lead to increased oxidation in meat and fish products [113]. [114] evaluated the effect of low dose irradiation up to 9.43 kGy on different meats (pork, beef, lamb and turkey) and found only low dependency between lipid oxidation values and the irradiation dose. However slightly higher values of malondialdehyd were found in turkey breast with the highest dose com‐ pared to the other meats at the same dose. [115] found increased oxidation values in pacu (*Piaractus mesopotamicus*) fish after irradiation. Nevertheless, in the same experiment the re‐ searchers showed addition of antioxidants α-tocopherol, BHT or rosemary extract could in‐

In canned fish the major part of oxidation seemed to occur due to the heating step before and during sterilization [116, 117]. [117] reviewed that also the storage conditions (time and temperature) before the actually canning do have a significant influence on the final content of oxidation products. The longer the storage time and the higher the storage temperature the more oxidation and lipolysis will take place and the higher the content of easily oxidable FFA will be. Beside these factors also the filling media seemed to have a significant impact [117]. [116] showed a significant increase of TBA values in silver carp canned with brine, sunflower oil and soybean oil while olive oil seemed not to enhance oxidation. On the other hand [117] evaluated the effect of natural antioxidants from the canning oil on canned tuna and found protective effects against lipid oxidation from extra virgin olive oil rich in phe‐ nols and also partly from soybean oil rich in tocopherols. Highest oxidation was found in tuna canned in brine in that experiment. [117] ascribed that to a possible accumulation of the PUFA at the oil-water surface. In general the results show that even added antioxidants like spices or other plant antioxidants could have a positive effect against oxidation in canned fish products. However, to our knowledge the effect of the addition of antioxidants or the

ty when a combination of rosemary and ascorbic acid was used in MAP.

dation when vacuum packing was used.

*4.2.8. Other preservation methods (irradiation)*

hibit the oxidation accelerated by irradiation.

effect of spices present in the brine has not been investigated yet.

*4.2.9. Canned meat and fish products*

#### *4.2.6. Smoking*

Smoking is another traditional method to preserve meat and fish and create new products. [88] described the antioxidative activity of some of the smokes components. The various techniques and the types of wood used lead to the characteristic taste of the final product [105]. However as hot or warm smoking also includes increased temperature over a longer period and the meat parts are usually salted before smoking, also always some oxidation is initiated. In line with that effects are in general more complex, considering the various proand antioxidative aspects of this way of processing. For example [92] showed that smoking initially increased oxidation in chub mackerel (*Scomber japonicus*) but that it had lipid oxida‐ tion decreasing effects during storage, leading to lower TBARS values in the smoked fish compared to the unsalted non-smoked fish after 6 days.

In addition the smoke contains also substances that have been associated adverse health ef‐ fects [106]. Therefore different processing methods as for example the use of liquid smoke have been investigated. [107] showed that a combination of liquid and traditional smoke were more effective inhibiting lipid oxidation in bacon than traditional smoke alone. These results were ascribed to a possible higher content of phenols in the samples processed with the combined smoking procedure. Contradictory [108] showed that traditional smoke result‐ ed in lower TBA values compared to the use of liquid smoke in smoked beef tongue after 5-30 days storage. [109] compared traditional cold smoking and electrostatic smoking of sal‐ mon and concluded that electrostatically smoked fillets had a higher loss of lipids, but were less oxidized than traditional smoked fillets.

#### *4.2.7. Packaging*

From an oxidation point of view, packing should be tight and compact so that the surface and oxygen access are minimized. However this will not always meet the customers' expect‐ ations of product presentation, so naturally compromises have to be made. Packaging sys‐ tems and technologies have developed rapidly during the last decades [1]. Both in meat and fish the principal function is to limit bacterial spoilage and growth. In red meats also the preservation of a bright red color is important, which is an indicator of freshness for the con‐ sumers [7]. This will be reached for example by keeping a high percentage of oxygen in a modified atmosphere package (MAP), while most bacteria are inhibited by an increased concentration of CO2 at the same time. For the different types of meat and fish the perfect gas mixture differs. A good overview is given by [110]. In fat fish due to the high oxidation risk a gas mixture without oxygen is generally recommended. [49] tried to use various anti‐ oxidants combined with modified atmosphere and showed increased lipid and color stabili‐ ty when a combination of rosemary and ascorbic acid was used in MAP.

Examples for the application of vacuum packing technique are given by [111] for fish bur‐ gers and by [80] for salmon fillets. Unfortunately these studies have not investigated oxida‐ tion in normal versus vacuum packing. However [112] investigated the effect of different storage conditions on oxidation in burgers made from rabbit meat and found decreased oxi‐ dation when vacuum packing was used.

### *4.2.8. Other preservation methods (irradiation)*

Also various dried fish products exist, however most work done on dried fish products deals with microbial spoilage or sensory aspects as for example in cod [101, 102] and only few works also evaluate lipid oxidation. But [103] compared different drying methods for dried milkfish (*Chanos chanos*), a traditional Taiwanese product. In their study cold air dry‐ ing resulted in significant lower TBA values than the traditional sun drying or hot air dry‐ ing. They conclude that both light and temperature were important factors which induce increased oxidation. These results agreed with [104] who evaluated different drying meth‐ ods on dried yellow corvenia (*Pseudosciaena manchurica*) and found higer oxidation in prod‐ ucts made by the traditional sun drying process. Other works found on dried fish [66, 94] investigated heavily salted cod, and are hence discussed in the previous section about salt.

Smoking is another traditional method to preserve meat and fish and create new products. [88] described the antioxidative activity of some of the smokes components. The various techniques and the types of wood used lead to the characteristic taste of the final product [105]. However as hot or warm smoking also includes increased temperature over a longer period and the meat parts are usually salted before smoking, also always some oxidation is initiated. In line with that effects are in general more complex, considering the various proand antioxidative aspects of this way of processing. For example [92] showed that smoking initially increased oxidation in chub mackerel (*Scomber japonicus*) but that it had lipid oxida‐ tion decreasing effects during storage, leading to lower TBARS values in the smoked fish

In addition the smoke contains also substances that have been associated adverse health ef‐ fects [106]. Therefore different processing methods as for example the use of liquid smoke have been investigated. [107] showed that a combination of liquid and traditional smoke were more effective inhibiting lipid oxidation in bacon than traditional smoke alone. These results were ascribed to a possible higher content of phenols in the samples processed with the combined smoking procedure. Contradictory [108] showed that traditional smoke result‐ ed in lower TBA values compared to the use of liquid smoke in smoked beef tongue after 5-30 days storage. [109] compared traditional cold smoking and electrostatic smoking of sal‐ mon and concluded that electrostatically smoked fillets had a higher loss of lipids, but were

From an oxidation point of view, packing should be tight and compact so that the surface and oxygen access are minimized. However this will not always meet the customers' expect‐ ations of product presentation, so naturally compromises have to be made. Packaging sys‐ tems and technologies have developed rapidly during the last decades [1]. Both in meat and fish the principal function is to limit bacterial spoilage and growth. In red meats also the preservation of a bright red color is important, which is an indicator of freshness for the con‐ sumers [7]. This will be reached for example by keeping a high percentage of oxygen in a modified atmosphere package (MAP), while most bacteria are inhibited by an increased

compared to the unsalted non-smoked fish after 6 days.

less oxidized than traditional smoked fillets.

*4.2.6. Smoking*

126 Food Industry

*4.2.7. Packaging*

Low dose irradiation is a very effective method to kill many bacteria including *Salmonella* and *Escherichia coli*, but it is also known to generate hydroxyl radicals and could hence lead to increased oxidation in meat and fish products [113]. [114] evaluated the effect of low dose irradiation up to 9.43 kGy on different meats (pork, beef, lamb and turkey) and found only low dependency between lipid oxidation values and the irradiation dose. However slightly higher values of malondialdehyd were found in turkey breast with the highest dose com‐ pared to the other meats at the same dose. [115] found increased oxidation values in pacu (*Piaractus mesopotamicus*) fish after irradiation. Nevertheless, in the same experiment the re‐ searchers showed addition of antioxidants α-tocopherol, BHT or rosemary extract could in‐ hibit the oxidation accelerated by irradiation.

#### *4.2.9. Canned meat and fish products*

In canned fish the major part of oxidation seemed to occur due to the heating step before and during sterilization [116, 117]. [117] reviewed that also the storage conditions (time and temperature) before the actually canning do have a significant influence on the final content of oxidation products. The longer the storage time and the higher the storage temperature the more oxidation and lipolysis will take place and the higher the content of easily oxidable FFA will be. Beside these factors also the filling media seemed to have a significant impact [117]. [116] showed a significant increase of TBA values in silver carp canned with brine, sunflower oil and soybean oil while olive oil seemed not to enhance oxidation. On the other hand [117] evaluated the effect of natural antioxidants from the canning oil on canned tuna and found protective effects against lipid oxidation from extra virgin olive oil rich in phe‐ nols and also partly from soybean oil rich in tocopherols. Highest oxidation was found in tuna canned in brine in that experiment. [117] ascribed that to a possible accumulation of the PUFA at the oil-water surface. In general the results show that even added antioxidants like spices or other plant antioxidants could have a positive effect against oxidation in canned fish products. However, to our knowledge the effect of the addition of antioxidants or the effect of spices present in the brine has not been investigated yet.

In canned meat products the situation is expected to be similar as in fish, but not as much research as on fish products concerning oxidation has been executed. This might be due to the fact that there are more canned fish products on the market and that fish is known to have higher susceptibility to oxidation due to its higher content of PUFA. However, in one of the few more recent studies [118] investigated the importance of the raw product compo‐ sition and found lowest oxidation in the product with lowest fat content.

**5. Antioxidants in meat and fish products**

that are either water-soluble or fat-soluble.

**5.1. Spices and herbs**

Antioxidants delay or inhibit the process of oxidation, even when present in low concentra‐ tions [127]. Some antioxidants function as radical scavengers or peroxide decomposers, while others quench singlet oxygen, remove catalytic metal ions or oxygen, or inhibit en‐ zymes. The cellular antioxidants can be classed as low molecular substances and enzymes

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It is well known that phenolic compounds from spices and herbs have an antioxidative po‐ tential due to their possibility to act as a radical scavengers [128, 129]. A short review and a list of some polyphenols with their respective antioxidant activity can be found in [129]. Various spices have hence been tested in a wide range of products from sausages over meat‐ balls to fish fillets and fish oil [124, 125, 130, 131]. [16] showed that 1.5% sage added to meat‐

The advantage in the use of spices and herbs is that they are natural and in case of various products often are anyway included in the spicing or that they blend in to the desired taste of the final product. Consumers appreciate having natural antioxidants in their products over synthetic ones. However a problem might be if the taste of the used spice/herb does not fit with the product or gives a too strong side taste. For example [111] found that addition of 0.4 % rosemary gave improved shelf life of fish burgers with an acceptable taste for the con‐

[132] compared the antioxidative activities of 22 commonly used herbs and spices added in different amounts to pork meat and found highest antioxidant capacity in sansho, ginger and sage. Furthermore also addition of rosemary, thyme, oregano and allspice resulted in

The high antioxidant capacity of berries is particularly due to their content of different phe‐ nols, anthocyanins and ascorbic acid [21]. Besides health benefits related to their natural an‐ tioxidants, colour attributes of berries are also of interest in food processing, as colour plays a vital role to the acceptability of foods. A wide range of various fruits and berries has shown antioxidant capacity as for example cranberries, elderberries, black currant and many

For example, grape seed extracts were used to inhibit lipid oxidation in muscle from chick‐ en, beef and pork [14] as well as in turkey meat [135] and polyphenols extracted from grape

Even more unusual combinations have been tested successfully, as for example the antioxi‐ dative effect of various berry concentrates as marinades for herring fillets [17]. Other appli‐ cations are cranberry juice powder as antioxidant rich feed for pigs [58], cranberry extract as

balls decreased oxidation and limited undesirable changes in the composition.

sumers, while 0.8% of rosemary gave a too intense taste.

pomance inhibited lipid oxidation in fish muscle [136].

up to 64% inhibition of lipid oxidation.

**5.2. Fruits and berries**

more [133, 134].

#### **4.3. Ready to eat and fast food products**

There is a wide variety of ready to eat products from meat and fish available on the market, such as sausages, meat- or fish balls, paté's and many more. As these products often include minced or grinded meat and several other ingredients beside the raw muscle as well as they require several processing steps, all of these will have an influence on the oxidation behav‐ ior. On the other hand this creates a great chance to add antioxidants or to optimize process‐ ing techniques and packaging towards the lowest possible oxidation status of the final product. In general it can be said that also in this case the fish products will be the ones which are more prone to oxidation due to their more unsaturated FA composition. However also other aspects play a role as for example [119] found comparable cholesterol oxide val‐ ues in one of three pork paté's as in a cod paté, while two other pork patés and a tested sal‐ mon and anchovy paté had lower values.

Antioxidants additives in fast food products are for example rosemary extract showing an antioxidative effect in mackerel burgers [111] and or as a more novel ingredient yerba mate extracts, which enhanced lipid stability in beef hamburgers [120]. [121] showed protective effects of oregano and thyme oil in ready to eat squid rings and [122] showed antioxidative effects of various herbs in pork patties.

But also processing methods or packaging can be used to increase oxidative stability. For in‐ stance [111] used vacuum packing in addition with the applied antioxidants in the mackerel burgers, while [123] evaluated a combination of irradiation and different packing environ‐ ments to increase shelf life in pork patties.

Sausages are very favorite and omnipresent meat products around the world. A wide varie‐ ty of categories such as raw, cooked, dry fermented, cooked smoked, raw smoked or pre‐ cooked sausages exist. Through the addition of especially spices the oxidation in these products can efficiently be decreased [124] for example used Spanish paprika and garlic or a mixture of nitrite, nitrate and ascorbic acid in chorizo type sausages. They concluded that paprika showed a potent antioxidant capacity in this type of product and that a mixture of 3% paprika and 1% garlic had similar antioxidative effects as a traditional used curing mix‐ ture of nitrite, nitrate and ascorbic acid. [125] tested rosemary as spice and natural antioxi‐ dant in fermented goat sausages and found lower oxidation and increased values of overall sensory. Adding *Palatase M*. (from *Rhizomucor miehei*) to dry fermented sausages in order to improve sensory aspects, resulted in increased FFA content, however no correlation with higher TBARS could be found by [126]. On the other hand, the authors found an increased amount of volatile compounds which could indicate an increased oxidation due to the add‐ ed enzyme.

## **5. Antioxidants in meat and fish products**

Antioxidants delay or inhibit the process of oxidation, even when present in low concentra‐ tions [127]. Some antioxidants function as radical scavengers or peroxide decomposers, while others quench singlet oxygen, remove catalytic metal ions or oxygen, or inhibit en‐ zymes. The cellular antioxidants can be classed as low molecular substances and enzymes that are either water-soluble or fat-soluble.

### **5.1. Spices and herbs**

In canned meat products the situation is expected to be similar as in fish, but not as much research as on fish products concerning oxidation has been executed. This might be due to the fact that there are more canned fish products on the market and that fish is known to have higher susceptibility to oxidation due to its higher content of PUFA. However, in one of the few more recent studies [118] investigated the importance of the raw product compo‐

There is a wide variety of ready to eat products from meat and fish available on the market, such as sausages, meat- or fish balls, paté's and many more. As these products often include minced or grinded meat and several other ingredients beside the raw muscle as well as they require several processing steps, all of these will have an influence on the oxidation behav‐ ior. On the other hand this creates a great chance to add antioxidants or to optimize process‐ ing techniques and packaging towards the lowest possible oxidation status of the final product. In general it can be said that also in this case the fish products will be the ones which are more prone to oxidation due to their more unsaturated FA composition. However also other aspects play a role as for example [119] found comparable cholesterol oxide val‐ ues in one of three pork paté's as in a cod paté, while two other pork patés and a tested sal‐

Antioxidants additives in fast food products are for example rosemary extract showing an antioxidative effect in mackerel burgers [111] and or as a more novel ingredient yerba mate extracts, which enhanced lipid stability in beef hamburgers [120]. [121] showed protective effects of oregano and thyme oil in ready to eat squid rings and [122] showed antioxidative

But also processing methods or packaging can be used to increase oxidative stability. For in‐ stance [111] used vacuum packing in addition with the applied antioxidants in the mackerel burgers, while [123] evaluated a combination of irradiation and different packing environ‐

Sausages are very favorite and omnipresent meat products around the world. A wide varie‐ ty of categories such as raw, cooked, dry fermented, cooked smoked, raw smoked or pre‐ cooked sausages exist. Through the addition of especially spices the oxidation in these products can efficiently be decreased [124] for example used Spanish paprika and garlic or a mixture of nitrite, nitrate and ascorbic acid in chorizo type sausages. They concluded that paprika showed a potent antioxidant capacity in this type of product and that a mixture of 3% paprika and 1% garlic had similar antioxidative effects as a traditional used curing mix‐ ture of nitrite, nitrate and ascorbic acid. [125] tested rosemary as spice and natural antioxi‐ dant in fermented goat sausages and found lower oxidation and increased values of overall sensory. Adding *Palatase M*. (from *Rhizomucor miehei*) to dry fermented sausages in order to improve sensory aspects, resulted in increased FFA content, however no correlation with higher TBARS could be found by [126]. On the other hand, the authors found an increased amount of volatile compounds which could indicate an increased oxidation due to the add‐

sition and found lowest oxidation in the product with lowest fat content.

**4.3. Ready to eat and fast food products**

128 Food Industry

mon and anchovy paté had lower values.

effects of various herbs in pork patties.

ments to increase shelf life in pork patties.

ed enzyme.

It is well known that phenolic compounds from spices and herbs have an antioxidative po‐ tential due to their possibility to act as a radical scavengers [128, 129]. A short review and a list of some polyphenols with their respective antioxidant activity can be found in [129]. Various spices have hence been tested in a wide range of products from sausages over meat‐ balls to fish fillets and fish oil [124, 125, 130, 131]. [16] showed that 1.5% sage added to meat‐ balls decreased oxidation and limited undesirable changes in the composition.

The advantage in the use of spices and herbs is that they are natural and in case of various products often are anyway included in the spicing or that they blend in to the desired taste of the final product. Consumers appreciate having natural antioxidants in their products over synthetic ones. However a problem might be if the taste of the used spice/herb does not fit with the product or gives a too strong side taste. For example [111] found that addition of 0.4 % rosemary gave improved shelf life of fish burgers with an acceptable taste for the con‐ sumers, while 0.8% of rosemary gave a too intense taste.

[132] compared the antioxidative activities of 22 commonly used herbs and spices added in different amounts to pork meat and found highest antioxidant capacity in sansho, ginger and sage. Furthermore also addition of rosemary, thyme, oregano and allspice resulted in up to 64% inhibition of lipid oxidation.

#### **5.2. Fruits and berries**

The high antioxidant capacity of berries is particularly due to their content of different phe‐ nols, anthocyanins and ascorbic acid [21]. Besides health benefits related to their natural an‐ tioxidants, colour attributes of berries are also of interest in food processing, as colour plays a vital role to the acceptability of foods. A wide range of various fruits and berries has shown antioxidant capacity as for example cranberries, elderberries, black currant and many more [133, 134].

For example, grape seed extracts were used to inhibit lipid oxidation in muscle from chick‐ en, beef and pork [14] as well as in turkey meat [135] and polyphenols extracted from grape pomance inhibited lipid oxidation in fish muscle [136].

Even more unusual combinations have been tested successfully, as for example the antioxi‐ dative effect of various berry concentrates as marinades for herring fillets [17]. Other appli‐ cations are cranberry juice powder as antioxidant rich feed for pigs [58], cranberry extract as additive to separated turkey and ground pork meat [137], grape antioxidant dietary fibre in minced fish [138] or tomatoes in beef patties.

networks serving as color indicators of good antioxidant status and (ii) as antioxidants active through radical scavenging in networks with kinetically controlled regeneration. Further‐ more carotenoids also showed to enhance antioxidant activity of vitamin E [147]. Moreover [109] reported that astaxanthin and tocopherol act via different mechanisms in salmon and

Oxidation and Antioxidants in Fish and Meat from Farm to Fork

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53169

131

Squalene has been found to protect α-tocopherol in oxidation processes [148], probably in a

The use of combined added antioxidant and other preserving techniques has also shown ef‐ fects as earlier presented in the case of [49] where modified atmosphere packaging was used in combination with antioxidants and where also the combination of two different antioxi‐ dants, namely rosemary and ascorbic acid gave the best results. Furthermore [93] showed that a combination of various preservation techniques gave the best results against lipid oxi‐ dation in salted mackerel. Combined frozen storage at -18°C in a vacuum package and add‐ ed ascorbic acid at the same time as 50% of the NaCl was replaced by KCl gave the best

On the other hand [94] showed that ascorbate might have pro-oxidative effects due to con‐ centration and depending on the presence or absence of other oxidants. For instance did as‐ corbate concentrations below 50ppm in combination with 5 ppm copper in the brine prevented formation of TBARS while concentrations above 500ppm in absence of copper

Effects of other nutrients on antioxidant uptake and accumulation were shown by [109] who showed a positive correlation between fat content and tocopherol accumulation and a nega‐ tive correlation between fat content and content of ascorbic acid in salmon. [149] showed negative effects of high dietary astaxanthin on α-tocopherol deposition in rainbow trout

There is still much room for novel combinations that might give improved oxidative stabili‐

Generally, antioxidants maintain product quality by improving shelf-life, nutritional quality and other aspects related to quality. Meat and fish products have been successfully en‐ hanced with different spices and new food ingredients, to prevent oxidation and increase

The positive effects of tocopherol and ascorbic acid on human health in their property as vi‐ tamins are obvious. But beyond that compounds like polyphenols, carotenoids and cate‐ chins have shown to influence human health thanks to various other properties beside their antioxidative capacity. For instance [150] gave a valuable review on antioxidant and antimi‐ crobial effects of various berries and their impact on human health and [151] reviewed the

ty to varying products and hence more research in that field is strongly needed.

**6. Additional value in antioxidant rich foods**

thereby both nutritional value, storage stability and sensory.

hence improve stability against oxidation at different stages of oxidation.

similar way of action than those described for the carotenoid networks.

results in that study.

had pro-oxidative effects.

(*Oncorhynchus mykiss*)

#### **5.3. Antioxidants from other sources**

Beside spices, herbs and fruits also teas and other possible sources for natural antioxidants have been evaluated.

Among others, tea catechins have been tested and used as antioxidants in various food products. Extracted tea catechins from green tea showed significant potential to inhibit lipid oxidation in red meat, poultry and in fish muscle [139]. Instant green tea has shown to slow down oxidation in frozen mackerel [140].

Chitosan is the deacetylated form of chitin and has been shown to have antibacterial and an‐ tifungal properties and has therefore reached some attention as food additive [141]. In its original form it is ineffective as antioxidant, however [141] have shown that as a glucose complex chitosan exhibited both antimicrobial and antioxidative effects in pork salami.

Besides research is constantly searching for new sources of antioxidants as for example to‐ mato seed oil from tomato pomance (industrial tomato waste) [142] or industrial onion waste [54]. These antioxidant rich waste products could be added to the animals feed as suc‐ cessfully shown by [53] where eggs from chicken fed tomato byproducts contained higher amounts of lycopene compared to normal eggs. Or on the other hand extracts from these by‐ products could be used as additives directly to the food products as suggested by [143]. Sim‐ ilarly byproducts from wine and olive oil byproducts inhibited oxidation in minced fish and frozen mackerel fillets respectively [138, 144]. As a more exotic possible additive [145] inves‐ tigated antioxidant properties of Indian red seaweeds.

#### **5.4. Synergistic effects and interactions**

As mentioned before, in addition to the antioxidative effect a substance has alone, there are as well always interactions that can influence the bioavailability, the antioxidative effect and mechanisms between the various nutrients.

For example vitamine C and vitamine E have been found to interact as antioxidants, tocopher‐ oxy radicals are reduced back to tocopherols by ascorbic acid [32]. As in meat and fish prod‐ ucts this mechanisms takes place at the border between lipid and water phase, the radical is removed from the lipid phase and the lipid oxidation process due to that radical is terminated.

[146] describes the function of carotenoids in what he calls antioxidant networks, were carote‐ noids act together with other antioxidants at interfaces as for example xanthophylls and caro‐ tenoids in egg yolks and fish. Similar to the synergistic action of tocopherols and ascorbic acid, the more hydrophilic (iso)flavonoids and their glycosides regenerate the lipophilic carote‐ noids which are active as radical scavengers in the lipid phase. In another mechanism the more hydrophilic xanthophylls act via the membranes between water/lipid interfaces in synergism with more lipophilic carotenoids. [146] defines concluding two types of conditions how carote‐ noids function: (i) in "equilibrium" with other antioxidants in thermodynamically controlled networks serving as color indicators of good antioxidant status and (ii) as antioxidants active through radical scavenging in networks with kinetically controlled regeneration. Further‐ more carotenoids also showed to enhance antioxidant activity of vitamin E [147]. Moreover [109] reported that astaxanthin and tocopherol act via different mechanisms in salmon and hence improve stability against oxidation at different stages of oxidation.

additive to separated turkey and ground pork meat [137], grape antioxidant dietary fibre in

Beside spices, herbs and fruits also teas and other possible sources for natural antioxidants

Among others, tea catechins have been tested and used as antioxidants in various food products. Extracted tea catechins from green tea showed significant potential to inhibit lipid oxidation in red meat, poultry and in fish muscle [139]. Instant green tea has shown to slow

Chitosan is the deacetylated form of chitin and has been shown to have antibacterial and an‐ tifungal properties and has therefore reached some attention as food additive [141]. In its original form it is ineffective as antioxidant, however [141] have shown that as a glucose complex chitosan exhibited both antimicrobial and antioxidative effects in pork salami.

Besides research is constantly searching for new sources of antioxidants as for example to‐ mato seed oil from tomato pomance (industrial tomato waste) [142] or industrial onion waste [54]. These antioxidant rich waste products could be added to the animals feed as suc‐ cessfully shown by [53] where eggs from chicken fed tomato byproducts contained higher amounts of lycopene compared to normal eggs. Or on the other hand extracts from these by‐ products could be used as additives directly to the food products as suggested by [143]. Sim‐ ilarly byproducts from wine and olive oil byproducts inhibited oxidation in minced fish and frozen mackerel fillets respectively [138, 144]. As a more exotic possible additive [145] inves‐

As mentioned before, in addition to the antioxidative effect a substance has alone, there are as well always interactions that can influence the bioavailability, the antioxidative effect and

For example vitamine C and vitamine E have been found to interact as antioxidants, tocopher‐ oxy radicals are reduced back to tocopherols by ascorbic acid [32]. As in meat and fish prod‐ ucts this mechanisms takes place at the border between lipid and water phase, the radical is removed from the lipid phase and the lipid oxidation process due to that radical is terminated.

[146] describes the function of carotenoids in what he calls antioxidant networks, were carote‐ noids act together with other antioxidants at interfaces as for example xanthophylls and caro‐ tenoids in egg yolks and fish. Similar to the synergistic action of tocopherols and ascorbic acid, the more hydrophilic (iso)flavonoids and their glycosides regenerate the lipophilic carote‐ noids which are active as radical scavengers in the lipid phase. In another mechanism the more hydrophilic xanthophylls act via the membranes between water/lipid interfaces in synergism with more lipophilic carotenoids. [146] defines concluding two types of conditions how carote‐ noids function: (i) in "equilibrium" with other antioxidants in thermodynamically controlled

minced fish [138] or tomatoes in beef patties.

**5.3. Antioxidants from other sources**

down oxidation in frozen mackerel [140].

tigated antioxidant properties of Indian red seaweeds.

**5.4. Synergistic effects and interactions**

mechanisms between the various nutrients.

have been evaluated.

130 Food Industry

Squalene has been found to protect α-tocopherol in oxidation processes [148], probably in a similar way of action than those described for the carotenoid networks.

The use of combined added antioxidant and other preserving techniques has also shown ef‐ fects as earlier presented in the case of [49] where modified atmosphere packaging was used in combination with antioxidants and where also the combination of two different antioxi‐ dants, namely rosemary and ascorbic acid gave the best results. Furthermore [93] showed that a combination of various preservation techniques gave the best results against lipid oxi‐ dation in salted mackerel. Combined frozen storage at -18°C in a vacuum package and add‐ ed ascorbic acid at the same time as 50% of the NaCl was replaced by KCl gave the best results in that study.

On the other hand [94] showed that ascorbate might have pro-oxidative effects due to con‐ centration and depending on the presence or absence of other oxidants. For instance did as‐ corbate concentrations below 50ppm in combination with 5 ppm copper in the brine prevented formation of TBARS while concentrations above 500ppm in absence of copper had pro-oxidative effects.

Effects of other nutrients on antioxidant uptake and accumulation were shown by [109] who showed a positive correlation between fat content and tocopherol accumulation and a nega‐ tive correlation between fat content and content of ascorbic acid in salmon. [149] showed negative effects of high dietary astaxanthin on α-tocopherol deposition in rainbow trout (*Oncorhynchus mykiss*)

There is still much room for novel combinations that might give improved oxidative stabili‐ ty to varying products and hence more research in that field is strongly needed.

## **6. Additional value in antioxidant rich foods**

Generally, antioxidants maintain product quality by improving shelf-life, nutritional quality and other aspects related to quality. Meat and fish products have been successfully en‐ hanced with different spices and new food ingredients, to prevent oxidation and increase thereby both nutritional value, storage stability and sensory.

The positive effects of tocopherol and ascorbic acid on human health in their property as vi‐ tamins are obvious. But beyond that compounds like polyphenols, carotenoids and cate‐ chins have shown to influence human health thanks to various other properties beside their antioxidative capacity. For instance [150] gave a valuable review on antioxidant and antimi‐ crobial effects of various berries and their impact on human health and [151] reviewed the anti-inflammatory properties, effects on cancer, diabetes, the immune system, and ocular health of asthaxanthin. [152] reviews the anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, antimicrobial and cancer-preventive effects of polyphenols, which are mainly due to their antioxidant activity; and describes that polyphenols furthermore can directly bind with signaling molecules in‐ volved in inflammatory mechanisms and carcinogenesis and thereby regulate cell activity. In line with that review, [153] gave an overview about the various positive effects of tea cat‐ echins on human health, as for example protection against bacterial induced dental caries and antiviral properties.

**Acknowledgements**

GA JU 047/2010/Z.

**Author details**

Sabine Sampels

Czech Republic

**References**

This publication was financed through the projects CENAKVA (CZ.1.05/2.1.00/01.0024) and

Oxidation and Antioxidants in Fish and Meat from Farm to Fork

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53169

133

Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, South Bohemian Research Center of Aquacul‐ ture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice,

[1] Jeremiah, L.E., Packaging alternatives to deliver fresh meats using short- or long-

[2] Medina, I., J.M. Gallardo, and S.P. Aubourg, Quality preservation in chilled and fro‐ zen fish products by employment of slurry ice and natural antioxidants. Internation‐

[3] Ames, B.N., M.K. Shigenaga, and T.M. Hagen, Oxidants, Antioxidants, And The De‐ generative Diseases Of Aging. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of

[4] Gray, J.I., E.A. Gomaa, and D.J. Buckley, Oxidative Quality and Shelf Life of Meats.

[5] Uchida, K. and E.R. Stadtman, Covalent Attachment Of 4-Hydroxynonenal To Glyc‐ eraldehyde-3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase - A Possible Involvement Of Intramolecular And Intermolecular Cross-Linking Reaction. Journal of biological Chemistry, 1993.

[6] Buttkus, H., Preparation And Properties Of Trout Myosin. Journal of the Fisheries

[7] Faustman, C. and R.G. Cassens, The biochemical basis for discoloration in fresh

[8] Scaife, J.R., et al., Influence of alpha-tocopherol acetate on the short- and long-term storage properties of fillets from Atlantic salmon Salmo salar fed a high lipid diet.

term distribution. Food Research International, 2001. 34(9): p. 749-772.

al Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2009. 44(8): p. 1467-1479.

the United States of America, 1993. 90(17): p. 7915-7922.

Research Board of Canada, 1966. 23(4): p. 563-573.

Aquaculture Nutrition, 2000. 6(1): p. 65-71.

meat: a review. Journal of Muscle Foods, 1990. 1: p. 217-243.

Meat Science, 1996. 43(1): p. S111-S123.

268(9): p. 6388-6393.

Examples for the health effects associated with different berries and fruits are numerous: Cranberries are known for their prevention of urinary tract infections [154]. [155] reviews the antioxidative and cardio-protective actions of Chilean blackberries and [156] reviewed the positive effect of grape juice, berries and walnuts on age related diseases. The authors discuss that beside the antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects, polyphenols as for ex‐ ample antocyanins and proanthocyanidins enhance neuronal communication and neuronal signaling and decreased oxidative and inflammatory stress occurring due to aging.

As already mentioned before, besides inhibiting oxidation, plant substances can also have protective effect against microbial growth. [141] described the combined antioxidative and antimicrobial effects of chitosan as well as [157, 158] showed that oregano and cran‐ berry inhibit *Heliobacter pylori* and *Listeria* monocytogenes in fish and meat beside their antioxidative capacity. Hence some plants with antioxidant capacity are also protecting from food poisoning.

## **7. Outlook/novel foods**

Considering the various properties of natural compounds as polyphenols, carotenoids ter‐ penes and catechins, waste possibilities for the development of novel foods are still unex‐ plored. For example the importance of a balanced combination of PUFA and antioxidants, both for product stability and human nutrition, was outlined by [12]. When increasing the amount of PUFA and especially the proportion of n-3 also increased proportions of antioxi‐ dants are needed to keep a good storage stability of fish and meat products and prevent oxi‐ dation [12]. Hence, combining fish or meat and various plant products as berries or spices may be interesting from nutritional, sensory and technological points of view.

Beside this nutritionally packed meals high in PUFA, antioxidants and nutritional beneficial substances may be especially important to people with particularly high nutritional de‐ mands, for example elderly people who suffer from malnutrition [29]. The plate of novel dishes that could be developed is broad, an example from recent research are fish dishes rich in polyphenols from berries [17]. Furthermore [159] describes the concept of FOSHU (foods for specified health use) and nine novel meat products that have been approved in Japan claiming to have beneficial effects on various aspects of human health.

## **Acknowledgements**

anti-inflammatory properties, effects on cancer, diabetes, the immune system, and ocular health of asthaxanthin. [152] reviews the anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, antimicrobial and cancer-preventive effects of polyphenols, which are mainly due to their antioxidant activity; and describes that polyphenols furthermore can directly bind with signaling molecules in‐ volved in inflammatory mechanisms and carcinogenesis and thereby regulate cell activity. In line with that review, [153] gave an overview about the various positive effects of tea cat‐ echins on human health, as for example protection against bacterial induced dental caries

Examples for the health effects associated with different berries and fruits are numerous: Cranberries are known for their prevention of urinary tract infections [154]. [155] reviews the antioxidative and cardio-protective actions of Chilean blackberries and [156] reviewed the positive effect of grape juice, berries and walnuts on age related diseases. The authors discuss that beside the antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects, polyphenols as for ex‐ ample antocyanins and proanthocyanidins enhance neuronal communication and neuronal

As already mentioned before, besides inhibiting oxidation, plant substances can also have protective effect against microbial growth. [141] described the combined antioxidative and antimicrobial effects of chitosan as well as [157, 158] showed that oregano and cran‐ berry inhibit *Heliobacter pylori* and *Listeria* monocytogenes in fish and meat beside their antioxidative capacity. Hence some plants with antioxidant capacity are also protecting

Considering the various properties of natural compounds as polyphenols, carotenoids ter‐ penes and catechins, waste possibilities for the development of novel foods are still unex‐ plored. For example the importance of a balanced combination of PUFA and antioxidants, both for product stability and human nutrition, was outlined by [12]. When increasing the amount of PUFA and especially the proportion of n-3 also increased proportions of antioxi‐ dants are needed to keep a good storage stability of fish and meat products and prevent oxi‐ dation [12]. Hence, combining fish or meat and various plant products as berries or spices

Beside this nutritionally packed meals high in PUFA, antioxidants and nutritional beneficial substances may be especially important to people with particularly high nutritional de‐ mands, for example elderly people who suffer from malnutrition [29]. The plate of novel dishes that could be developed is broad, an example from recent research are fish dishes rich in polyphenols from berries [17]. Furthermore [159] describes the concept of FOSHU (foods for specified health use) and nine novel meat products that have been approved in

may be interesting from nutritional, sensory and technological points of view.

Japan claiming to have beneficial effects on various aspects of human health.

signaling and decreased oxidative and inflammatory stress occurring due to aging.

and antiviral properties.

132 Food Industry

from food poisoning.

**7. Outlook/novel foods**

This publication was financed through the projects CENAKVA (CZ.1.05/2.1.00/01.0024) and GA JU 047/2010/Z.

## **Author details**

Sabine Sampels

Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, South Bohemian Research Center of Aquacul‐ ture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic

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**Chapter 7**

**Value-Added Fruit Processing for Human Health**

Fruits are staple food in human diet. There has been a growing interest in the connection of fruit and vegetable consumption and improved health. Research have shown that biologi‐ cally active components in plant-based foods, particularly phytochemicals such as polyphe‐ nolics and carotenoids, have important role in reducing the risks of chronic diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes and Alzheimer's disease, among others. The first part of the chapter provides a brief update of the links between fruit-based antioxi‐

Fruit production is increasing globally. Despite the increasing fruit production at the global level, a significant amount of fruit produced is lost or wasted due to poor post-harvest man‐ agement. The second part of the chapter provides information on current status of post-har‐ vest losses in selected fruits and methods to prevent these losses. Therefore, processing fruits into value-added products is one of the strategies to reduce post-harvest losses and

Fresh-cut fruits, also called minimally processed fruits, are products that are partially pre‐ pared, maintain a fresh-like state and ready for use and eating. Recently, fresh-cut fruits have become popular because they meet the consumer demand for convenient ready-to-eat foods with fresh-like quality. However, fresh-cut fruits are more perishable than whole fruits. The third part of the chapter covers some recently developed approaches for the val‐ ue addition of fresh-cut fruits with respect to the use of natural antimicrobials, anti-brown‐ ing agents, edible coating, modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), 1-methylcyclopropene

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 Rupasinghe and Yu; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

dants and other biologically active compounds and potential health benefits.

