*3.2.2. Nature as an ideal — Early "ecopolitical" thinkers*

Even though ecology as a science is purely descriptive and not normative, healthy ecosystems were gradually regarded as an ideal: Humankind has to cooperate with nature instead of conquering it. In 1971, two young Norwegian biologists published an article titled *Ecopolitics – the new dimension in nature conservation* [15]*.* Instead of a society based on continuous growth, they pointed to "a society in balance" as a political alternative. In the international arena, the American biologist Barry Commoner achieved much attention in the same year for his book *The Closing Circle*[16]*.* Here he presented his "four laws of ecology", as a basis for a new politics:


#### *3.2.3. A new discipline: Conservation biology*

The practical application of ecological knowledge in nature conservation took a big step with the new discipline of "conservation biology". A textbook with this title from 1986 illustrates this well [17]. The aim of conservation biology is to find practical ways to preserve ecosystem functions, and to avoid extinction of species, based on scientific knowledge. Ecological concepts which describe nature's vulnerability were now used in an applied perspective. "Resilience" was used for the ability of ecosystems to withstand stress, or to retain stability after disturbance. Certain species which have a pivotal role in ecosystems because many other species depend on them, were "key species" or "drivers". An extensive discussion arose whether some species could be lost without harming the ecosystem because they were "ecologically redundant". Does it matter that humans drive certain species to extinction? Such questions also stimulated the pure science of ecology. Today we know that even "anonymous" species may have important functions, for instance in pollination, decomposition, or degra‐ dation of human wastes. Microscopic fungi cooperate with the roots of trees in a symbiosis called mycorrhiza, on which many tree species fully depend.

An important section within conservation biology is the vulnerability of small populations to become extinct. Concepts like "minimum viable population", "extinction risk" and "extinction vortex" appeared in combination with mathematical models. "Fragmented populations" are vulnerable, but less if the various fragments can exchange individuals, as in so-called "meta‐ populations". Also, there was a growing understanding that extinction may take time. An early sign of extinction may be that the distribution area of a given species is shrinking, and the populations are also often gradually fragmented and isolated. Species depending on old forest in Finland illustrate this process. The gradual loss of old forest in Finland has already led to extinction of more than 100 species. Furthermore, approximately one thousand other old-forest species are on their way to extinction if the loss of old forest proceeds. The pre-destinated extinction, which is not yet realized, is called "extinction debt" [18]. This is a powerful concept which can be easily comprehended by non-biologists like politicians.

The concept of "umbrella species" is also helpful in practical conservation work. Certain species need very large areas to survive. If we set aside sufficient areas to protect these, a number of other species will automatically be saved under their "umbrella". Examples are reindeer on the tundra, elephants on the plains, or large forest predators. In order to catch the interest of people or politicians for conservation measures, certain beautiful or spectacular species have been fronted. These are the "flagship species". Examples are the WWF symbol, the Giant Panda, the tiger, or paradise birds.

In close cooperation with conservation biology, also the discipline *restoration ecology* ap‐ peared in the 1980's. Since ecosystems are so often harmed by human activity, an important part of nature conservation work is to repair and restore damaged or destroyed ecosystems. This scientific study has its own journal "Restoration Ecology", and there is a "Society for Ecological Restoration". Within this discipline, there has been a special conceptual frame‐ work developed [19].

The fruitful cooperation between basic ecology, conservation biology and restoration ecology led to an improved understanding about nature's structure and function. Even "anonymous" species may have important functions, so we should be very careful to address a species as "ecologically redundant". The world needed a concept which covered the total variation in nature, and also an international agreement for preserving it. A breakthrough came with E. O. Wilson's book *Biodiversity* in 1988 [20]. Four years later, in 1992, the international *Convention* *on Biological Diversity* (often shortened to Convention on biodiversity) was signed by a large number of countries in Rio de Janeiro. The biodiversity concept rapidly swept around the globe. It covers not only the diversity of species, but also the genetic variation within species, as well as the diversity of habitats and landscape types. Between the lines in the convention, the inherent, or intrinsic, value of biodiversity is acknowledged: Conservation measures shall not depend on argumentation of applied value or possible redundancy. As a natural conse‐ quence, countries are currently producing updated "red lists" of threatened species as a focus for their efforts. Also "black lists" are produced, listing problematic, introduced species which are ecologically harmful and should be combatted. Sweden and Norway have each established a "Biodiversity Information Centre", often called "the species data bank", which produces updated information on the biodiversity status, including red and black species lists. Based on such knowledge, politicians can decide practical measures to preserve biodiversity, and also initiate research on lesser known groups of organisms.

functions, and to avoid extinction of species, based on scientific knowledge. Ecological concepts which describe nature's vulnerability were now used in an applied perspective. "Resilience" was used for the ability of ecosystems to withstand stress, or to retain stability after disturbance. Certain species which have a pivotal role in ecosystems because many other species depend on them, were "key species" or "drivers". An extensive discussion arose whether some species could be lost without harming the ecosystem because they were "ecologically redundant". Does it matter that humans drive certain species to extinction? Such questions also stimulated the pure science of ecology. Today we know that even "anonymous" species may have important functions, for instance in pollination, decomposition, or degra‐ dation of human wastes. Microscopic fungi cooperate with the roots of trees in a symbiosis

An important section within conservation biology is the vulnerability of small populations to become extinct. Concepts like "minimum viable population", "extinction risk" and "extinction vortex" appeared in combination with mathematical models. "Fragmented populations" are vulnerable, but less if the various fragments can exchange individuals, as in so-called "meta‐ populations". Also, there was a growing understanding that extinction may take time. An early sign of extinction may be that the distribution area of a given species is shrinking, and the populations are also often gradually fragmented and isolated. Species depending on old forest in Finland illustrate this process. The gradual loss of old forest in Finland has already led to extinction of more than 100 species. Furthermore, approximately one thousand other old-forest species are on their way to extinction if the loss of old forest proceeds. The pre-destinated extinction, which is not yet realized, is called "extinction debt" [18]. This is a powerful concept

The concept of "umbrella species" is also helpful in practical conservation work. Certain species need very large areas to survive. If we set aside sufficient areas to protect these, a number of other species will automatically be saved under their "umbrella". Examples are reindeer on the tundra, elephants on the plains, or large forest predators. In order to catch the interest of people or politicians for conservation measures, certain beautiful or spectacular species have been fronted. These are the "flagship species". Examples are the WWF symbol,

In close cooperation with conservation biology, also the discipline *restoration ecology* ap‐ peared in the 1980's. Since ecosystems are so often harmed by human activity, an important part of nature conservation work is to repair and restore damaged or destroyed ecosystems. This scientific study has its own journal "Restoration Ecology", and there is a "Society for Ecological Restoration". Within this discipline, there has been a special conceptual frame‐

The fruitful cooperation between basic ecology, conservation biology and restoration ecology led to an improved understanding about nature's structure and function. Even "anonymous" species may have important functions, so we should be very careful to address a species as "ecologically redundant". The world needed a concept which covered the total variation in nature, and also an international agreement for preserving it. A breakthrough came with E. O. Wilson's book *Biodiversity* in 1988 [20]. Four years later, in 1992, the international *Convention*

called mycorrhiza, on which many tree species fully depend.

132 Environmental Change and Sustainability

which can be easily comprehended by non-biologists like politicians.

the Giant Panda, the tiger, or paradise birds.

work developed [19].

