**10.9. Difficulties in promoting soil fertility enhancing technologies**

individuals or group of farmers. However, due to the fragile nature of the Savanna soils, these equipments have been observed to be responsible for the destruction of the soil struc‐ ture and increase soil erosion by running water during the rainy season. So far, the compo‐ nents of CA being demonstrated are targeting the small-scale farmers but if it is to be adopted by the medium and large-scale farmers, the availability of machines and equipment becomes very necessary. In order to expose the technologies to these category of farmers, there is the need to develop appropriate machinery, tools and other implements or at best adapt the existing ones, fabricate them and make them accessible to such farmers. This can be done by effectively training the local artisans and craft men/women to produce such equipments for the farmers. Even though most of these equipments are operated by tractors, if those to be produced are designed to be operated by bullocks and donkeys, it would at‐

Farmers in northern Ghana have been known to be poor probably because of the poor harvest they obtain from their crops which is traced mostly to low soil fertility and errat‐ ic rainfall. Most of them therefore lack collateral security to obtain financial assistance from these financial Institutions. Meanwhile the adoption of any soil restoration practices such as CA requires the purchase of inputs such as weedicides and fertilizers and other equipments for direct planting and spraying of the weedicides. The inability to purchase these inputs therefore means that such farmers would not be able to adopt such soil fer‐

The system where farmers sell their crop produce through the middlemen is one of the rea‐ sons why most of them remain poor. Prices offered to the farmers by these middlemen for their produce are so low that they are never able to pay for the cost of production. Farmers whose activities for crop production are pre-financed by these middle men suffer most as they take the produce in lieu of cash at harvesting time when prices are generally low. In addition such farmers might not easily adopt some soil fertility techniques such as CA

Experience has shown that providing thick soil mulch creates a micro-climate for reptiles such as snakes that can bite farmers operating on the land without protective clothing. Most farmers also complained of the increase in scorpions and other insects which can cause sig‐ nificant losses to the crops planted in the mulch. Some farmers who were introduced to di‐ rect seeding in the mulch complained of poor plant stand due to damage by crickets and grass hoppers. According to the farmers, that is why they have cultivated the habit of burn‐ ing the crop residues before planting. It is now well known by farmers who have ever pro‐ duced cover crops such as *Mucuna* that the cover crop is a suitable abode for snakes both in the live stage and when it is dry and left on the soil as mulch which makes farm operations by farmers very dangerous. Some farmers have come out with a calendar of spraying pro‐ gramme to control the pests in these cover crops to save the crops from insect damage and

tract many more farmers to adopt the practice.

**10.7. Farmers lacks access to credit and markets**

which does not give immediate returns to the farmer.

tility enhancing practices.

24 Soil Fertility

**10.8. Pests and disease problems**

In the first place, in Ghana the number of extension agents of the Ministry of Food and Agri‐ culture (MoFA) responsible for agricultural extension services is very low. This makes it im‐ possible for them to have a large coverage of farmers within a specific time to effectively extend whatever new technology developed by Research. Also, the knowledge of these ex‐ tension agents in the various soil fertility restorations may be low compared to other subject areas. It has been realized from experience that the knowledge and lessons learnt from the past soil fertility enhancement project have not been made use of by the agents indicating that they have not been trained in that line.

Until recently, MoFA was structured into departments such as crop and extension services departments and for soil fertility restoration technologies to be extended effectively for adoption, there is need to establish a unit to champion the activities of this subject which is neither crops nor extension services.

So far, areas with conservation Agriculture and its related practices have been traced to the existence of donor projects. The donors of all these projects have been in collaboration with MoFA with the activities carried out since the extension agents have been responsible for site and farmer selection. However, Boahen et al. (2007) reported that the number of farmers using these technologies reduced by an estimated 30% when the related projects ended. It was also found that the visits by extension agents to these project communities reduced from twice a week to once every two weeks since the project was no longer giving them fuel allowances and the associated cost of travel.