H.P. Vasantha Rupasinghe and Li Juan Yu

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53161

promote consumption of fruits.

(1-MCP) application and vacuum impregnation (VI).

**1. Introduction**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter


## **Value-Added Fruit Processing for Human Health**

H.P. Vasantha Rupasinghe and Li Juan Yu

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53161

## **1. Introduction**

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[159] Arihara, K., Strategies for designing novel functional meat products. Meat Science,

and Environmental Microbiology, 2004. 70(9): p. 5672-5678.

Oral Biology, 2012. 57(5): p. 429-435.

Chemistry, 2008. 107(2): p. 820-829.

8558-8564.

144 Food Industry

2006. 74(1): p. 219-229.

Fruits are staple food in human diet. There has been a growing interest in the connection of fruit and vegetable consumption and improved health. Research have shown that biologi‐ cally active components in plant-based foods, particularly phytochemicals such as polyphe‐ nolics and carotenoids, have important role in reducing the risks of chronic diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes and Alzheimer's disease, among others. The first part of the chapter provides a brief update of the links between fruit-based antioxi‐ dants and other biologically active compounds and potential health benefits.

Fruit production is increasing globally. Despite the increasing fruit production at the global level, a significant amount of fruit produced is lost or wasted due to poor post-harvest man‐ agement. The second part of the chapter provides information on current status of post-har‐ vest losses in selected fruits and methods to prevent these losses. Therefore, processing fruits into value-added products is one of the strategies to reduce post-harvest losses and promote consumption of fruits.

Fresh-cut fruits, also called minimally processed fruits, are products that are partially pre‐ pared, maintain a fresh-like state and ready for use and eating. Recently, fresh-cut fruits have become popular because they meet the consumer demand for convenient ready-to-eat foods with fresh-like quality. However, fresh-cut fruits are more perishable than whole fruits. The third part of the chapter covers some recently developed approaches for the val‐ ue addition of fresh-cut fruits with respect to the use of natural antimicrobials, anti-brown‐ ing agents, edible coating, modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) application and vacuum impregnation (VI).

© 2013 Rupasinghe and Yu; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

## **2. Fruits and human health**

Consumption of fruits and vegetables is increasing because of strong evidence that many beneficial effects for human health are associated with the dietary intake of fruits and vege‐ tables (Kaur & Kapoor 2001, Rupasinghe et al. 2012). As suggested by epidemiological stud‐ ies, the consumption of fruit and vegetables may lead to prevention of many chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disease (Weichselbaum 2010, Al-Dosari et al. 2011; Thila‐ karathna and Rupasinghe 2012), type II diabetes (Johnston et al. 2002, Yu et al. 2012b) and some cancers (De Mejía & Prisecaru 2005, Lala et al. 2006, Sun & Liu 2008, Lippi & Targher 2011). These disease prevention effects of fruits could be due to the presence of health pro‐ moting phytochemicals such as carotenoids (Chichili et al. 2006), flavonoids (Yu et al. 2012a), other phenolic compounds (Masibo & He 2008) and vitamins (Lippi & Targher 2011, Gutierrez 2008). Furthermore, the health-protective effects may be rather produced by com‐ plex mixtures of interacting natural chemicals than a single component in these plant-de‐ rived foods (Lila 2007). Table 1 gives a summary of selected fruit-based antioxidants and other health promoting compounds for disease prevention.

**Source Active component Prevention mechanism Disease References** Grape Anthocyanins Anti-proliferative Cancer Lala et al. 2006

inflammatory, activation of

Resveratrol Enhance insulin secretion Diabetes Yu et al. 2012b

Polyphenols Reduce amyloid-β formation Alzheimer's Chan & Shea 2009

Polyphenols Antioxidant Alzheimer's Heo et al. 2008

Pineapple Bromelain Proteolytic enzyme regulationAnti-inflammatory Hale et al. 2010

Antioxidant, multiple mechanisms

**Source Post-harvest loss % References**

**Farm Wholesale Retail Total** Grape 15.1 6.9 6.0 28.0 Kader 2010 Grape 7.3 4.2 2.9 14.4 Murthy et al. 2009 Grape N/A N/A 7.6 N/A Buzby et al. 2009 Mango 15.6 8.9 5.3 29.7 Murthy et al. 2009 Mango N/A N/A 14.5 N/A Buzby et al. 2009 Banana 5.5 6.7 16.7 28.8 Murthy et al. 2009 Banana N/A N/A 8.0 N/A Buzby et al. 2009

Delay glucose absorption Diabetes Johnston et al. 2002

Cell cycle arrest, apoptosis Cancer De Mejía & Prisecaru 2005

increase SOD activity

modulation

mechanisms

Macular degeneration

Alzheimer's Sun et al. 2010

Cardiotoxicity Mokni et al. 2012

Cancer Sun & Liu 2008

Bone protection Puel et al. 2005

cardiovascular Yin et al. 2008

Degenerative diseases Masibo & He 2008

Cardiovascular Weichselbaum 2010

Yu et al. 2012a

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147

Value-Added Fruit Processing for Human Health

and cataract

Flavonoids Inhibition of HNR-adduct formation

SIRT1

Resveratrol Normalize iron and Ca2+,

Polyphenols Antioxidant, multiple

Phloridzin Anti-inflammatory, bone resorption

Polyphenols Antioxidant, reduce LDL

modification

**Table 1.** Fruit-based health promoting compounds and postulated disease prevention

Resveratrol Antioxidant, anti-

Apple Polyphenols Antioxidant, cell cycle

Phloretin-2'-*O*-Glucoside

compounds

Banana Lectins (Bioactive protein)

Mango Phenolic

## **3. Fruit production and post-harvest loss**

#### **3.1. Fruit production**

Fruit production is increasing dramatically worldwide. According to the FAO, the total world fruit production in 2008 was 572.4 million tons, and the number climbed to 609.2 mil‐ lion tons in 2010 (FAO 2010). Among these fruits, thirty percent of which were tropical fruits, with water melon occupied of 59.2%, mongo and guavas of 20.5% and pineapple of 11.4% (Rawson et al. 2011).

Despite the increasing food production at the global level, about one-third of the food pro‐ duced in the world is lost or wasted (Prusky 2011), among which, post-harvest stage losses and marketing stage losses are major losses.

#### **3.2. Post-harvest loss of fruits**

Despite of food production is increasing globally, a significant amount of the food for hu‐ man consumption is lost or wasted, especially perishable foods such as fruits and vegetables (Prusky 2011). The amount of food lost each year is equivalent to more than half of the world's annual cereals production (2.3 billion tonnes in 2009/2010) (Gustavsson et al. 2011).

It is hard to give precise information on the amount of fruit losses generated globally, be‐ cause fruit losses vary greatly among varieties, countries, and climatic regions, and there is no universally applied method for measuring losses. As a consequence, the food loss data during post-harvest are mostly estimated and the variations are from 10% to 40% (Prusky 2011). Table 2 lists some examples of post-harvest losses of selected fruits in India, Egypt and United States.


**Table 1.** Fruit-based health promoting compounds and postulated disease prevention

**2. Fruits and human health**

146 Food Industry

other health promoting compounds for disease prevention.

**3. Fruit production and post-harvest loss**

and marketing stage losses are major losses.

**3.1. Fruit production**

11.4% (Rawson et al. 2011).

**3.2. Post-harvest loss of fruits**

and United States.

Consumption of fruits and vegetables is increasing because of strong evidence that many beneficial effects for human health are associated with the dietary intake of fruits and vege‐ tables (Kaur & Kapoor 2001, Rupasinghe et al. 2012). As suggested by epidemiological stud‐ ies, the consumption of fruit and vegetables may lead to prevention of many chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disease (Weichselbaum 2010, Al-Dosari et al. 2011; Thila‐ karathna and Rupasinghe 2012), type II diabetes (Johnston et al. 2002, Yu et al. 2012b) and some cancers (De Mejía & Prisecaru 2005, Lala et al. 2006, Sun & Liu 2008, Lippi & Targher 2011). These disease prevention effects of fruits could be due to the presence of health pro‐ moting phytochemicals such as carotenoids (Chichili et al. 2006), flavonoids (Yu et al. 2012a), other phenolic compounds (Masibo & He 2008) and vitamins (Lippi & Targher 2011, Gutierrez 2008). Furthermore, the health-protective effects may be rather produced by com‐ plex mixtures of interacting natural chemicals than a single component in these plant-de‐ rived foods (Lila 2007). Table 1 gives a summary of selected fruit-based antioxidants and

Fruit production is increasing dramatically worldwide. According to the FAO, the total world fruit production in 2008 was 572.4 million tons, and the number climbed to 609.2 mil‐ lion tons in 2010 (FAO 2010). Among these fruits, thirty percent of which were tropical fruits, with water melon occupied of 59.2%, mongo and guavas of 20.5% and pineapple of

Despite the increasing food production at the global level, about one-third of the food pro‐ duced in the world is lost or wasted (Prusky 2011), among which, post-harvest stage losses

Despite of food production is increasing globally, a significant amount of the food for hu‐ man consumption is lost or wasted, especially perishable foods such as fruits and vegetables (Prusky 2011). The amount of food lost each year is equivalent to more than half of the world's annual cereals production (2.3 billion tonnes in 2009/2010) (Gustavsson et al. 2011). It is hard to give precise information on the amount of fruit losses generated globally, be‐ cause fruit losses vary greatly among varieties, countries, and climatic regions, and there is no universally applied method for measuring losses. As a consequence, the food loss data during post-harvest are mostly estimated and the variations are from 10% to 40% (Prusky 2011). Table 2 lists some examples of post-harvest losses of selected fruits in India, Egypt



**4. Fruit processing and preservation**

fresh-cut fruit processing and preservation.

ervatives or edible coating materials could be applied

materials could be applied during dipping or coating process.

**4.1. Fresh-cut fruit processing**

Processed fruit products generally include minimally processed fruit products such as freshcut fruit, fermented fruit products such as cider, wine and vinegar, traditional thermally processed fruit products such as jam, jelly, juice and beverage, novel non-thermal processed fruit products such as juice and beverage, etc. A comprehensive review has been given by the same authors on novel non-thermal processed fruit product preservation including jui‐ ces and beverages (Rupasinghe & Yu 2012). At the same time, fresh-cut fruit stands out to be a promising food that meets the demand of consumers for convenient and ready-to-eat fruits with a fresh-like quality. In this case, this part of the chapter would give emphasis on

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149

The sales of fresh-cut produce have grown from approximately \$5 billion in 1994 to \$10–12 billion in 2005, which is about 10% of total produce sales (Rupasinghe et al. 2005). Fresh-cut fruits and vegetables are products that are partially prepared, maintain a fresh-like state and no additional preparation is necessary for use and eating (Watada & Qi 1999). Figure 1 shows the flowchart of fresh-cut fruit processing. It generally includes washing, and/or peel‐ ing, cutting, and/or slicing or wedging and packaging. Dipping solutions or edible coating

**Figure 1.** Major steps for fresh-cut fruit processing (revised from Corbo et al. 2010) \* During this process, natural pres‐

**Table 2.** Post-harvest losses in selected fruits

#### **3.3. Prevention and reduction of post-harvest loss**

Methods of preventing losses of fruits and vegetables could be found from papers and fact sheet written by Singh and Goswami (2006), Sonkar et al. (2008), Prusky (2011) and DeEII and Murr (2009). These methods include selection of new cultivars with firm fruits and lon‐ ger postharvest life, minimizing physical damage during harvesting and postharvest han‐ dling, control and monitoring of temperature and relative humidity, use of controlled or modified atmosphere storage, use of pre- and post-harvest fungicides (hydrogen peroxide) before and after harvest and use of physical treatment such as ozonation technology. Table 3 gives examples of use of controlled atmosphere storage of selected fruits.


\* Temp: temperature; RH: Relative humidity

**Table 3.** Controlled atmosphere storage conditions of selected fruits

## **4. Fruit processing and preservation**

**Source Post-harvest loss % References**

Papaya N/A N/A 54.9 N/A Buzby et al. 2009 Pineapple N/A N/A 14.6 N/A Buzby et al. 2009 Kiwi N/A N/A 12.7 N/A Buzby et al. 2009 Apple N/A N/A 8.6 N/A Buzby et al. 2009 Avocado N/A N/A 9.3 N/A Buzby et al. 2009 Tomato 9.0 17.9 16.3 43.2 Kader 2010

Methods of preventing losses of fruits and vegetables could be found from papers and fact sheet written by Singh and Goswami (2006), Sonkar et al. (2008), Prusky (2011) and DeEII and Murr (2009). These methods include selection of new cultivars with firm fruits and lon‐ ger postharvest life, minimizing physical damage during harvesting and postharvest han‐ dling, control and monitoring of temperature and relative humidity, use of controlled or modified atmosphere storage, use of pre- and post-harvest fungicides (hydrogen peroxide) before and after harvest and use of physical treatment such as ozonation technology. Table 3

**Farm Wholesale Retail Total**

gives examples of use of controlled atmosphere storage of selected fruits.

**Source Temp (ºC) RH (%) O2 (%) CO2 (%) Storage life References**

Grape 0-5 90-95 5-10 15-20 > two weeks Singh and Goswami 2006 Mango 10-15 90 3-7 5-8 > two weeks Singh & Goswami 2006 Banana 12-16 90 2-5 2-5 > two weeks Singh & Goswami 2006 Papaya 10-15 90 2-5 5-8 > two weeks Singh & Goswami 2006 Pineapple 8-13 90 2-5 5-10 > two weeks Singh & Goswami 2006 Kiwi 0-5 90 1-2 3-5 > two weeks Singh & Goswami 2006 Avocado 5-13 90 2-5 3-10 > two weeks Singh & Goswami 2006 Apple (Empire) 1-2 N/A 1.5-2.5 1.5-2.0 5-8 months DeEII & Murr 2009 Apple (Gala) 0 N/A 1.5-2.5 1.5-2.5 5-8 months DeEII & Murr 2009

0 N/A 1.5-2.5 1.5-2.5 5-8 months DeEII & Murr 2009

3 N/A 1.0-2.5 0.5-2.5 5-8 months DeEII & Murr 2009

**Table 2.** Post-harvest losses in selected fruits

148 Food Industry

Apple (Golden Delicious)

\* Temp: temperature; RH: Relative humidity

**Table 3.** Controlled atmosphere storage conditions of selected fruits

Apple (McIntosh)

**3.3. Prevention and reduction of post-harvest loss**

Processed fruit products generally include minimally processed fruit products such as freshcut fruit, fermented fruit products such as cider, wine and vinegar, traditional thermally processed fruit products such as jam, jelly, juice and beverage, novel non-thermal processed fruit products such as juice and beverage, etc. A comprehensive review has been given by the same authors on novel non-thermal processed fruit product preservation including jui‐ ces and beverages (Rupasinghe & Yu 2012). At the same time, fresh-cut fruit stands out to be a promising food that meets the demand of consumers for convenient and ready-to-eat fruits with a fresh-like quality. In this case, this part of the chapter would give emphasis on fresh-cut fruit processing and preservation.

#### **4.1. Fresh-cut fruit processing**

The sales of fresh-cut produce have grown from approximately \$5 billion in 1994 to \$10–12 billion in 2005, which is about 10% of total produce sales (Rupasinghe et al. 2005). Fresh-cut fruits and vegetables are products that are partially prepared, maintain a fresh-like state and no additional preparation is necessary for use and eating (Watada & Qi 1999). Figure 1 shows the flowchart of fresh-cut fruit processing. It generally includes washing, and/or peel‐ ing, cutting, and/or slicing or wedging and packaging. Dipping solutions or edible coating materials could be applied during dipping or coating process.

**Figure 1.** Major steps for fresh-cut fruit processing (revised from Corbo et al. 2010) \* During this process, natural pres‐ ervatives or edible coating materials could be applied

### **4.2. Fresh-cut fruit preservation**

Fresh-cut fruits are more perishable than whole fruits, because the tissue integrity of fruits is more easily altered during processing. Post-cut quality of fresh-cut fruits suffers from wound induced biochemical and physiological changes such as water loss, accelerated respi‐ ration and cut-surface browning as well as microbiological spoilage (Kader 2002, Chiabran‐ do & Giacalone 2012). Therefore, preservation of fresh-cut fruits needs combinative efforts of antimicrobial agents, anti-browning substances as well as packaging strategies. A detailed review was given by Oms-Oliu et al. (2010) about recent approaches for preserving quality of fresh-cut fruits.

a commercial anti-browning dipping solution (calcium ascorbate, NatureSeal™) inhibited the total aerobic microbial growth by 37% and 66% in fresh-cut 'Empire' and 'Crispin' ap‐ ples, respectively, during storage at 4 °C for 19 days. Furthermore, vanillin (12 mM) did not influence the control of enzymatic browning and softening by NatureSeal (Rupasinghe et al.

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151

**Name Origin GRAS status**

Rosemary Plant Yes Cinnamon Plant Yes Cinnamic acid Plant Yes Clove Plant Yes Lactoperoxidase Animal No Lemon (peel, balm, grass) Plant Yes Lime Plant Yes Nisin Microorganism Yes Chitozan Animal No Carvacrol Plant Yes Citric acid Plant Yes Ascorbic acid Plant Yes Vanillin Plant Yes

**Table 4.** Selected natural antimicrobial agents and their status for GRAS additives\*

Enzymatic browning is also a major concern on the extension of shelf-life of fresh-cut fruit (Oms-Oliu et al. 2010). It is caused by the enzymatic oxidation of phenols to quinones by en‐ zymes, typically polyphenoloxidases, in the presence of oxygen. Quinones are then subject‐ ed to further reactions, leading to the formation of browning pigments (Ozoglu & Bayindirli 2002, Jeon & Zhao 2005). Traditionally, sulfites have been used for browning prevention. However, their use on fresh-cut fruit and vegetables was banned in 1986 by the FDA owing to their potential hazards to health (Buta et al. 1999). Therefore, various alternative substan‐ ces, such as honey, citric acid, ascorbic acid, calcium chloride, calcium lactate and calcium ascorbate, among others, have being used to retard browning in fresh-cut fruit (Jeon & Zhao 2005, Oms-Oliu et al. 2010). These anti-browning products are not often used alone because it is difficult to achieve efficient browning inhibition, and combination of them would give preferable results. Table 5 gives examples of anti-browning treatment on fresh-cut Apples.

\* Revised from USFDA (2006): Food Additive Status List

*4.2.2. Anti-browning agents*

2006).

#### *4.2.1. Antimicrobial agent*

During the preparatory steps of fresh-cut fruit processing, the natural protection of fruit is removed and chances of contamination may increase. Damage of tissues allows the growth and fermentation of some species of yeasts such as *Saccharomyces cerevisiae* and the attack by pathogenic microorganisms such as *Listeria monocytogenes*, *Salmonella* spp., *Staphylococcus aureus* and *Escherichia coli* O157:H7 (Martin-Belloso et al. 2006). Therefore, the searching for methods to retard microbial growth is of great interest to researchers and fresh-cut industry.

Traditionally, the most commonly used antimicrobials are potassium sorbate and sodium benzoate. However, consumer demand for natural origin, safe and environmental friendly food preservatives is increasing. Natural antimicrobials such as organic acids, herb leaves extracts and oils, chitozan and *bacteriocins* have shown feasibility for use in some food prod‐ ucts including fresh-cut fruits (Gould 2001, Corbo et al. 2009). Some of them have been con‐ sidered as Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) additives in foods. Selected natural antimicrobials and their status for GRAS additives are listed in Table 4.

Cinnamon as an antimicrobial agent has been investigated in fresh-cut apple slices (Mu‐ thuswamy et al. 2008). Ethanol extract of cinnamon bark (1% to 2% w/v) and cinnamic alde‐ hyde (2 mM) could reduce *E. coli* O157:H7 and *L. innocua in vitro*. Ethanol extract of cinnamon bark (1% w/v) reduced significantly the aerobic growth of bacteria inoculated in fresh-cut apples during storage at 6°C up to 12 days. It was also found that cinnamic alde‐ hyde has greater antimicrobial activity than potassium sorbate (Muthuswamy et al. 2008).

Carvacrol and cinnamic acid could delay microbial spoilage of fresh-cut melon and kiwi‐ fruit. Dipping of fresh-cut kiwifruit in carvacrol solutions at up to 15 mM reduced total via‐ ble counts from 6.6 to less than 2 *log* CFU/g for 21 days of storage at 4°C. Also, treatment with 1 mM of carvacrol or cinnamic acid reduced viable counts on kiwifruit by 4 and 1.5 *log* CFU/g for 5 days of storage at 4°C and 8°C, respectively (Roller & Seedhar 2002).

Vanillin was also proved to be a practical preservative for processing fresh-cut mango and apples under refrigerated conditions. Fresh-cut mango slices were dipped for 1 min in solu‐ tions containing 80 mM vanillin before being packaged. Results indicated that treatment with 80 mM vanillin significantly delayed (P < 0.05) the development of total aerobic bacte‐ ria and yeast and mold populations of fresh-cut mangoes stored at 5 and 10 ◦C for up to 14 and 7 d, respectively (Ngarmsak et al. 2006). Also, a dip of 12 mM vanillin incorporated with a commercial anti-browning dipping solution (calcium ascorbate, NatureSeal™) inhibited the total aerobic microbial growth by 37% and 66% in fresh-cut 'Empire' and 'Crispin' ap‐ ples, respectively, during storage at 4 °C for 19 days. Furthermore, vanillin (12 mM) did not influence the control of enzymatic browning and softening by NatureSeal (Rupasinghe et al. 2006).


**Table 4.** Selected natural antimicrobial agents and their status for GRAS additives\*

## *4.2.2. Anti-browning agents*

**4.2. Fresh-cut fruit preservation**

of fresh-cut fruits.

150 Food Industry

*4.2.1. Antimicrobial agent*

Fresh-cut fruits are more perishable than whole fruits, because the tissue integrity of fruits is more easily altered during processing. Post-cut quality of fresh-cut fruits suffers from wound induced biochemical and physiological changes such as water loss, accelerated respi‐ ration and cut-surface browning as well as microbiological spoilage (Kader 2002, Chiabran‐ do & Giacalone 2012). Therefore, preservation of fresh-cut fruits needs combinative efforts of antimicrobial agents, anti-browning substances as well as packaging strategies. A detailed review was given by Oms-Oliu et al. (2010) about recent approaches for preserving quality

During the preparatory steps of fresh-cut fruit processing, the natural protection of fruit is removed and chances of contamination may increase. Damage of tissues allows the growth and fermentation of some species of yeasts such as *Saccharomyces cerevisiae* and the attack by pathogenic microorganisms such as *Listeria monocytogenes*, *Salmonella* spp., *Staphylococcus aureus* and *Escherichia coli* O157:H7 (Martin-Belloso et al. 2006). Therefore, the searching for methods to retard microbial growth is of great interest to researchers and fresh-cut industry. Traditionally, the most commonly used antimicrobials are potassium sorbate and sodium benzoate. However, consumer demand for natural origin, safe and environmental friendly food preservatives is increasing. Natural antimicrobials such as organic acids, herb leaves extracts and oils, chitozan and *bacteriocins* have shown feasibility for use in some food prod‐ ucts including fresh-cut fruits (Gould 2001, Corbo et al. 2009). Some of them have been con‐ sidered as Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) additives in foods. Selected natural

Cinnamon as an antimicrobial agent has been investigated in fresh-cut apple slices (Mu‐ thuswamy et al. 2008). Ethanol extract of cinnamon bark (1% to 2% w/v) and cinnamic alde‐ hyde (2 mM) could reduce *E. coli* O157:H7 and *L. innocua in vitro*. Ethanol extract of cinnamon bark (1% w/v) reduced significantly the aerobic growth of bacteria inoculated in fresh-cut apples during storage at 6°C up to 12 days. It was also found that cinnamic alde‐ hyde has greater antimicrobial activity than potassium sorbate (Muthuswamy et al. 2008). Carvacrol and cinnamic acid could delay microbial spoilage of fresh-cut melon and kiwi‐ fruit. Dipping of fresh-cut kiwifruit in carvacrol solutions at up to 15 mM reduced total via‐ ble counts from 6.6 to less than 2 *log* CFU/g for 21 days of storage at 4°C. Also, treatment with 1 mM of carvacrol or cinnamic acid reduced viable counts on kiwifruit by 4 and 1.5 *log*

antimicrobials and their status for GRAS additives are listed in Table 4.

CFU/g for 5 days of storage at 4°C and 8°C, respectively (Roller & Seedhar 2002).

Vanillin was also proved to be a practical preservative for processing fresh-cut mango and apples under refrigerated conditions. Fresh-cut mango slices were dipped for 1 min in solu‐ tions containing 80 mM vanillin before being packaged. Results indicated that treatment with 80 mM vanillin significantly delayed (P < 0.05) the development of total aerobic bacte‐ ria and yeast and mold populations of fresh-cut mangoes stored at 5 and 10 ◦C for up to 14 and 7 d, respectively (Ngarmsak et al. 2006). Also, a dip of 12 mM vanillin incorporated with

Enzymatic browning is also a major concern on the extension of shelf-life of fresh-cut fruit (Oms-Oliu et al. 2010). It is caused by the enzymatic oxidation of phenols to quinones by en‐ zymes, typically polyphenoloxidases, in the presence of oxygen. Quinones are then subject‐ ed to further reactions, leading to the formation of browning pigments (Ozoglu & Bayindirli 2002, Jeon & Zhao 2005). Traditionally, sulfites have been used for browning prevention. However, their use on fresh-cut fruit and vegetables was banned in 1986 by the FDA owing to their potential hazards to health (Buta et al. 1999). Therefore, various alternative substan‐ ces, such as honey, citric acid, ascorbic acid, calcium chloride, calcium lactate and calcium ascorbate, among others, have being used to retard browning in fresh-cut fruit (Jeon & Zhao 2005, Oms-Oliu et al. 2010). These anti-browning products are not often used alone because it is difficult to achieve efficient browning inhibition, and combination of them would give preferable results. Table 5 gives examples of anti-browning treatment on fresh-cut Apples. Examples of anti-browning treatment on other fresh-cut fruits including banana, kiwifruits, mango, among others could be found in Table 3 in Oms-Oliu et al. (2010)'s paper.

Ingredients that can be used to form edible coatings include polysaccharides such as cellu‐ lose, starch, alginate, chitosan, pectin, carrageenan, gum Arabic, guar gum and xanthan gum, proteins such as zein, gluten, soy, whey protein, lipids such as beeswax, lecithin, cocoa butter and fatty acids (Vargas et al. 2008). Examples of edible coating treatment on fresh-cut

Cassava starch, glycerol,

0.7 (v/v) Alginate Raybaudi-Massilia et al.

0.7 (v/v) Alginate Raybaudi-Massilia et al.

concentrate

concentrate

Whey protein concentrate, beeswax

Whey protein concentrate, beeswax

Chiumarelli & Hubinger

2012

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153

alginate Rojas-Graü et al. 2007

alginate Rojas-Graü et al. 2007

alginate Rojas-Graü et al. 2007

2008

2008

2008

2008

2008

apple purée McHugh & Senesi 2000

Lee et al. 2003

Lee et al. 2003

Perez-Gago et al. 2006

Perez-Gago et al. 2006

carnauba wax, stearic acid

**apple Functional ingredients Concentration (%) Coating materials References**

Gala N/A N/A Chitosan Wu et al. 2005

Fuji Clove 0.7 (v/v) Alginate Raybaudi-Massilia et al.

Fuji Cinnamaldehyde 0.5 (v/v) Alginate Raybaudi-Massilia et al.

Fuji Citral 0.5 (v/v) Alginate Raybaudi-Massilia et al.

Fuji Ascorbic acid, CaCl2 1.0 (w/v) Carrageenan Lee et al. 2003

Fuji Oregano oil 0.1 – 0.5 (v/v) Apple puree,

Fuji Lemongrass 1.0 – 1.5 (v/v) Apple puree,

Fuji Vanillin 0.3 – 0.6 (v/v) Apple puree,

Fuji Ascorbic acid, CaCl2 1.0 (w/v) Whey protein

Fuji Ascorbic acid, CaCl2 1.0 (w/v) Whey protein

citric acid 0.5 (w/v) Pectin,

Ascorbic acid 0.5-1.0 (w/v)

**Table 6.** Examples of edible coating treatment on fresh-cut apples

Delicious Cysteine 0.1-0.5 (w/v)

apples are listed in Table 6.

Gala N/A N/A

**Cultivar of**

Fuji Cinnamon

Fuji Lemongrass

Golden Delicious

Golden

Granny SmithAscorbic acid,


**Table 5.** Examples of anti-browning treatments assessed on fresh-cut fruits

#### *4.2.3. Edible coating*

The incorporation of antimicrobial and anti-browning agents to fresh-cut fruits could be done by dipping, spaying or edible coating treatment. Dipping or spraying aqueous solu‐ tions to fruit pieces containing antimicrobial agents, antioxidants, calcium salts or functional ingredients such as minerals and vitamins are widely used to improve quality of fresh-cut fruit. However, the effectiveness of these compounds could be better improved with their incorporation into edible coatings. The application of edible coatings to deliver active ingre‐ dients is one of the recent progresses made for shelf-life extension of fresh-cut fruits. De‐ tailed information on edible coating for fresh-cut fruits could be found in review papers from Vargas et al. (2008), Rojas-Graü et al. (2009) and Valencia-Chamorro et al. (2011).

Edible coatings may be defined as a thin layer of material that covers the surface of the food and can be eaten as a part of the whole product. Therefore, the composition of edible coat‐ ings has to be food grade or GRAS. Furthermore, the coating materials need to be transpar‐ ent, odourless, permeable for water vapour and selectively permeable to gases and volatile compounds (Kester & Fennema 1986).

Ingredients that can be used to form edible coatings include polysaccharides such as cellu‐ lose, starch, alginate, chitosan, pectin, carrageenan, gum Arabic, guar gum and xanthan gum, proteins such as zein, gluten, soy, whey protein, lipids such as beeswax, lecithin, cocoa butter and fatty acids (Vargas et al. 2008). Examples of edible coating treatment on fresh-cut apples are listed in Table 6.

Examples of anti-browning treatment on other fresh-cut fruits including banana, kiwifruits,

**conditions**

3°C for

4°C for 5 days

10°C for

4°C for 5 days

4°C for

4°C for 5 days

5°C for

4°C for 5 days

The incorporation of antimicrobial and anti-browning agents to fresh-cut fruits could be done by dipping, spaying or edible coating treatment. Dipping or spraying aqueous solu‐ tions to fruit pieces containing antimicrobial agents, antioxidants, calcium salts or functional ingredients such as minerals and vitamins are widely used to improve quality of fresh-cut fruit. However, the effectiveness of these compounds could be better improved with their incorporation into edible coatings. The application of edible coatings to deliver active ingre‐ dients is one of the recent progresses made for shelf-life extension of fresh-cut fruits. De‐ tailed information on edible coating for fresh-cut fruits could be found in review papers from Vargas et al. (2008), Rojas-Graü et al. (2009) and Valencia-Chamorro et al. (2011).

Edible coatings may be defined as a thin layer of material that covers the surface of the food and can be eaten as a part of the whole product. Therefore, the composition of edible coat‐ ings has to be food grade or GRAS. Furthermore, the coating materials need to be transpar‐ ent, odourless, permeable for water vapour and selectively permeable to gases and volatile

**References**

Chiabrando & Giacalone

Chiabrando & Giacalone

Chiabrando & Giacalone

Chiabrando & Giacalone

14 days Jeon & Zhao (2005)

(2012)

(2012)

(2012)

(2012)

14 days Guan & Fan (2010)

11 days Wang et al. (2007)

14 days Luo et al. (2011)

mango, among others could be found in Table 3 in Oms-Oliu et al. (2010)'s paper.

**apple Anti-browning agent Storage**

80 mg/L acidic electrolyzed water (AEW) followed by

Gala 10% honey solution with vacuum impregnating

1% w/v of citric acid/CaCl2 and 1% of ascorbic acid/CaCl2

0.05% w/v of sodium chlorite and 1% of calcium propionate

1% w/v of citric acid/CaCl2 and 1% of ascorbic acid/CaCl2

1% w/v of citric acid/CaCl2 and 1% of ascorbic acid/CaCl2

1% w/v of citric acid/CaCl2 and 1% of ascorbic acid/CaCl2

Red Delicious 300 mg /L sodium chlorite (SC) and 300 mg /L citric acid

**Table 5.** Examples of anti-browning treatments assessed on fresh-cut fruits

5%calcium ascorbate

compounds (Kester & Fennema 1986).

**Cultivar of**

152 Food Industry

Granny Smith

Granny Smith

Golden Delicious

Golden Delicious

Granny Smith

Scarlet Spur

*4.2.3. Edible coating*


**Table 6.** Examples of edible coating treatment on fresh-cut apples

## *4.2.4. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP)*

The respiration rate of fresh-cut fruits is greater than that of intact fruits (Kader 1986). The increased respiration rate can induce the ethylene synthesis, increase enzymatic activity, promote oxidation of phenolic compounds and microbial growth, and therefore contrib‐ utes to quality losses such as color and firmness. In this case, the control of respiration is essential for maintaining quality and prolonging the shelf life of fresh-cut fruits (Rocha & Morais 2003).

**Type of fruit**

Apple (Granny Smith)

HFCS: High fructose corn syrup

**5. Conclusion**

tion for better results.

**VI treatment conditions**

of CaCl2 (w/v), 0.05% of NaCl (w/v), 0.1% of vitamin E (v/v)

1.6% of CaCl2 (w/v), 0.05% of

**Table 7.** Examples of VI treatment conditions on fresh-cut fruits or value-added products

Apple (Empire) 15ºBrix of grape juice, 1.6%

Apple (Empire) 20-40 % (v/v) of maple syrup,

NaCl (w/v)

**VI solution VI pressure**

**(mmHg)**

Apple (Gala) 20% (w/w) of HFCS, Ca, Zn 50 15 30 Xie & Zhao 2003 Apple (Gala) 10% (w/w) of honey 75 15 30 Jeon & Zhao 2005 Strawberry 8ºBrix of glucose solution 37.5 5 5 Castelló et al. 2006

**VI time (min)**

50% (v/v) of honey 525 10 10 Rößle et al. 2011

Fruits are not only consumed as stable food but also provide desirable health benefits be‐ yond their basic nutrition. However, the quantitative and qualitative losses of fruits are sig‐ nificant during post-harvest, marketing, processing and storage. Prevention of these losses during post-harvest management could be done by multiple steps and methods such as con‐

On the other hand, promotion of minimally processed fruit products such as fresh-cut fruit into the commercial market is a practical, economical, and consumer and environmental friendly approach compared with traditional processing methods. However, fresh-cut fruits are more perishable than whole fruits in terms of biochemical and physiological changes such as water loss, accelerated respiration and cut-surface browning as well as microbiologi‐ cal spoilage. Therefore, preservation of fresh-cut fruits needs combinative efforts of antimi‐

Natural or GRAS additives have been the popular ingredients used as antimicrobial agents and anti-browning agents, or bioactive ingredients. The incorporation of antimicrobial and anti-browning agents to fresh-cut fruits could be done by dipping, spaying or edible coating treatment. The application of edible coatings to deliver active ingredients is one of the recent progresses made for shelf-life extension of fresh-cut fruits. It could be used in combination with modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) and refrigera‐

trolled or modified atmosphere packaging and application of ozonation technology.

crobial agents, anti-browning substances as well as packaging strategies.

**Restoration Time (min)**

152.4 10 22 Joshi et al. 2010

152 10 22 Joshi et al. 2011

**References**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53161

155

Value-Added Fruit Processing for Human Health

Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) is a technology which offers the optimum gas con‐ ditions around the product by adjusting the barrier properties of the packaging film (Simp‐ son and Carevi 2004). Various approaches to prolong the shelf life of fresh-cut products, such as edible coatings and refrigeration could be applied in combination with MAP (Rupa‐ singhe 2005).

1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) may retard or inhibit the generation of ethylene, the natural ripening hormone which is undesirable in terms of storage of certain fruits. Therefore, 1- MCP is becoming a commercial tool (SmartFresh, AgroFresh Inc., Philadelphia) for extend‐ ing the shelf-life and quality of certain fruits and plant products (Rupasinghe et al. 2005). 1- MCP can be applied immediately after harvest (Aguayo et al. 2006; Mao & Fei 2007), just before fresh-cut processing or at both steps (Calderón-López et al. 2005; Vilas-Boas & Kader 2007). However, treatment of intact fruit with 1-MCP before fresh-cut processing is easier and more convenient than after processing. Moreover, the increase in ethylene production promoted by peeling, slicing or wedging could be prevented by the pre-use of 1-MCP (Ru‐ pasinghe et al., 2005).

#### *4.2.5. Vacuum impregnation*

Osmotic treatments have been traditionally used as a pre-treatment step in freezing, canning and frying to improve the quality of the final produce (Alzamora et al., 2000). Among devel‐ opments in osmotic treatments of fruit products, vacuum impregnation (VI) may be the lat‐ est (Zhao & Xie 2004). The VI technique is performed by applying a vacuum pressure in a tank or oven containing the immersed product for a short time and then restoring the at‐ mospheric pressure with the product remains immersed (Martínez-Monzó et al., 1998). The process of VI is a hydrodynamic mass transfer process based on an exchange between inter‐ nal gas or liquid and an external liquid phase (Zhao & Xie, 2004). VI technique could be used to develop novel minimally processed fruit products with value-addition since nutri‐ tional and bioactive ingredients could be incorporated into the fruit based products during VI process (Xie & Zhao, 2003; Guillemin et al., 2008, Rößle 2011) and which gives a bright future for VI application in fresh-cut fruits. Table 7 gives examples of VI treatment on freshcut fruits.


