**Author details**

fortheirdocumentedandanticipatedprogressindecreasingtheburdenofthisdisease.Improved vaccines are under development, as are better methods for early detection. Additionally, recent discoveriespertainingtotheHPVlifecycle,viralinfection,andimmuneclearancehaveprovided guidance toward educating the public about the biological and behavioral risk factors linked to cervical cancer. However, awareness among the populations of greatest risk, in both devel‐ oped and underdeveloped countries, is lacking. Although high-risk individuals may belong to diverseethnicgroupsand/orhavelowersocioeconomicstanding,theymaynotallbenefitequally from any single approach, necessitating the importance of targeted education and interven‐ tion. Thus, future initiatives for the prevention of cervical cancer must aim to decrease existing inequalities, with a strong emphasis on educating about HPV transmission and screening throughout a woman's lifetime, particularly in groups where incidence and death rates are disproportionate. The hope is that these preventive methods – and in particular, the vaccine –

308 Human Papillomavirus and Related Diseases – From Bench to Bedside A Diagnostic and Preventive Perspective

While progress in prevention must continue, complementary approaches that can provide better treatment options to populations that cannot directly benefit from vaccine-associated therapies must also be developed. These groups include women who are already infected with HPV, immunocompromised individuals such as those with HPV/HIV co-infections, and organ transplant patients. In treating these individuals, the prognosis and treatment of cervical cancer depends on our ability to medically diagnose and assign a disease stage. Therefore, improvements in diagnostic imaging, surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combi‐ nation thereof are being studied to give women more options and to enhance each patient's

Along with clinical treatment, molecular therapies that target cervical cancer processes are also anticipated to contribute to the elimination of cervical cancer. Research focusing on HPV early proteins will continue to provide insights regarding the viral mechanisms used to take control over cellular processes. Of these viral components, the E6 and E7 oncoproteins have long been recognized as the main mediators of HPV-associated malignancies. Therefore, the idea that approaches targeting these two oncoproteins are likely to act in an anti-oncogenic manner is quite reasonable. Such discoveries have the potential to exert a broad impact in the field of virology, as they will enable researchers to more fully understand virus-host interactions and

In conclusion, cervical cancer research has come a long way, but there is still much more to be done to ensure that our accomplishments are not overshadowed by failures to educate, vaccinate, improve clinical management, and strengthen our knowledge about HPV. Indeed, it is quite possible that the challenge of HPV-mediated cervical cancer can be overcome in this generation, given the abundance of advancements, ideas and potential avenues that have been

This work was partially supported by a grant from the National Institutes of Health

will significantly reduce the HPV disease burden for future generations.

how to better equip the body to respond to or even prevent infection.

ability to make better-informed decisions.

discussed here.

**Acknowledgements**

5R25GM060507, which provided support to WE.

Whitney Evans1,3, Maria Filippova1 , Ron Swensen2 and Penelope Duerksen-Hughes1

1 Department of Basic Science, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, USA

2 Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Lo‐ ma Linda, CA, USA

3 Center for Health Disparities and Molecular Medicine, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, USA