#### **10.10. Lack of adequate institutional support**

For farmers to adopt the soil fertility regeneration and maintenance practices, its extension needs to be well co-ordinated and collaborated among major stakeholders in soil health. In that way, the numerous benefits of CA can be realized and appreciated by farmers, research‐ ers and extension staff of MoFA. So far, even though the activities of these projects have been carried out in collaboration with MoFA, data on the practice and adoption of these in‐ cluding CA are scanty. It has been observed that even where data exists, they may not be coherent or accurate. There are few success stories on some of the practices that can regener‐ ate and maintain soil fertility for crop production but these are not properly packaged for extension and for policy makers. Both donors and the implementers of CA in Ghana have therefore not been able to convince policy makers the benefits of these practices for support. This may explain why the Government still imports tractors with both disc ploughs and har‐ rows without considering the importation of equipment and tools used in CA. The adoption of CA and its related practices by farmers does not really depend on the availability of these tools and inputs; it also depends on the attitudes of all stakeholders in the supply chain such as the input dealers and manufacturers.

mater has improved soil fertility status which in several places has translated into high crop

Enhancing Soil Fertility for Cereal Crop Production Through Biological Practices and the Integration of Organic...

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53414

27

From the numerous works done in the areas of soil fertility management and other related field activities carried out in the past, showed that conservation technologies in general, is site-specific and depends on the local bio-physical and socio-economic settings. Also from the interaction with farmers, there are many important changes that CA brought to farming activities, they mentioned reduced investment in cash and labour, higher yields, easier weed

From the knowledge gained in the past from several desk tops research and other methods of research conducted to assess the extent which CA and other soil fertility enhancing practi‐ ces have been adopted by farmers in Ghana, the following observations and conclusions

Farmers adopting CA in the savanna region of Ghana are faced with challenges of generat‐ ing enough biomass to begin with and the control of weeds in the transitional phase of the system. Related to weed control in CA is the knowledge of the type of herbicide to use and

In order to effectively extend CA and other practices related to soil fertility regeneration for adoption, enough information especially on cover crops and their profitability are needed. Also knowledge on how they fit into the various ecologies of Ghana, the best crop associa‐ tions possible and their effects on soil fertility status, are essential for the dissemination of

It is essential to have relevant knowledge in the selection of herbicides and mode of applica‐ tion. The selection and timely incorporation of cover crops in the various cropping systems are also important in the practice of CA. Some of the skills required by farmers practicing CA are the ways and means of controlling rodents and other pests in order to obtain high

In the Savanna zone of Ghana, it is difficult to maintain soil cover with crop residue or cover crops because of the rampant bush fires during the long dry season and the grazing of sev‐

Tools and inputs such as seeds of appropriate types of cover crops, the required herbicides to be used in CA practices are essential requirements for the practice of CA which may not

Some of the requirement for the practice of soil fertility regeneration technologies such as agro-forestry and growing of cover crops in improved fallows system help to raise the total cost of production. This is because these require initial land clearing in the case of the cover crop fallow, additional labour for spreading the mulch and planting through the residue,

Even though direct planting without tillage in CA is said to be cheaper than conventional land preparation, due to the scarcity of herbicides at planting time, the price of the commod‐

yields.

have been drawn:

yields.

and pest control, and saved time for farmers.

the cover crop technology among farmers.

eral different livestock on free range.

which is laborious and time wasting.

be easily available to farmers at the right time.

mode of application for effective control of the emerged weeds.

The Government of Ghana's modernization of agriculture programme through the Ministry of Food and Agriculture seeks to modernize and mechanize agriculture in Ghana. This pro‐ gramme has begun with the importation of modern tractors equipped with new disc ploughs and harrows probably targeting the medium and large scale farmers with the ne‐ glect of the small scale farmers of less than one hectare. This situation also makes it difficult for even the donors to fund such soil fertility regeneration practices like the CA because it would be like working directly against the government's programme. A compromise could have reached by the importation of tractors and no-till seeders and other equipments for the small scale farmer who can not afford the services of the tractor ploughing services.