**Table 7.** Examples of VI treatment conditions on fresh-cut fruits or value-added products

## **5. Conclusion**

*4.2.4. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP)*

Morais 2003).

154 Food Industry

singhe 2005).

pasinghe et al., 2005).

cut fruits.

*4.2.5. Vacuum impregnation*

The respiration rate of fresh-cut fruits is greater than that of intact fruits (Kader 1986). The increased respiration rate can induce the ethylene synthesis, increase enzymatic activity, promote oxidation of phenolic compounds and microbial growth, and therefore contrib‐ utes to quality losses such as color and firmness. In this case, the control of respiration is essential for maintaining quality and prolonging the shelf life of fresh-cut fruits (Rocha &

Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) is a technology which offers the optimum gas con‐ ditions around the product by adjusting the barrier properties of the packaging film (Simp‐ son and Carevi 2004). Various approaches to prolong the shelf life of fresh-cut products, such as edible coatings and refrigeration could be applied in combination with MAP (Rupa‐

1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) may retard or inhibit the generation of ethylene, the natural ripening hormone which is undesirable in terms of storage of certain fruits. Therefore, 1- MCP is becoming a commercial tool (SmartFresh, AgroFresh Inc., Philadelphia) for extend‐ ing the shelf-life and quality of certain fruits and plant products (Rupasinghe et al. 2005). 1- MCP can be applied immediately after harvest (Aguayo et al. 2006; Mao & Fei 2007), just before fresh-cut processing or at both steps (Calderón-López et al. 2005; Vilas-Boas & Kader 2007). However, treatment of intact fruit with 1-MCP before fresh-cut processing is easier and more convenient than after processing. Moreover, the increase in ethylene production promoted by peeling, slicing or wedging could be prevented by the pre-use of 1-MCP (Ru‐

Osmotic treatments have been traditionally used as a pre-treatment step in freezing, canning and frying to improve the quality of the final produce (Alzamora et al., 2000). Among devel‐ opments in osmotic treatments of fruit products, vacuum impregnation (VI) may be the lat‐ est (Zhao & Xie 2004). The VI technique is performed by applying a vacuum pressure in a tank or oven containing the immersed product for a short time and then restoring the at‐ mospheric pressure with the product remains immersed (Martínez-Monzó et al., 1998). The process of VI is a hydrodynamic mass transfer process based on an exchange between inter‐ nal gas or liquid and an external liquid phase (Zhao & Xie, 2004). VI technique could be used to develop novel minimally processed fruit products with value-addition since nutri‐ tional and bioactive ingredients could be incorporated into the fruit based products during VI process (Xie & Zhao, 2003; Guillemin et al., 2008, Rößle 2011) and which gives a bright future for VI application in fresh-cut fruits. Table 7 gives examples of VI treatment on freshFruits are not only consumed as stable food but also provide desirable health benefits be‐ yond their basic nutrition. However, the quantitative and qualitative losses of fruits are sig‐ nificant during post-harvest, marketing, processing and storage. Prevention of these losses during post-harvest management could be done by multiple steps and methods such as con‐ trolled or modified atmosphere packaging and application of ozonation technology.

On the other hand, promotion of minimally processed fruit products such as fresh-cut fruit into the commercial market is a practical, economical, and consumer and environmental friendly approach compared with traditional processing methods. However, fresh-cut fruits are more perishable than whole fruits in terms of biochemical and physiological changes such as water loss, accelerated respiration and cut-surface browning as well as microbiologi‐ cal spoilage. Therefore, preservation of fresh-cut fruits needs combinative efforts of antimi‐ crobial agents, anti-browning substances as well as packaging strategies.

Natural or GRAS additives have been the popular ingredients used as antimicrobial agents and anti-browning agents, or bioactive ingredients. The incorporation of antimicrobial and anti-browning agents to fresh-cut fruits could be done by dipping, spaying or edible coating treatment. The application of edible coatings to deliver active ingredients is one of the recent progresses made for shelf-life extension of fresh-cut fruits. It could be used in combination with modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) and refrigera‐ tion for better results.

In addition for edible coating, vacuum impregnation (VI) may be another practical approach for incorporation of health promoting natural ingredients into fresh-cut fruits. VI technique could be used to develop novel minimally processed fruit products with value-addition through incorporation of nutritional and bioactive ingredients.

[8] Chiabrando, V. & Giacalone, G. (2012). Effect of anti-browning agents on color and related enzymes in fresh-cut apples during cold storage, *Journal of Food Processing and*

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## **Author details**

H.P. Vasantha Rupasinghe and Li Juan Yu

\*Address all correspondence to: vrupasinghe@dal.ca

Faculty of Agriculture, Dalhousie University, Truro, Nova Scotia, Canada

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[49] Raybaudi-Massilia, R. M., Rojas-Grau, M. A., Mosqueda-Melgar, J. & Martín -Belloso, O. (2008). Comparative study on essential oils incorporated into an alginate-based edible coating to assure the safety and quality of fresh-cut Fuji apples, *J. Food Prot*. 71:

[50] Rößle, C., Brunton, N., Gormley, T. R. & Butler, F. (2011). Quality and antioxidant ca‐ pacity of fresh-cut apple wedges enriched with honey by vacuum impregnation, *In‐*

[51] Rocha, A. M. C. N. & Morais, A. M. M. B. (2003). Shelf life of minimally processed apple (cv. Jon gold) determined by colour changes, *Food Control* 14(1): 13-20.

[52] Rojas-Graü, M. A., Raybaudi-Massilia, R. M., Soliva-Fortuny, R. C., Avena-Bustillos, R. J., McHugh, T. H. & Martín-Belloso, O. (2007). Apple puree-alginate edible coating as carrier of antimicrobial agents to prolong shelf-life of fresh-cut apples, *Postharvest*

[53] Rojas-Graü, M. A., Soliva-Fortuny, R. & Martín-Belloso, O. (2009). Edible coatings to incorporate active ingredients to fresh-cut fruits: A review, *Trends in Food Science and*

[54] Roller, S& Seedhar, P. (2002). Carvacrol and cinnamic acid inhibit microbial growth in fresh- cut melon and kiwifruit at 4° and 8°C, *Letters in Applied Microbiology* 35: 390–

[55] Rupasinghe, H.P.V., Murr, D.P., DeEll, J.R. & Odumeru, J. A. (2005). Influence of 1 methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) and NatureSealTM on the quality of fresh-cut 'Empire'

[56] Rupasinghe, H.P.V., Boulter-Bitzer, J, Ahn, T. & Odumeru, J.A. (2006). Vanillin inhib‐ its pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms in vitro and aerobic microbial growth on

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160 Food Industry


[73] Xie, J. & Zhao, Y. (2003). Nutritional enrichments of fresh apple (Royal Gala) by vac‐ uum impregnation, *International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition* 54: 387–398.

**Chapter 8**

**Differentiated Foods for Consumers with New**

In recent decades, the food industry has been meeting the growing demand of consumers in search of foods that have benefits that go beyond their nutritional value, and this sec‐ tor has generated billions of dollars in the global market. Lifestyle, the convenience and speed of the preparation and the modification of eating habits among the population all reflect the increasing incidence of chronic diseases caused by eating high-calorie foods and

Advances in food science knowledge have become available to demonstrate the function and mechanism of action of bioactive compounds, and they support the inclusion of ingredi‐ ents and the design and development of foods that contribute to a healthy diet that is associ‐ ated with a healthy lifestyle. Although functional foods should be consumed as such and not in the form of supplements or capsules, the introduction of bioactive ingredients or com‐ ponents into the formulation and processes of these supplements can be a tool for industry

Traditionally, dairy products were associated with health benefits, and in part, they still have this status; thus, innovations in this area are generally associated with the use of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) or products containing probiotic microorganisms or the addition of functional ingredients and bioactive metabolites. Various procedures, such as encapsulation, could be used to protect and maintain the viability of microorganisms in foods. There is a

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 Tsuruda et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

innovation and contributes to the ability to offer products with additional quality.

Marsilvio Lima de Moraes Filho, Marli Busanello,

Karla Bigetti Guergoletto, Tahis Regina Baú,

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

**Demands**

Alessandra Yuri Tsuruda,

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53166

**1. Introduction**

a lack of exercise.

Elza Iouko Ida and Sandra Garcia


## **Differentiated Foods for Consumers with New Demands**

Alessandra Yuri Tsuruda, Marsilvio Lima de Moraes Filho, Marli Busanello, Karla Bigetti Guergoletto, Tahis Regina Baú, Elza Iouko Ida and Sandra Garcia

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53166

**1. Introduction**

[73] Xie, J. & Zhao, Y. (2003). Nutritional enrichments of fresh apple (Royal Gala) by vac‐ uum impregnation, *International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition* 54: 387–398.

[74] Yin, X., Quan. J. & Kanazawa T. (2008). Banana prevents plasma oxidative stress in

[75] Yu, C., Nandrot, E. F., Dun, Y. & Finnemann, S. C. (2012a). Dietary antioxidants pre‐ vent age-related retinal pigment epithelium actin damage and blindness in mice

[76] Yu, W., Fu, Y. -. & Wang, W. (2012b). Cellular and molecular effects of resveratrol in

[77] Zhao, Y. & Xie, J. (2004). Practical applications of vacuum impregnation in fruit and

healthy individuals, *Plant Foods in Human Nutrition* 63 (2): 71-76.

162 Food Industry

lacking αvβ5 integrin, *Free Radical Biology and Medicine* 52(3): 660-670.

vegetable processing, *Trends in Food Science & Technology* 15; 434–451.

health and disease, *Journal of Cellular Biochemistry* 113(3): 752-759.

In recent decades, the food industry has been meeting the growing demand of consumers in search of foods that have benefits that go beyond their nutritional value, and this sec‐ tor has generated billions of dollars in the global market. Lifestyle, the convenience and speed of the preparation and the modification of eating habits among the population all reflect the increasing incidence of chronic diseases caused by eating high-calorie foods and a lack of exercise.

Advances in food science knowledge have become available to demonstrate the function and mechanism of action of bioactive compounds, and they support the inclusion of ingredi‐ ents and the design and development of foods that contribute to a healthy diet that is associ‐ ated with a healthy lifestyle. Although functional foods should be consumed as such and not in the form of supplements or capsules, the introduction of bioactive ingredients or com‐ ponents into the formulation and processes of these supplements can be a tool for industry innovation and contributes to the ability to offer products with additional quality.

Traditionally, dairy products were associated with health benefits, and in part, they still have this status; thus, innovations in this area are generally associated with the use of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) or products containing probiotic microorganisms or the addition of functional ingredients and bioactive metabolites. Various procedures, such as encapsulation, could be used to protect and maintain the viability of microorganisms in foods. There is a

© 2013 Tsuruda et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

tendency towards the use of cheap and sustainable new materials with properties consistent with ingredient control release.

and have been the target of numerous studies because they exhibit strong antioxidant activi‐

Differentiated Foods for Consumers with New Demands

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53166

165

There is an equilibrium between the antioxidant defence system and the pro-oxidants in the human body, which are mainly reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS). The majority of reactive species (RS) originate in endogenous metabolic processes, whereas exogenous sources may include excess iron or copper in the diet, smoking, expo‐ sure to environmental pollutants, inflammation, bacterial infections, radiation, prolonged emotional stress and unbalanced intestinal microflora. The abnormal formation of RS may occur *in vivo* and cause damage to lipids, proteins, nucleic acids or carbohydrates in cells or tissues, and an imbalance with regard to pro-oxidants gives rise to oxidative stress (OS) [5].

Antioxidants impede or delay the *in vivo* oxidation reactions of lipids and other molecules or foods, inhibiting or retarding the chain propagation of free radicals generated by oxidation, such as hydroxyl radicals (•OH). In general, antioxidants are aromatic compounds that pos‐ sess at least one free hydroxyl; they may be synthetic, such as BHA (butylhydroxyanisole),

Many studies have demonstrated that the consumption of antioxidants in food reduces the effects of the oxidative processes that naturally occur within the organism, aiding the natu‐ ral endogenous protection mechanisms, such as the activities of superoxide dismutase, cata‐ lase and peroxidase, which together with vitamins E, C and A; enzymes; and other antioxidants and reduced glutathione (GSH) constitute the integrated antioxidant defence

Flavonoids belong to the polyphenol group, which can be further divided into 11 smaller classes, including isoflavones, anthocyanins, flavans and flavanones. Their basic structure (Figure 1) comprises a flavone nucleus with 2 benzene rings (A and B) bonded to a heterocy‐

Isoflavones are phenolic compounds found mainly in beans and soybean derivatives and vary in concentration from 0.1 to 5 mg/g. They are distinguished by the substituents on the

ty in addition to the ability to reduce the incidence of cancer in humans [1-4].

or natural, such as terpenes and phenolic compounds [2, 6-9].

system (IADS) of the human body [4, 5, 7-8].

clic pyran ring (C) [10,11].

**Figure 1.** General structure of a flavonoid [10]

The concept of functional starter cultures that *per se* may not be probiotics but may improve product quality or result in physiological effects for the consumer is a possibility that should be explored. In addition to the probiotic properties, other choices include the use of *in situ* cultures that inhibit pathogenic contaminants by antimicrobial action; degrade or remove toxic compounds; produce vitamins or exopolysaccharides (EPSs); contribute to viscosity, body or texture; and facilitate adherence to specific sites in the host.

The action of binding EPS mucoid bacteria to the protein matrix results in increased viscous behaviour, and some EPSs produced by LAB are beneficial to health due to their prebiotic and hypocholesterolemic effects, immunomodulation ability or anticancer activity. Confirm‐ ing these observations, some authors reported that the production of exopolysaccharides by certain bifidobacteria can increase the viscosity of fermented foods, contributing to the rheo‐ logical properties, and therefore can be considered to be natural additives preferred by con‐ sumers that can replace plant or animal stabilisers.

The use of the special characteristics of LAB to potentiate their effects in foods or food sup‐ plies to vegetarians and people with dietary or religious restrictions provides an alternative to differentiated products. This category includes foods that are lactose free, have an in‐ creased fibre content, are free of animal products, and have an increased amount of antioxi‐ dant bioactive compounds (e.g., isoflavones, aglycones, oligosaccharides). Fruits and vegetables contain high levels of beneficial substances (e.g., antioxidants, vitamins, fibre and minerals), and the addition of LAB and probiotics can add more features. The knowledge of their behaviour in fruit and vegetable matrices as vehicles for the use of probiotics or bioac‐ tive ingredients is fundamental and still largely unexplored in the literature or in industrial processes.

There is, however, a need for the emerging pressure or process as a whole to be consistent with sustainable practices throughout the production chain in terms of the economic, envi‐ ronmental or social issues. Each step of the process that adds value to a product or avoids the generation of waste or effluent will be in agreement with the goals of clean production.

This chapter will focus on the recovery of by-products and innovative uses of plant materi‐ als and the strengthening of the resources for and beneficial effects of combining foods to obtain value-added functional products and offer alternatives to consumers searching for ways to improve their health through specialty foods.

## **2. Antioxidants from plant sources**

In recent years, natural compounds have generated great interest due to the correlation be‐ tween carcinogenic effects and the ingestion of synthetic compounds. Natural compounds such as phenolics, carotenoids and organic acids are widely found in plants and vegetables and have been the target of numerous studies because they exhibit strong antioxidant activi‐ ty in addition to the ability to reduce the incidence of cancer in humans [1-4].

There is an equilibrium between the antioxidant defence system and the pro-oxidants in the human body, which are mainly reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS). The majority of reactive species (RS) originate in endogenous metabolic processes, whereas exogenous sources may include excess iron or copper in the diet, smoking, expo‐ sure to environmental pollutants, inflammation, bacterial infections, radiation, prolonged emotional stress and unbalanced intestinal microflora. The abnormal formation of RS may occur *in vivo* and cause damage to lipids, proteins, nucleic acids or carbohydrates in cells or tissues, and an imbalance with regard to pro-oxidants gives rise to oxidative stress (OS) [5].

Antioxidants impede or delay the *in vivo* oxidation reactions of lipids and other molecules or foods, inhibiting or retarding the chain propagation of free radicals generated by oxidation, such as hydroxyl radicals (•OH). In general, antioxidants are aromatic compounds that pos‐ sess at least one free hydroxyl; they may be synthetic, such as BHA (butylhydroxyanisole), or natural, such as terpenes and phenolic compounds [2, 6-9].

Many studies have demonstrated that the consumption of antioxidants in food reduces the effects of the oxidative processes that naturally occur within the organism, aiding the natu‐ ral endogenous protection mechanisms, such as the activities of superoxide dismutase, cata‐ lase and peroxidase, which together with vitamins E, C and A; enzymes; and other antioxidants and reduced glutathione (GSH) constitute the integrated antioxidant defence system (IADS) of the human body [4, 5, 7-8].

Flavonoids belong to the polyphenol group, which can be further divided into 11 smaller classes, including isoflavones, anthocyanins, flavans and flavanones. Their basic structure (Figure 1) comprises a flavone nucleus with 2 benzene rings (A and B) bonded to a heterocy‐ clic pyran ring (C) [10,11].

**Figure 1.** General structure of a flavonoid [10]

tendency towards the use of cheap and sustainable new materials with properties consistent

The concept of functional starter cultures that *per se* may not be probiotics but may improve product quality or result in physiological effects for the consumer is a possibility that should be explored. In addition to the probiotic properties, other choices include the use of *in situ* cultures that inhibit pathogenic contaminants by antimicrobial action; degrade or remove toxic compounds; produce vitamins or exopolysaccharides (EPSs); contribute to viscosity,

The action of binding EPS mucoid bacteria to the protein matrix results in increased viscous behaviour, and some EPSs produced by LAB are beneficial to health due to their prebiotic and hypocholesterolemic effects, immunomodulation ability or anticancer activity. Confirm‐ ing these observations, some authors reported that the production of exopolysaccharides by certain bifidobacteria can increase the viscosity of fermented foods, contributing to the rheo‐ logical properties, and therefore can be considered to be natural additives preferred by con‐

The use of the special characteristics of LAB to potentiate their effects in foods or food sup‐ plies to vegetarians and people with dietary or religious restrictions provides an alternative to differentiated products. This category includes foods that are lactose free, have an in‐ creased fibre content, are free of animal products, and have an increased amount of antioxi‐ dant bioactive compounds (e.g., isoflavones, aglycones, oligosaccharides). Fruits and vegetables contain high levels of beneficial substances (e.g., antioxidants, vitamins, fibre and minerals), and the addition of LAB and probiotics can add more features. The knowledge of their behaviour in fruit and vegetable matrices as vehicles for the use of probiotics or bioac‐ tive ingredients is fundamental and still largely unexplored in the literature or in industrial

There is, however, a need for the emerging pressure or process as a whole to be consistent with sustainable practices throughout the production chain in terms of the economic, envi‐ ronmental or social issues. Each step of the process that adds value to a product or avoids the generation of waste or effluent will be in agreement with the goals of clean production.

This chapter will focus on the recovery of by-products and innovative uses of plant materi‐ als and the strengthening of the resources for and beneficial effects of combining foods to obtain value-added functional products and offer alternatives to consumers searching for

In recent years, natural compounds have generated great interest due to the correlation be‐ tween carcinogenic effects and the ingestion of synthetic compounds. Natural compounds such as phenolics, carotenoids and organic acids are widely found in plants and vegetables

body or texture; and facilitate adherence to specific sites in the host.

sumers that can replace plant or animal stabilisers.

ways to improve their health through specialty foods.

**2. Antioxidants from plant sources**

with ingredient control release.

164 Food Industry

processes.

Isoflavones are phenolic compounds found mainly in beans and soybean derivatives and vary in concentration from 0.1 to 5 mg/g. They are distinguished by the substituents on the benzene ring, which are classified into 4 distinct forms: β-glycosides (daidzin, genistin and glycitin), acetyl-glycosides (acetyldaidzin, acetylgenistin and acetylglycitin), malonyl-glyco‐ sides (malonyldaidzin, malonylgenistin and malonylglycitin) and aglycones (daidzein, gen‐ istein and glycitein). As a result, there are a total of 12 different forms, with the β-glycoside forms bonded at position 7 of the benzene ring to a glucose molecule (Figure 2). The con‐ sumption of isoflavones is related to the prevention of several diseases, such as breast can‐ cer, colon cancer and cardiovascular problems. In a study performed by Silva, Carrão-Panizzi and Prudêncio (2009) comparing different varieties of soybean, the authors found a prevalence of glycosidic and malonyl-glycosidic isoflavones in the beans, with higher levels of the aglycone forms in the BRS 267 soybean variety with cooking [10,13-15].

According to Arora, Nair and Strasburg et al. (1998), all isoflavone forms display antioxi‐ dant action, which varies widely according to the structure. In addition, the genistein form, with hydroxyl groups at positions 5, 7 and 4, has a greater antioxidant strength, which is evident by its structure, as shown in figure 2.

Aglyco nes

Glucosides

Chaiyasut et al. (2010) evaluated the effect of the time of *Aspergillus oryzae* fermentation in soybean on the isoflavone profile and the antioxidant capacity through ABTS cation (2*,*2*'*azi‐ nobis-[3*-*ethylbenzthiazoline*-*6*-*sulfonic acid]) and iron reduction (FRAP) assays. According to the authors, there was a significant increase in aglycone isoflavones (daidzein and genis‐ tein) and a reduction in glycosilades (daidzin and genistin) with a longer exposure time to the fermentation process. This trend was reflected in the antioxidant activity, with the great‐ er antioxidant capacity displayed by samples with a longer fermentation time due to an in‐ crease in the aglycone forms. These results were similar to those found by Barbosa et al. (2006), who evaluated the isoflavone profile and the amount of phenolic compounds in dif‐ ferent soybean-based products and the influence of these products on the antioxidant ca‐ pacity. Their results showed that the antioxidant capacity is related not only to the amount of total phenolic compounds but also to the amount and forms of the aglycones and the

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167

However, anthocyanins are considered to be natural pigments, as they exhibit colours that are visible to the human eye and may be found in flowers, fruits and vegetables. Anthocya‐ nins belong to the flavonoid group and are not synthesised by the human body; when in‐ gested, they help the immune system by decreasing the action of radicals formed during

Anthocyanins are glycosides of anthocyanidins (Figure 3) and may have different sugars bonded to their ringed structure. They are classified as mono, di or triglycosides, and the diglycoside and triglycoside forms are more stable than the monoglycoside forms. They dis‐ play colour variations according to their structural forms, pH value, number of hydroxyls

According to Levi et al. (2004), there may be 4 structures in an aqueous medium depending on the pH value: the flavylium cation, the quinoidal base, carbinol and chalcone (Figure 4).

respiration, and they are naturally found in several plants [19,20].

and methoxyls and temperature [21-23].

**Figure 3.** General structure of an anthocyanin [23]

types of conjugation.

1


**Figure 2.** Chemical structures of the 12 isoflavones found in soybean [10]

**Figure 2.**Chemical structures of the 12 isoavones found in soybean [10]

**Figure 4.**Molecular structures found at dierent pH values [24]

Chaiyasut et al. (2010) evaluated the effect of the time of *Aspergillus oryzae* fermentation in soybean on the isoflavone profile and the antioxidant capacity through ABTS cation (2*,*2*'*azi‐ nobis-[3*-*ethylbenzthiazoline*-*6*-*sulfonic acid]) and iron reduction (FRAP) assays. According to the authors, there was a significant increase in aglycone isoflavones (daidzein and genis‐ tein) and a reduction in glycosilades (daidzin and genistin) with a longer exposure time to the fermentation process. This trend was reflected in the antioxidant activity, with the great‐ er antioxidant capacity displayed by samples with a longer fermentation time due to an in‐ crease in the aglycone forms. These results were similar to those found by Barbosa et al. (2006), who evaluated the isoflavone profile and the amount of phenolic compounds in dif‐ ferent soybean-based products and the influence of these products on the antioxidant ca‐ pacity. Their results showed that the antioxidant capacity is related not only to the amount of total phenolic compounds but also to the amount and forms of the aglycones and the types of conjugation.

However, anthocyanins are considered to be natural pigments, as they exhibit colours that are visible to the human eye and may be found in flowers, fruits and vegetables. Anthocya‐ nins belong to the flavonoid group and are not synthesised by the human body; when in‐ gested, they help the immune system by decreasing the action of radicals formed during respiration, and they are naturally found in several plants [19,20].

Anthocyanins are glycosides of anthocyanidins (Figure 3) and may have different sugars bonded to their ringed structure. They are classified as mono, di or triglycosides, and the diglycoside and triglycoside forms are more stable than the monoglycoside forms. They dis‐ play colour variations according to their structural forms, pH value, number of hydroxyls and methoxyls and temperature [21-23].

**Figure 3.** General structure of an anthocyanin [23]

1

benzene ring, which are classified into 4 distinct forms: β-glycosides (daidzin, genistin and glycitin), acetyl-glycosides (acetyldaidzin, acetylgenistin and acetylglycitin), malonyl-glyco‐ sides (malonyldaidzin, malonylgenistin and malonylglycitin) and aglycones (daidzein, gen‐ istein and glycitein). As a result, there are a total of 12 different forms, with the β-glycoside forms bonded at position 7 of the benzene ring to a glucose molecule (Figure 2). The con‐ sumption of isoflavones is related to the prevention of several diseases, such as breast can‐ cer, colon cancer and cardiovascular problems. In a study performed by Silva, Carrão-Panizzi and Prudêncio (2009) comparing different varieties of soybean, the authors found a prevalence of glycosidic and malonyl-glycosidic isoflavones in the beans, with higher levels

According to Arora, Nair and Strasburg et al. (1998), all isoflavone forms display antioxi‐ dant action, which varies widely according to the structure. In addition, the genistein form, with hydroxyl groups at positions 5, 7 and 4, has a greater antioxidant strength, which is

O

O

R2

H O H

<sup>O</sup> C H 2O R3

**O H** O H

R1 R2 R3 Compounds H H - niezdiad HO H - nietsineg H HCO 3 - nieticylg H H H nizdiad HO H H nitsineg H HCO 3 H niticylg H H HCOC <sup>3</sup> 6"-O-Acetyldaidzin HO H HCOC <sup>3</sup> 6"-O-Acetylgenistin H HCO <sup>3</sup> HCOC <sup>3</sup> 6"-O-Acetylglycitin H H HCOC 2COOH 6"-O-Malonyldaidzin HO H HCOC 2COOH 6"-O-Malonylgenistin H HCO <sup>3</sup> COCH 2COOH 6"-O-Malonylglycitin

O

Glucosides

R O H

of the aglycone forms in the BRS 267 soybean variety with cooking [10,13-15].

evident by its structure, as shown in figure 2.

O

H O

166 Food Industry

R2

O

Aglyco nes

**Figure 2.**Chemical structures of the 12 isoavones found in soybean [10]

**Figure 2.** Chemical structures of the 12 isoflavones found in soybean [10]

**Figure 4.**Molecular structures found at dierent pH values [24]

R1 O H

According to Levi et al. (2004), there may be 4 structures in an aqueous medium depending on the pH value: the flavylium cation, the quinoidal base, carbinol and chalcone (Figure 4).

**3. Non-dairy matrices as vehicles for probiotics and viability**

sumption to individuals who are not intolerant of or allergic to the products [27].

without producing unpleasant flavours or textures [28].

probiotics [27].

and oxygen [29].

of the final product.

Currently, there is increasing consumer interest in probiotic foods as an alternative to im‐ prove health. The majority of probiotic products found on the market are milk based, in‐ cluding milk drinks, yogurts, cheese and ice cream. Despite being an ideal substrate for the growth of these microorganisms, dairy products have several disadvantages, such as the need for refrigerated transportation, their cholesterol content and the restriction of their con‐

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169

Thus, the development of new alternatives for consumption has increasingly earned the at‐ tention of the scientific and industrial communities, and new products, such as those based on soybeans, cereals, fruits, vegetables and meats, are being developed as potential carriers. In addition, these non-dairy matrices contain reasonable amounts of carbohydrates, fibres, proteins and vitamins, which may beneficially favour the growth and maintenance of the

The viability and stability of probiotics have been a formidable market and technological challenge for food producers, given that probiotic foods should contain specific lineages and maintain an appropriate level of viable cells during the product's shelf life. Before they reach consumers, probiotics need to be produced under industrial conditions and maintain their functionality during storage in the form of a starter culture. Then, they need to be able to survive the processing of the food to which they are added. Finally, when ingested, the probiotics need to survive under the harsh conditions of the gastrointestinal tract and per‐ form their beneficial effects in the host. In addition, they must be incorporated into the foods

The application of probiotics in non-dairy matrices must be evaluated, given that several factors may influence the survival of these organisms and their activity when they pass through the gastrointestinal tracts of consumers. The following are among the factors that should be considered: the physiological state of the added probiotic organism as a function of the logarithmic or stationary growth phase; the appropriate concentration of viable cells in the product at the time of consumption; the physical conditions, such as low tempera‐ tures, during product storage; and the chemical composition of the product to which the probiotic is added, such as the pH, water content and amounts of carbon, nitrogen, minerals

Alternative vehicles for the incorporation of probiotic microorganisms may be fruits and fruit juices, but maintaining their viability is challenging because the pH of fruits and fruit juices is frequently low (< 4.0). They also contain antimicrobial substances. To minimise these factors, fruit juice may be formulated to have a higher pH value and smaller amounts of antimicrobial substances [30]. Sheehan, Ross and Fitzgerald (2007) evaluated the survival of several probiotic lineages in orange, pineapple and cranberry juices and observed that in addition to the juice's pH, the probiotic lineage and type of fruit also influenced the counts

**Figure 4.** Molecular structures found at different pH values [24]

Kahkonen et al. (2003) isolated and identified the anthocyanins present in bilberry, blackcur‐ rant and cowberry and evaluated their antioxidant activities through *in vitro* DPPH (2,2-di‐ phenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) assays with emulsified methyl linoleate and LDL (human low density lipoprotein). They found that the amounts of anthocyanins for bilberry, blackcurrant and cowberry were 6000, 2360 and 680 mgkg-1 of the fresh weight, respectively; all samples exhibited high activity in the DPPH tests and were effective antioxidants for the emulsion of methyl linoleate and human LDL. Rufino et al. (2010) studied the antioxidant strength of açaí (*Euterpe oleraceae*) with the aim of using it in functional foods and dietary supplements and found an antioxidant capacity for acai oil in the DPPH assay that was higher (EC50=646.3 g/g DPPH) than the value for virgin olive oil (EC50=2057.27 g/g DPPH), indicat‐ ing its considerable potential for nutritional and health applications.

## **3. Non-dairy matrices as vehicles for probiotics and viability**

Currently, there is increasing consumer interest in probiotic foods as an alternative to im‐ prove health. The majority of probiotic products found on the market are milk based, in‐ cluding milk drinks, yogurts, cheese and ice cream. Despite being an ideal substrate for the growth of these microorganisms, dairy products have several disadvantages, such as the need for refrigerated transportation, their cholesterol content and the restriction of their con‐ sumption to individuals who are not intolerant of or allergic to the products [27].

Thus, the development of new alternatives for consumption has increasingly earned the at‐ tention of the scientific and industrial communities, and new products, such as those based on soybeans, cereals, fruits, vegetables and meats, are being developed as potential carriers. In addition, these non-dairy matrices contain reasonable amounts of carbohydrates, fibres, proteins and vitamins, which may beneficially favour the growth and maintenance of the probiotics [27].

The viability and stability of probiotics have been a formidable market and technological challenge for food producers, given that probiotic foods should contain specific lineages and maintain an appropriate level of viable cells during the product's shelf life. Before they reach consumers, probiotics need to be produced under industrial conditions and maintain their functionality during storage in the form of a starter culture. Then, they need to be able to survive the processing of the food to which they are added. Finally, when ingested, the probiotics need to survive under the harsh conditions of the gastrointestinal tract and per‐ form their beneficial effects in the host. In addition, they must be incorporated into the foods without producing unpleasant flavours or textures [28].

The application of probiotics in non-dairy matrices must be evaluated, given that several factors may influence the survival of these organisms and their activity when they pass through the gastrointestinal tracts of consumers. The following are among the factors that should be considered: the physiological state of the added probiotic organism as a function of the logarithmic or stationary growth phase; the appropriate concentration of viable cells in the product at the time of consumption; the physical conditions, such as low tempera‐ tures, during product storage; and the chemical composition of the product to which the probiotic is added, such as the pH, water content and amounts of carbon, nitrogen, minerals and oxygen [29].

**Figure 4.** Molecular structures found at different pH values [24]

168 Food Industry

ing its considerable potential for nutritional and health applications.

Kahkonen et al. (2003) isolated and identified the anthocyanins present in bilberry, blackcur‐ rant and cowberry and evaluated their antioxidant activities through *in vitro* DPPH (2,2-di‐ phenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) assays with emulsified methyl linoleate and LDL (human low density lipoprotein). They found that the amounts of anthocyanins for bilberry, blackcurrant and cowberry were 6000, 2360 and 680 mgkg-1 of the fresh weight, respectively; all samples exhibited high activity in the DPPH tests and were effective antioxidants for the emulsion of methyl linoleate and human LDL. Rufino et al. (2010) studied the antioxidant strength of açaí (*Euterpe oleraceae*) with the aim of using it in functional foods and dietary supplements and found an antioxidant capacity for acai oil in the DPPH assay that was higher (EC50=646.3 g/g DPPH) than the value for virgin olive oil (EC50=2057.27 g/g DPPH), indicat‐

Alternative vehicles for the incorporation of probiotic microorganisms may be fruits and fruit juices, but maintaining their viability is challenging because the pH of fruits and fruit juices is frequently low (< 4.0). They also contain antimicrobial substances. To minimise these factors, fruit juice may be formulated to have a higher pH value and smaller amounts of antimicrobial substances [30]. Sheehan, Ross and Fitzgerald (2007) evaluated the survival of several probiotic lineages in orange, pineapple and cranberry juices and observed that in addition to the juice's pH, the probiotic lineage and type of fruit also influenced the counts of the final product.

Pereira, Maciel and Rodrigues (2011) obtained a survival value of 8 log UFC/mL of *L. case*i in fermented cashew juice when the initial pH was 6.4 and the fermentation temperature was 30ºC. Yoon, Woodams and Hang (2004) also reported viable cell counts of more than 8.0 log CFU/mL in tomato juice. In addition, *L. acidophilus, L. plantarum, L. casei* and *L. delbrueckii* were capable of rapidly using this juice for cellular synthesis without nutrient supplementa‐ tion. In another study by the same researchers, the fermentation of beets by probiotic bacte‐ ria was also investigated, and the authors observed a cellular survival of 109 UFC/mL of juice after 48 hours of fermentation in this substrate [34].

In addition to studies focusing only on the survival of probiotics in alternative matrices, for these products to be fit for human consumption and compatible with industrial production, evaluating the sensory quality of the formulated products is important. In this context, El‐ lendersen et al. (2012) developed and optimised a probiotic drink composed of apple juice and established the sensory profile using quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA). Sensorial‐ ly, apple juice recently fermented with *L. casei* was characterised as having a thick texture and sweet flavour, but at 28 days of storage, a sour taste was observed by the tasters. When the fermented drink was tested by potential consumers, a rate of 96% acceptance was ob‐ tained, indicating that apple juice may be a medium for the inclusion of probiotics. Baptista, (2010) used orange peels with a pectin content of 19.3% (p/p) and a subsequent fermentation by a starter culture (Lyofast M36 LV) of kefir in milk serum and dehydrated the product, which was used to produce a cereal bar. An average acceptance rate of 6.97 (in a structured Hedonic scale of nine points) for samples without the peel and 6.90 for samples containing the dehydrated probiotic was obtained (the samples did not differ between one another at a

level of p<0.05). The counts of *Lactococcus lactis* found in the product were 5.4x107

time for the cereal [29].

other unidentified compounds.

materials for probiotics to increase their stability.

Cereals are considered one of the most important sources of proteins, carbohydrates, vita‐ mins, minerals and fibres. The traditionally fermented products of cereals exhibit modi‐ fied textures, tastes, aromas and nutritional qualities and are widely consumed in Asia, Africa, South America and India. The fermentative process of these foods, in addition to improving the nutritional value, contribute to increasing its preservation via the produc‐ tion of alcohols and acids and reduction in the amount of toxic substances and cooking

According to Charalampopoulos et al. (2002), the possible applications of cereals or cereal constituents in the formulation of functional foods may include the following: (a) as a fer‐ mentable substrate for the growth of probiotic microorganisms, especially lactobacilli and bifidobacteria; (b) as a dietary fibre promoting various beneficial physiological effects; (c) as a prebiotic due to its specific non-digestible carbohydrate content; and (d) as encapsulating

Thus, several studies have been performed to bind probiotic microorganisms to cereal matri‐ ces. Charalampopoulos, Pandiella and Webb (2003) verified the viability of *Lactobacillus plantarum, L. acidophilus* and *L. reuteri* in extracts of malt, barley and wheat for 4 hours in a phosphate buffer with an acidity of pH 2.5. They observed that these cereals displayed a sig‐ nificant protective effect toward the viability of these microorganisms, which may mainly be attributed to the amount of sugar present in these extracts. In 2010, Charalampopoulos and Pandiella evaluated the survival of *Lactobacillus plantarum* in extracts of barley, wheat and malt that were produced in suspensions of flour/water at concentrations of 5%, 20% and 30%, fermented for 24 hours at 37ºC and stored at 4ºC for 70 days. The authors observed that the cells displayed greater survival when they were stored in a medium containing malt ex‐ tract, and this result was attributed to the higher concentration of sugar and the presence of

Rathore, Salmerón and Pandiella (2012) used malt, barley and a mixture of malt and barley as substrates in the fermentation of *Lactobacillus plantarum* and *Lactobacillus acidophilus* with

CFU/g.

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171

Lima, (2010) studied the behaviour of probiotic microorganisms in different tubers. Beetroot (*Beta vulgaris*) displayed the best survival results compared with sweet potato and arraca‐ cha. Upon adding pure betaine to the samples before fermentation and dehydration to sup‐ plement the amount of betaine already present in beetroot, the counts of *L. plantarum* and *L. rhamnosus* (LPRA Clerici-Sacco culture) were maintained at 8 log CFU/g of dehydrated sam‐ ple (Figure 5).

To increase the robustness of the probiotic lineage of *Lactobacillus salivarius* UCC118, Shee‐ han et al. (2007) in a previous study cloned the *betL* gene of *Listeria monocytogenes* enables the system to capture or accumulate compatible solutes, such as betaine. BetL increases the tol‐ erance to salt, low temperature and pressure stress as well as increases the viability of the probiotic in foods.

**Figure 5.** Behaviour of LPRA culture (composed of *Lact. plantarum* and *Lact. rhamnosus*) in assays 1, 2 and 3 during storage for 60 days at 25 °C. Assay 1(●): beet; assay 2 (■): Beet + 0.5 mM betaine; assay 3 (▲): Beet + 2 mM betaine

In addition to studies focusing only on the survival of probiotics in alternative matrices, for these products to be fit for human consumption and compatible with industrial production, evaluating the sensory quality of the formulated products is important. In this context, El‐ lendersen et al. (2012) developed and optimised a probiotic drink composed of apple juice and established the sensory profile using quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA). Sensorial‐ ly, apple juice recently fermented with *L. casei* was characterised as having a thick texture and sweet flavour, but at 28 days of storage, a sour taste was observed by the tasters. When the fermented drink was tested by potential consumers, a rate of 96% acceptance was ob‐ tained, indicating that apple juice may be a medium for the inclusion of probiotics. Baptista, (2010) used orange peels with a pectin content of 19.3% (p/p) and a subsequent fermentation by a starter culture (Lyofast M36 LV) of kefir in milk serum and dehydrated the product, which was used to produce a cereal bar. An average acceptance rate of 6.97 (in a structured Hedonic scale of nine points) for samples without the peel and 6.90 for samples containing the dehydrated probiotic was obtained (the samples did not differ between one another at a level of p<0.05). The counts of *Lactococcus lactis* found in the product were 5.4x107 CFU/g.

Pereira, Maciel and Rodrigues (2011) obtained a survival value of 8 log UFC/mL of *L. case*i in fermented cashew juice when the initial pH was 6.4 and the fermentation temperature was 30ºC. Yoon, Woodams and Hang (2004) also reported viable cell counts of more than 8.0 log CFU/mL in tomato juice. In addition, *L. acidophilus, L. plantarum, L. casei* and *L. delbrueckii* were capable of rapidly using this juice for cellular synthesis without nutrient supplementa‐ tion. In another study by the same researchers, the fermentation of beets by probiotic bacte‐

Lima, (2010) studied the behaviour of probiotic microorganisms in different tubers. Beetroot (*Beta vulgaris*) displayed the best survival results compared with sweet potato and arraca‐ cha. Upon adding pure betaine to the samples before fermentation and dehydration to sup‐ plement the amount of betaine already present in beetroot, the counts of *L. plantarum* and *L. rhamnosus* (LPRA Clerici-Sacco culture) were maintained at 8 log CFU/g of dehydrated sam‐

To increase the robustness of the probiotic lineage of *Lactobacillus salivarius* UCC118, Shee‐ han et al. (2007) in a previous study cloned the *betL* gene of *Listeria monocytogenes* enables the system to capture or accumulate compatible solutes, such as betaine. BetL increases the tol‐ erance to salt, low temperature and pressure stress as well as increases the viability of the

**Figure 5.** Behaviour of LPRA culture (composed of *Lact. plantarum* and *Lact. rhamnosus*) in assays 1, 2 and 3 during storage for 60 days at 25 °C. Assay 1(●): beet; assay 2 (■): Beet + 0.5 mM betaine; assay 3 (▲): Beet + 2 mM betaine

UFC/mL of

ria was also investigated, and the authors observed a cellular survival of 109

juice after 48 hours of fermentation in this substrate [34].

ple (Figure 5).

170 Food Industry

probiotic in foods.

Cereals are considered one of the most important sources of proteins, carbohydrates, vita‐ mins, minerals and fibres. The traditionally fermented products of cereals exhibit modi‐ fied textures, tastes, aromas and nutritional qualities and are widely consumed in Asia, Africa, South America and India. The fermentative process of these foods, in addition to improving the nutritional value, contribute to increasing its preservation via the produc‐ tion of alcohols and acids and reduction in the amount of toxic substances and cooking time for the cereal [29].

According to Charalampopoulos et al. (2002), the possible applications of cereals or cereal constituents in the formulation of functional foods may include the following: (a) as a fer‐ mentable substrate for the growth of probiotic microorganisms, especially lactobacilli and bifidobacteria; (b) as a dietary fibre promoting various beneficial physiological effects; (c) as a prebiotic due to its specific non-digestible carbohydrate content; and (d) as encapsulating materials for probiotics to increase their stability.

Thus, several studies have been performed to bind probiotic microorganisms to cereal matri‐ ces. Charalampopoulos, Pandiella and Webb (2003) verified the viability of *Lactobacillus plantarum, L. acidophilus* and *L. reuteri* in extracts of malt, barley and wheat for 4 hours in a phosphate buffer with an acidity of pH 2.5. They observed that these cereals displayed a sig‐ nificant protective effect toward the viability of these microorganisms, which may mainly be attributed to the amount of sugar present in these extracts. In 2010, Charalampopoulos and Pandiella evaluated the survival of *Lactobacillus plantarum* in extracts of barley, wheat and malt that were produced in suspensions of flour/water at concentrations of 5%, 20% and 30%, fermented for 24 hours at 37ºC and stored at 4ºC for 70 days. The authors observed that the cells displayed greater survival when they were stored in a medium containing malt ex‐ tract, and this result was attributed to the higher concentration of sugar and the presence of other unidentified compounds.

Rathore, Salmerón and Pandiella (2012) used malt, barley and a mixture of malt and barley as substrates in the fermentation of *Lactobacillus plantarum* and *Lactobacillus acidophilus* with the objective of evaluating the influence of the lineages and the matrices used for the pro‐ duction of a probiotic beverage. The authors observed that a higher level of cellular growth was obtained in the medium that contained malt. In addition, these results suggested that the functional and sensory properties of probiotic beverages based on cereals may be con‐ siderably modified by changes in the composition of the substrate or the inoculum.

there are still technological limitations with regard to its sensory characteristics due to the perception of undesirable flavours that were inherent in the extract or that were formed dur‐ ing the processing [45,46]. Fermentation, especially by lactic bacteria, has been used to im‐ prove the flavour and increase the acceptability of soymilk and sometimes, to decrease the

Soybean-based products that are analogous to the products derived from milk have been developed and are widely consumed. In general, these products are not cheaper than dairy products, yet they meet the growing demand for lactose- and cholesterol-free products. The main products developed in this segment are beverages, yogurt and cheese made from soy‐ bean, which are sought by consumers looking for healthier foods. The fermentation of soy‐ milk by lactic bacteria, in addition to increasing shelf-life, is aimed at obtaining products with flavours and textures that are more acceptable to consumers [47]. In general, the micro‐ organisms that are utilised are capable of using soybean sugars, or sucrose may be added as a substrate for fermentation. Table 1 shows several non-traditional fermented soybean prod‐

levels of saponin, phytate and oligosaccharides [47, 48].

ucts and the respective microorganisms used in their production.

*thermophilus*

*cerevisiae*.

**Table 1.** Non-traditional fermented soybean products

Soy yogurt *Streptococcus thermophilus, L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus*

Kefir *L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis, L. helveticus, L. rhamnosus and*

Custard Commercial kefir culture - *Streptococcus lactis, Streptococcus*

**Product Microorganisms used Reference**

and *L. johnsonii, L. rhamnosus and bifidobacteria*

*L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus* and *Streptococcus*

Fermented soy beverage Bifidobacteria Chou and Hou (2000)

*Bifidobacterium longum* and *Streptococcus thermophilus*

*cremoris, Streptococcus diacetylactis, L. plantarum, L. casei,*

*Saccharomyces fragilis* and *Leuconostoc cremoris*

Soy cheese *L. rhamnosus* Liu et al. (2006)

Several studies on the survival of probiotic microorganisms indicate that soybean is an ap‐ propriate substrate for the growth of several probiotic species, such as bifidobacteria and

*Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis, Lactococcus lactis spp lactis biovar diacetylactis, L. brevis, Leuconostoc* and *Saccharomyces*

*Streptococcus thermophilus* and *L. helveticus* Champagne et al.

Kefir grains Sánchez-Pardo et al.

Farnworth et al. (2007)

Rinaldoni et al. (2012)

(2010)

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173

(2009)

(2005)

(2010)

Baú (2012)

Champagne et al.

McCue and Shetty

Oats, one of the major sources of beta-glucan, are commonly used in studies with probiotics. Guergoletto et al. (2010a) achieved a high level of survival for *L. casei* attached to oat bran when undergoing the vacuum drying process. Angelov et al. (2006), after optimising several factors such as the concentrations of the starter culture, oat flour and sucrose, developed an oat beverage fermented with *L. plantarum*, obtaining approximately 7.5x1010 CFU/mL of pro‐ biotics at the end of the process.

Another interesting application of probiotic microorganisms would be the enrichment of chocolate. With the development of technologies modified and adapted to maintain cells, this process may contribute toward increasing the benefit of this product for human health and increasing the consumption of probiotics by children, given that chocolate is one of their favourite products. For this combination to be successful, the sensory attributes of chocolate must remain unaltered, and the probiotic population must remain viable during commerci‐ alisation [44].

Finally, the application and development of new probiotic products of a non-dairy origin continue to grow. In light of the studies that have been presented by the scientific communi‐ ty, minimising the difficulties found in the application of these microorganisms in other food segments is possible.

## **4. Non-traditional fermented soybean-based products**

Soybean is a plant that has been consumed since ancient times and is known worldwide for its nutritional benefits; it has a composition of approximately 40% proteins, 35% carbohy‐ drates, 20% lipids and 5% ash [10]. In addition, soybean contains a considerable amount of components that are beneficial to health, such as fibres, isoflavones, essential fatty acids and oligosaccharides.

Traditionally, soybean-based products may be fermented by bacteria and/or fungi, with the most well-known being koji, shoyu, miso, tempeh, natto and sufu. These products are tradi‐ tionally consumed by the East Asian population and represent an important source of diet‐ ary protein.

The search for foods that offer health benefits in addition to basic nutrition has promoted the development of new products that are based mainly on soymilk, which is obtained from the aqueous extraction of the bean's components. Soymilk possesses a chemical composition and appearance similar to those of animal milk and constitutes an appropriate substrate for fermentation; it contains, on average, 3.6% protein, 2.0% lipids, 2.9% carbohydrates and 0.5% ash [10]. Although studies have shown an increase in the consumption of soymilk, there are still technological limitations with regard to its sensory characteristics due to the perception of undesirable flavours that were inherent in the extract or that were formed dur‐ ing the processing [45,46]. Fermentation, especially by lactic bacteria, has been used to im‐ prove the flavour and increase the acceptability of soymilk and sometimes, to decrease the levels of saponin, phytate and oligosaccharides [47, 48].

Soybean-based products that are analogous to the products derived from milk have been developed and are widely consumed. In general, these products are not cheaper than dairy products, yet they meet the growing demand for lactose- and cholesterol-free products. The main products developed in this segment are beverages, yogurt and cheese made from soy‐ bean, which are sought by consumers looking for healthier foods. The fermentation of soy‐ milk by lactic bacteria, in addition to increasing shelf-life, is aimed at obtaining products with flavours and textures that are more acceptable to consumers [47]. In general, the micro‐ organisms that are utilised are capable of using soybean sugars, or sucrose may be added as a substrate for fermentation. Table 1 shows several non-traditional fermented soybean prod‐ ucts and the respective microorganisms used in their production.


#### **Table 1.** Non-traditional fermented soybean products

the objective of evaluating the influence of the lineages and the matrices used for the pro‐ duction of a probiotic beverage. The authors observed that a higher level of cellular growth was obtained in the medium that contained malt. In addition, these results suggested that the functional and sensory properties of probiotic beverages based on cereals may be con‐

Oats, one of the major sources of beta-glucan, are commonly used in studies with probiotics. Guergoletto et al. (2010a) achieved a high level of survival for *L. casei* attached to oat bran when undergoing the vacuum drying process. Angelov et al. (2006), after optimising several factors such as the concentrations of the starter culture, oat flour and sucrose, developed an oat beverage fermented with *L. plantarum*, obtaining approximately 7.5x1010 CFU/mL of pro‐

Another interesting application of probiotic microorganisms would be the enrichment of chocolate. With the development of technologies modified and adapted to maintain cells, this process may contribute toward increasing the benefit of this product for human health and increasing the consumption of probiotics by children, given that chocolate is one of their favourite products. For this combination to be successful, the sensory attributes of chocolate must remain unaltered, and the probiotic population must remain viable during commerci‐

Finally, the application and development of new probiotic products of a non-dairy origin continue to grow. In light of the studies that have been presented by the scientific communi‐ ty, minimising the difficulties found in the application of these microorganisms in other

Soybean is a plant that has been consumed since ancient times and is known worldwide for its nutritional benefits; it has a composition of approximately 40% proteins, 35% carbohy‐ drates, 20% lipids and 5% ash [10]. In addition, soybean contains a considerable amount of components that are beneficial to health, such as fibres, isoflavones, essential fatty acids and

Traditionally, soybean-based products may be fermented by bacteria and/or fungi, with the most well-known being koji, shoyu, miso, tempeh, natto and sufu. These products are tradi‐ tionally consumed by the East Asian population and represent an important source of diet‐

The search for foods that offer health benefits in addition to basic nutrition has promoted the development of new products that are based mainly on soymilk, which is obtained from the aqueous extraction of the bean's components. Soymilk possesses a chemical composition and appearance similar to those of animal milk and constitutes an appropriate substrate for fermentation; it contains, on average, 3.6% protein, 2.0% lipids, 2.9% carbohydrates and 0.5% ash [10]. Although studies have shown an increase in the consumption of soymilk,

**4. Non-traditional fermented soybean-based products**

siderably modified by changes in the composition of the substrate or the inoculum.

biotics at the end of the process.

alisation [44].

172 Food Industry

food segments is possible.

oligosaccharides.

ary protein.

Several studies on the survival of probiotic microorganisms indicate that soybean is an ap‐ propriate substrate for the growth of several probiotic species, such as bifidobacteria and several lactobacilli, such as *L. casei, L. helveticus, L. fermenti, L. reuteri* and *L. acidophilus*. Therefore, new probiotic products based on soybean are being continuously developed, ex‐ ploring the potential that soybean has as a vehicle for functional ingredients.

population is allergic to gluten. For this group, the treatment is essentially based on diet modification, which consists of eliminating gluten. The appropriate foods for individuals who are allergic to gluten are restricted and normally expensive, given that during process‐ ing, naturally gluten-free products may experience contamination that is unacceptable for

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Celiac disease (CD) is an immune-mediated enteropathy triggered by the ingestion of wheat gluten (*Triticum aestivum* and *T. durum*) and similar proteins from rye (*Secale cereale*) in geneti‐ cally susceptible individuals. During proteolytic digestion, prolamins (secalins) from rye and those in a subgroup of wheat (a-, b-, g- and w-gliadin) release a family of polypeptides rich in Pro and Gln that is responsible for the auto-immune response in celiac enteropathy [51]. The disease corresponds to hypersensitivity to gliadin (protein portion of gluten), which may be found in wheat, rye, barley and oat, and this hypersensitivity is marked by intense inflamma‐ tory processes. The consumption of cereals that contain gluten by individuals with celiac dis‐ ease harms the small intestine [52], causing atrophy and a flattening of the intestinal villi, thereby leading to a limitation of the area available to absorb nutrients, among other manifes‐ tations. Situations such as travelling, eating outside the home and even enjoying relationships with friends and families may represent difficulties for celiac sufferers, thus interfering in their social lives [53]. With this disease, the processes of digestion and absorption may be compro‐ mised due to the increase in the immune activation of the intestinal tract. Celiac disease is one

Therefore, there is a search for healthy foods that contain a variety of sensory attributes to allow for the possibility of providing a diverse selection of these foods. However, even with these possibilities, the celiac population is deprived of the consumption of many foods given that the formulations contain cereal-derived ingredients that contain gluten, such as oat

Therefore, the development of new products for this population is essential, which may be performed by incorporating ingredients that contribute to an increase in mineral absorption, such as the fructans of inulin and oligofructose and other gluten-free bases. Fructans are soluble dietary fibres that may contribute to an increase in the absorption of minerals through colonic absorption [55, 56]; this effect may be especially important for those with celiac disease, given that the absorption of calcium in the small intestine is impaired in these individuals [57]. Capriles and Gomes Arêas (2010) developed amaranth bars with different flavours through the addition of inulin and oligofructose and observed that the amaranth bars enriched with these fructans may contribute to greater compliance by those with celiac disease to a gluten-free diet and help increase the absorption of calcium. These bars also

Other alternatives available for the celiac population include the substitution of the wheat flour that is present in several foods, such as breads, cakes, biscuits and pasta, with a mix‐ ture of flours that contain rice cream, tapioca flour, potato starch or corn starch, among oth‐

of the main causes of malabsorption in developed countries [54].

have a reduced energy content and a high fibre content.

those with celiac disease.

flakes, wheat flour and malt.

er products.

### **4.1. Fibre in non-traditional fermented soybean-based products**

The development of ingredients and products rich in fibre has significantly increased and involves the incorporation of fibre into a wide variety of products, including those made from soybean, with the aim of improving the dietary habits of the population.

In addition to performing physiological functions that are beneficial to the human body, when added to food products, fibre may change the sensory characteristics and consumer acceptance as well as the product's cost and stability. The addition of fibre may affect the processing and handling of the products, with changes in the viscosity, texture, creaminess, syneresis, acidity, colour and other characteristics [49]. In fermented foods, fibre may change the fermentative ability of the products and, in some cases, may protect probiotic microor‐ ganisms under stress conditions. Soluble fibre can also be fermented by bacteria in the colon, giving rise to short-chain fatty acids, mainly acetate, propionate and butyrate. In contrast, insoluble fibres are not very fermentable. Furthermore, some types of fibre may act as prebi‐ otics, selectively stimulating the growth of some probiotic microorganisms.

The main types of soluble fibre added to products include pectin, inulin, oligofructose, gums, β-glucan and some non-digestible oligosaccharides. Insoluble fibre mainly comprises cellulose and hemicellulose, with the most common sources being legumes and cereals, such as soybean, rice, corn, oats and wheat. In general, some sub-products have been used as an alternative for the incorporation of fibre into products as in the case of okara, which is the residue from producing soymilk and has a significant amount of fibre and other important compounds, such as proteins and isoflavones.

In fermented soybean products, the addition of inulin and oligofructose in soybean yogurt has been reported [50], and soybean, oat and wheat fibre have been added to soybean kefir [49]. In the soybean product fermented with kefir, the soybean fibre stimulated the growth of a probiotic microorganism and promoted an increase in firmness and viscosity and a de‐ crease in the synerisis of the product. Yeo and Liong (2010) supplemented WSSE with the prebiotics maltodextrin, pectin, inulin and fructooligosaccharides and observed an alteration in the lactic bacteria count and other characteristics.

Therefore, it is possible different uses of soybean in human food, including being a source of fibre and providing foods with high nutritional value to meet the population's demand for healthy foods.

## **5. Products developed for individuals with celiac disease**

Increasing our knowledge on the relationship between diet and health has caused consum‐ ers to look for high nutritional value, additional health benefits, convenience and pleasant sensory characteristics in processed products. In addition to this demand, a portion of the population is allergic to gluten. For this group, the treatment is essentially based on diet modification, which consists of eliminating gluten. The appropriate foods for individuals who are allergic to gluten are restricted and normally expensive, given that during process‐ ing, naturally gluten-free products may experience contamination that is unacceptable for those with celiac disease.

several lactobacilli, such as *L. casei, L. helveticus, L. fermenti, L. reuteri* and *L. acidophilus*. Therefore, new probiotic products based on soybean are being continuously developed, ex‐

The development of ingredients and products rich in fibre has significantly increased and involves the incorporation of fibre into a wide variety of products, including those made

In addition to performing physiological functions that are beneficial to the human body, when added to food products, fibre may change the sensory characteristics and consumer acceptance as well as the product's cost and stability. The addition of fibre may affect the processing and handling of the products, with changes in the viscosity, texture, creaminess, syneresis, acidity, colour and other characteristics [49]. In fermented foods, fibre may change the fermentative ability of the products and, in some cases, may protect probiotic microor‐ ganisms under stress conditions. Soluble fibre can also be fermented by bacteria in the colon, giving rise to short-chain fatty acids, mainly acetate, propionate and butyrate. In contrast, insoluble fibres are not very fermentable. Furthermore, some types of fibre may act as prebi‐

The main types of soluble fibre added to products include pectin, inulin, oligofructose, gums, β-glucan and some non-digestible oligosaccharides. Insoluble fibre mainly comprises cellulose and hemicellulose, with the most common sources being legumes and cereals, such as soybean, rice, corn, oats and wheat. In general, some sub-products have been used as an alternative for the incorporation of fibre into products as in the case of okara, which is the residue from producing soymilk and has a significant amount of fibre and other important

In fermented soybean products, the addition of inulin and oligofructose in soybean yogurt has been reported [50], and soybean, oat and wheat fibre have been added to soybean kefir [49]. In the soybean product fermented with kefir, the soybean fibre stimulated the growth of a probiotic microorganism and promoted an increase in firmness and viscosity and a de‐ crease in the synerisis of the product. Yeo and Liong (2010) supplemented WSSE with the prebiotics maltodextrin, pectin, inulin and fructooligosaccharides and observed an alteration

Therefore, it is possible different uses of soybean in human food, including being a source of fibre and providing foods with high nutritional value to meet the population's demand for

Increasing our knowledge on the relationship between diet and health has caused consum‐ ers to look for high nutritional value, additional health benefits, convenience and pleasant sensory characteristics in processed products. In addition to this demand, a portion of the

**5. Products developed for individuals with celiac disease**

ploring the potential that soybean has as a vehicle for functional ingredients.

from soybean, with the aim of improving the dietary habits of the population.

otics, selectively stimulating the growth of some probiotic microorganisms.

compounds, such as proteins and isoflavones.

in the lactic bacteria count and other characteristics.

healthy foods.

174 Food Industry

**4.1. Fibre in non-traditional fermented soybean-based products**

Celiac disease (CD) is an immune-mediated enteropathy triggered by the ingestion of wheat gluten (*Triticum aestivum* and *T. durum*) and similar proteins from rye (*Secale cereale*) in geneti‐ cally susceptible individuals. During proteolytic digestion, prolamins (secalins) from rye and those in a subgroup of wheat (a-, b-, g- and w-gliadin) release a family of polypeptides rich in Pro and Gln that is responsible for the auto-immune response in celiac enteropathy [51]. The disease corresponds to hypersensitivity to gliadin (protein portion of gluten), which may be found in wheat, rye, barley and oat, and this hypersensitivity is marked by intense inflamma‐ tory processes. The consumption of cereals that contain gluten by individuals with celiac dis‐ ease harms the small intestine [52], causing atrophy and a flattening of the intestinal villi, thereby leading to a limitation of the area available to absorb nutrients, among other manifes‐ tations. Situations such as travelling, eating outside the home and even enjoying relationships with friends and families may represent difficulties for celiac sufferers, thus interfering in their social lives [53]. With this disease, the processes of digestion and absorption may be compro‐ mised due to the increase in the immune activation of the intestinal tract. Celiac disease is one of the main causes of malabsorption in developed countries [54].

Therefore, there is a search for healthy foods that contain a variety of sensory attributes to allow for the possibility of providing a diverse selection of these foods. However, even with these possibilities, the celiac population is deprived of the consumption of many foods given that the formulations contain cereal-derived ingredients that contain gluten, such as oat flakes, wheat flour and malt.

Therefore, the development of new products for this population is essential, which may be performed by incorporating ingredients that contribute to an increase in mineral absorption, such as the fructans of inulin and oligofructose and other gluten-free bases. Fructans are soluble dietary fibres that may contribute to an increase in the absorption of minerals through colonic absorption [55, 56]; this effect may be especially important for those with celiac disease, given that the absorption of calcium in the small intestine is impaired in these individuals [57]. Capriles and Gomes Arêas (2010) developed amaranth bars with different flavours through the addition of inulin and oligofructose and observed that the amaranth bars enriched with these fructans may contribute to greater compliance by those with celiac disease to a gluten-free diet and help increase the absorption of calcium. These bars also have a reduced energy content and a high fibre content.

Other alternatives available for the celiac population include the substitution of the wheat flour that is present in several foods, such as breads, cakes, biscuits and pasta, with a mix‐ ture of flours that contain rice cream, tapioca flour, potato starch or corn starch, among oth‐ er products.

Also notable is the use of soluble fibre such as Psyllium – Plantago ovate [59]. The main compo‐ nent of psyllium is mucilage (made up of slightly branched polysaccharides, found in algae and seeds), which represents 10 to 30% of its structure. These types of fibre also contain lipids, proteins, oxalic acid and the enzymes invertase and emulsin. Psyllium is considered to be a prebiotic food and is used either pure or in preparations to improve intestinal constipation [60]. With the double function of substituting for wheat in the development of special foods, psyllium has been added to bread dough, which is traditionally made with wheat flour, to im‐ prove the characteristics obtained via water retention and gelatinisation [61].

Green banana flour may also be an alternative for the celiac population because the cost is not high, it is easy to prepare, and it exhibits a high amount of resistant starch, approximate‐ ly 74% of its composition. This high level of starch is related to its glycaemic index and abili‐ ty to reduce cholesterol levels and promote gastric fullness and intestinal regulation, and its fermentation by intestinal bacteria produces short-chain fatty acids that may prevent the emergence of cancer in intestinal cells [72]. Given these observations, Zandonadi (2012) eval‐ uated the development of a gluten-free pasta alternative for those with celiac disease using green banana flour and demonstrated good acceptance without compromising the product

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However, in foods that are thermally processed, especially breads, the lack of gluten repre‐ sents a challenge in maintaining good sensory qualities, especially in the structure or soft‐ ness during storage. The use of fermented dough (sourdough) by baker's yeast resulted in an improvement of the texture and effectively delayed the hardening of the gluten-free breads [74]. Fermented doughs also provided the breads with characteristics such as starch digestibility and low glycaemic responses, thereby proving to be a promising procedure in the improvement of the texture of gluten-free breads for those with celiac disease [75]. Galle et al. (2012) studied the influence of the in situ formation of EPS from LAB on the rheology of the dough for gluten-free sorghum bread. Among the EPSs, dextran improved the texture

Therefore, the search for and development, market availability, diversification, cost compati‐ bility and even improvement of already existing products for the celiac population all need to increase not only to improve the selection or consumption of these foods but also to en‐

quality of the bread in addition to contributing to the nutritional benefits.

sure a better quality of life for the individuals who require a gluten-free diet.

**6. Probiotics, metabolic action and vehicles of bioactive compounds**

Through fermentation, toxic compounds may be hydrolysed and transformed into deriva‐ tives that are more or less absorbable or less toxic. Several studies describe the reduction of tox‐ ic or mutagenic compounds following fermentation or in the presence of microorganisms. In most cases, the microbial cells adsorb these compounds, and this process is normally in‐ creased with thermal treatment of the cells; the result is the possibility of reducing or degrad‐ ing the compounds, but this latter mechanism is still not yet completely understood. Franco et al. (2010) observed a gradual increase in the reduction of the percentage of deoxynivalenol in solution depending on whether the LAB cells were viable or thermally inactivated (Table 2). Other toxic compounds that could be degraded with this approach are toxins produced by al‐ gae. Considering the increase in the occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms and the possibility of metabolites being released into water supply sources used for human consumption, Guergo‐ letto et al. (2010b) studied the microcystin (MC) biodegradation activities of microorganisms in water (Figure 6). Their work evaluated the use of the probiotic bacteria *Lactobacillus acidophilus* (La-5) and *Lactobacillus casei* (LC-1) and kefir grains for MC degradation over time. The mix‐ tures were maintained at 27°C and 100 rpm, and samples were collected at 0, 12, 24, 48, 72 and

while imparting important nutritional characteristics.

In a study performed by Zandonadi, 2006, psyllium was added to breads, biscuits, pasta, cake and pizza dough, and these products could be classified as foods for special purposes because they reduce the gluten fraction and exhibit good acceptability both by those with and without celiac disease. In addition, they reduce the lipid fraction and thus the product´s energy values.

Given the importance of seeking alternatives that promote sensory and functional character‐ istics that are similar to those of products prepared with gluten, Stork et al. (2009) studied two protein and transglutaminase sources in bread from rice flour to produce a better-quali‐ ty bread. They observed that rice flour may be enriched with albumin and casein modified by transglutaminase to improve the bread's nutritional quality.

Figueira et al. (2011) evaluated the characteristics of gluten-free breads produced with rice flour and enriched with the microalga Spirulina platensis, which is a microalga that has an ap‐ propriate composition for use as a food complement, that have a possible use in combating malnutrition [65]. The dry composition of Spirulina platensis contains high amounts of pro‐ teins (64-74%), polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamins [66] and contains antioxidant com‐ pounds [67]. This microalga is classified as GRAS ("generally recognised as safe") by the FDA, which ensures it can be used as a food without health risks [68]. The authors recommend the use of S. platensis for the enrichment of gluten-free breads made from rice flour using a sug‐ gested microalga concentration of 3%, and these bread are appropriate for celiac patients.

In a study on quinoa flour, Berti et al. (2004) evaluated the triglyceride and free fatty acid levels and glycaemic and insulinaemic responses in individuals with celiac disease and showed that the foods prepared with quinoa flour resulted in improved measures for all of these factors compared with the foods prepared with common flours. They also found that satiety was higher in the ingestion of products prepared from quinoa flour.

The use of kefir, which may act as an anti-inflammatory agent, may provide satisfactory re‐ sults in patients with celiac disease. For these individuals, kefir may help to combat the nu‐ tritional deficiencies resulting from the reduction in intestinal villi because kefir is rich in vitamin B12, thiamine and potassium, which increase the absorption of the vitamin B com‐ plex [70,71].

Mixtures of several LAB were capable of hydrolysing 109 out of 129 ethanol-soluble poly‐ peptides of rye, and De Angelis et al. (2006) concluded that long-term fermentation by se‐ lected LAB may be a potential tool to decrease the risk of contamination with rye in glutenfree products for patients with celiac disease.

Green banana flour may also be an alternative for the celiac population because the cost is not high, it is easy to prepare, and it exhibits a high amount of resistant starch, approximate‐ ly 74% of its composition. This high level of starch is related to its glycaemic index and abili‐ ty to reduce cholesterol levels and promote gastric fullness and intestinal regulation, and its fermentation by intestinal bacteria produces short-chain fatty acids that may prevent the emergence of cancer in intestinal cells [72]. Given these observations, Zandonadi (2012) eval‐ uated the development of a gluten-free pasta alternative for those with celiac disease using green banana flour and demonstrated good acceptance without compromising the product while imparting important nutritional characteristics.

Also notable is the use of soluble fibre such as Psyllium – Plantago ovate [59]. The main compo‐ nent of psyllium is mucilage (made up of slightly branched polysaccharides, found in algae and seeds), which represents 10 to 30% of its structure. These types of fibre also contain lipids, proteins, oxalic acid and the enzymes invertase and emulsin. Psyllium is considered to be a prebiotic food and is used either pure or in preparations to improve intestinal constipation [60]. With the double function of substituting for wheat in the development of special foods, psyllium has been added to bread dough, which is traditionally made with wheat flour, to im‐

In a study performed by Zandonadi, 2006, psyllium was added to breads, biscuits, pasta, cake and pizza dough, and these products could be classified as foods for special purposes because they reduce the gluten fraction and exhibit good acceptability both by those with and without celiac disease. In addition, they reduce the lipid fraction and thus the product´s

Given the importance of seeking alternatives that promote sensory and functional character‐ istics that are similar to those of products prepared with gluten, Stork et al. (2009) studied two protein and transglutaminase sources in bread from rice flour to produce a better-quali‐ ty bread. They observed that rice flour may be enriched with albumin and casein modified

Figueira et al. (2011) evaluated the characteristics of gluten-free breads produced with rice flour and enriched with the microalga Spirulina platensis, which is a microalga that has an ap‐ propriate composition for use as a food complement, that have a possible use in combating malnutrition [65]. The dry composition of Spirulina platensis contains high amounts of pro‐ teins (64-74%), polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamins [66] and contains antioxidant com‐ pounds [67]. This microalga is classified as GRAS ("generally recognised as safe") by the FDA, which ensures it can be used as a food without health risks [68]. The authors recommend the use of S. platensis for the enrichment of gluten-free breads made from rice flour using a sug‐ gested microalga concentration of 3%, and these bread are appropriate for celiac patients.

In a study on quinoa flour, Berti et al. (2004) evaluated the triglyceride and free fatty acid levels and glycaemic and insulinaemic responses in individuals with celiac disease and showed that the foods prepared with quinoa flour resulted in improved measures for all of these factors compared with the foods prepared with common flours. They also found that

The use of kefir, which may act as an anti-inflammatory agent, may provide satisfactory re‐ sults in patients with celiac disease. For these individuals, kefir may help to combat the nu‐ tritional deficiencies resulting from the reduction in intestinal villi because kefir is rich in vitamin B12, thiamine and potassium, which increase the absorption of the vitamin B com‐

Mixtures of several LAB were capable of hydrolysing 109 out of 129 ethanol-soluble poly‐ peptides of rye, and De Angelis et al. (2006) concluded that long-term fermentation by se‐ lected LAB may be a potential tool to decrease the risk of contamination with rye in gluten-

satiety was higher in the ingestion of products prepared from quinoa flour.

prove the characteristics obtained via water retention and gelatinisation [61].

by transglutaminase to improve the bread's nutritional quality.

energy values.

176 Food Industry

plex [70,71].

free products for patients with celiac disease.

However, in foods that are thermally processed, especially breads, the lack of gluten repre‐ sents a challenge in maintaining good sensory qualities, especially in the structure or soft‐ ness during storage. The use of fermented dough (sourdough) by baker's yeast resulted in an improvement of the texture and effectively delayed the hardening of the gluten-free breads [74]. Fermented doughs also provided the breads with characteristics such as starch digestibility and low glycaemic responses, thereby proving to be a promising procedure in the improvement of the texture of gluten-free breads for those with celiac disease [75]. Galle et al. (2012) studied the influence of the in situ formation of EPS from LAB on the rheology of the dough for gluten-free sorghum bread. Among the EPSs, dextran improved the texture quality of the bread in addition to contributing to the nutritional benefits.

Therefore, the search for and development, market availability, diversification, cost compati‐ bility and even improvement of already existing products for the celiac population all need to increase not only to improve the selection or consumption of these foods but also to en‐ sure a better quality of life for the individuals who require a gluten-free diet.

## **6. Probiotics, metabolic action and vehicles of bioactive compounds**

Through fermentation, toxic compounds may be hydrolysed and transformed into deriva‐ tives that are more or less absorbable or less toxic. Several studies describe the reduction of tox‐ ic or mutagenic compounds following fermentation or in the presence of microorganisms. In most cases, the microbial cells adsorb these compounds, and this process is normally in‐ creased with thermal treatment of the cells; the result is the possibility of reducing or degrad‐ ing the compounds, but this latter mechanism is still not yet completely understood. Franco et al. (2010) observed a gradual increase in the reduction of the percentage of deoxynivalenol in solution depending on whether the LAB cells were viable or thermally inactivated (Table 2).

Other toxic compounds that could be degraded with this approach are toxins produced by al‐ gae. Considering the increase in the occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms and the possibility of metabolites being released into water supply sources used for human consumption, Guergo‐ letto et al. (2010b) studied the microcystin (MC) biodegradation activities of microorganisms in water (Figure 6). Their work evaluated the use of the probiotic bacteria *Lactobacillus acidophilus* (La-5) and *Lactobacillus casei* (LC-1) and kefir grains for MC degradation over time. The mix‐ tures were maintained at 27°C and 100 rpm, and samples were collected at 0, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h to determine the level of MCs by immunoassay ELISA. The results indicated that the high‐ est degradation percentage was obtained for kefir grains, reaching 60% and 62% of the total MC degradation for Microcystis sp. and NPLJ4 extracts, respectively, followed by the La-5 strain with levels of 43% and 51%. For LC-1, the degradation activities were 20% and 34% for Microcystis sp. and NPLJ4 extracts, respectively, but significant cellular growth was not veri‐ fied when compared with the La-5 strain (Figures 7A and 7B).