#### **10.11. Use of farmers' indigenous knowledge with the technology**

The activities of research and development in producing any agricultural technology for the farmer should be seen to be improving or incorporating farmers' indigenous knowledge and not producing modern technology that seem not to have any input from them. The adoption of any technology developed in a participatory manner among the farmer the researcher and the extension agent seem to be faster than when indigenous knowledge from the farm‐ ers are ignored. This situation calls for in-depth studies on traditional practices and the strat‐ egies farmers employ to cope with the declining soil fertility status of the savanna region. This will assist in the development of a technology that will not be difficult to extend to the farmers for adoption if the technology is built on the existing indigenous knowledge of the farmers. The introduction of the use of herbicides to kill the weeds for the planting the crop was met with happiness in some parts of the northern region of Ghana where farmers plant on the bare soil immediately after the onset of rains without tilling the soil. In another devel‐ opment, earth and stone bunding to control both soil and water has not been difficult to ex‐ tend the technology for adoption by farmers with their farms located on steep slopes and rocky areas because they were already doing something similar before. Most of the farmers are not adopting the cultivation of cover crops such as *Mucuna* because the crop is not edi‐ ble. It is envisaged that if the edible cover crops such as the local creeping cowpea is intro‐ duced to replace *Mucuna*, a lot more farmers will adopt the practice as both the leaves and grain of the cowpea are edible.

#### **11. Conclusion and recommendations**

From experience, conservation agriculture and other related practices geared towards regen‐ erating soil fertility for crop production had many important impacts on the lives of adopt‐ ers. Practices such as Agro-forestry, use of cover crops and many more have helped in increasing grain yields of crops several folds. Also reducing the number of times the soil is tilled as in CA has helped to reduce energy and labour costs and the decay of the vegetative mater has improved soil fertility status which in several places has translated into high crop yields.

tools and inputs; it also depends on the attitudes of all stakeholders in the supply chain such

The Government of Ghana's modernization of agriculture programme through the Ministry of Food and Agriculture seeks to modernize and mechanize agriculture in Ghana. This pro‐ gramme has begun with the importation of modern tractors equipped with new disc ploughs and harrows probably targeting the medium and large scale farmers with the ne‐ glect of the small scale farmers of less than one hectare. This situation also makes it difficult for even the donors to fund such soil fertility regeneration practices like the CA because it would be like working directly against the government's programme. A compromise could have reached by the importation of tractors and no-till seeders and other equipments for the

small scale farmer who can not afford the services of the tractor ploughing services.

The activities of research and development in producing any agricultural technology for the farmer should be seen to be improving or incorporating farmers' indigenous knowledge and not producing modern technology that seem not to have any input from them. The adoption of any technology developed in a participatory manner among the farmer the researcher and the extension agent seem to be faster than when indigenous knowledge from the farm‐ ers are ignored. This situation calls for in-depth studies on traditional practices and the strat‐ egies farmers employ to cope with the declining soil fertility status of the savanna region. This will assist in the development of a technology that will not be difficult to extend to the farmers for adoption if the technology is built on the existing indigenous knowledge of the farmers. The introduction of the use of herbicides to kill the weeds for the planting the crop was met with happiness in some parts of the northern region of Ghana where farmers plant on the bare soil immediately after the onset of rains without tilling the soil. In another devel‐ opment, earth and stone bunding to control both soil and water has not been difficult to ex‐ tend the technology for adoption by farmers with their farms located on steep slopes and rocky areas because they were already doing something similar before. Most of the farmers are not adopting the cultivation of cover crops such as *Mucuna* because the crop is not edi‐ ble. It is envisaged that if the edible cover crops such as the local creeping cowpea is intro‐ duced to replace *Mucuna*, a lot more farmers will adopt the practice as both the leaves and

From experience, conservation agriculture and other related practices geared towards regen‐ erating soil fertility for crop production had many important impacts on the lives of adopt‐ ers. Practices such as Agro-forestry, use of cover crops and many more have helped in increasing grain yields of crops several folds. Also reducing the number of times the soil is tilled as in CA has helped to reduce energy and labour costs and the decay of the vegetative

**10.11. Use of farmers' indigenous knowledge with the technology**

as the input dealers and manufacturers.