**Figure 6.** Scheme for the microcystin biodegrading activity experiment *Lactobacillus acidophilus* (La-5)*, Lactobacillus*

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**Figure 7.** A Degradation kinetics of total MCs by La-5 and LC-1 bacteria and kefir grains during 96 hours of incubation with *Microcystis* sp. (A) extract B Degradation kinetics of total MCs by La-5 and LC-1 bacteria and kefir grains during 96

*casei* (LC-1) and kefir grains

hours of incubation with NPLJ4 (B) extract

The results correspond to the average of duplicates ± standard deviation. Averages ± standard deviation in the same column followed by the same lowercase letter do not differ at p≤0.05. Averages ± standard deviation in the same line accompanied by the same uppercase letter do not differ at p≤0.05.\*\*Viable cells were separated by centrifugation (5 ºC/ 3000 g/ 10 minutes), washed in PBS pH 7.2 and ultrapure water, resuspended in DON solution with ultrapure wa‐ ter at a concentration of 1500 ng ml-1 and incubated at 37±1 ºC for 4 hours.\*\*\*Nonviable cells following pasteurisa‐ tion (100 ºC/ 30 minutes) were separated by centrifugation, washed in PBS pH 7.2 and ultrapure water, resuspended in DON solution with ultrapure water at a concentration of 1500 ng ml-1 and incubated at 37±1 ºC for 4 hours.\*\*\*\*Nonviable cells following sterilisation (121 ºC/ 15 minutes) were separated by centrifugation, washed in PBS pH 7.2 and ultrapure water, resuspended in DON solution with ultrapure water at a concentration of 1500 ng ml-1 and incubated at 37±1 ºC for 4 hours.

**Table 2.** Reduction of deoxynivalenol level by LAB viable cells and cells that were heat inactivated (unviable) by pasteurisation or sterilisation

96 h to determine the level of MCs by immunoassay ELISA. The results indicated that the high‐ est degradation percentage was obtained for kefir grains, reaching 60% and 62% of the total MC degradation for Microcystis sp. and NPLJ4 extracts, respectively, followed by the La-5 strain with levels of 43% and 51%. For LC-1, the degradation activities were 20% and 34% for Microcystis sp. and NPLJ4 extracts, respectively, but significant cellular growth was not veri‐

> **cells following pasteurisation\*\*\***

**Unviable cells following sterilisation\*\*\*\***

**Viable cells\*\* Unviable**

Lyofast LPRA 52.07 ± 0.1aB 53.18 ± 2.06cB 70.32 ± 1.65aA Lyofast BG 112 52.62 ± 4.95aB 67.45 ± 2.95aA 71.19 ± 2.77aA Lyofast LA3 39.23 ± 2.22bC 60.67 ± 1.34bB 66.71 ± 1.82aA LC 01 40.61 ± 1.19bB 64.03 ± 0.07abA 66.56 ± 2.43aA Yo flex YC 180 31.25 ± 0.89cC 57.43 ± 0.95bB 65.64 ± 0.77aA Florafit LP 115 32.61 ± 1.38cC 40.81 ± 0.95deB 58.51 ± 1.29cA Yo mix 40.67 ± 0.76 bB 41.98 ± 0.45deB 48.75 ± 1.81cA Choozit Helv A 55.30 ± 1.35aB 59.05 ± 0.45bAB 63.84±0.16abA *L. plantarum* TG VIII 29.86 ± 1.18cC 50.38 ± 0.46cdB 56.05 ± 1.86bA *L. plantarum* FT VI 34.88 ± 0.94bcB 38.58 ± 1.66eB 55.74 ± 1.25bA *L. plantarum* GT III 56.12 ± 1.02aB 62.67 ± 1.09abA 66.79 ± 0.43aA *L. plantarum* FTQ VII 39.70 ± 1.93bC 51.37 ± 1.36cB 65.26 ± 1.27aA *L. plantarum* FB VII 16.41 ± 5.35dC 48.34 ± 1.46cdB 59.62 ± 1.02bA *L. plantarum* FI IX 39.71 ± 0.30bB 44.73 ± 0.29bB 57.68 ± 0.41cA *L. pentosus* S I 19.51 ± 4.63dC 35.95 ± 1.57eB 47.48 ± 1.59dA *L. paracasei* K VI 29.51 ± 1.16cC 44.98 ± 1.77dB 57.19 ± 1.04cA

The results correspond to the average of duplicates ± standard deviation. Averages ± standard deviation in the same column followed by the same lowercase letter do not differ at p≤0.05. Averages ± standard deviation in the same line accompanied by the same uppercase letter do not differ at p≤0.05.\*\*Viable cells were separated by centrifugation (5 ºC/ 3000 g/ 10 minutes), washed in PBS pH 7.2 and ultrapure water, resuspended in DON solution with ultrapure wa‐ ter at a concentration of 1500 ng ml-1 and incubated at 37±1 ºC for 4 hours.\*\*\*Nonviable cells following pasteurisa‐ tion (100 ºC/ 30 minutes) were separated by centrifugation, washed in PBS pH 7.2 and ultrapure water, resuspended in DON solution with ultrapure water at a concentration of 1500 ng ml-1 and incubated at 37±1 ºC for 4 hours.\*\*\*\*Nonviable cells following sterilisation (121 ºC/ 15 minutes) were separated by centrifugation, washed in PBS pH 7.2 and ultrapure water, resuspended in DON solution with ultrapure water at a concentration of 1500 ng ml-1

**Table 2.** Reduction of deoxynivalenol level by LAB viable cells and cells that were heat inactivated (unviable) by

fied when compared with the La-5 strain (Figures 7A and 7B).

**Microorganism Reduction Percentage (%)\***

178 Food Industry

and incubated at 37±1 ºC for 4 hours.

pasteurisation or sterilisation

**Figure 6.** Scheme for the microcystin biodegrading activity experiment *Lactobacillus acidophilus* (La-5)*, Lactobacillus casei* (LC-1) and kefir grains

**Figure 7.** A Degradation kinetics of total MCs by La-5 and LC-1 bacteria and kefir grains during 96 hours of incubation with *Microcystis* sp. (A) extract B Degradation kinetics of total MCs by La-5 and LC-1 bacteria and kefir grains during 96 hours of incubation with NPLJ4 (B) extract

Mutagenic or carcinogenic activity in the caecal or urinary structures may be reduced by the consumption of *L. casei shirota* (LcS). A mechanism to explain the production of muta‐ genic substances was described by an *in vitro* study [79] in which the LcS was capable of strongly adsorbing and inactivating mutagenic pathogens and carcinogens, such as 3–ami‐ no-1,4 dimethyl-5H-pyrido (4,3-b) indole-trp-P-1 and 3-amino-1-methyl 5H pyrido (4,3-b) indole-trp-P-2. LcS also has the ability of binding aflatoxin, a known carcinogen pro‐ duced by fungi [80].

tial application of these new natural materials for the protection of probiotics using gastroin‐ testinal simulation tests. Okra and flaxseed showed the greatest retention of yeast cells in the microspheres and, consequently, a lower percentage of release at 66.97% and 72.96%, re‐

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abc Means between columns followed by different lowercase letters are significantly different (p <0.05). ARA acacia gum; YAM *Dioscorea sp*; TARO *Colocasia esculenta*; I-CAR iota carrageenan; A-A agar-agar; ALG alginate; LIN *Linun*

**Figure 9.** Mean release (% log CFU/g) of the probiotic *S. cerevisiae* encapsulated in agar-agar and different gums and

Mean release (% log CFU/g) of the probiotic S. cerevisiae encapsulated in agar-agar and dif‐

**Figure 10.** Digestion *in vitro* of the probiotic S. cerevisiae encapsulated in mucilages and gums. ARA acacia gum; YAM Dioscorea sp; TARO Colocasia esculenta; I-CAR iota carrageenan; A-A agar agar; ALG alginate; LIN Linun usitatissi‐

Free radicals, especially those belonging to the family of ROS, are increasingly implicated or recognised as the cause of aging and in the pathogenesis of different diseases, such as cancer. Oxidative damage to the cellular molecules caused by chain reactions of free radi‐ cals may be combatted by antioxidants or by free-radical-sequestering agents. The use of natural antioxidants with less harmful effects and better bio-acceptability is gradually be‐

spectively (Figures 9 and 10).

*usitatissimum*; OKR *Hibiscus esculentus.*

ferent gums and mucilages after digestion *in vitro*

mucilages after digestion *in vitro*

mum; OKR Hibiscus esculentus

Multi-functional polysaccharide molecules of plant, algal, bacterial or fungal origins have been extensively studied in recent decades for applications as thickeners, stabilisers, gelling agents, prebiotics and bioremediators or anti-pollutants [81-83]. Until now, plant macromo‐ lecules have dominated the market due to their ease and availability and because their puri‐ fication is cost efficient, as plants are superior primary sources of polysaccharides, including starch, cellulose, pectin and gums. However, because polysaccharides of microbial origin are renewable, have little cost variation and have reproducible physical-chemical properties, they may be of value in certain situations, although they are still not widely marketed and represent an unexplored market [82]. Prasanna et al. (2012) studied the growth, acidification, EPS production and viscosity potential of 22 lineages of *Bifidobacterium spp* of intestinal ori‐ gin, and EPSs were produced by *Bifidobacterium bifidum* ALM 35, B. breve NCIMB 8807 (UCC 2003), *B. longum subsp. infantis* CCUG 52486 and *Bifidobacterium infantis* NCIMB 702205 in concentrations varying from 25 to 140 mg L-1, producing an increase in the viscosity of dairy products with a low fat content.

**Figure 8.** Scanning electron micrographs at magnifications of 20,000x Agar-agar and yam (Dioscorea sp.) micro‐ spheres containing *Saccharomyces cerevisiae* Laboratory of Electron Microscopy and Microanalyses – State University of Londrina.

Laurenti, E. (2010) studied the controlled release of probiotic *S. cerevisiae* (Biosaf SC-47) from microspheres of agar-agar added to mucilage (Figure 8) and gums and evaluated the poten‐ tial application of these new natural materials for the protection of probiotics using gastroin‐ testinal simulation tests. Okra and flaxseed showed the greatest retention of yeast cells in the microspheres and, consequently, a lower percentage of release at 66.97% and 72.96%, re‐ spectively (Figures 9 and 10).

Mutagenic or carcinogenic activity in the caecal or urinary structures may be reduced by the consumption of *L. casei shirota* (LcS). A mechanism to explain the production of muta‐ genic substances was described by an *in vitro* study [79] in which the LcS was capable of strongly adsorbing and inactivating mutagenic pathogens and carcinogens, such as 3–ami‐ no-1,4 dimethyl-5H-pyrido (4,3-b) indole-trp-P-1 and 3-amino-1-methyl 5H pyrido (4,3-b) indole-trp-P-2. LcS also has the ability of binding aflatoxin, a known carcinogen pro‐

Multi-functional polysaccharide molecules of plant, algal, bacterial or fungal origins have been extensively studied in recent decades for applications as thickeners, stabilisers, gelling agents, prebiotics and bioremediators or anti-pollutants [81-83]. Until now, plant macromo‐ lecules have dominated the market due to their ease and availability and because their puri‐ fication is cost efficient, as plants are superior primary sources of polysaccharides, including starch, cellulose, pectin and gums. However, because polysaccharides of microbial origin are renewable, have little cost variation and have reproducible physical-chemical properties, they may be of value in certain situations, although they are still not widely marketed and represent an unexplored market [82]. Prasanna et al. (2012) studied the growth, acidification, EPS production and viscosity potential of 22 lineages of *Bifidobacterium spp* of intestinal ori‐ gin, and EPSs were produced by *Bifidobacterium bifidum* ALM 35, B. breve NCIMB 8807 (UCC 2003), *B. longum subsp. infantis* CCUG 52486 and *Bifidobacterium infantis* NCIMB 702205 in concentrations varying from 25 to 140 mg L-1, producing an increase in the viscosity of

**Figure 8.** Scanning electron micrographs at magnifications of 20,000x Agar-agar and yam (Dioscorea sp.) micro‐ spheres containing *Saccharomyces cerevisiae* Laboratory of Electron Microscopy and Microanalyses – State University

Laurenti, E. (2010) studied the controlled release of probiotic *S. cerevisiae* (Biosaf SC-47) from microspheres of agar-agar added to mucilage (Figure 8) and gums and evaluated the poten‐

duced by fungi [80].

180 Food Industry

dairy products with a low fat content.

of Londrina.

abc Means between columns followed by different lowercase letters are significantly different (p <0.05). ARA acacia gum; YAM *Dioscorea sp*; TARO *Colocasia esculenta*; I-CAR iota carrageenan; A-A agar-agar; ALG alginate; LIN *Linun usitatissimum*; OKR *Hibiscus esculentus.*

**Figure 9.** Mean release (% log CFU/g) of the probiotic *S. cerevisiae* encapsulated in agar-agar and different gums and mucilages after digestion *in vitro*

Mean release (% log CFU/g) of the probiotic S. cerevisiae encapsulated in agar-agar and dif‐ ferent gums and mucilages after digestion *in vitro*

**Figure 10.** Digestion *in vitro* of the probiotic S. cerevisiae encapsulated in mucilages and gums. ARA acacia gum; YAM Dioscorea sp; TARO Colocasia esculenta; I-CAR iota carrageenan; A-A agar agar; ALG alginate; LIN Linun usitatissi‐ mum; OKR Hibiscus esculentus

Free radicals, especially those belonging to the family of ROS, are increasingly implicated or recognised as the cause of aging and in the pathogenesis of different diseases, such as cancer. Oxidative damage to the cellular molecules caused by chain reactions of free radi‐ cals may be combatted by antioxidants or by free-radical-sequestering agents. The use of natural antioxidants with less harmful effects and better bio-acceptability is gradually be‐ coming important. Many plant or microbial polysaccharides have been demonstrated to exhibit sequestering or antioxidant ability due to the abundance of functional groups in the molecule [86]. Pan and Mei (2010) described the antioxidant action of EPS from *Lacto‐ coccus lactis subsp lactis 12*.

may be of value in future applications in medicine for the reduction of blood sugar and

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183

Hobbs et al. (2012) studied the effect of beet juice and breads with added beets on the change in blood pressure and found strong evidence for a cardioprotective effect and the lowering of blood pressure caused by nitrate-rich plants. Recently, the effect of cardioprotec‐ tive agents in green-leafed plants and beets has been postulated [95] to be due to the high nitrate content. Given that hypertension is associated with a decrease in the endogenous production of nitric oxide (NO) and that NO can be produced from the nitrate in the diet, new cost-effective strategies for the incorporation of nitrates in the diet are of considerable

Alessandra Yuri Tsuruda, Marsilvio Lima de Moraes Filho, Marli Busanello, Karla Bigetti Guergoletto, Tahis Regina Baú, Elza Iouko Ida and Sandra Garcia

da Universidade UFRGS / Editora da UFSC. 1999 819.

Food Chemistry and Toxicology. 1995; 33(7) 601-617.

Food Science and Technology Department, State University of Londrina, Londrina, Brazil

[1] Simões CMO, Schenkel EP, Gosmann G, Mentz LA, de Mello Palazzo JC, Schenkel EP. Farmacognosia: da planta ao medicamento. Porto Alegre/Florianópolis: Editora

[2] Zheng W, Wang SY. Antioxidant activity and phenolic compounds in selected herbs.

[3] Wang SY, Zheng W. Effect of plant growth temperature on antioxidant capacity in strawberry. Journal Agricultural and Food Chemistry. Chicago: 2001; 49 4977-4982. [4] Yildirim A, Mavi A., Kara AA. Determination of antioxidant and antimicrobial activi‐ ties of Rumex crispus L. extracts. Journal Agricultural and Food Chemistry. Chicago:

[5] Kullisaar T, Songisepp E, Zilmer M. Probiotics and Oxidative Stress. In: Oxidative Stress –Environmental Induction and Dietary Antioxidants. Lushchak, V.L. Cro‐

[6] Halliwell B, Aeschbach R, Loliger J, Aruoma OI. The characterization of antioxidants.

[7] Brenna OV, Pagliarini, E. Multivariate analyses of antioxidant power and polyphe‐ nolic composition in red wines. Journal Agricultural and Food Chemistry. Chicago:

Journal Agricultural and Food Chemistry. Chicago: 2001; 49 5165-5170.

cholesterol and for the treatment of cholestasis [93].

interest.

**Author details**

**References**

2001; 49 4083-4089.

atia,Intech, 2012 p.203

2001; 49 4841-4844.

New evidence increasingly suggests the correlation of human IADS with the microbial or‐ ganisms in the gastrointestinal tract. Specific lineages with physiological and antioxidant ac‐ tivities have a major impact on the management of the levels of oxidative stress in the lumen, among the mucosa cells and even in blood to support the functionality of the IADS in the human body. A lineage of *Lactobacillus fermentum* ME-3 (LfME-3) with antioxidant, an‐ timicrobial and antiatherogenic properties was patented by the University of Tartu and pro‐ ven to be 80 to 100 times more potent *in vitro* in sequestering the superoxide anion radical than Trolox or ascorbic acid. This lineage expresses Mnb superoxide dismutase (Mn SOD) activity, which effectively eliminates hydroxyl and peroxyl radicals and has the complete glutathione system (GSH, GPx, glutathione reductase – Gred) necessary for the recycling, transportation and synthesis of glutathione [5].

According to estimates by the World Health Organization [88], 3.2 million deaths per year are associated with physical inactivity. A sedentary lifestyle, a term derived from the Latin root "sedere", meaning to be seated, includes physical activities with low energy expendi‐ ture that are correlated with obesity, metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascu‐ lar diseases (CVD) [89]. Therefore, new approaches are necessary to reduce the risk of CVD, for which prevention via anti-inflammatory agents and antioxidants is considered to be the "third great wave" [90].

In contrast to the traditional action of probiotics involving a direct interaction with the host, the action of LAB in the cardiovascular system occurs via the release of bioactive peptides from proteins by *L. helveticus* during the fermentation process. A functional dairy product, Cardi-04TM, was developed to reduce blood pressure [91]. A functional cheese with *L. planta‐ rum* lineage TENSIA (DSM 21380, property of the Bio-competence Centre of Healthy Dairy Products LLC) may reduce blood pressure, both diastolic and systolic (a dose of 1010UFC of viable probiotic cells per daily portion), in adults with high blood pressure or healthy adults and elderly individuals [5].

Recently, new bioactive compounds have been introduced in different medicinal and ther‐ apeutic applications. These molecules have been used due to their antioxidant, anti-tu‐ mour, anti-inflammatory and anti-viral activities. The EPSs induce cytosine and interferon activity, inhibit platelet aggregation and modulate the immune system [81]. Polysacchar‐ ides of *Lactobacillus sp*. have health benefits. Kefir may be classified as a functional food due to its action at different levels in animals. At doses between 100 and 300 mg/kg in rats, kefiran reduced blood pressure and the levels of blood sugar and cholesterol and displayed a positive effect toward constipation [92]. Other properties were perceived fol‐ lowing the oral administration of this polysaccharide, such as anti-inflammatory and antitumour effects and the stimulation of immunoglobulin secretion. In addition, diosgenin, a steroid saponin present in yams (*Dioscorea sp.)* and fenugreek, displays properties that may be of value in future applications in medicine for the reduction of blood sugar and cholesterol and for the treatment of cholestasis [93].

Hobbs et al. (2012) studied the effect of beet juice and breads with added beets on the change in blood pressure and found strong evidence for a cardioprotective effect and the lowering of blood pressure caused by nitrate-rich plants. Recently, the effect of cardioprotec‐ tive agents in green-leafed plants and beets has been postulated [95] to be due to the high nitrate content. Given that hypertension is associated with a decrease in the endogenous production of nitric oxide (NO) and that NO can be produced from the nitrate in the diet, new cost-effective strategies for the incorporation of nitrates in the diet are of considerable interest.

## **Author details**

coming important. Many plant or microbial polysaccharides have been demonstrated to exhibit sequestering or antioxidant ability due to the abundance of functional groups in the molecule [86]. Pan and Mei (2010) described the antioxidant action of EPS from *Lacto‐*

New evidence increasingly suggests the correlation of human IADS with the microbial or‐ ganisms in the gastrointestinal tract. Specific lineages with physiological and antioxidant ac‐ tivities have a major impact on the management of the levels of oxidative stress in the lumen, among the mucosa cells and even in blood to support the functionality of the IADS in the human body. A lineage of *Lactobacillus fermentum* ME-3 (LfME-3) with antioxidant, an‐ timicrobial and antiatherogenic properties was patented by the University of Tartu and pro‐ ven to be 80 to 100 times more potent *in vitro* in sequestering the superoxide anion radical than Trolox or ascorbic acid. This lineage expresses Mnb superoxide dismutase (Mn SOD) activity, which effectively eliminates hydroxyl and peroxyl radicals and has the complete glutathione system (GSH, GPx, glutathione reductase – Gred) necessary for the recycling,

According to estimates by the World Health Organization [88], 3.2 million deaths per year are associated with physical inactivity. A sedentary lifestyle, a term derived from the Latin root "sedere", meaning to be seated, includes physical activities with low energy expendi‐ ture that are correlated with obesity, metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascu‐ lar diseases (CVD) [89]. Therefore, new approaches are necessary to reduce the risk of CVD, for which prevention via anti-inflammatory agents and antioxidants is considered to be the

In contrast to the traditional action of probiotics involving a direct interaction with the host, the action of LAB in the cardiovascular system occurs via the release of bioactive peptides from proteins by *L. helveticus* during the fermentation process. A functional dairy product, Cardi-04TM, was developed to reduce blood pressure [91]. A functional cheese with *L. planta‐ rum* lineage TENSIA (DSM 21380, property of the Bio-competence Centre of Healthy Dairy Products LLC) may reduce blood pressure, both diastolic and systolic (a dose of 1010UFC of viable probiotic cells per daily portion), in adults with high blood pressure or healthy adults

Recently, new bioactive compounds have been introduced in different medicinal and ther‐ apeutic applications. These molecules have been used due to their antioxidant, anti-tu‐ mour, anti-inflammatory and anti-viral activities. The EPSs induce cytosine and interferon activity, inhibit platelet aggregation and modulate the immune system [81]. Polysacchar‐ ides of *Lactobacillus sp*. have health benefits. Kefir may be classified as a functional food due to its action at different levels in animals. At doses between 100 and 300 mg/kg in rats, kefiran reduced blood pressure and the levels of blood sugar and cholesterol and displayed a positive effect toward constipation [92]. Other properties were perceived fol‐ lowing the oral administration of this polysaccharide, such as anti-inflammatory and antitumour effects and the stimulation of immunoglobulin secretion. In addition, diosgenin, a steroid saponin present in yams (*Dioscorea sp.)* and fenugreek, displays properties that

*coccus lactis subsp lactis 12*.

182 Food Industry

"third great wave" [90].

and elderly individuals [5].

transportation and synthesis of glutathione [5].

Alessandra Yuri Tsuruda, Marsilvio Lima de Moraes Filho, Marli Busanello, Karla Bigetti Guergoletto, Tahis Regina Baú, Elza Iouko Ida and Sandra Garcia

Food Science and Technology Department, State University of Londrina, Londrina, Brazil

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**Chapter 9**

**Quality Management:**

Caroline Liboreiro Paiva

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53162

**1. Introduction**

**Important Aspects for the Food Industry**

Certainly, with the advent of globalization, the market has become more competitive, be‐ cause it has opened the opportunity for new competitors. This does not necessarily mean risk for the survival of local businesses, but a challenge that they must consider. This chal‐ lenge relates to the need to create greater consumer loyalty to products and services, greater suitability of the product to the consumer's needs and greater concern about the social im‐ pact of the company. Moreover, this global scenario represents some opportunities for the companies to act in the new markets. It is clear that this action will depend mainly on the

However, first, the concept of product quality is not so immediate and obvious. Although not universally accepted, the definition for quality with greater consensus is that "suitability for the consumer usage." This definition is comprehensive because it includes two aspects: characteristics that lead to satisfaction with the product and the absence of failures. In fact, the main component consists of the quality characteristics of the product features that meet the consumers' needs and thus it provides satisfaction for the same. These needs are related not only to the intrinsic characteristics of the product, such as the sensory characteristics of a food product, but also to its availability in the market with a compatible price and in a suita‐ ble packaging. The other part is the absence of faults, which is related to the characteristics of the product according to their specifications, making the consumer inspired by the relia‐ bility of the product, i.e., the consumer is sure that he will acquire a safe product, without

For these objectives to be achieved it is required an efficient management of quality, which implies continuous improvement activities at each operational level and in every functional area of the organization. The quality management combines commitment, discipline and a

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 Liboreiro Paiva; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

quality of their own products and services offered.

health risks, and with the properties claimed on the label.


## **Quality Management: Important Aspects for the Food Industry**

Caroline Liboreiro Paiva

[90] Bhatt DL. Anti-inflammatory agents and antioxidants as a possible ''third great wave'' in cardiovascular secondary prevention. America Journal of Cardiology. 2008;

[91] Flambard B, Johansen E. Developing a functional dairy product: from research on Lactobacillus helveticus to industrial application of Cardi-04™ in novel antihyper‐ tensive drinking yoghurts. In: Functional Dairy products Vol 2 Ed. Saarela, M. CRC

[92] Badel S, Bernardi T, Michaud P. New perspectives for Lactobacilli exopolysacchar‐

[93] Rajul J, Rao CV. Diosgenin, a Steroid Saponin Constituent of Yams and Fenugreek: Emerging Evidence for Applications in Medicine. In: BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS IN

[94] Hobbs DA, Kaffa N, George TW, Methven L, Lovegrove JA. Blood pressure-lowering effects of beetroot juice and novel beetroot enriched bread products in normotensive male subjects.British Journal of Nutrition, page 1 of 9 doi:10.1017/S0007114512000190.

[95] Webb AJ, Patel N, Loukogeorgakis S, et al. Acute blood pressure lowering, vasopro‐ tective, and antiplatelet properties of dietary nitrate via bioconversion to nitrite. Hy‐

Press, Cambridge, England, 2007, p.506. ISBN 978-1-84569-310-7 (e-book).

PHYTOMEDICINE Ed. Rasooli, I.; Croatia, Intech 2011 p. 127

ides. Biotechnology Advances. 2011; 29 54-66.

pertension. 2008; 51 784–790.

101 (10A) 4D-13D.

190 Food Industry

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53162

## **1. Introduction**

Certainly, with the advent of globalization, the market has become more competitive, be‐ cause it has opened the opportunity for new competitors. This does not necessarily mean risk for the survival of local businesses, but a challenge that they must consider. This chal‐ lenge relates to the need to create greater consumer loyalty to products and services, greater suitability of the product to the consumer's needs and greater concern about the social im‐ pact of the company. Moreover, this global scenario represents some opportunities for the companies to act in the new markets. It is clear that this action will depend mainly on the quality of their own products and services offered.

However, first, the concept of product quality is not so immediate and obvious. Although not universally accepted, the definition for quality with greater consensus is that "suitability for the consumer usage." This definition is comprehensive because it includes two aspects: characteristics that lead to satisfaction with the product and the absence of failures. In fact, the main component consists of the quality characteristics of the product features that meet the consumers' needs and thus it provides satisfaction for the same. These needs are related not only to the intrinsic characteristics of the product, such as the sensory characteristics of a food product, but also to its availability in the market with a compatible price and in a suita‐ ble packaging. The other part is the absence of faults, which is related to the characteristics of the product according to their specifications, making the consumer inspired by the relia‐ bility of the product, i.e., the consumer is sure that he will acquire a safe product, without health risks, and with the properties claimed on the label.

For these objectives to be achieved it is required an efficient management of quality, which implies continuous improvement activities at each operational level and in every functional area of the organization. The quality management combines commitment, discipline and a

© 2013 Liboreiro Paiva; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

growing effort by everyone involved in the production process and fundamental techniques of management and administration, with the goal of continuously improving all processes. For that, the industries need to be structured organizationally, establish policies and quality programs, measure customers' satisfaction and even use more quality tools and methodolo‐ gies. Specifically for the food industry, also involves the knowledge and application of tech‐ niques and programs for product safety.

Finally, quality management has been incorporated within the strategic scope of organiza‐ tions, this phase called Strategic Management of Quality. It represented a vision of marketoriented management, i.e., with a view of opportunities before the competition and customer satisfaction, where market research has become more important for evaluating the market needs and how the competition stands. The strategic approach is an extension of its

Quality Management: Important Aspects for the Food Industry

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193

Several scholars of quality management are unanimous in emphasizing that the companies in general, and also the food industry, through its organizational structure, the policies adopted, the focus given to the business and the practice of quality control, demonstrate a certain degree of maturity in how to manage quality. Some companies may present practices related to more advanced stages, mature, such as quality assurance and strategic quality management, others may prove more practices related to inspection and process control. Through observation of tools and methods currently adopted in the food industry, it can be inferred that this quality management company is based on the characteristics of a particu‐

For example, the control of the raw material and products for inspection, with special at‐ tention to satisfy the governmental health rules, is a characteristic of the inspection stage. Likewise, the product control only by laboratory analysis is a feature of this stage. More‐ over, quality control practices in process, application of statistical methods for quality control and the adoption of Good Manufacture Practices (GMP) and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) denote that the company has a slightly broader ap‐ proach that inspection, i.e., a more preventive approach control in the production proc‐ ess. But when practice inspection and process control are well established in the company and efforts are directed towards continuous improvement, it can be inferred that the com‐ pany is evolved into a system of quality assurance. Practices consistent with this era are shown by performing quality audits in different sectors of the company, adoption of qual‐ ity systems across the supply chain and also implementation of programs for the develop‐ ment of quality suppliers of products and services. Companies that take a strategic quality management are those that use market research and specific indicators to meas‐ ure customer satisfaction, such as consumer complaints, returns by wholesalers for the time of the product in the inventory and sales below target. Further, evaluate their prod‐ ucts compared to competitors' products and apply techniques of sensory analysis to com‐ pare products and find sensory qualities required by the market. Concerned to improve their production processes, automate production lines and constantly launch new prod‐

In general, the operating system of quality control in the food industry must meet some spe‐ cific tasks. One of the tasks is to ensure compliance with sanitary standards and compliance requirements of the legislation, including with regard to food safety standards, the Good

predecessors, but with a more proactive approach.

lar stage of the quality evolution.

ucts into the market.

**3. Tasks quality of the sector in the food industry**

With all that, the purpose of this chapter is to describe the potential use of quality tools in food companies. The study initially intends to contextualize the quality management in the food industry and the activities related to the quality function. In addition, support tools re‐ lated to quality control in process will be suggested with practical examples of application.

## **2. Evolution of the quality management: A brief history**

It can be said that each company has a particular stage of maturity on the issue of quality management. In general they tend to evolve in four stages, the similarity of ages or how the quality management in the world has evolved over the years. Thus, it is important to high‐ light these stages of evolution of quality that began with the inspection of products, have passed the statistical quality control, the stage of quality systemic management until the strategic quality management.

Garvin, a scholar of quality management, highlights four ages or stages through which the way to manage the quality has evolving over time in the U.S [1]. The first stage of develop‐ ment was called "era of inspection." In this stage the quality control of products was limited to a focus on corrective inspection, i.e., was a way to check the uniformity of the final prod‐ uct by separating the non-conforming products. According to Garvin in the U.S. only in 1922 the inspection activities were related more formally with quality management, after the publication of the book "The Control of Quality in Manufacturing". For the first time, the quality was seen as managerial responsibility having distinct and independent function in the companies.

Later, the year of 1931 was a milestone in the quality movement and the beginning of the sec‐ ond phase, the Statistical Quality Control. This phase had a preventive approach, centered on the monitoring and control of process variables that could influence in the final product quali‐ ty through the development of statistical tools for sampling and process control.

The next phase was called Quality Assurance, that was associated with broader control and prevention, which sought through systematic management, ensure quality at all stages of obtaining the product. The quality management became a practice restricted to industrial production management applied to all production support functions. In the U.S., this time started in the late 50's when the quality of the instruments have expanded far beyond the statistics, now covering the quantification of quality costs, total quality control, reliability engineering and zero defect.

Finally, quality management has been incorporated within the strategic scope of organiza‐ tions, this phase called Strategic Management of Quality. It represented a vision of marketoriented management, i.e., with a view of opportunities before the competition and customer satisfaction, where market research has become more important for evaluating the market needs and how the competition stands. The strategic approach is an extension of its predecessors, but with a more proactive approach.

growing effort by everyone involved in the production process and fundamental techniques of management and administration, with the goal of continuously improving all processes. For that, the industries need to be structured organizationally, establish policies and quality programs, measure customers' satisfaction and even use more quality tools and methodolo‐ gies. Specifically for the food industry, also involves the knowledge and application of tech‐

With all that, the purpose of this chapter is to describe the potential use of quality tools in food companies. The study initially intends to contextualize the quality management in the food industry and the activities related to the quality function. In addition, support tools re‐ lated to quality control in process will be suggested with practical examples of application.

It can be said that each company has a particular stage of maturity on the issue of quality management. In general they tend to evolve in four stages, the similarity of ages or how the quality management in the world has evolved over the years. Thus, it is important to high‐ light these stages of evolution of quality that began with the inspection of products, have passed the statistical quality control, the stage of quality systemic management until the

Garvin, a scholar of quality management, highlights four ages or stages through which the way to manage the quality has evolving over time in the U.S [1]. The first stage of develop‐ ment was called "era of inspection." In this stage the quality control of products was limited to a focus on corrective inspection, i.e., was a way to check the uniformity of the final prod‐ uct by separating the non-conforming products. According to Garvin in the U.S. only in 1922 the inspection activities were related more formally with quality management, after the publication of the book "The Control of Quality in Manufacturing". For the first time, the quality was seen as managerial responsibility having distinct and independent function in

Later, the year of 1931 was a milestone in the quality movement and the beginning of the sec‐ ond phase, the Statistical Quality Control. This phase had a preventive approach, centered on the monitoring and control of process variables that could influence in the final product quali‐

The next phase was called Quality Assurance, that was associated with broader control and prevention, which sought through systematic management, ensure quality at all stages of obtaining the product. The quality management became a practice restricted to industrial production management applied to all production support functions. In the U.S., this time started in the late 50's when the quality of the instruments have expanded far beyond the statistics, now covering the quantification of quality costs, total quality control, reliability

ty through the development of statistical tools for sampling and process control.

**2. Evolution of the quality management: A brief history**

niques and programs for product safety.

192 Food Industry

strategic quality management.

the companies.

engineering and zero defect.

Several scholars of quality management are unanimous in emphasizing that the companies in general, and also the food industry, through its organizational structure, the policies adopted, the focus given to the business and the practice of quality control, demonstrate a certain degree of maturity in how to manage quality. Some companies may present practices related to more advanced stages, mature, such as quality assurance and strategic quality management, others may prove more practices related to inspection and process control. Through observation of tools and methods currently adopted in the food industry, it can be inferred that this quality management company is based on the characteristics of a particu‐ lar stage of the quality evolution.

For example, the control of the raw material and products for inspection, with special at‐ tention to satisfy the governmental health rules, is a characteristic of the inspection stage. Likewise, the product control only by laboratory analysis is a feature of this stage. More‐ over, quality control practices in process, application of statistical methods for quality control and the adoption of Good Manufacture Practices (GMP) and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) denote that the company has a slightly broader ap‐ proach that inspection, i.e., a more preventive approach control in the production proc‐ ess. But when practice inspection and process control are well established in the company and efforts are directed towards continuous improvement, it can be inferred that the com‐ pany is evolved into a system of quality assurance. Practices consistent with this era are shown by performing quality audits in different sectors of the company, adoption of qual‐ ity systems across the supply chain and also implementation of programs for the develop‐ ment of quality suppliers of products and services. Companies that take a strategic quality management are those that use market research and specific indicators to meas‐ ure customer satisfaction, such as consumer complaints, returns by wholesalers for the time of the product in the inventory and sales below target. Further, evaluate their prod‐ ucts compared to competitors' products and apply techniques of sensory analysis to com‐ pare products and find sensory qualities required by the market. Concerned to improve their production processes, automate production lines and constantly launch new prod‐ ucts into the market.

## **3. Tasks quality of the sector in the food industry**

In general, the operating system of quality control in the food industry must meet some spe‐ cific tasks. One of the tasks is to ensure compliance with sanitary standards and compliance requirements of the legislation, including with regard to food safety standards, the Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and the system Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP). For this, there is need for procedures to control insects, rodents, birds and other pests, and procedures for cleaning and sanitizing equipment, industrial plant and storage areas. Still, personal hygiene of staff working on process lines and proper habits on food handling should be implemented and monitored to ensure that food safety standards are met. In cooperation with the departments of production, research and development, engi‐ neering or operations, the department of quality control analyzes manufacturing processes to "Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points." The integrity and safety of food products should be ensured through the identification and assessment of all unit operations of the process in order to prevent potential contamination and adulteration that could expose con‐ sumers to health risks.

the quality control department. Another assignment of quality control includes reviewing

Quality Management: Important Aspects for the Food Industry

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53162

195

Thus, faced with so many responsibilities, it remains to note that the dynamics of interven‐ tion and performance of those who are responsible for the quality department is paramount

The quality management applies systems and tools that are intended to assist the implemen‐ tation of quality-oriented way to improve the product and the process, increasing the levels

The purpose of this topic is to describe some tools, techniques and systems that have been more widely used in quality management in the food industry. Besides the methods men‐ tioned, there are others that could be employed by companies. The choice of which imple‐

The issue of food safety has been in the public eye as never before. Foodborne disease has an enormous public health impact, as well as significant social and economic consequences. It is estimated that each year foodborne disease causes approximately 76 million illnesses, 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths in the U.S., and 2,366,000 cases, 21,138 hospitaliza‐ tions and 718 deaths in England and Wales [2]. Thus, many food safety programs have been

Safety food programs can be set as the measures to be taken to ensure that food can be eaten without adversely affect to the consumer's health. These measures aim to prevent food con‐ tamination, such contamination are chemical, physical or microbiological. The programs commonly used in this area are Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), British Retail Consortium (BRC) and Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI), frequently found in the food industry, are obligatory by law, and others are

The Good Manufacturing Practices program is composed of a set of principles and rules to be adopted by the food industry in order to ensure the sanitary quality of their products. The GMP program came at the end of the last century when the U.S. pharmaceutical indus‐ try began to define optimal manufacturing practices based on technological knowledge available. In the late 60's, organizations such as the WHO (World Health Organization) and the Food and Drug Administration of the United States, the FDA (Food and Drug Adminis‐

ment depends on the company's strategies and know-how of its employees.

published in order to ensure safe food production and consumer protection.

**4. Methodologies in support of the quality management in the food**

and responding to consumer complaints.

**industry**

**4.1. Food security programs**

to the success of the food industry and customer satisfaction.

of quality business and ensuring customer's satisfaction.

implemented voluntarily by the food chain members [3].

*4.1.1. Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP)*

In cooperation with the department of research and development (R&D), production, pur‐ chasing and sales, should be prepared written specifications for raw materials, ingredients, packaging materials, other supplies and finished products. Furthermore, should be estab‐ lished in writing form and in cooperation with the departments of production and R&D the procedures for each unit operation of all manufacturing processes of the fashion industry that can be implemented in processing lines. The participation of staff from other depart‐ ments of the company occurs by the virtue of their expertise in relation to consumer de‐ mands or knowledge of product technology and process, and the participation of the operators of the process, because of its experience in the production.

The quality control personnel works in different laboratories performing physical, chemical, microbiological and sensory properties of raw materials, ingredients, packaging materials and finished products. They also work in the factory or processing areas, collecting samples for performance evaluation processes, unit operations, sanitary conditions or levels, verify‐ ing compliance with the requirements of food safety and all other operating specifications. It is the responsibility of the department of quality control implementation of Statistical Quali‐ ty Control (SQC), in which statistical techniques are applied to assessments of control for scientific analysis and interpretation of data. The SQC's functions include the selection of sampling techniques, control charts for attributes and variables, the use of analysis of var‐ iance and correlation, among other statistical tools. The methods, procedures and selection of instruments used to measure quality attributes of products and processes are the respon‐ sibility of the department of quality control. These techniques can be developed for specific purposes within the production process, to product development or troubleshooting and optimization standards.

The quality control personnel must interact cooperatively with the personnel of the stand‐ ards and inspection agencies to ensure that the official food law is understood and met. It should also watch the production department in its efforts to increase revenues, reduce loss‐ es and improve efficiency of operations. It should also develop, conduct and assist in an or‐ ganized program, training of supervisors, operators and workers in general, into specific concepts of quality.

The development of an appropriate plan of "recollect" adulterated or defective product in marketing channels and the planning of internal traceability of products is also a function of the quality control department. Another assignment of quality control includes reviewing and responding to consumer complaints.

Thus, faced with so many responsibilities, it remains to note that the dynamics of interven‐ tion and performance of those who are responsible for the quality department is paramount to the success of the food industry and customer satisfaction.

## **4. Methodologies in support of the quality management in the food industry**

The quality management applies systems and tools that are intended to assist the implemen‐ tation of quality-oriented way to improve the product and the process, increasing the levels of quality business and ensuring customer's satisfaction.

The purpose of this topic is to describe some tools, techniques and systems that have been more widely used in quality management in the food industry. Besides the methods men‐ tioned, there are others that could be employed by companies. The choice of which imple‐ ment depends on the company's strategies and know-how of its employees.

#### **4.1. Food security programs**

Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and the system Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP). For this, there is need for procedures to control insects, rodents, birds and other pests, and procedures for cleaning and sanitizing equipment, industrial plant and storage areas. Still, personal hygiene of staff working on process lines and proper habits on food handling should be implemented and monitored to ensure that food safety standards are met. In cooperation with the departments of production, research and development, engi‐ neering or operations, the department of quality control analyzes manufacturing processes to "Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points." The integrity and safety of food products should be ensured through the identification and assessment of all unit operations of the process in order to prevent potential contamination and adulteration that could expose con‐

In cooperation with the department of research and development (R&D), production, pur‐ chasing and sales, should be prepared written specifications for raw materials, ingredients, packaging materials, other supplies and finished products. Furthermore, should be estab‐ lished in writing form and in cooperation with the departments of production and R&D the procedures for each unit operation of all manufacturing processes of the fashion industry that can be implemented in processing lines. The participation of staff from other depart‐ ments of the company occurs by the virtue of their expertise in relation to consumer de‐ mands or knowledge of product technology and process, and the participation of the

The quality control personnel works in different laboratories performing physical, chemical, microbiological and sensory properties of raw materials, ingredients, packaging materials and finished products. They also work in the factory or processing areas, collecting samples for performance evaluation processes, unit operations, sanitary conditions or levels, verify‐ ing compliance with the requirements of food safety and all other operating specifications. It is the responsibility of the department of quality control implementation of Statistical Quali‐ ty Control (SQC), in which statistical techniques are applied to assessments of control for scientific analysis and interpretation of data. The SQC's functions include the selection of sampling techniques, control charts for attributes and variables, the use of analysis of var‐ iance and correlation, among other statistical tools. The methods, procedures and selection of instruments used to measure quality attributes of products and processes are the respon‐ sibility of the department of quality control. These techniques can be developed for specific purposes within the production process, to product development or troubleshooting and

The quality control personnel must interact cooperatively with the personnel of the stand‐ ards and inspection agencies to ensure that the official food law is understood and met. It should also watch the production department in its efforts to increase revenues, reduce loss‐ es and improve efficiency of operations. It should also develop, conduct and assist in an or‐ ganized program, training of supervisors, operators and workers in general, into specific

The development of an appropriate plan of "recollect" adulterated or defective product in marketing channels and the planning of internal traceability of products is also a function of

operators of the process, because of its experience in the production.

sumers to health risks.

194 Food Industry

optimization standards.

concepts of quality.

The issue of food safety has been in the public eye as never before. Foodborne disease has an enormous public health impact, as well as significant social and economic consequences. It is estimated that each year foodborne disease causes approximately 76 million illnesses, 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths in the U.S., and 2,366,000 cases, 21,138 hospitaliza‐ tions and 718 deaths in England and Wales [2]. Thus, many food safety programs have been published in order to ensure safe food production and consumer protection.

Safety food programs can be set as the measures to be taken to ensure that food can be eaten without adversely affect to the consumer's health. These measures aim to prevent food con‐ tamination, such contamination are chemical, physical or microbiological. The programs commonly used in this area are Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), British Retail Consortium (BRC) and Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI), frequently found in the food industry, are obligatory by law, and others are implemented voluntarily by the food chain members [3].

### *4.1.1. Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP)*

The Good Manufacturing Practices program is composed of a set of principles and rules to be adopted by the food industry in order to ensure the sanitary quality of their products. The GMP program came at the end of the last century when the U.S. pharmaceutical indus‐ try began to define optimal manufacturing practices based on technological knowledge available. In the late 60's, organizations such as the WHO (World Health Organization) and the Food and Drug Administration of the United States, the FDA (Food and Drug Adminis‐ tration) adopted the program as a minimum criterion recommended to the manufacture of food products under adequate sanitation conditions and routine inspection. Later in 2002, FDA forms Food GMP Modernization Working Group and announces effort to modernize food GMP´s [4].

In short, this system has a systematic and scientific approach to process control, designed to prevent the occurrence of failures, ensuring that the controls are applied in processing steps where hazards might occur or critical situations. For this, the HACCP system combines tech‐ nical information updated with detailed procedures to evaluate and monitor the flow of

Quality Management: Important Aspects for the Food Industry

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53162

197

The new sanitary requirements and quality requirements dictated by the main international markets, led since 1991, to the deployment experimental stage of the HACCP. There are new rules governing the international market, established during the Uruguay Round of Trade Negotiations and applicable to all member countries of the World Trade Organization (WTO). The Codex Alimentarius has become the regulatory body for matters of hygiene and food safety in the WTO. The Codex Alimentarius reflects an international consensus regard‐ ing the requirements for protection of human health in relation to the risks of foodborne ill‐ ness. This measure is accelerating the process of harmonization of food laws of the countries, process that is oriented concerning food security, with the recommendation of the

use of the system Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point, to ensure food safety.

Generally the HACCP system initially involves the creation of a multifunctional team, supported by senior management of the company, and the characterization of all food products that will be included in the system. Also a set of programs, such as Good Man‐ ufacturing Practices (GMP) and Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOP) are uni‐ versally accepted as prerequisites for the implementation of the HACCP system and therefore should be consolidated. Only then each step of the production process of a product will be analyzed for the possibility of a chemical, physical and microbiological contamination. Thereafter preventive measures are described and identified the Critical Control Points (CCPs). For each critical point is necessary to establish critical control lim‐ its, which allow the monitoring of hazards. As there is always a possibility of failure, it is essential to provide corrective measures in order to ensure the process return into a con‐ trolled situation. It should also establish procedures for verification of CCP´s and their re‐ spective records. After the HACCP plan drawn up, it is validation occur through

Finally, the HACCP plan is disseminated to the production employees and for those respon‐ sible for assessing the products quality on the factory floor. Internal and external audits are recommended for periodic maintenance and continuous improvement of the system [5].

Standardization is a management tool involved in the preparation, training and control standards within the company. Such standards are documents containing technical specifi‐ cations or specific criteria that will be used as a guide in order to ensure that products, proc‐ esses and services are designed with quality [6]. The main objective of a program of standardization for the food industry is to minimize the variations in quality of production. For this, it is necessary to provide means to standardize both the operational and analytical procedures, as raw materials, machinery and equipment used in the manufacturing process.

food into an industry.

discussions among team members [5].

**4.2. Standardization of processes**

The rules establishing the so-called Good Manufacturing Practices involves requirements for industry's installations, through strict rules of personal hygiene and cleanliness of the work‐ place to the description in writing form of all procedures involved in the product. These standards are characterized by a set of items summarized below.

The projects and industry facilities, in addition to requirements engineering/architecture, must meet requirements to ensure food safety, such as the installation of devices to prevent the entry of pests, contaminated water, dirt in the air, and still be designed to avoid the ac‐ cumulation of dirt or physical contamination of food that is being manufactured. The equip‐ ment and the entire apparatus of materials used in industrial processing should be designed from materials that prevent the accumulation of dirt and must be innocuous to avoid the mi‐ gration of undesirable particles to foods. On the production line, the procedures and steps for handling the product have to be documented, in order to ensure the standardization of safety practices. Also running records should be implemented as evidence that the job was well done.

Otherwise, the cleaning and sanitizing phases are inherent to the processing and handling of foods, and thus programs for execution on a routine and efficiently must be implemented. Similarly, is required a plan for integrated pest control in order to minimize access vector and reduce the number of possible focus of insects, rodents and birds.

Regarding food handlers, the GMP recommend that training should be given and recycled so the concepts of hygiene and proper handling are assimilated as a working philosophy and fulfilled to the letter.

A control of raw materials should be developed with suppliers, not only in the laboratory, but in a gradual and continuous improvement work, where food security is split with sup‐ pliers. Guidelines for the safe packaging of raw materials, inputs and finished products should be followed and extended to the storage and loading area, and to the transportation that reach the consumer.

The Good Manufacturing Practices have wide and effective application when all the ele‐ ments cited are effectively deployed.

#### *4.1.2. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP)*

HACCP is a system based on prevention of hazards to the industry to produce safe food to consumers. The HACCP involves a complete analysis of the dangers in the systems of pro‐ duction, handling, processing and consumption of a food product. HACCP is widely ac‐ knowledged as the best method of assuring product safety and is becoming internationally recognized as a tool for controlling food-borne safety hazards [3].

In short, this system has a systematic and scientific approach to process control, designed to prevent the occurrence of failures, ensuring that the controls are applied in processing steps where hazards might occur or critical situations. For this, the HACCP system combines tech‐ nical information updated with detailed procedures to evaluate and monitor the flow of food into an industry.

The new sanitary requirements and quality requirements dictated by the main international markets, led since 1991, to the deployment experimental stage of the HACCP. There are new rules governing the international market, established during the Uruguay Round of Trade Negotiations and applicable to all member countries of the World Trade Organization (WTO). The Codex Alimentarius has become the regulatory body for matters of hygiene and food safety in the WTO. The Codex Alimentarius reflects an international consensus regard‐ ing the requirements for protection of human health in relation to the risks of foodborne ill‐ ness. This measure is accelerating the process of harmonization of food laws of the countries, process that is oriented concerning food security, with the recommendation of the use of the system Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point, to ensure food safety.

Generally the HACCP system initially involves the creation of a multifunctional team, supported by senior management of the company, and the characterization of all food products that will be included in the system. Also a set of programs, such as Good Man‐ ufacturing Practices (GMP) and Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOP) are uni‐ versally accepted as prerequisites for the implementation of the HACCP system and therefore should be consolidated. Only then each step of the production process of a product will be analyzed for the possibility of a chemical, physical and microbiological contamination. Thereafter preventive measures are described and identified the Critical Control Points (CCPs). For each critical point is necessary to establish critical control lim‐ its, which allow the monitoring of hazards. As there is always a possibility of failure, it is essential to provide corrective measures in order to ensure the process return into a con‐ trolled situation. It should also establish procedures for verification of CCP´s and their re‐ spective records. After the HACCP plan drawn up, it is validation occur through discussions among team members [5].

Finally, the HACCP plan is disseminated to the production employees and for those respon‐ sible for assessing the products quality on the factory floor. Internal and external audits are recommended for periodic maintenance and continuous improvement of the system [5].

#### **4.2. Standardization of processes**

tration) adopted the program as a minimum criterion recommended to the manufacture of food products under adequate sanitation conditions and routine inspection. Later in 2002, FDA forms Food GMP Modernization Working Group and announces effort to modernize

The rules establishing the so-called Good Manufacturing Practices involves requirements for industry's installations, through strict rules of personal hygiene and cleanliness of the work‐ place to the description in writing form of all procedures involved in the product. These

The projects and industry facilities, in addition to requirements engineering/architecture, must meet requirements to ensure food safety, such as the installation of devices to prevent the entry of pests, contaminated water, dirt in the air, and still be designed to avoid the ac‐ cumulation of dirt or physical contamination of food that is being manufactured. The equip‐ ment and the entire apparatus of materials used in industrial processing should be designed from materials that prevent the accumulation of dirt and must be innocuous to avoid the mi‐ gration of undesirable particles to foods. On the production line, the procedures and steps for handling the product have to be documented, in order to ensure the standardization of safety practices. Also running records should be implemented as evidence that the job was

Otherwise, the cleaning and sanitizing phases are inherent to the processing and handling of foods, and thus programs for execution on a routine and efficiently must be implemented. Similarly, is required a plan for integrated pest control in order to minimize access vector

Regarding food handlers, the GMP recommend that training should be given and recycled so the concepts of hygiene and proper handling are assimilated as a working philosophy

A control of raw materials should be developed with suppliers, not only in the laboratory, but in a gradual and continuous improvement work, where food security is split with sup‐ pliers. Guidelines for the safe packaging of raw materials, inputs and finished products should be followed and extended to the storage and loading area, and to the transportation

The Good Manufacturing Practices have wide and effective application when all the ele‐

HACCP is a system based on prevention of hazards to the industry to produce safe food to consumers. The HACCP involves a complete analysis of the dangers in the systems of pro‐ duction, handling, processing and consumption of a food product. HACCP is widely ac‐ knowledged as the best method of assuring product safety and is becoming internationally

standards are characterized by a set of items summarized below.

and reduce the number of possible focus of insects, rodents and birds.

food GMP´s [4].

196 Food Industry

well done.

and fulfilled to the letter.

that reach the consumer.

ments cited are effectively deployed.

*4.1.2. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP)*

recognized as a tool for controlling food-borne safety hazards [3].

Standardization is a management tool involved in the preparation, training and control standards within the company. Such standards are documents containing technical specifi‐ cations or specific criteria that will be used as a guide in order to ensure that products, proc‐ esses and services are designed with quality [6]. The main objective of a program of standardization for the food industry is to minimize the variations in quality of production. For this, it is necessary to provide means to standardize both the operational and analytical procedures, as raw materials, machinery and equipment used in the manufacturing process.

The patterns are instruments that indicate the goal and procedures for accomplishment of the work and can be classified as follows:

processes, enables cost reduction and increases productivity. Moreover, the gradual and

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In using the PDCA method may be necessary to use various tools, such as the basic tools for process control as stratification, check sheet, Pareto chart, cause and effect diagram, and scatter plots, histograms, control charts. Other techniques could include analysis of variance, regression analysis, design of experiments, process optimization, multivariate analysis and

Within the food industry, the PDCA cycle can be applied to the standardization or improve‐ ment of any product, process or activity the support the production, such as the standardi‐ zation of procedures for cleaning and sanitizing, pest control, production processes, or improvement in the set-ups of equipment, reduction in losses in production, among others.

The concept of traceability of products originated in the aeronautical and nuclear industries and it is widely practiced in industries. The tool aims to locate the source and the root caus‐ es of a particular problem of quality or safety, by the information recorded from a particular product, regardless of the stage of production where it is - whether raw material, in-process product or finished product. Through the traceability of products is possible to develop pre‐

Traceability can cover only internal actions of the company, or otherwise, may be complete, when it involves the entire chain of production, allowing identifying even basic raw materi‐ al that led to the final product and locations outside the company where finished products are stored. Consideration as the consumer safety, as the demands of the institutional envi‐ ronment and the costs of implementation of the traceability system will define the scope

vention and improvement actions, so that a specific problem does not occur again.

continuous improvements add value to the project and ensure customer satisfaction.

**Figure 1.** PDCA Cycle

reliability [8].

**4.4. Traceability**

more suited to be deployed by the company.


Through standardization it is achieved greater standardization of products, improved pro‐ ductivity and product quality, cost reduction, simplification and optimization of production processes, increase the technical capacity of operators of process, greater job security, reduc‐ tion of inventory levels of raw materials and inputs, reducing the preparation time of the machines and self-management by the workers.

Also noteworthy is that the patterns facilitate the transfer of knowledge since all the people and functional units involved in a particular pattern should collaborate, as far as possible, be trained in their preparation and for their use.

#### **4.3. PDCA cycle**

The PDCA originated in the 30´s in the laboratories of the United States, becoming known in the fifty decade due to the expert quality, Deming, who was responsible for implementing and disseminating tools of control and quality management in several countries. The PDCA cycle is a method of managerial decision-making to ensure the achievement of goals related to a process, product or service [7].

The letters that form the acronym PDCA mean Plan, Do, Check, Action. The Plan (P) con‐ sists in establishing goals, and procedures to achieve them. The stage Do (D) consists in per‐ forming the tasks as planned and collect data that will be used in the step control. Thus, in the stage of "implementation" are essential trainings at work. Check (C) consists of compar‐ ing the results achieved with the planned goals through quality control tools. Finally, Action (A) is to act correctively in the process in order to correct an unexpected result.

As can be seen in Figure 1, a schematic representation of PDCA cycle translates the dyna‐ mism steps purposes. The conclusion of a turn in the cycle continues back to the beginning of the next cycle, and so on. Following in the spirit of continuous quality improvement, the process can always be renewed and a new change process can be started. Continuous im‐ provement occurs the more times the PDCA cycle is run, and optimizes the execution of processes, enables cost reduction and increases productivity. Moreover, the gradual and continuous improvements add value to the project and ensure customer satisfaction.

**Figure 1.** PDCA Cycle

The patterns are instruments that indicate the goal and procedures for accomplishment of

**•** Standards of Quality (SQ): refer to the parameters related to quality of products, raw ma‐

**•** Operation Standards: describe the manufacturing process of a product, the technical pa‐ rameters of control by the operators and operating procedures. These are divided into Standard Process Technician (SPT) and Operational Procedure (OP). The first document describes the process of manufacture of a product, the quality characteristics and the con‐ trol parameters. Operating procedures standards are prepared by managers and opera‐

**•** Standards Inspection: describe methods and criteria for assessing the degree of success ach‐ ieved in carrying out an activity, compared to planned levels of quality for the product. The

Through standardization it is achieved greater standardization of products, improved pro‐ ductivity and product quality, cost reduction, simplification and optimization of production processes, increase the technical capacity of operators of process, greater job security, reduc‐ tion of inventory levels of raw materials and inputs, reducing the preparation time of the

Also noteworthy is that the patterns facilitate the transfer of knowledge since all the people and functional units involved in a particular pattern should collaborate, as far as possible, be

The PDCA originated in the 30´s in the laboratories of the United States, becoming known in the fifty decade due to the expert quality, Deming, who was responsible for implementing and disseminating tools of control and quality management in several countries. The PDCA cycle is a method of managerial decision-making to ensure the achievement of goals related

The letters that form the acronym PDCA mean Plan, Do, Check, Action. The Plan (P) con‐ sists in establishing goals, and procedures to achieve them. The stage Do (D) consists in per‐ forming the tasks as planned and collect data that will be used in the step control. Thus, in the stage of "implementation" are essential trainings at work. Check (C) consists of compar‐ ing the results achieved with the planned goals through quality control tools. Finally, Action

As can be seen in Figure 1, a schematic representation of PDCA cycle translates the dyna‐ mism steps purposes. The conclusion of a turn in the cycle continues back to the beginning of the next cycle, and so on. Following in the spirit of continuous quality improvement, the process can always be renewed and a new change process can be started. Continuous im‐ provement occurs the more times the PDCA cycle is run, and optimizes the execution of

(A) is to act correctively in the process in order to correct an unexpected result.

inspection may occur in the process, the finished product and in the raw material.

the work and can be classified as follows:

tors to achieve the objectives proposed in the SPT and SQs.

machines and self-management by the workers.

trained in their preparation and for their use.

to a process, product or service [7].

**4.3. PDCA cycle**

terials and inputs.

198 Food Industry

In using the PDCA method may be necessary to use various tools, such as the basic tools for process control as stratification, check sheet, Pareto chart, cause and effect diagram, and scatter plots, histograms, control charts. Other techniques could include analysis of variance, regression analysis, design of experiments, process optimization, multivariate analysis and reliability [8].

Within the food industry, the PDCA cycle can be applied to the standardization or improve‐ ment of any product, process or activity the support the production, such as the standardi‐ zation of procedures for cleaning and sanitizing, pest control, production processes, or improvement in the set-ups of equipment, reduction in losses in production, among others.

#### **4.4. Traceability**

The concept of traceability of products originated in the aeronautical and nuclear industries and it is widely practiced in industries. The tool aims to locate the source and the root caus‐ es of a particular problem of quality or safety, by the information recorded from a particular product, regardless of the stage of production where it is - whether raw material, in-process product or finished product. Through the traceability of products is possible to develop pre‐ vention and improvement actions, so that a specific problem does not occur again.

Traceability can cover only internal actions of the company, or otherwise, may be complete, when it involves the entire chain of production, allowing identifying even basic raw materi‐ al that led to the final product and locations outside the company where finished products are stored. Consideration as the consumer safety, as the demands of the institutional envi‐ ronment and the costs of implementation of the traceability system will define the scope more suited to be deployed by the company.

#### **4.5. Statistical quality control**

The Statistical Quality Control uses statistical tools to control a product or process. To do this, it works with data collection and the interpretation thereof, acting as a fundamental tool to solve problems in critical product and process. Thus, ensures the quality sector the product conformity with the specifications defined as ensures the production sector the in‐ formation needed for effective control of manufacturing processes providing subsidies to decision making in purchasing processes, receiving raw materials and shipment of products and also in reducing cost and waste. From the identification of the market requirements it is collected sufficient statistical information necessary for the development of new products and assists in monitoring the quality profile of competing products.

unit qualitative inspected. The results of the inspection by attributes are expressed in terms of defective/not defective, conforming/nonconforming. In the inspection by variable the characteristics or indicators of quality of the product unit are analyzed and the results are expressed by some continuous numeric scale. While inspection by attributes takes values from the set of integers, inspection by variable takes values in the set of real numbers [11, 12]. Upon inspection by attributes the probability of acceptance of the lot is based on Pois‐ son Probability Distribution. The Poisson Probability Distribution is sometimes used to ap‐ proximate the binomial distribution when the sample size (n) is too large and the proportion of defectives (p) is small. Otherwise, the use of sampling plans by variable assumes that the Normal Probability Distribution fits well with the distribution of the values of the quality

Inspections by sampling can be used in finished products, raw materials, manufacturing oper‐ ations, products in intermediate stages of processing, stored materials, among others. There are situations when only one plan by variable applies, for example, when the buyer will accept the product, but will pay different prices depending on the level of product quality. Also when the analysis result of the product will be expressed as quantitative values. For example, in the determination of chemical composition, weight, volume, and physical and rheological meas‐ urements. Therefore, measures such as pH, acidity by titration, soluble solids, fat, objective measurements of color and texture, among others, are typical of the sampling variable. The sampling by attributes can be implemented when it wanted to analyze a quality parameter in qualitative terms. Thus they are quite applied, for example, in visual analysis of packaging, the

presence of dirt and physical damage in fruit and vegetables.

The following hypothesis test is linked to inspection for acceptance:

0 0 1 0 : : *Hpp Hpp* =

the acceptance of a batch inadequate; i.e., which does not meet the specifications [13].

A single sampling plan by attributes is defined by two parameters: sample size and accept‐ ance number. The likelihood of acceptance of batches relates to the sample size, the severity in the acceptance criterion and the quality level of the products being analyzed in relation to the predetermined quality parameter [11]. In the sampling plans by variables, the probabili‐ ty of acceptance is related to the quality level of the product under examination and de‐

Being "p" the proportion of defectives that the process produces. If the process is in control properly, this ratio is around p0 (hypothesis H0 true). The risk α, also known as producer's risk is likely rejection of a batch of a process whose average is equal to p0 defective, that is, the risk that the producer suffers as a result of inspection or analysis of sample can lead to a rejection of a good plot (which meets the specifications). The risk β, also known as consum‐ er's risk is the probability of acceptance of a batch of a process in which the proportion of defectives is greater than p0, i.e., the result of inspection or analysis of the sample can lead to

<sup>&</sup>gt; (1)

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characteristic under study.

Although not a mandatory requirement in the food industry, statistical quality control can prove beneficial to organizations in the sector regardless of their particular specialism and size [9]. According Grigg, the initiatives of training of new graduates entering the industry in the principles of quality assurance and statistical methods and training the existing work‐ force and management in applying statistical control procedures to processes will make this methods more use of it than they are [9, 10].

The industrial statistic includes descriptive statistics, process capability analysis, measure‐ ment system analysis, basic graphics as histogram, scatter, box-plot, Pareto diagram, cause and effect, design of experiments, linear regression and correlation, multiple regression, hy‐ pothesis testing, confidence intervals, analysis of variance, analysis of process capability, among other tools [8]. It also covers the sampling techniques and control charts that will be described below, to be very useful to inspection and process control.

#### *4.5.1. Inspection by sampling*

The inspection process is to analyze or examine units of a product in order to verify with its quality characteristics are in accordance with technical or contractual specifications. Upon inspection of the product by sampling units are randomly selected to compose the sample batch. Depending on the number of defectives in the sample or the level of quali‐ ty, that lot is accepted or rejected. Thus, sampling allows, by analysis of a small part of the whole or lot it is possible to draw conclusions about the rest not inspected. There‐ fore, in the sampling inspection an absolute conclusion about the quality of the lot will never be achieved, there is always a risk rate inherent in the sampling plan and depend‐ ent on its discriminatory power.

The current continuous improvement programs that evolve throughout the production chain, call for reducing the use of inspection techniques for the evaluation of the product or process, based on the idea that efforts should focus on "getting it right" in the first time and not in check it, then add value to the product, if it was done properly. However, these in‐ spection techniques for acceptance have restored the importance of quality of audits.

There are two types of sampling plans, sampling plans by attributes and sampling plans by variables. The sampling rate by attributes consists in classifying units of a product just as acceptable or unacceptable based on the presence or absence of a particular feature in each unit qualitative inspected. The results of the inspection by attributes are expressed in terms of defective/not defective, conforming/nonconforming. In the inspection by variable the characteristics or indicators of quality of the product unit are analyzed and the results are expressed by some continuous numeric scale. While inspection by attributes takes values from the set of integers, inspection by variable takes values in the set of real numbers [11, 12]. Upon inspection by attributes the probability of acceptance of the lot is based on Pois‐ son Probability Distribution. The Poisson Probability Distribution is sometimes used to ap‐ proximate the binomial distribution when the sample size (n) is too large and the proportion of defectives (p) is small. Otherwise, the use of sampling plans by variable assumes that the Normal Probability Distribution fits well with the distribution of the values of the quality characteristic under study.

Inspections by sampling can be used in finished products, raw materials, manufacturing oper‐ ations, products in intermediate stages of processing, stored materials, among others. There are situations when only one plan by variable applies, for example, when the buyer will accept the product, but will pay different prices depending on the level of product quality. Also when the analysis result of the product will be expressed as quantitative values. For example, in the determination of chemical composition, weight, volume, and physical and rheological meas‐ urements. Therefore, measures such as pH, acidity by titration, soluble solids, fat, objective measurements of color and texture, among others, are typical of the sampling variable. The sampling by attributes can be implemented when it wanted to analyze a quality parameter in qualitative terms. Thus they are quite applied, for example, in visual analysis of packaging, the presence of dirt and physical damage in fruit and vegetables.

The following hypothesis test is linked to inspection for acceptance:

**4.5. Statistical quality control**

200 Food Industry

The Statistical Quality Control uses statistical tools to control a product or process. To do this, it works with data collection and the interpretation thereof, acting as a fundamental tool to solve problems in critical product and process. Thus, ensures the quality sector the product conformity with the specifications defined as ensures the production sector the in‐ formation needed for effective control of manufacturing processes providing subsidies to decision making in purchasing processes, receiving raw materials and shipment of products and also in reducing cost and waste. From the identification of the market requirements it is collected sufficient statistical information necessary for the development of new products

Although not a mandatory requirement in the food industry, statistical quality control can prove beneficial to organizations in the sector regardless of their particular specialism and size [9]. According Grigg, the initiatives of training of new graduates entering the industry in the principles of quality assurance and statistical methods and training the existing work‐ force and management in applying statistical control procedures to processes will make this

The industrial statistic includes descriptive statistics, process capability analysis, measure‐ ment system analysis, basic graphics as histogram, scatter, box-plot, Pareto diagram, cause and effect, design of experiments, linear regression and correlation, multiple regression, hy‐ pothesis testing, confidence intervals, analysis of variance, analysis of process capability, among other tools [8]. It also covers the sampling techniques and control charts that will be

The inspection process is to analyze or examine units of a product in order to verify with its quality characteristics are in accordance with technical or contractual specifications. Upon inspection of the product by sampling units are randomly selected to compose the sample batch. Depending on the number of defectives in the sample or the level of quali‐ ty, that lot is accepted or rejected. Thus, sampling allows, by analysis of a small part of the whole or lot it is possible to draw conclusions about the rest not inspected. There‐ fore, in the sampling inspection an absolute conclusion about the quality of the lot will never be achieved, there is always a risk rate inherent in the sampling plan and depend‐

The current continuous improvement programs that evolve throughout the production chain, call for reducing the use of inspection techniques for the evaluation of the product or process, based on the idea that efforts should focus on "getting it right" in the first time and not in check it, then add value to the product, if it was done properly. However, these in‐

There are two types of sampling plans, sampling plans by attributes and sampling plans by variables. The sampling rate by attributes consists in classifying units of a product just as acceptable or unacceptable based on the presence or absence of a particular feature in each

spection techniques for acceptance have restored the importance of quality of audits.

and assists in monitoring the quality profile of competing products.

described below, to be very useful to inspection and process control.

methods more use of it than they are [9, 10].

*4.5.1. Inspection by sampling*

ent on its discriminatory power.

$$\begin{cases} \text{Ho} \colon p = p \text{o} \\ \text{H1} \colon p > p \text{o} \end{cases} \tag{1}$$

Being "p" the proportion of defectives that the process produces. If the process is in control properly, this ratio is around p0 (hypothesis H0 true). The risk α, also known as producer's risk is likely rejection of a batch of a process whose average is equal to p0 defective, that is, the risk that the producer suffers as a result of inspection or analysis of sample can lead to a rejection of a good plot (which meets the specifications). The risk β, also known as consum‐ er's risk is the probability of acceptance of a batch of a process in which the proportion of defectives is greater than p0, i.e., the result of inspection or analysis of the sample can lead to the acceptance of a batch inadequate; i.e., which does not meet the specifications [13].

A single sampling plan by attributes is defined by two parameters: sample size and accept‐ ance number. The likelihood of acceptance of batches relates to the sample size, the severity in the acceptance criterion and the quality level of the products being analyzed in relation to the predetermined quality parameter [11]. In the sampling plans by variables, the probabili‐ ty of acceptance is related to the quality level of the product under examination and de‐ pends on the average of the quality parameter in question and its variability. It also depends on the severity criterion for acceptance of the lot [12].

Finally, it is worth noting that the Codex Alimentarius recommends the use of the ISO 2859 series relating to the procedures for sampling by attributes and the ISO 3951 series for the procedures for sampling by variables [14].

#### *4.5.2. Control chart*

The formal start of statistical process control occurred around 1924, when Shewhart devel‐ oped and applied control charts at *Bell Telephone Laboratories*, a telephone company in the United States [1, 7, 13]. As in the entire production process variability occurs, Chart Control or Control Chart, or Map Control, aims to monitor these changes in processes, as well as to evaluate the stability of this process and eliminate or control the causes of variations. A Con‐ trol Chart (Figure 2) consists of a Central Line (CL), is a pair of control limits: one above Up‐ per Control Limit (UCL) and one below, Lower Control Limit (LCL), and characteristic values marked on the graph. If these values are within limits, without any particular trend, the process is considered under control. But if the points relate outside the control limits or submit an atypical arrangement, the process is judged out of control.

Variability in process may be classified into two types: the variability caused by random or common cause, which are inherent in the process and will be present even considered that this process is fully standardized. If only this kind of cause is acting in the process, it is said that the manufacturing process remains in statistical control. The other type of variability is caused by remarkable and special causes that arise sporadically due to a particular situation which causes the process to behave in a completely different way than usual, which can re‐ sult in a displacement of the quality level. Thus, it is said that the process is out of statistical control.

**Figure 2.** A typical control chart [8]

process under control is µ-3σ and µ+3 σ (Figure 3).

consecutive points are outside the limits of 2σ [8].

The Normal Distribution consists of an essential notion in statistical quality control rational. It is known that the items of a Normal Distribution (average µ and standard deviation σ) are distributed around the average, approximately by the following proportions: 68% of the val‐ ues in the range µ ± σ, 95% in interval µ ± 2σ and 99.7% in the range µ ± 3σ. Consequently, differences between an observed value X and the average µ, greater than ± 3σ are separated, three times to every 1000 observations, and therefore, the range of variability "normal" in the

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When the variability becomes "abnormal" changes in the quality characteristics of the prod‐ uct are sensitive. The causes of modification can be discovered and are therefore called "identifiable causes". These causes require prompt corrective action, in order to eliminate them. In these situations the samples indicate that the manufacturing process has changed and that the units were produced out of control. Some typical situations in process out of control occur when can be seen points outside the control limits. This is the clearest indica‐ tion of lack of control of a process, which requires an immediate investigation of the cause of variation. Also can happened of points of the chart represent a trend, which consists of a continuous motion of the points of the control chart in one direction (ascending or descend‐ ing). Also there is a configuration in sequence in several successive points of the control chart shown in only one side of the center line (eight or more consecutive points on one side of the center line). Another approach is the normality of the control limits, where 2 out of 3

The manufacturing control is exercised by the manufacturer during the industrialization process. The goal is to maintain the quality of the product satisfactorily uniform, preventing the production of items outside specification. The proofing that the process is in control or not is, made by examining unit samples taken periodically out of the production line. If the process is under control, samples that present variability corresponding to samples taken from a normal population, i.e., the variability is attributable only to product that is the sam‐ ple. The "under control process" supposes, therefore, that the quality characteristic of all units produced has Normal Probability Distribution (Figure 3). Moreover, it also implies that this distribution remains stable, i.e., that its two parameters, medium (µ) and standard deviation (σ), remain constant, which is verified by extracting a sequence of samples. So it is said that in a process under statistical control, the variability is attributed solely to random causes. These causes of variation do not cause appreciable variation in product quality; its elimination is impossible or anti-economical, and therefore, random causes are considered a natural part of the manufacturing process [8].

**Figure 2.** A typical control chart [8]

pends on the average of the quality parameter in question and its variability. It also depends

Finally, it is worth noting that the Codex Alimentarius recommends the use of the ISO 2859 series relating to the procedures for sampling by attributes and the ISO 3951 series for the

The formal start of statistical process control occurred around 1924, when Shewhart devel‐ oped and applied control charts at *Bell Telephone Laboratories*, a telephone company in the United States [1, 7, 13]. As in the entire production process variability occurs, Chart Control or Control Chart, or Map Control, aims to monitor these changes in processes, as well as to evaluate the stability of this process and eliminate or control the causes of variations. A Con‐ trol Chart (Figure 2) consists of a Central Line (CL), is a pair of control limits: one above Up‐ per Control Limit (UCL) and one below, Lower Control Limit (LCL), and characteristic values marked on the graph. If these values are within limits, without any particular trend, the process is considered under control. But if the points relate outside the control limits or

Variability in process may be classified into two types: the variability caused by random or common cause, which are inherent in the process and will be present even considered that this process is fully standardized. If only this kind of cause is acting in the process, it is said that the manufacturing process remains in statistical control. The other type of variability is caused by remarkable and special causes that arise sporadically due to a particular situation which causes the process to behave in a completely different way than usual, which can re‐ sult in a displacement of the quality level. Thus, it is said that the process is out of statistical

The manufacturing control is exercised by the manufacturer during the industrialization process. The goal is to maintain the quality of the product satisfactorily uniform, preventing the production of items outside specification. The proofing that the process is in control or not is, made by examining unit samples taken periodically out of the production line. If the process is under control, samples that present variability corresponding to samples taken from a normal population, i.e., the variability is attributable only to product that is the sam‐ ple. The "under control process" supposes, therefore, that the quality characteristic of all units produced has Normal Probability Distribution (Figure 3). Moreover, it also implies that this distribution remains stable, i.e., that its two parameters, medium (µ) and standard deviation (σ), remain constant, which is verified by extracting a sequence of samples. So it is said that in a process under statistical control, the variability is attributed solely to random causes. These causes of variation do not cause appreciable variation in product quality; its elimination is impossible or anti-economical, and therefore, random causes are considered a

submit an atypical arrangement, the process is judged out of control.

on the severity criterion for acceptance of the lot [12].

procedures for sampling by variables [14].

natural part of the manufacturing process [8].