26 Soil Fertility

grain of the cowpea are edible.

**11. Conclusion and recommendations**

From the numerous works done in the areas of soil fertility management and other related field activities carried out in the past, showed that conservation technologies in general, is site-specific and depends on the local bio-physical and socio-economic settings. Also from the interaction with farmers, there are many important changes that CA brought to farming activities, they mentioned reduced investment in cash and labour, higher yields, easier weed and pest control, and saved time for farmers.

From the knowledge gained in the past from several desk tops research and other methods of research conducted to assess the extent which CA and other soil fertility enhancing practi‐ ces have been adopted by farmers in Ghana, the following observations and conclusions have been drawn:

Farmers adopting CA in the savanna region of Ghana are faced with challenges of generat‐ ing enough biomass to begin with and the control of weeds in the transitional phase of the system. Related to weed control in CA is the knowledge of the type of herbicide to use and mode of application for effective control of the emerged weeds.

In order to effectively extend CA and other practices related to soil fertility regeneration for adoption, enough information especially on cover crops and their profitability are needed. Also knowledge on how they fit into the various ecologies of Ghana, the best crop associa‐ tions possible and their effects on soil fertility status, are essential for the dissemination of the cover crop technology among farmers.

It is essential to have relevant knowledge in the selection of herbicides and mode of applica‐ tion. The selection and timely incorporation of cover crops in the various cropping systems are also important in the practice of CA. Some of the skills required by farmers practicing CA are the ways and means of controlling rodents and other pests in order to obtain high yields.

In the Savanna zone of Ghana, it is difficult to maintain soil cover with crop residue or cover crops because of the rampant bush fires during the long dry season and the grazing of sev‐ eral different livestock on free range.

Tools and inputs such as seeds of appropriate types of cover crops, the required herbicides to be used in CA practices are essential requirements for the practice of CA which may not be easily available to farmers at the right time.

Some of the requirement for the practice of soil fertility regeneration technologies such as agro-forestry and growing of cover crops in improved fallows system help to raise the total cost of production. This is because these require initial land clearing in the case of the cover crop fallow, additional labour for spreading the mulch and planting through the residue, which is laborious and time wasting.

Even though direct planting without tillage in CA is said to be cheaper than conventional land preparation, due to the scarcity of herbicides at planting time, the price of the commod‐ ity is high enough to cause significant impact on cash demand of farmers during the farm‐ ing season.

Intensification of the integration of cover crops and crop rotation in CA systems should be pursued and monitored since there are several cover crops and other crop varieties. This sit‐

Enhancing Soil Fertility for Cereal Crop Production Through Biological Practices and the Integration of Organic...

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53414

29

Farmers should be encouraged to form co-operatives. This is because if the groups are well co-ordinated, agricultural policies including the regeneration of soil fertility for crop pro‐

[1] Adjei E.O., Aikins, S.H.M., Boahen, P, Chand, K, Dev, I., Lu, M., Mkrtumyan, V., Sa‐ maraweera, S.D., and Teklu, A. 2003. Combining mechanisation with conservation agriculture in the transitional zone of Brong Ahafo, Ghana. International Center for Development-Oriented Research in Agriculture, Working Document Series 108. Wa‐

[2] Adjei-Nsiah, S., Kuyper, T.W., Leeuwis, C., Abekoe, M.K., Giller, K.E., 2007. Evaluat‐ ing sustainable and profitable cropping sequences with cassava and four legume crops: effects on soil fertility and maize yields in the forest/savannah transitional