*4.5.2. Control chart*

202 Food Industry

control.

The Normal Distribution consists of an essential notion in statistical quality control rational. It is known that the items of a Normal Distribution (average µ and standard deviation σ) are distributed around the average, approximately by the following proportions: 68% of the val‐ ues in the range µ ± σ, 95% in interval µ ± 2σ and 99.7% in the range µ ± 3σ. Consequently, differences between an observed value X and the average µ, greater than ± 3σ are separated, three times to every 1000 observations, and therefore, the range of variability "normal" in the process under control is µ-3σ and µ+3 σ (Figure 3).

When the variability becomes "abnormal" changes in the quality characteristics of the prod‐ uct are sensitive. The causes of modification can be discovered and are therefore called "identifiable causes". These causes require prompt corrective action, in order to eliminate them. In these situations the samples indicate that the manufacturing process has changed and that the units were produced out of control. Some typical situations in process out of control occur when can be seen points outside the control limits. This is the clearest indica‐ tion of lack of control of a process, which requires an immediate investigation of the cause of variation. Also can happened of points of the chart represent a trend, which consists of a continuous motion of the points of the control chart in one direction (ascending or descend‐ ing). Also there is a configuration in sequence in several successive points of the control chart shown in only one side of the center line (eight or more consecutive points on one side of the center line). Another approach is the normality of the control limits, where 2 out of 3 consecutive points are outside the limits of 2σ [8].

Although the benefits of the application of control charts can be obtained in various situa‐ tions of the food industry, the construction of the charts by variables will be exemplified by a typical situation of the food industry, in a packing operation. Imagine that a poultry slaughterhouse want to control the process of packaging of poultry cuts. In practice, the pa‐ rameters average µ and standard deviation σ are unknown and must be estimated from sample data. The procedure to estimate µ and σ is to take *m* preliminary samples, each con‐ taining *n* observations of quality characteristic considered. These samples, known as rational subgroup should be taken when one believes that the process is under control and the oper‐ ating conditions kept as uniform as possible. It is usual to consider m = 20 or 25 at least and

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Table 1 shows the values xij, weight of "j" cutting belonging to "i" sample, for 25 rational subgroup size of 4 (m = 25 and n = 4). Therefore, "i" varies from 1 to 25 and "j" from 1 to 4. The sections were collected when the machine was operating within normal procedure, i.e.

**Samples xi1 xi2 xi3 xi4 Ri** 250,11 250,30 249,50 248,60 1,70 248,00 248,60 249,78 250,15 2,15 249,19 250,02 250,84 250,84 1,65 251,29 248,86 251,00 249,39 2,43 249,33 251,80 249,65 248,31 3,49 250,26 248,56 250,43 251,21 2,65 250,31 249,11 249,54 249,95 1,20 250,72 250,80 249,35 249,35 1,45 250,21 248,78 248,99 250,20 1,43 251,21 251,45 249,34 250,55 2,11 249,22 250,43 250,45 250,78 1,56 251,89 250,87 249,65 249,00 2,89 250,98 249,01 249,51 249,51 1,97 249,00 249,00 251,45 250,00 2,45 249,98 249,55 249,67 249,23 0,75 248,88 250,43 249,76 249,11 1,55 251,65 249,76 249,12 250,32 2,53 248,65 248,32 249,00 250,12 1,80

n = 4, 5 or 6 [7,8].

**1.** Collect the data

no stops or apparent defects.

The procedure for construction of the chart is:

**Figure 3.** Scheme of Normal Probability Distribution

The food industry use control charts in different ways depending upon their level of maturi‐ ty in statistical thinking [15]. In a survey conducted in UK food industry, revealed that while there are large differences in process types, quality priorities and key measures among dif‐ ferent sub-sectors of the industry, the use of control charts was broadly similar. This gener‐ ally extended to the use of control charts for recording or monitoring product net weight and volume data [15].

There are two types of quality control charts: control charts for variables and control charts for attributes, which will be described below.

#### *4.5.2.1. Control charts for variables*

Control charts for variables are named due to the fact that the quality characteristic being ana‐ lyzed is expressed by a number on a continuous scale measures. Some examples of control charts are to yield a formulation, to verify the volume of a drink during their bottling, the solu‐ ble solids of a sweet after its cooking and the time to deliver a product to the customer.

Some control charts for variables most commonly used are: chart of the average (x), chart of amplitude (R), chart of standard deviation (*s*). When a quality characteristic of interest is ex‐ pressed by a number on a continuous scale of measurement, the two control charts most used are the chart of the average (x) and a chart of variability (R or *s*). The two charts should be employed simultaneously.

Although the benefits of the application of control charts can be obtained in various situa‐ tions of the food industry, the construction of the charts by variables will be exemplified by a typical situation of the food industry, in a packing operation. Imagine that a poultry slaughterhouse want to control the process of packaging of poultry cuts. In practice, the pa‐ rameters average µ and standard deviation σ are unknown and must be estimated from sample data. The procedure to estimate µ and σ is to take *m* preliminary samples, each con‐ taining *n* observations of quality characteristic considered. These samples, known as rational subgroup should be taken when one believes that the process is under control and the oper‐ ating conditions kept as uniform as possible. It is usual to consider m = 20 or 25 at least and n = 4, 5 or 6 [7,8].

The procedure for construction of the chart is:

#### **1.** Collect the data

**Figure 3.** Scheme of Normal Probability Distribution

for attributes, which will be described below.

*4.5.2.1. Control charts for variables*

be employed simultaneously.

and volume data [15].

204 Food Industry

The food industry use control charts in different ways depending upon their level of maturi‐ ty in statistical thinking [15]. In a survey conducted in UK food industry, revealed that while there are large differences in process types, quality priorities and key measures among dif‐ ferent sub-sectors of the industry, the use of control charts was broadly similar. This gener‐ ally extended to the use of control charts for recording or monitoring product net weight

There are two types of quality control charts: control charts for variables and control charts

Control charts for variables are named due to the fact that the quality characteristic being ana‐ lyzed is expressed by a number on a continuous scale measures. Some examples of control charts are to yield a formulation, to verify the volume of a drink during their bottling, the solu‐

Some control charts for variables most commonly used are: chart of the average (x), chart of amplitude (R), chart of standard deviation (*s*). When a quality characteristic of interest is ex‐ pressed by a number on a continuous scale of measurement, the two control charts most used are the chart of the average (x) and a chart of variability (R or *s*). The two charts should

ble solids of a sweet after its cooking and the time to deliver a product to the customer.

Table 1 shows the values xij, weight of "j" cutting belonging to "i" sample, for 25 rational subgroup size of 4 (m = 25 and n = 4). Therefore, "i" varies from 1 to 25 and "j" from 1 to 4. The sections were collected when the machine was operating within normal procedure, i.e. no stops or apparent defects.



**Table 1.** Values of xij and Ri .

**2.** Calculate the amplitude of each sample Ri

$$\mathcal{R}\_i \text{= highest sample value - lowest value of the sample} \tag{2}$$

See the values of Ri in Table 1.

**3.** Calculate the average amplitude of the sample R

$$R = \frac{R\mathbf{1} + R\mathbf{2} + \dots + R\mathbf{m}}{m} \tag{3}$$

Analyze the behavior of the points on the chart of amplitude and verify if the process is in statistical control. If necessary, recalculate the chart boundaries after the abandonment of the

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207

Analyzing the Figure 4, it can be seen that all points present within normal behavior. Now it

*ii i* 1 2 ... *<sup>n</sup>*

+ ++ <sup>=</sup> (6)

+ ++ = = (7)

*xx x*

*n*

1 2 ... 249,83 *xx xm <sup>X</sup> m*

of each sample (Table 2).

*i*

*x*

points there are out of control. Repeat this procedure until the control state is reached.

**Figure 4.** Chart of Amplitude (R) (25 points)

**8.** Calculate the global average*<sup>X</sup>*¯.

**7.** Calculate the average xi

is necessary to build the chart of average (x). To do this:

**9.** Calculate the control limits of the chart average.

Thus the value of R (average amplitude) is R = 1,93.

**4.** Establish the boundaries of the amplitude chart (Chart of R):

$$\begin{aligned} LCL &= D4 \times R\\ CL &= R\\ LCL &= D3 \times R \end{aligned} \tag{4}$$

The values of D4 and D3 are tabulated [7, 8]. Thus, D4 = 2,282 and D3 = 0.

Therefore:

$$\begin{aligned} \text{LCL} &= 2,282 \times 1,93 = 4,41\\ \text{CL} &= 1,93\\ \text{LCL} &= 0 \times 1,93 = 0 \end{aligned} \tag{5}$$


Analyze the behavior of the points on the chart of amplitude and verify if the process is in statistical control. If necessary, recalculate the chart boundaries after the abandonment of the points there are out of control. Repeat this procedure until the control state is reached.

**Figure 4.** Chart of Amplitude (R) (25 points)

**Samples xi1 xi2 xi3 xi4 Ri** 248,12 248.15 249,45 249,67 1,55 251,13 250,21 249,11 247,88 3,25 250,44 251,17 250,01 250,01 1,16 250,12 251,98 251,13 251,93 1,86 248.56 248.90 248,20 248,98 0,78 248,12 248,45 248,90 250,16 2,04

R = highest sample value - lowest value of the sample <sup>i</sup> (2)

+ ++ <sup>=</sup> (3)

(4)

(5)

*RR R* 1 2 ... *<sup>m</sup> <sup>R</sup> m*

4

= ´

*UCL D R CL R LCL D R*

=

The values of D4 and D3 are tabulated [7, 8]. Thus, D4 = 2,282 and D3 = 0.

*UCL CL LCL*

**5.** Build the chart of amplitude (Figure 4).

**6.** Analyze the chart.

=

1,93

0 1,93 0

=´ =

= ´=

3

2,282 1,93 4,41

= ´

**Table 1.** Values of xij and Ri

206 Food Industry

See the values of Ri

Therefore:

.

**2.** Calculate the amplitude of each sample Ri

in Table 1.

**3.** Calculate the average amplitude of the sample R

Thus the value of R (average amplitude) is R = 1,93.

**4.** Establish the boundaries of the amplitude chart (Chart of R):

Analyzing the Figure 4, it can be seen that all points present within normal behavior. Now it is necessary to build the chart of average (x). To do this:

**7.** Calculate the average xi of each sample (Table 2).

$$\chi\_i = \frac{\chi\_{i1} + \chi\_{i2} + \dots + \chi\_{in}}{n} \tag{6}$$

**8.** Calculate the global average*<sup>X</sup>*¯.

$$\overline{X} = \frac{\text{x1} + \text{x2} + ... + \text{xm}}{m} = 249,83\tag{7}$$

**9.** Calculate the control limits of the chart average.

$$\begin{aligned} LILC &= \overline{X} + AzR\\ CL &= \overline{X} \\ LCL &= \overline{X} - AzR \end{aligned} \tag{8}$$

Analyzing the Figure 5, it can be seen that point 23 is above the UCL and therefore should be eliminated. The boundaries must be recalculated and a new chart of amplitude must be

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249,76 0,729 \* 1,93 251,17

(10)

209

=+ =

=- =

249,76 0,729 \* 1,93 248,36

**Samples xi1 xi2 xi3 xi4 xn** 250,11 250,30 249,50 248,60 249,63 248,00 248,60 249,78 250,15 249,13 249,19 250,02 250,84 250,84 250,22 251,29 248,86 251,00 249,39 250,14 249,33 251,80 249,65 248,31 249,77 250,26 248,56 250,43 251,21 250,12 250,31 249,11 249,54 249,95 249,73 250,72 250,80 249,35 249,35 250,06 250,21 248,78 248,99 250,20 249,55 251,21 251,45 249,34 250,55 250,64 249,22 250,43 250,45 250,78 250,22 251,89 250,87 249,65 249,00 250,35 250,98 249,01 249,51 249,51 249,75 249,00 249,00 251,45 250,00 249,86 249,98 249,55 249,67 249,23 249,61 248,88 250,43 249,76 249,11 249,55 251,65 249,76 249,12 250,32 250,21 248,65 248,32 249,00 250,12 249,02 248,12 248.15 249,45 249,67 249,08 251,13 250,21 249,11 247,88 249,58 250,44 251,17 250,01 250,01 250,41 250,12 251,98 251,13 251,93 251,29 248.56 248.90 248,20 248,98 248,59 248,12 248,45 248,90 250,16 248,91

New limits of the graph of the average (x) after removal of the subgroup 23.

249,76

*ULC CL LCL*

=

drawn (Figure 6).

**Table 2.** Values of xij and xn.

The value of A2 is a constant tabulated [7, 8]. Thus, A2 = 0,729.*<sup>X</sup>*¯ is the average of averages and R is the average amplitude found in the last chart of amplitude.

Thus:

$$\begin{aligned} \text{LCLC} &= 249, 83 + 0, 729 \,\,\, ^\circ 1, 93 = 251, 24\\ \text{LCL} &= 249, 83\\ \text{LCL} &= 249, 83 - 0, 729 \,\,\, ^\circ 1, 93 = 248, 42 \end{aligned} \tag{9}$$

#### **10.** Construct of the average chart (Figure 5).

**Figure 5.** Chart of Average (x)

**11.** Interpret the chart of average built.

Analyze the behavior of the points on the average chart and whether the process is in statis‐ tical control. If necessary, recalculate the chart boundaries after the abandonment of the points there are out of control. Repeat this procedure until the control state is reached.

Analyzing the Figure 5, it can be seen that point 23 is above the UCL and therefore should be eliminated. The boundaries must be recalculated and a new chart of amplitude must be drawn (Figure 6).

New limits of the graph of the average (x) after removal of the subgroup 23.

$$\begin{aligned} \text{LCLC} &= 249,76 + 0,729 \ast 1,93 = 251,17 \\ \text{CLL} &= 249,76 \\ \text{LCL} &= 249,76 - 0,729 \ast 1,93 = 248,36 \end{aligned} \tag{10}$$


**Table 2.** Values of xij and xn.

2

(8)

(9)

*ULC X A R*

= +

*LCL X A R*

= -

*CL X*

and R is the average amplitude found in the last chart of amplitude.

249,83

*ULC CL LCL*

**10.** Construct of the average chart (Figure 5).

**Figure 5.** Chart of Average (x)

**11.** Interpret the chart of average built.

=

Thus:

208 Food Industry

=

2

The value of A2 is a constant tabulated [7, 8]. Thus, A2 = 0,729.*<sup>X</sup>*¯ is the average of averages

249,83 0,729 \* 1,93 251,24

=+ =

=- =

249,83 0,729 \* 1,93 248,42

Analyze the behavior of the points on the average chart and whether the process is in statis‐ tical control. If necessary, recalculate the chart boundaries after the abandonment of the

points there are out of control. Repeat this procedure until the control state is reached.

**Date Lot**

**Table 3.** Number of defective biscuits in samples of 100 units

**1.** Collect the data

Xi

**Nº. Biscuit inspectionated**

01/mai 1 200 7 0,035 02/mai 2 200 9 0,045 03/mai 3 200 4 0,02 04/mai 4 200 5 0,025 05/mai 5 200 6 0,03 06/mai 6 200 9 0,045 07/mai 7 200 5 0,025 08/mai 8 200 6 0,03 09/mai 9 200 6 0,03 10/mai 10 200 4 0,02 11/mai 11 200 6 0,03 12/mai 12 200 7 0,035 13/mai 13 200 4 0,02 14/mai 14 200 6 0,03 15/mai 15 200 7 0,035 16/mai 16 200 8 0,04 17/mai 17 200 8 0,04 18/mai 18 200 4 0,02 19/mai 19 200 7 0,035 20/mai 20 200 6 0,03

Collect m samples of size n. In general m = 20 or 25 at least. Collect the samples at successive

1

*i i p X mn* <sup>=</sup>

<sup>=</sup> å (11)

1 *<sup>n</sup>*

intervals and record observations in the order they were obtained (Table 3).

**2.** Calculate the average proportion of defective items p (average).

is the number of defective items in the "i" sample.

**3.** Calculate the control limits.

Defective items (xi )

Quality Management: Important Aspects for the Food Industry

**Proportion of defective items (p)** 211

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**Figure 6.** Chart of Average (x) (without the 23th subgroup)

**12.** Place the final charts of amplitude and average in the production line.

Note that for control of the packaging process of cuts of poultry, it chart has to be placed without padding, only with the UCL, CL and LCL, so that operators or responsible for qual‐ ity control of packaging can monitor the process.

**13.** Periodically review the values of the control limits.

#### *4.5.2.2. Control charts for attributes*

It is not always by means of measurements that assess the quality of a product. For example, the color of a biscuit or of a sweet can be evaluated sensorially and the result is expressed as conforming or not conforming to a specified standard. Or, a PET bottle can be classified as not defective if it is whole in its structure or defective if it is crushed or broken.

Control charts for attributes can be: chart of the proportion of defective items (Chart p), chart of the total number of defects (Chart np), chart of number of nonconformities in the sample (Chart C) and the chart of number of nonconformities by inspection unit (Chart u) [8, 13].

Also here the construction of a chart for attributes will be exemplified. Suppose a manufac‐ turer industry of biscuits decides to build a control chart *p* to visually check whether the product color after baking, was established as a standard for quality control. The number of defective products is presented in Table 3 and is important to note that the samples were numbered according to the date of production.


**Table 3.** Number of defective biscuits in samples of 100 units

#### **1.** Collect the data

**Figure 6.** Chart of Average (x) (without the 23th subgroup)

ity control of packaging can monitor the process.

numbered according to the date of production.

*4.5.2.2. Control charts for attributes*

210 Food Industry

**13.** Periodically review the values of the control limits.

**12.** Place the final charts of amplitude and average in the production line.

Note that for control of the packaging process of cuts of poultry, it chart has to be placed without padding, only with the UCL, CL and LCL, so that operators or responsible for qual‐

It is not always by means of measurements that assess the quality of a product. For example, the color of a biscuit or of a sweet can be evaluated sensorially and the result is expressed as conforming or not conforming to a specified standard. Or, a PET bottle can be classified as

Control charts for attributes can be: chart of the proportion of defective items (Chart p), chart of the total number of defects (Chart np), chart of number of nonconformities in the sample (Chart C) and the chart of number of nonconformities by inspection unit (Chart u) [8, 13].

Also here the construction of a chart for attributes will be exemplified. Suppose a manufac‐ turer industry of biscuits decides to build a control chart *p* to visually check whether the product color after baking, was established as a standard for quality control. The number of defective products is presented in Table 3 and is important to note that the samples were

not defective if it is whole in its structure or defective if it is crushed or broken.

Collect m samples of size n. In general m = 20 or 25 at least. Collect the samples at successive intervals and record observations in the order they were obtained (Table 3).

**2.** Calculate the average proportion of defective items p (average).

$$\overline{p} = \frac{1}{mn} \sum\_{i=1}^{n} X\_i \tag{11}$$

Xi is the number of defective items in the "i" sample.

**3.** Calculate the control limits.

$$\begin{aligned} LCL &= \overline{p} + 3\sqrt{\overline{p}(1-\overline{p})/n} \\ CL &= \overline{p} \\ LCL &= \overline{p} - 3\sqrt{\overline{p}(1-\overline{p})/n} \end{aligned} \tag{12}$$

**7.** Check if the control state reached is appropriate to the process. If so, adopt the current control chart. Note that for control of the biscuit color, it chart has to be placed without

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213

In the '50s, the quality control was employed in Japan, by an intensive use of statistical tech‐ niques. However, the excessive emphasis on statistical techniques led to some problems, such as low interest shown by senior management of companies, by the quality control, which remained a movement of ground and plant, i.e., to engineers and workers [16].

In 1954 JUSE invited the engineer Juran, one of the masters of quality management, to deliv‐ er seminars to senior management. From the visit of Juran, the Quality Control came to be understood and used as an administrative tool, which represented the beginning of the tran‐ sition of Statistical Quality Control for Total Quality Control as is currently practiced, in‐

The quality management system proposed by the Japanese model shows how basic features to the participation of all sectors and all company employees in the practice of quality con‐ trol, constant education and training for all levels of the organization, circles activity of qual‐ ity control, audits, use of basic and advanced statistical techniques and national campaigns

The TQC ideas developed by the Japanese were broadcast around the world, being this model capable of being deployed in companies of various sectors, with appropriate adjust‐

While the movement occurred in Japan by TQC, in Europe there was a movement around an organizational structure whose purpose was to develop standards for manufacturing, trade and communication in European countries for the increased levels of quality of activi‐ ties. Thus, in 1947 the International Organization for Standardization was founded, based in Geneva, Switzerland. And in terms of quality control there was difficulty to unify standards that ensure that a product had been manufactured under quality criteria, after several trials, in 1989, was published the standard ISO 9000. The goal was to establish requirements for a quality management system, the implementation of which would extend to all types and business segments. The requirements of the series represented the consensus of different

More specifically, ISO 9001 deals with the requirements of the quality management system for an organization to produce compliant products and get customer satisfaction. Within the

padding, i.e., only with the UCL, CL and LCL. **8.** Periodically review the values of the control limits.

volving the participation of all sectors and employees[16].

**5. Quality management systems**

**5.1. Total Quality Control (TQC)**

to promote quality control.

ments to the corporate culture.

**5.2. ISO 9000 series**

countries of the world.

The LCL is not considered when the value is negative.

**4.** Draw the control limits. Mark left-hand vertical axis in the scale for horizontal axis p and the number of samples. Draw lines to represent full UCL, CL and LCL (Figure 7).

**Figure 7.** Chart p (proportion of defective products in the sample)

**5.** Mark the points on the chart.

Represent on the chart the m values of p (Figure 7).

**6.** Interpret the graph constructed.

To analyze the behavior points on the graph, and verify that the process is in statistical con‐ trol. If necessary, recalculate the chart boundaries after the abandonment of the points there are out of control. Repeat this procedure until the control state is reached.


## **5. Quality management systems**

### **5.1. Total Quality Control (TQC)**

3 (1 ) /

(12)

*UCL p p p n*

=+ -

*LCL p p p n*

=- -

*CL p*

The LCL is not considered when the value is negative.

212 Food Industry

**Figure 7.** Chart p (proportion of defective products in the sample)

Represent on the chart the m values of p (Figure 7).

**5.** Mark the points on the chart.

**6.** Interpret the graph constructed.

=

3 (1 ) /

**4.** Draw the control limits. Mark left-hand vertical axis in the scale for horizontal axis p and the number of samples. Draw lines to represent full UCL, CL and LCL (Figure 7).

To analyze the behavior points on the graph, and verify that the process is in statistical con‐ trol. If necessary, recalculate the chart boundaries after the abandonment of the points there

are out of control. Repeat this procedure until the control state is reached.

In the '50s, the quality control was employed in Japan, by an intensive use of statistical tech‐ niques. However, the excessive emphasis on statistical techniques led to some problems, such as low interest shown by senior management of companies, by the quality control, which remained a movement of ground and plant, i.e., to engineers and workers [16].

In 1954 JUSE invited the engineer Juran, one of the masters of quality management, to deliv‐ er seminars to senior management. From the visit of Juran, the Quality Control came to be understood and used as an administrative tool, which represented the beginning of the tran‐ sition of Statistical Quality Control for Total Quality Control as is currently practiced, in‐ volving the participation of all sectors and employees[16].

The quality management system proposed by the Japanese model shows how basic features to the participation of all sectors and all company employees in the practice of quality con‐ trol, constant education and training for all levels of the organization, circles activity of qual‐ ity control, audits, use of basic and advanced statistical techniques and national campaigns to promote quality control.

The TQC ideas developed by the Japanese were broadcast around the world, being this model capable of being deployed in companies of various sectors, with appropriate adjust‐ ments to the corporate culture.

#### **5.2. ISO 9000 series**

While the movement occurred in Japan by TQC, in Europe there was a movement around an organizational structure whose purpose was to develop standards for manufacturing, trade and communication in European countries for the increased levels of quality of activi‐ ties. Thus, in 1947 the International Organization for Standardization was founded, based in Geneva, Switzerland. And in terms of quality control there was difficulty to unify standards that ensure that a product had been manufactured under quality criteria, after several trials, in 1989, was published the standard ISO 9000. The goal was to establish requirements for a quality management system, the implementation of which would extend to all types and business segments. The requirements of the series represented the consensus of different countries of the world.

More specifically, ISO 9001 deals with the requirements of the quality management system for an organization to produce compliant products and get customer satisfaction. Within the rules of the certification ISO 9001, there are specific requirements regarding the responsibili‐ ty and involvement of management with the quality system, requirements for preparing and controlling of the documentation, for the critical analysis of contracts and selection of suppliers, to traceability and processes control, for measurement, for inspection and testing, analysis of nonconformities and for continuous improvement, for audits and training.

**5.4. Six sigma**

increases profitability [18, 19].

sumed as follows:

cycle.

among others [18-20].

mality' are avoided as much as possible.

apply statistical tools to aid analysis.

managing to deploy a new approach,

ties, as they will be the company's strategic objectives.

The concept of 6-Sigma system was developed by Motorola in the mid 80´s. The 6-Sigma program involves the application of statistical methods to business processes, guided by the goal of eliminating defects. The 6-Sigma focuses on quality improvement (eg, waste reduc‐ tion) to help organizations produce better, faster and more economical. More generally, the program focuses on defect prevention, reduction of cycle times and cost savings. Unlike careless cost cutting, which reduce the value and quality, Six Sigma identifies and eliminates costly waste, i.e., that do not add value to the customers. With this, the company increases operational efficiency reduces costs, improves quality, increases customer satisfaction and

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215

Sigma (σ) is a letter of the Greek alphabet used by statisticians to measure the variance in any process. The performance of a company is measured by the sigma level of their business processes. Organizations that employ the Six Sigma method aim to achieve 3.4 defects per million on manufactured products. This methodology is based on the implementation of a system based on the measurement and monitoring of processes so that deviations from 'nor‐

The Six Sigma methodology is composed by a broad set of tools and techniques for quality improvement, among which there is a strong application of statistical tools and techniques. The cycle of phases, called DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control) is used as a guide for professionals (mainly black belts and green belts) to implement projects that meet the goals most daring and radical pre-set by the company. The DMAIC can be re‐

**•** Define: define problems and situations to be improved, including the goals of the activi‐

**•** Analyze: analyze the information captured in order to identify ways to eliminate the gap between the current performance of the system or process and the desired goal. It should

**•** Increment: deploy processes, it can use management tools of projects or planning and

**•** Control: control the improved processes in order to generate a continuous improvement

The statistical aspects of six sigma must complement business perspectives and challenges to the organization to implement six sigma projects successfully.In the list of tools and statis‐ tical techniques of DMAIC, are included: descriptive statistics, principles of sampling, con‐ trol charts, process capability analysis, measurement system analysis, basic charts (histogram, scatter, box-plot, Pareto, etc..), cause and effect diagram, statistical process con‐ trol (SPC), design of experiments, linear regression and correlation, multiple regression, hy‐ pothesis testing, confidence intervals, analysis of variance, capability process analysis,

**•** Measure: to establish valid and reliable measurements for information and data.

As ISO 9001 is a rule of general character it contains requirements to serve the most various sectors, it is necessary, once adopted by the food industry, some aspects can be considered in some cases insufficient. There's not in the standard, explicit references to the risks to con‐ sumer health, the safe products, the nutritional values, the critical control points, the good manufacturing practices. Food security can be seen as failures risk of deterioration and dam‐ age as a result of careless handling and storage inconvenient and not because of contamina‐ tion and loss of sensory and nutritional values. Thus management systems for food safety have also been employed to address this need [17].

## **5.3. ISO 22000 series**

Aiming to harmonize the international level, the various guidelines related to food safety systems, it was developed the ISO 22000:2005 - Food Safety Management systems - Require‐ ments for any organization in the food chain. This applies the principles of a plan Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) programs along with prerequisites, such as Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and Good Hygiene Practices (GHP). The standard has a similar format to the standard of ISO 9001 Quality Management. This similarity allows or‐ ganizations to implement the specifics of food management system integrated to the quality management system. In this context the ISO 22000 presents as fact the benefits of being rec‐ ognized internationally, to apply to all elements of the food chain and fill for the food sector, the gap between ISO 9001 and HACCP.

The ISO 22000 standards specifies the requirements to a safety management system that combines elements of food management system to ISO 9001 templates, as already said, and interactive communication, since communication along the supply chain is essential to en‐ sure that all relevant safety hazards of food are identified and controlled. Finally, through concrete measures, tangible and that can be checked in audits, ISO 22000 combines the HACCP plan with prerequisite programs (PRP), since they are keys to an effective manage‐ ment system of food safety.

The ISO 22000 considers that the safety of food is related to the presence of hazards in food at the time of consumption. And because of the dangers that can occur at any stage of the supply chain, the security must be ensured at all levels of the supply chain. So it should be applied to producers of animal feeds and other agricultural products, food manufacturers, packaging, transportation and food warehouses to suppliers of retail and food services. So for its strong integrator character, the success of the implementation depends largely on the acceptance of the various links in the supply chain. Other barriers may arise in terms of local practices and investment cost.

### **5.4. Six sigma**

rules of the certification ISO 9001, there are specific requirements regarding the responsibili‐ ty and involvement of management with the quality system, requirements for preparing and controlling of the documentation, for the critical analysis of contracts and selection of suppliers, to traceability and processes control, for measurement, for inspection and testing, analysis of nonconformities and for continuous improvement, for audits and training.

As ISO 9001 is a rule of general character it contains requirements to serve the most various sectors, it is necessary, once adopted by the food industry, some aspects can be considered in some cases insufficient. There's not in the standard, explicit references to the risks to con‐ sumer health, the safe products, the nutritional values, the critical control points, the good manufacturing practices. Food security can be seen as failures risk of deterioration and dam‐ age as a result of careless handling and storage inconvenient and not because of contamina‐ tion and loss of sensory and nutritional values. Thus management systems for food safety

Aiming to harmonize the international level, the various guidelines related to food safety systems, it was developed the ISO 22000:2005 - Food Safety Management systems - Require‐ ments for any organization in the food chain. This applies the principles of a plan Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) programs along with prerequisites, such as Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and Good Hygiene Practices (GHP). The standard has a similar format to the standard of ISO 9001 Quality Management. This similarity allows or‐ ganizations to implement the specifics of food management system integrated to the quality management system. In this context the ISO 22000 presents as fact the benefits of being rec‐ ognized internationally, to apply to all elements of the food chain and fill for the food sector,

The ISO 22000 standards specifies the requirements to a safety management system that combines elements of food management system to ISO 9001 templates, as already said, and interactive communication, since communication along the supply chain is essential to en‐ sure that all relevant safety hazards of food are identified and controlled. Finally, through concrete measures, tangible and that can be checked in audits, ISO 22000 combines the HACCP plan with prerequisite programs (PRP), since they are keys to an effective manage‐

The ISO 22000 considers that the safety of food is related to the presence of hazards in food at the time of consumption. And because of the dangers that can occur at any stage of the supply chain, the security must be ensured at all levels of the supply chain. So it should be applied to producers of animal feeds and other agricultural products, food manufacturers, packaging, transportation and food warehouses to suppliers of retail and food services. So for its strong integrator character, the success of the implementation depends largely on the acceptance of the various links in the supply chain. Other barriers may arise in terms of local

have also been employed to address this need [17].

the gap between ISO 9001 and HACCP.

ment system of food safety.

practices and investment cost.

**5.3. ISO 22000 series**

214 Food Industry

The concept of 6-Sigma system was developed by Motorola in the mid 80´s. The 6-Sigma program involves the application of statistical methods to business processes, guided by the goal of eliminating defects. The 6-Sigma focuses on quality improvement (eg, waste reduc‐ tion) to help organizations produce better, faster and more economical. More generally, the program focuses on defect prevention, reduction of cycle times and cost savings. Unlike careless cost cutting, which reduce the value and quality, Six Sigma identifies and eliminates costly waste, i.e., that do not add value to the customers. With this, the company increases operational efficiency reduces costs, improves quality, increases customer satisfaction and increases profitability [18, 19].

Sigma (σ) is a letter of the Greek alphabet used by statisticians to measure the variance in any process. The performance of a company is measured by the sigma level of their business processes. Organizations that employ the Six Sigma method aim to achieve 3.4 defects per million on manufactured products. This methodology is based on the implementation of a system based on the measurement and monitoring of processes so that deviations from 'nor‐ mality' are avoided as much as possible.

The Six Sigma methodology is composed by a broad set of tools and techniques for quality improvement, among which there is a strong application of statistical tools and techniques. The cycle of phases, called DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control) is used as a guide for professionals (mainly black belts and green belts) to implement projects that meet the goals most daring and radical pre-set by the company. The DMAIC can be re‐ sumed as follows:


The statistical aspects of six sigma must complement business perspectives and challenges to the organization to implement six sigma projects successfully.In the list of tools and statis‐ tical techniques of DMAIC, are included: descriptive statistics, principles of sampling, con‐ trol charts, process capability analysis, measurement system analysis, basic charts (histogram, scatter, box-plot, Pareto, etc..), cause and effect diagram, statistical process con‐ trol (SPC), design of experiments, linear regression and correlation, multiple regression, hy‐ pothesis testing, confidence intervals, analysis of variance, capability process analysis, among others [18-20].

Factors influencing successful six sigma projects include management involvement and or‐ ganizational commitment, project management and control skills, cultural change, and con‐ tinuous training. It is a methodology that crosses the entire company, i.e., it is not the isolated involvement of a team, but the involvement of all in the pursuit of the implementa‐ tion of continuous improvement and customer satisfaction [19, 20].

[3] Fotopoulos C, Kafetzopoulos D, Gotzamani K. Critical factors for effective imple‐ mentation of the HACCP system: a Pareto analysis. British Food Journal 2011; 113(5):

Quality Management: Important Aspects for the Food Industry

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53162

217

[4] Food and Drug Administration.FDA. Return to Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) for the 21st Century - Food Processing. www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceCom‐ plianceRegulatoryInformation/CurrentGoodManufacturingPracticesCGMPs (ac‐

[5] Codex Alimentarius Commission. Recommended international code of practice gen‐

[6] Campos VF. TQC: Controle da Qualidade Total (no estilo japonês). Nova Lima:

[7] Werkema MCC. Ferramentas estatísticas básicas para o gerenciamento de processos.

[8] Montgomery, D.C. Introduction to statistical quality control. 5th edition, New York:

[9] Grigg N. Statistical process control in UK food production: an overview. Internation‐

[10] Grigg N, Walls L. Developing statistical thinking for performance improvement in the food industry. International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management 2007;

[11] International Standard Organization. Sampling procedures for inspection by attrib‐ utes - Part 10: Introduction to the ISO 2859 series of standards for sampling for in‐

[12] International Standard Organization. Sampling procedures for inspection by varia‐ bles - Part 2: General specification for single sampling plans indexed by acceptance quality limit (AQL) for lot-by-lot inspection of independent quality characteristics.

[13] Costa, AFB, Epprechi EK, Carpinetti LC. Controle estatístico de qualidade. São Pau‐

[14] Codex Alimentarius Commission. General guidelines on sampling. CAC/GL 50;

[15] Grigg N, Walls L. The role of control charts in promoting organizational learning: new perspectives from a food industry study. The TQM Magazine 2007; 19(1): 37-49.

[16] Mizuno S. Company-wide quality control activities in Japan. Reports of Statistical

[17] Grigg N, McAlinden C. A new role for ISO 9000 in the food industry? Indicative data from the UK and mainland Europe. British Food Journal 2001; 103(9): 644-56.

eral principles of food hygiene. CAC/RCP-1 (1969); Rev.4; 2003.

al Journal of Quality & Reliability Management 1998; 15(2): 223-38.

Belo Horizonte: Fundação Christiano Ottoni; 1995.

spection by attributes. ISO 2859-10:2006(E).

Application Research 1969, 16(3): 68-77.

578-97.

INDG; 2004.

Wiley; 2005.

24(4): 347-69.

ISO 3952-2:2006(E).

lo: Atlas; 2004.

2004.

cessed 10 August 2012).

The adoption of the Six Sigma methodology as a quality program in all agribusiness chain in general is still new, but it is important to highlight the potential of this method for improv‐ ing the quality of food products and reduce production costs.

## **6. Conclusion**

The competitiveness of a company can be seen as a reflection of the strategies adopted as a means to adapt to the prevailing standards of competition in the markets in which the or‐ ganization operates. Certainly, quality is a key factor for the food industry acts in a market increasingly globalized. For that companies must establish competitive strategies and devel‐ op an appropriate internal structure.

From these assumptions, this chapter talked about the important aspects and also specific to quality management in the food industry. The reality of each company, in financial terms, cultural, organization and motivation, will determine the degree of maturity and efficiency in quality management. What can be concluded is that the competitive advantage certainly goes through the constant search for new tools and learning management systems that im‐ prove the quality of processes and services and consequently the products offered by the food industry.

## **Author details**

Caroline Liboreiro Paiva

Address all correspondence to: carolinepaiva7@gmail.com

Department of Food Science, University Federal of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil

## **References**


[3] Fotopoulos C, Kafetzopoulos D, Gotzamani K. Critical factors for effective imple‐ mentation of the HACCP system: a Pareto analysis. British Food Journal 2011; 113(5): 578-97.

Factors influencing successful six sigma projects include management involvement and or‐ ganizational commitment, project management and control skills, cultural change, and con‐ tinuous training. It is a methodology that crosses the entire company, i.e., it is not the isolated involvement of a team, but the involvement of all in the pursuit of the implementa‐

The adoption of the Six Sigma methodology as a quality program in all agribusiness chain in general is still new, but it is important to highlight the potential of this method for improv‐

The competitiveness of a company can be seen as a reflection of the strategies adopted as a means to adapt to the prevailing standards of competition in the markets in which the or‐ ganization operates. Certainly, quality is a key factor for the food industry acts in a market increasingly globalized. For that companies must establish competitive strategies and devel‐

From these assumptions, this chapter talked about the important aspects and also specific to quality management in the food industry. The reality of each company, in financial terms, cultural, organization and motivation, will determine the degree of maturity and efficiency in quality management. What can be concluded is that the competitive advantage certainly goes through the constant search for new tools and learning management systems that im‐ prove the quality of processes and services and consequently the products offered by the

Department of Food Science, University Federal of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil

[1] Garvin, D. A. Managing Quality: The Strategic and Competitive Edge. Boston: Har‐

[2] Gurudasani, R., Sheth, M. Food safety knowledge and attitude of consumers of vari‐

ous food service establishments. Journal of Food Safety 2009;29: 364–380.

tion of continuous improvement and customer satisfaction [19, 20].

ing the quality of food products and reduce production costs.

Address all correspondence to: carolinepaiva7@gmail.com

vard Business School Press; 1988.

**6. Conclusion**

216 Food Industry

food industry.

**Author details**

**References**

Caroline Liboreiro Paiva

op an appropriate internal structure.


[18] Tjahjono B, Ball P. Six Sigma: a literature review. International Journal of Lean Six Sigma 2010; 1(3): 216-33.

**Section 3**

**Food Safety**


**Section 3**

## **Food Safety**

[18] Tjahjono B, Ball P. Six Sigma: a literature review. International Journal of Lean Six

[20] Kwak YH, Anbari FT. Benefits, obstacles, and future of six sigma approach. Techno‐

[19] Werkema, C. Criando a cultura Seis Sigma. Nova Lima: Werkema Editora; 2004.

Sigma 2010; 1(3): 216-33.

218 Food Industry

vation 2006; 26(5-6): 708-15.

**Chapter 10**

**Social and Economic Issues – Genetically Modified Food**

Food is one of the most important necessities for humans; we eat to live and at least most people are blesses with a meal a day, while some others can afford three or more. Independ‐ ent of our culture and customs, dinning remains a vital aspect in different festivities across the world between and within families and friends. Furthermore, we want a healthy and nu‐

The improvement of plants and livestock for food production and the use of different con‐ servation techniques have been in practice as long as humankind stopped migrating relying on agriculture for survival. With the quest to grow more and better food to meet the de‐ mand of our fast growing world population, genetic engineering of crops has become a new

Molecular genetics has been and is a very useful tool used to better understanding of genes underlying quantitative traits associated with increasing crop yields or improving food quality. The eagerness to increase crop products has resulted in the genetic manipulation of plants, which has raised much polemics ranging from political, ethical and social problems. Genetically modified food simply means that the original DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) structure of plants has been altered or tempered with. Since the DNA is the finger print of every organism consequently, changes made within the genetic code could possible lead to

Although, there has been steady increase in the total area under genetically modified (GM) crop cultivation, nevertheless, there has been a marked slowdown in the last few years. The most extensively cultivated GM crops include soybean, corn and cotton. Eu‐ rope is known to grow less than 0.5% of the world's GM crops, primarily because of the

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 Akumo et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

tritious meal but the question is "How safe is the food we are consuming?"

alteration in the quality or characteristic of the plant in question.

Divine Nkonyam Akumo, Heidi Riedel and

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Iryna Semtanska

**1. Introduction**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54478

platform in addition to plant breeding.

## **Social and Economic Issues – Genetically Modified Food**

Divine Nkonyam Akumo, Heidi Riedel and Iryna Semtanska

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54478

## **1. Introduction**

Food is one of the most important necessities for humans; we eat to live and at least most people are blesses with a meal a day, while some others can afford three or more. Independ‐ ent of our culture and customs, dinning remains a vital aspect in different festivities across the world between and within families and friends. Furthermore, we want a healthy and nu‐ tritious meal but the question is "How safe is the food we are consuming?"

The improvement of plants and livestock for food production and the use of different con‐ servation techniques have been in practice as long as humankind stopped migrating relying on agriculture for survival. With the quest to grow more and better food to meet the de‐ mand of our fast growing world population, genetic engineering of crops has become a new platform in addition to plant breeding.

Molecular genetics has been and is a very useful tool used to better understanding of genes underlying quantitative traits associated with increasing crop yields or improving food quality. The eagerness to increase crop products has resulted in the genetic manipulation of plants, which has raised much polemics ranging from political, ethical and social problems. Genetically modified food simply means that the original DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) structure of plants has been altered or tempered with. Since the DNA is the finger print of every organism consequently, changes made within the genetic code could possible lead to alteration in the quality or characteristic of the plant in question.

Although, there has been steady increase in the total area under genetically modified (GM) crop cultivation, nevertheless, there has been a marked slowdown in the last few years. The most extensively cultivated GM crops include soybean, corn and cotton. Eu‐ rope is known to grow less than 0.5% of the world's GM crops, primarily because of the

very rigorous EU regulations imposed on GMO crops in Europe until 2003 and the re‐ fusal of European consumers to buy GM products.

lishing lower thresholds, in particular for foods and feed containing or consisting of GMOs or in order to take into account advances in science and technology, should be provided for. In my opinion, the European GM food regulations are the most stringent in the world and it is not quite clear whether or not there is any room for GM products due to the complexity in understanding and implementation of the said regulations. Nonetheless, the EU GMO regu‐ lations could be summarized as it is meant to provide the basis for ensuring a high level of protection of human life and health, animal health and welfare, environment and consumer interests in relation to genetically modified food and feed, whilst ensuring the effective func‐ tioning of the internal market; lay down community procedures for the authorisation and supervision of genetically modified food and feed; and to lay down provisions for the label‐

Social and Economic Issues – Genetically Modified Food

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54478

223

Similarly, the United States regulation process is confusing because there are three different government agencies that have jurisdiction over GM foods. The Food and Drug Administra‐ tion (FDA) evaluate whether the plant is safe to eat; the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) evaluates GM plants for environmental safety, and the United States Depart‐ ment of Agriculture (USDA) which evaluates whether the plant to be grown is safe (Pelleti‐ er, 2005; Strauss, 2006). The USDA has many internal divisions that share responsibility for assessing GM foods. Among these divisions are, the Animal Health and Plant Inspection Service (APHIS), which conducts field tests and issues permits to grow GM crops, the Agri‐ cultural Research Service which performs in-house GM food research, and the Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service which oversees the USDA risk assessment program (Whitman, 2000). This implies there is a combination of regulations from these three agencies to be followed in order to carry on with GM food. Nevertheless, it is estimat‐ ed that up to 70% of processed food on US supermarkets shelves ranging from soda to soup, crackers to condiments contain genetically engineered ingredients. Currently, up to 85% of U.S. corn is genetically modified as are 91% of soybeans and 88% of cotton (cottonseed oil is

In many developing countries whereby due to seasonal changes, there are usually a season of plenty and that of starvation, GM food is less a problem because the goal is to feed the starving population. Although, some of them might have GMO regulations, when food aid is coming into their countries in the moment of disaster, their rules and regulations are not important at that moment. This is understandable because the ultimate goal is saving lives

Plants have always been able to developed mechanisms over the years to endured environ‐ mental stress (drought, predation and pollutions just to name a few) and consequently adapted to the changing environment by developing genes resistant to the different factors. This is supported by the fact that, historically it was assumed that changes in plants as a re‐ sult of genetic modification in breeding are generally safe and not harmful. Nevertheless, this was eventually challenged with the arrival of rDNA (ribosomal deoxyribonucleic acid) technology in the early 1970s when Cohen and Boyer successfully linked two different

ling of genetically modified food and feed.

often used in food products) (Whitman, 2000).

pieces of DNA (McHughen & Smyth, 2008).

before thinking of any qualms.

Notwithstanding, the essential knowledge and understanding of cell function and herita‐ bility combined with genetic engineering offering new possibilities to transfer and or modify DNA between organisms has enabled governments in many countries, for the first time, to be able to provide adequate food supply to their growing population. These advancements have resulted in the development of efficient vaccines and pharmaceuti‐ cals, new food technologies and many other products improving the overall standard of life. This is also true of agriculture where genetic engineering of crops can complement traditional plant breeding to suit the needs of today's world. Most of these improve‐ ments can be grouped under the term "biotechnology", which aims to use organisms, cells and or part of cells in technical or industrial processes.

## **2. Regulations and why?**

Because genetically modified foods have been one of the most controversial topics that have made news in the last years. Many European environmental organizations, NGOs and pub‐ lic interest groups have been actively protesting against GM foods for months. Beside, re‐ cent controversial studies about the effects of genetically-modified food have brought the issue of genetic engineering to the forefront of the public consciousness (Fonseca, Planchon, Renaut, Oliveira, & Batista, 2012; Losey, Rayor, & Carter, 1999; Nykiforuk, Shewmaker, Har‐ ry, Yurchenko, Zhang, Reed, et al., 2012). Generally in Europe, the idea of introducing GM food products in the market for human consumption and or as animal feed has not been welcome for health reasons (Maga & Murray, 2010). Although there are no clear research re‐ sults suggesting the negative effects of GM food to human health, the distancing from GM foods is more or less preventive. Nevertheless, with the growing interest in the use of bio‐ fuels as one of the sources of alternative sources energy, genetic engineering then comes in to play for economic reasons.

As a reaction to the growing public concern on GM food and products, many governments across the world have taken different approaches to tackle this hot topic on GM foods. This has resulted in the creation of GMO regulations which are most often country or region spe‐ cific. The European parliament and council for example have set up regulations regarding GM foods to protect human health and well-being of citizens, and European social and eco‐ nomic interests (McCabe & Butler, 1999). The EU regulations segregates between GM food and feed, it further gives specific instructions on how GM products should be labelled in terms of the amount of modifications involved.

EU GMO regulations suggest for example that it is appropriate to provide the combined lev‐ el of adventitious or technically unavoidable presence of genetically modified materials in a food or feed or in one of its components is higher than the set threshold, such presence should be indicated in accordance with this regulation and that detailed provisions should be adopted for its implementation (Ramon, MacCabe, & Gil, 2004). The possibility of estab‐ lishing lower thresholds, in particular for foods and feed containing or consisting of GMOs or in order to take into account advances in science and technology, should be provided for. In my opinion, the European GM food regulations are the most stringent in the world and it is not quite clear whether or not there is any room for GM products due to the complexity in understanding and implementation of the said regulations. Nonetheless, the EU GMO regu‐ lations could be summarized as it is meant to provide the basis for ensuring a high level of protection of human life and health, animal health and welfare, environment and consumer interests in relation to genetically modified food and feed, whilst ensuring the effective func‐ tioning of the internal market; lay down community procedures for the authorisation and supervision of genetically modified food and feed; and to lay down provisions for the label‐ ling of genetically modified food and feed.

very rigorous EU regulations imposed on GMO crops in Europe until 2003 and the re‐

Notwithstanding, the essential knowledge and understanding of cell function and herita‐ bility combined with genetic engineering offering new possibilities to transfer and or modify DNA between organisms has enabled governments in many countries, for the first time, to be able to provide adequate food supply to their growing population. These advancements have resulted in the development of efficient vaccines and pharmaceuti‐ cals, new food technologies and many other products improving the overall standard of life. This is also true of agriculture where genetic engineering of crops can complement traditional plant breeding to suit the needs of today's world. Most of these improve‐ ments can be grouped under the term "biotechnology", which aims to use organisms,

Because genetically modified foods have been one of the most controversial topics that have made news in the last years. Many European environmental organizations, NGOs and pub‐ lic interest groups have been actively protesting against GM foods for months. Beside, re‐ cent controversial studies about the effects of genetically-modified food have brought the issue of genetic engineering to the forefront of the public consciousness (Fonseca, Planchon, Renaut, Oliveira, & Batista, 2012; Losey, Rayor, & Carter, 1999; Nykiforuk, Shewmaker, Har‐ ry, Yurchenko, Zhang, Reed, et al., 2012). Generally in Europe, the idea of introducing GM food products in the market for human consumption and or as animal feed has not been welcome for health reasons (Maga & Murray, 2010). Although there are no clear research re‐ sults suggesting the negative effects of GM food to human health, the distancing from GM foods is more or less preventive. Nevertheless, with the growing interest in the use of bio‐ fuels as one of the sources of alternative sources energy, genetic engineering then comes in

As a reaction to the growing public concern on GM food and products, many governments across the world have taken different approaches to tackle this hot topic on GM foods. This has resulted in the creation of GMO regulations which are most often country or region spe‐ cific. The European parliament and council for example have set up regulations regarding GM foods to protect human health and well-being of citizens, and European social and eco‐ nomic interests (McCabe & Butler, 1999). The EU regulations segregates between GM food and feed, it further gives specific instructions on how GM products should be labelled in

EU GMO regulations suggest for example that it is appropriate to provide the combined lev‐ el of adventitious or technically unavoidable presence of genetically modified materials in a food or feed or in one of its components is higher than the set threshold, such presence should be indicated in accordance with this regulation and that detailed provisions should be adopted for its implementation (Ramon, MacCabe, & Gil, 2004). The possibility of estab‐

fusal of European consumers to buy GM products.

cells and or part of cells in technical or industrial processes.

**2. Regulations and why?**

222 Food Industry

to play for economic reasons.

terms of the amount of modifications involved.

Similarly, the United States regulation process is confusing because there are three different government agencies that have jurisdiction over GM foods. The Food and Drug Administra‐ tion (FDA) evaluate whether the plant is safe to eat; the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) evaluates GM plants for environmental safety, and the United States Depart‐ ment of Agriculture (USDA) which evaluates whether the plant to be grown is safe (Pelleti‐ er, 2005; Strauss, 2006). The USDA has many internal divisions that share responsibility for assessing GM foods. Among these divisions are, the Animal Health and Plant Inspection Service (APHIS), which conducts field tests and issues permits to grow GM crops, the Agri‐ cultural Research Service which performs in-house GM food research, and the Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service which oversees the USDA risk assessment program (Whitman, 2000). This implies there is a combination of regulations from these three agencies to be followed in order to carry on with GM food. Nevertheless, it is estimat‐ ed that up to 70% of processed food on US supermarkets shelves ranging from soda to soup, crackers to condiments contain genetically engineered ingredients. Currently, up to 85% of U.S. corn is genetically modified as are 91% of soybeans and 88% of cotton (cottonseed oil is often used in food products) (Whitman, 2000).

In many developing countries whereby due to seasonal changes, there are usually a season of plenty and that of starvation, GM food is less a problem because the goal is to feed the starving population. Although, some of them might have GMO regulations, when food aid is coming into their countries in the moment of disaster, their rules and regulations are not important at that moment. This is understandable because the ultimate goal is saving lives before thinking of any qualms.

Plants have always been able to developed mechanisms over the years to endured environ‐ mental stress (drought, predation and pollutions just to name a few) and consequently adapted to the changing environment by developing genes resistant to the different factors. This is supported by the fact that, historically it was assumed that changes in plants as a re‐ sult of genetic modification in breeding are generally safe and not harmful. Nevertheless, this was eventually challenged with the arrival of rDNA (ribosomal deoxyribonucleic acid) technology in the early 1970s when Cohen and Boyer successfully linked two different pieces of DNA (McHughen & Smyth, 2008).

The scientific world did not acknowledged the positive potentials of genetic engineering to crop breeding but the risks associated with these techniques (Berg & et al., 1974; McHughen & Smyth, 2008).

an odious, generic shibboleth. Given that millions of people throughout the world are al‐ ready benefiting from pharmaceuticals made by GM organisms, this is bizarre (Dixon, 2003). Among the next generation of genetically modified (GM) plants are those that are engi‐ neered to produce elevated levels of nutritional molecules such as vitamins, omega-3 fatty acids, and amino acids. Based upon the U.S. current regulatory scheme, the plants and their products may enter our food supply without any required safety testing. The potential risks of this type of GM plants are discussed in the context of human health, and it is argued that there should be very careful safety testing of plants designed to produce biologically active molecules before they are commercially grown and consumed. This will require a mandato‐

Social and Economic Issues – Genetically Modified Food

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54478

225

Nevertheless, advances in our understanding of molecular biology, biochemistry, and nutri‐ tion may in future allow further improvement of test methods that will over time render the safety assessment of foods even more effective and informative (Konig, Cockburn, Crevel,

Genetic modification and "biosafety" are concepts that have not been well understood by, or accessible to, the non-geneticists working in the fields of conservation science, law, adminis‐ tration and management, and in the scientific, legal, administrative and management as‐

Genetically modified (GM) plants represent a potential benefit for environmentally friendly agriculture and human health. Although, poor knowledge is available on the potential hazards posed by unintended modifications occurring during genetic manipulation processes, the in‐ creasing amount of reports on ecological risks and benefits of GM plants stresses the need for experimental works aimed at evaluating the impact of GM crops on the natural and agro-eco‐ systems. One of the major environmental risks associated with GM crops include their poten‐ tial impact on non-target soil microorganisms which plays a fundamental role in crop residues

Transformed corn plants with genetic material from the bacterium *Bacillus thuringiensis* (*Bt*) have been reported to represent a risk because most hybrids express the Bt toxin in pollen which could be further deposited on other plants near such corn fields causing non-target organisms that consume these plants (Yu & Shepard, 1998). It is thought that genetically modified plants could be harmful to the environment by depleting soil microorganism which are very important for soil fertility and or influence the micro-environments of other organisms (Giovannetti, Sbrana, & Turrini, 2005). The cultivation of GM seeds and plants

The biodiversity debate is at the forefront of the larger question of how humanity can, in an integrated, congruent way, address human livelihoods, while at the same time fulfilling its international mandates to conserve and sustainably use the environment. In a world focused

degradation and in biogeochemical cycles (Giovannetti, Sbrana, & Turrini, 2005).

could be detrimental to the environment (Losey, Rayor, & Carter, 1999).

ry, scientifically rigorous review process (Schubert, 2008).

Debruyne, Grafstroem, Hammerling, et al., 2004).

**4. GM food and environment**

pects of sustainable use.

Over the last century, agriculture in general and plant breeding in particular have enjoyed fast dynamic research, which have been speedy and valuable developments. Traditional forms of crop genetic improvements, such as selection and cross-pollination, remain the standard tools in the breeder's toolbox, but have been supplemented with a range of new and specialized innovations, such as mutation breeding using ionizing radiation or muta‐ genic chemicals, wide crosses across species requiring human interventions such as embryo rescue and transgenic, commonly called genetic modification.

## **3. GM food and human health**

Food choice is influenced by a large number of factors, including social and cultural factors. One method for trying to understand the impact of these factors is through the study of atti‐ tudes. Research is described which utilizes social psychological attitude models of attitudebehaviour relationships, in particular the Theory of Planned Behaviour. This approach has shown good prediction of behaviour, but there are a number of possible extensions to this basic model which might improve its utility. One such extension is the inclusion of meas‐ ures of moral concern, which have been found to be important both for the choice of geneti‐ cally-modified foods and also for foods to be eaten by others.

It has been found to be difficult to effect dietary change, and there are a number of insights from social psychology which might address this difficulty. One is the phenomenon of opti‐ mistic bias, where individuals believe themselves to be at less risk from various hazards than the average person (Paparini & Romano-Spica, 2004).

This effect has been demonstrated for nutritional risks, and this might lead individuals to take less note of health education messages. Many children in the US and Europe have developed life-threatening allergies to peanuts and other foods. There is a possibili‐ ty that introducing a gene into a plant may create a new allergen or cause an allergic re‐ action in susceptible individuals. There is a growing concern that introducing foreign genes into food plants may have an unexpected and negative impact on human health. A recent article published in Lancet examined the effects of GM potatoes on the diges‐ tive tract in rats (Brunner & Millstone, 1999).

Another concern is that individuals do not always have clear-cut attitudes, but rather can be ambivalent about food and about healthy eating. It is important, therefore, to have measures for this ambivalence, and an understanding of how it might impact on behaviour (Shepherd, 1999).

One measure of how far we have travelled down that road is that it hardly matters any more whether objections to GMO are based on alleged environmental risks of cultivating GM crops or alleged toxicological hazards of eating them. GMO like 'radioactivity' has become an odious, generic shibboleth. Given that millions of people throughout the world are al‐ ready benefiting from pharmaceuticals made by GM organisms, this is bizarre (Dixon, 2003).

Among the next generation of genetically modified (GM) plants are those that are engi‐ neered to produce elevated levels of nutritional molecules such as vitamins, omega-3 fatty acids, and amino acids. Based upon the U.S. current regulatory scheme, the plants and their products may enter our food supply without any required safety testing. The potential risks of this type of GM plants are discussed in the context of human health, and it is argued that there should be very careful safety testing of plants designed to produce biologically active molecules before they are commercially grown and consumed. This will require a mandato‐ ry, scientifically rigorous review process (Schubert, 2008).

Nevertheless, advances in our understanding of molecular biology, biochemistry, and nutri‐ tion may in future allow further improvement of test methods that will over time render the safety assessment of foods even more effective and informative (Konig, Cockburn, Crevel, Debruyne, Grafstroem, Hammerling, et al., 2004).

## **4. GM food and environment**

The scientific world did not acknowledged the positive potentials of genetic engineering to crop breeding but the risks associated with these techniques (Berg & et al., 1974;

Over the last century, agriculture in general and plant breeding in particular have enjoyed fast dynamic research, which have been speedy and valuable developments. Traditional forms of crop genetic improvements, such as selection and cross-pollination, remain the standard tools in the breeder's toolbox, but have been supplemented with a range of new and specialized innovations, such as mutation breeding using ionizing radiation or muta‐ genic chemicals, wide crosses across species requiring human interventions such as embryo

Food choice is influenced by a large number of factors, including social and cultural factors. One method for trying to understand the impact of these factors is through the study of atti‐ tudes. Research is described which utilizes social psychological attitude models of attitudebehaviour relationships, in particular the Theory of Planned Behaviour. This approach has shown good prediction of behaviour, but there are a number of possible extensions to this basic model which might improve its utility. One such extension is the inclusion of meas‐ ures of moral concern, which have been found to be important both for the choice of geneti‐

It has been found to be difficult to effect dietary change, and there are a number of insights from social psychology which might address this difficulty. One is the phenomenon of opti‐ mistic bias, where individuals believe themselves to be at less risk from various hazards

This effect has been demonstrated for nutritional risks, and this might lead individuals to take less note of health education messages. Many children in the US and Europe have developed life-threatening allergies to peanuts and other foods. There is a possibili‐ ty that introducing a gene into a plant may create a new allergen or cause an allergic re‐ action in susceptible individuals. There is a growing concern that introducing foreign genes into food plants may have an unexpected and negative impact on human health. A recent article published in Lancet examined the effects of GM potatoes on the diges‐

Another concern is that individuals do not always have clear-cut attitudes, but rather can be ambivalent about food and about healthy eating. It is important, therefore, to have measures for this ambivalence, and an understanding of how it might impact on

One measure of how far we have travelled down that road is that it hardly matters any more whether objections to GMO are based on alleged environmental risks of cultivating GM crops or alleged toxicological hazards of eating them. GMO like 'radioactivity' has become

rescue and transgenic, commonly called genetic modification.

cally-modified foods and also for foods to be eaten by others.

than the average person (Paparini & Romano-Spica, 2004).

tive tract in rats (Brunner & Millstone, 1999).

behaviour (Shepherd, 1999).

McHughen & Smyth, 2008).

224 Food Industry

**3. GM food and human health**

Genetic modification and "biosafety" are concepts that have not been well understood by, or accessible to, the non-geneticists working in the fields of conservation science, law, adminis‐ tration and management, and in the scientific, legal, administrative and management as‐ pects of sustainable use.

Genetically modified (GM) plants represent a potential benefit for environmentally friendly agriculture and human health. Although, poor knowledge is available on the potential hazards posed by unintended modifications occurring during genetic manipulation processes, the in‐ creasing amount of reports on ecological risks and benefits of GM plants stresses the need for experimental works aimed at evaluating the impact of GM crops on the natural and agro-eco‐ systems. One of the major environmental risks associated with GM crops include their poten‐ tial impact on non-target soil microorganisms which plays a fundamental role in crop residues degradation and in biogeochemical cycles (Giovannetti, Sbrana, & Turrini, 2005).

Transformed corn plants with genetic material from the bacterium *Bacillus thuringiensis* (*Bt*) have been reported to represent a risk because most hybrids express the Bt toxin in pollen which could be further deposited on other plants near such corn fields causing non-target organisms that consume these plants (Yu & Shepard, 1998). It is thought that genetically modified plants could be harmful to the environment by depleting soil microorganism which are very important for soil fertility and or influence the micro-environments of other organisms (Giovannetti, Sbrana, & Turrini, 2005). The cultivation of GM seeds and plants could be detrimental to the environment (Losey, Rayor, & Carter, 1999).

The biodiversity debate is at the forefront of the larger question of how humanity can, in an integrated, congruent way, address human livelihoods, while at the same time fulfilling its international mandates to conserve and sustainably use the environment. In a world focused

on issues such as poverty and food security, as well as species loss and ecosystem destruc‐ tion, these questions are among the most important and the most difficult on the planet.

monitor significant wild and weed populations that might be affected by transgene escape. Effective risk assessment and monitoring mechanisms are the basic prerequisites of any le‐ gal framework to adequately address the risks and watch out for new risks. Several agencies in different countries monitor the release of GM organisms or frame guidelines for the ap‐ propriate application of recombinant organisms in agro-industries so as to assure the safe use of recombinant organisms and to achieve sound overall development. We feel that it is important to establish an internationally harmonized framework for the safe handling of re‐

Social and Economic Issues – Genetically Modified Food

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54478

227

Genetically-modified foods have the potential to solve many of the world's hunger and malnutrition problems, and to help protect and preserve the environment by increasing yield and reducing reliance upon chemical pesticides and herbicides. Yet there are many challenges ahead for governments, especially in the areas of safety testing, regulation, in‐ ternational policy and food labelling. Many people feel that genetic engineering is the in‐ evitable wave of the future and that we cannot afford to ignore a technology that has such enormous potential benefits. However, we must proceed with caution to avoid causing unintended harm to human health and the environment as a result of our enthu‐

In this connection, we find many claims about genetically modified organisms (GMOs) – that they can be a basis for increasing food production, without the need to convert more land to cultivation, for example. These claims, however, are countered by the claims that GMOs may have a variety of impacts on people and animals, and especially on ecosystems and lands not under cultivation, and concerns about whether and how the benefits of GMOs

Furthermore, some of the questions we need to answer to better understand GMOs include; **a.** Are the current scope and objectives of the GMO legislation in line with the needs of

**b.** Are the procedures associated with the legislative framework fit for purpose, in defini‐

**c.** Are the procedures for the risk assessment of GMOs and their implementation up to

**d.** In design and implementation are provisions governing risk management of GMO mar‐ keting up to date, efficient transparent and in line with the general objectives of our leg‐

**e.** And is the communication of risk concerning the release of GMOs into the environment

society, and especially the biotechnology operators and consumers?

date, are efficient, time limited and transparent known?

and the manner in which it has been implemented known?

combinant DNA organisms within a few years (Singh, Ghai, Paul, & Jain, 2006).

**7. Conclusion**

siasm for this powerful technology.

tion and in implementation?

islation?

are actually experienced in developing countries.

## **5. GM food and economic issues**

Bringing a GM food to market is a lengthy and costly process, and of course agro-biotechno‐ logical companies wish to ensure a profitable return on their investment. Thus many new plant genetic engineering technologies and GM plants have been patented, and patent in‐ fringement is a big concern of agribusiness.

Although, genetically modified (GM) plants represent a potential benefit for environmentally friendly agriculture and human health, poor knowledge is available on the potential hazards posed by unintended modifications occurring during genetic manipulation. The major eco‐ nomic fears are the risk of patent enforcement which may oblige farmers to depend on giant en‐ gineering companies such as Monsanto for strains when their crops are cross pollinated. Consumer advocates are equally worried that patenting these new plant varieties will raise the price of seeds so high that small farmers and third world countries will not be able to afford seeds for GM crops, thus widening the gap between the wealthy and the poor. It is hoped that in a humanitarian gesture, more companies and non-profits will follow the lead of the Rockef‐ eller Foundation and offer their products at reduced costs to impoverished nations.

These plants would be viable for only one growing season and would produce sterile seeds that do not germinate. Farmers would need to buy a fresh supply of seeds each year, conse‐ quently will have to be dependent on the few agric-biotech companies with patent rights. However, this would be financially disastrous for farmers in third world countries who can‐ not afford to buy seed each year and traditionally set aside a portion of their harvest to plant in the next growing season.

## **6. Social and cultural aspects on GM foods**

With the emergence of transgenic technologies, new ways to improve the agronomic per‐ formance of crops for food, feed, and processing applications have been devised. In addi‐ tion, ability to express foreign genes using transgenic technologies has opened up options for producing large quantities of commercially important industrial or pharmaceutical prod‐ ucts in plants. Despite this high adoption rates and future promises, there is a multitude of concerns about the impact of genetically modified (GM) crops on the environment (Paparini & Romano-Spica, 2004). Potential contamination of the environment and food chains has prompted detailed consideration of how such crops and the molecules that they produce can be effectively isolated and contained. One of the reasonable steps after creating a trans‐ genic plant is to evaluate its potential benefits and risks to the environment and these should be compared to those generated by traditional agricultural practices (Poppy, 2004). The precautionary approach in risk management of GM plants may make it necessary to monitor significant wild and weed populations that might be affected by transgene escape. Effective risk assessment and monitoring mechanisms are the basic prerequisites of any le‐ gal framework to adequately address the risks and watch out for new risks. Several agencies in different countries monitor the release of GM organisms or frame guidelines for the ap‐ propriate application of recombinant organisms in agro-industries so as to assure the safe use of recombinant organisms and to achieve sound overall development. We feel that it is important to establish an internationally harmonized framework for the safe handling of re‐ combinant DNA organisms within a few years (Singh, Ghai, Paul, & Jain, 2006).

## **7. Conclusion**

on issues such as poverty and food security, as well as species loss and ecosystem destruc‐ tion, these questions are among the most important and the most difficult on the planet.

Bringing a GM food to market is a lengthy and costly process, and of course agro-biotechno‐ logical companies wish to ensure a profitable return on their investment. Thus many new plant genetic engineering technologies and GM plants have been patented, and patent in‐

Although, genetically modified (GM) plants represent a potential benefit for environmentally friendly agriculture and human health, poor knowledge is available on the potential hazards posed by unintended modifications occurring during genetic manipulation. The major eco‐ nomic fears are the risk of patent enforcement which may oblige farmers to depend on giant en‐ gineering companies such as Monsanto for strains when their crops are cross pollinated. Consumer advocates are equally worried that patenting these new plant varieties will raise the price of seeds so high that small farmers and third world countries will not be able to afford seeds for GM crops, thus widening the gap between the wealthy and the poor. It is hoped that in a humanitarian gesture, more companies and non-profits will follow the lead of the Rockef‐

These plants would be viable for only one growing season and would produce sterile seeds that do not germinate. Farmers would need to buy a fresh supply of seeds each year, conse‐ quently will have to be dependent on the few agric-biotech companies with patent rights. However, this would be financially disastrous for farmers in third world countries who can‐ not afford to buy seed each year and traditionally set aside a portion of their harvest to plant

With the emergence of transgenic technologies, new ways to improve the agronomic per‐ formance of crops for food, feed, and processing applications have been devised. In addi‐ tion, ability to express foreign genes using transgenic technologies has opened up options for producing large quantities of commercially important industrial or pharmaceutical prod‐ ucts in plants. Despite this high adoption rates and future promises, there is a multitude of concerns about the impact of genetically modified (GM) crops on the environment (Paparini & Romano-Spica, 2004). Potential contamination of the environment and food chains has prompted detailed consideration of how such crops and the molecules that they produce can be effectively isolated and contained. One of the reasonable steps after creating a trans‐ genic plant is to evaluate its potential benefits and risks to the environment and these should be compared to those generated by traditional agricultural practices (Poppy, 2004). The precautionary approach in risk management of GM plants may make it necessary to

eller Foundation and offer their products at reduced costs to impoverished nations.

**5. GM food and economic issues**

226 Food Industry

fringement is a big concern of agribusiness.

in the next growing season.

**6. Social and cultural aspects on GM foods**

Genetically-modified foods have the potential to solve many of the world's hunger and malnutrition problems, and to help protect and preserve the environment by increasing yield and reducing reliance upon chemical pesticides and herbicides. Yet there are many challenges ahead for governments, especially in the areas of safety testing, regulation, in‐ ternational policy and food labelling. Many people feel that genetic engineering is the in‐ evitable wave of the future and that we cannot afford to ignore a technology that has such enormous potential benefits. However, we must proceed with caution to avoid causing unintended harm to human health and the environment as a result of our enthu‐ siasm for this powerful technology.

In this connection, we find many claims about genetically modified organisms (GMOs) – that they can be a basis for increasing food production, without the need to convert more land to cultivation, for example. These claims, however, are countered by the claims that GMOs may have a variety of impacts on people and animals, and especially on ecosystems and lands not under cultivation, and concerns about whether and how the benefits of GMOs are actually experienced in developing countries.

Furthermore, some of the questions we need to answer to better understand GMOs include;


## **Author details**

Divine Nkonyam Akumo1 , Heidi Riedel2 and Iryna Semtanska2,3

1 Laboratory of Bioprocess Engineering, Department of Biotechnology, Technische Universi‐ tät Berlin, Germany

[10] McHughen, A., & Smyth, S. (2008). US regulatory system for genetically modified [genetically modified organism (GMO), rDNA or transgenic] crop cultivars. *Plant bio‐*

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[11] Nykiforuk, C. L., Shewmaker, C., Harry, I., Yurchenko, O. P., Zhang, M., Reed, C., Oinam, G. S., Zaplachinski, S., Fidantsef, A., Boothe, J. G., & Moloney, M. M. (2012). High level accumulation of gamma linolenic acid (C18:3Delta6.9,12 cis) in transgenic

[12] Paparini, A., & Romano-Spica, V. (2004). Public health issues related with the con‐ sumption of food obtained from genetically modified organisms. *Biotechnology annual*

[13] Pelletier, D. L. (2005). Science, law, and politics in the Food and Drug Administra‐ tion's genetically engineered foods policy: FDA's 1992 policy statement. *Nutrition re‐*

[14] Poppy, G. M. (2004). Geneflow from GM plants--towards a more quantitative risk as‐

[15] Ramon, D., MacCabe, A., & Gil, J. V. (2004). Questions linger over European GM

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[17] Shepherd, R. (1999). Social determinants of food choice. *The Proceedings of the Nutri‐*

[18] Singh, O. V., Ghai, S., Paul, D., & Jain, R. K. (2006). Genetically modified crops: suc‐ cess, safety assessment, and public concern. *Applied microbiology and biotechnology,*

[19] Strauss, D. M. (2006). The international regulation of genetically modified organisms: importing caution into the U.S. food supply. *Food and drug law journal, 61*(2), 167-196.

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2 Department of Food Technology and Food Chemistry, Methods of Food Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Germany

3 Department of Plant Food Processing, Agricultural Faculty, University of Applied Science Weihenstephan-Triesdorf, Weidenbach, Germany

## **References**


[10] McHughen, A., & Smyth, S. (2008). US regulatory system for genetically modified [genetically modified organism (GMO), rDNA or transgenic] crop cultivars. *Plant bio‐ technology journal, 6*(1), 2-12.

**Author details**

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Weihenstephan-Triesdorf, Weidenbach, Germany

, Heidi Riedel2

and Iryna Semtanska2,3

1 Laboratory of Bioprocess Engineering, Department of Biotechnology, Technische Universi‐

2 Department of Food Technology and Food Chemistry, Methods of Food Biotechnology,

3 Department of Plant Food Processing, Agricultural Faculty, University of Applied Science

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**Chapter 11**

**Acidified Foods:**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55161

**1. Introduction**

**2. Acidified foods**

pH of 4.6 or below;

reduce the pH to 4.6 or below;

These products include, but are not limited to:

**•** Red bell peppers treated in an acid brine;

Felix H. Barron and Angela M. Fraser

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

**Food Safety Considerations for Food Processors**

The food processing industry is one of the United States' largest manufacturing sectors, accounting for more than 10 percent of all manufacturing shipments. Concerns over food safety have increased as the industry has been hit by several high profile and large-scale food recalls. Thus, commercial food processors must be vigilant about ensuring the safety of their products. If inadequate or improper manufacturing, processing or packaging procedures are used in the production of low-acid or acidified canned foods serious health hazards, especially *Clostridium botulinum*, could result. To prevent this, processors must be in compliance with regulations established by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (F.D.A., U.S. Department of Agricul‐ ture) and state agriculture and health departments across the United States (Barron, 2000).

The term "acidified foods" means low-acid foods to which acid(s) or acid food(s) are added.

**•** Pickled beets, cocktail onions, and cherry peppers (normally pickled by the addition of acid);

**•** Some pears and tropical fruits that have a natural pH greater than 4.6 and are acidified to a

**•** Fermented green olives subjected to processes (such as lye treatment or washing with lowacid foods) that raise the pH above 4.6, with subsequent addition of acid or acid foods to

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 Barron and Fraser; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,