[3] Adu-Gyamfi, J.J., Myaka, F.A., Sakala, W.D., Odgaard, R., Vesterager, J.M., Hogh-Jensen, H., 2007. Biological nitrogen fixation and nitrogen and phosphorus budgets in farmer-managed intercrops of maize–pigeon pea in semi-arid southern and east‐

[4] Agyare, W., J. M. Kombiok, N.N. Karbo, & A. Larbi (2002). Management of pigeon pea in short fallows for crop-livestock production systems in the savanna zone of

[5] Boahen, P., Dartey, B.A., Dogbe, G.D., Boadi, E.A., Triomphe, B., Daamgard-Larsen, S. Ashburner, J. 2007. Conservation agriculture as practiced in Ghana. African Con‐

and Jean M. Sogbedji3

uation can lead to the reduction of pests and diseases in the CA systems.

, Samuel Saaka J. Buah2

2 Savanna Agricultural Research Institute, Wa Station, Wa, Ghana

agro-ecological zone of Ghana. Field Crop Res. 103, 87–97.

northern Ghana. Agroforestry Systems, 54: 197-202

\*Address all correspondence to: kombiokjm@yahoo.com

1 Savanna Agricultural Research Institute, Tamale, Ghana

duction can be well implemented

3 IFDC, Rue Soloyo, Lome, Togo

geningen, Netherlands: ICRA.

ern Africa. Plant Soil 295, 127–136.

**Author details**

James M. Kombiok1

**References**

Manual planting by hand, using stick or cutlass on fields with mulch is more difficult and time wasting than using the same tools to plant on bare or conventionally ploughed fields.

It is important to impact basic knowledge in handling of equipment like spray machines for herbicides or application of other chemicals to farmers. Farmers' yields can be enhanced if they are assisted in decision making on appropriate crops to be grown, rotations, record keeping and costing of each operations.

Following the observations and findings from our experiences on soil fertility management for crop production, the following recommendations are made for further observation and consideration:

Depending on the availability of ready market, emphasis on cereal-legume rotations/inter‐ cropping for CA should involve multipurpose grain and fodder legumes. The production of fodder in the system will take care of the livestock component since on the average every farm family rears animals alongside crop production in the Savanna zone of Ghana.

Training farmers on aspects of CA and introducing to them simple and appropriate CA equipment and implements will significantly enhance labour productivity and encourage many more farmers to adopt CA and other related soil fertility improvement practices.

In order for the Donor-led projects to build a good number of success stories on the various soil fertility management practices including CA, the knowledge and experience acquired over the past years should be harnessed, repackaged and used. In this way, they will be able to convince the government on the benefits, of CA and its potential to resolve food security problems and promote a sustainable source of livelihood for rural small-scale farmers.

The promotion of most of these practices of CA should go beyond the small scale farmer since there are emerging medium scale farmers who can help broaden the scope of the pro‐ gramme. This can be done through adaptive research targeting different groups of farmers in the different environments and socio-economic settings.

The first step in promoting CA effectively is to consider National institutions and farmers' groups to be the driving forces of CA in the country. These groups can re-package and prop‐ erly lobby the policy regularly for support.

Messages developed for extension services should be specific for the occasion and not blan‐ ket for all issues as it is now. This will assist the farmers to be able to assess their constraints and be able to opt for suitable practices that can maintain and improve soil fertility for sus‐ tainable crop production.

Both farmers and extension officers need to understand the processes through which the soil fertility can be maintained for extension to enable farmers to adopt if the practices are im‐ ported from other regions and not for adaptation alone. This is important because if the en‐ vironmental factors of the place the practice is imported from are the same with the local environment, but the socio-economic setting may be different.

Intensification of the integration of cover crops and crop rotation in CA systems should be pursued and monitored since there are several cover crops and other crop varieties. This sit‐ uation can lead to the reduction of pests and diseases in the CA systems.

Farmers should be encouraged to form co-operatives. This is because if the groups are well co-ordinated, agricultural policies including the regeneration of soil fertility for crop pro‐ duction can be well implemented
