*3.2.6. Ecological and precautional thinking in law: Examples from Norway*

realising that nature is servicing us through a number of vital "ecological services". Species diversity represents a large potential for new ways of producing food, medicines or other products, and these options imply that species diversity represent a "gene bank". Healthy ecosystems perform several functions - or services - on which we depend. They enable pollination of agricultural crops, provide clean water, air and soil, allow for decomposition of our wastes and neutralize pollution. The concept of ecological service is to an increasing degree used in national and international fora to promote nature conservation, and to implement the Biodiversity Convention. In order to illustrate the more or less hidden values of ecosystem services, some have tried to transform them into their economical value, including the astronomical costs of manual pollination of agricultural crops, for example, see [25]. The term ecological service is strongly "anthropocentric", which means that we focus on humankind's egoistic interests: *What is in it for me?* A broader perspective is the "biocentric" view: Life in general is in focus, respecting the intrinsic value of all life forms. Wilson [22] used both perspectives, but waiting for the intrinsic value to be seriously respected, he strongly argued for the anthropocentric motivation in nature conservation. Here, we find many duty-based

The vision of an "eco-policy" in which the society is in harmony with nature, has led to several new eco-concepts. The prefix "eco-" is often used in the sustainability debate: eco-friendly products, eco-food, eco-tourism, eco-efficiency practices designed to reduce waste, energy consumption, and resource use, etc. Within eco-effectiveness, the concept "cradle-to-cradle" is creative. Earlier, "cradle-to-grave" was a paradigm illustrating the linear use of resources resulting in waste, while "cradle-to-cradle" regards waste as a resource that can be recycled. Sometimes, the term "green" is used as a substitute: an environmentally friendly economy may be called green economy. The term "ecological footprint" has also become universal: It represents the amount of biologically productive land and sea area necessary to supply the

resources a human population consumes, and to assimilate associated waste, see [26].

Perhaps we should use, more often, the strong moral force in the eco-prefix to *warn*. Political decisions of today are often "eco-unfriendly". The term "ecological crime" is already in use, often shortened as "eco- crime". In Norway, eco-crime is in fact used for both ecological and economical crime, and an official body termed "ecocrime" was erected in 1989. On our journey towards a sustainable future we should probably have a stronger focus on environmentally

Literature has already produced a number of "eco-thrillers", describing how nature strikes back when ecological limitations are crossed. Recently, the term "eco-angst", or "eco-fear", was presented in a Norwegian magazine [27]. Originating from the USA, the concept describes a new mental anguish which seems to be spreading: Bad forecasts for the future, for instance due to climate change, cause depression [28,29]. This is a serious signal to us all, both to politicians and consumers. Eco-fear is due to our eco-crimes. Overconsuming societies led by short-sighted economical profit are not only ecologically unsustainable, but also *mentally*

arguments versus future generations.

134 Environmental Change and Sustainability

unfriendly activities.

*unsustainable.*

*3.2.5. Ecology in our mind: Eco-concepts matter*

Until 1981, most wildlife species in Norway could be hunted without restriction, and hunting of various predators was often encouraged by payment for killing. However, as a better understanding of ecological knowledge showed, predators play an important role in nature and several of these became endagered. Therefore, the Wildlife Act of 1981 (implemented in 1982) stated that all wildlife species should be protected. Hunting became allowed only during specific periods for selected species. This turnover of practice was called "the mirror principle". Wildlife in this connection encompassed all mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians.

In 2009, a new act was adopted in order to protect biological, geological and landscape diversity and ecological processes through conservation and sustainable use: *Act of 19 June 2009 No. 100 Relating to the Management of Biological, Geological and Landscape Diversity (Nature Diversity Act).* The act reflected an ecological and precautional thinking, as exemplified by the following principles:

*Section 8 (knowledge base):* Official decisions that affect biological, geological and landscape diversity shall, as far as is reasonable, be based on scientific knowledge of the population status of species, the range and ecological status of habitat types, and the impacts of environmental pressures.

*Section 9 (precautionary principle):*If there is a risk of serious or irreversible damage to biological, geological or landscape diversity, lack of knowledge shall not be used as a reason for post‐ poning or not introducing management measures.

*Section 10 (ecosystem approach and cumulative environmental effects):* Any pressure on an ecosys‐ tem shall be assessed on the basis of the cumulative environmental effects on the ecosystem now or in the future.

*Section 11 (user-pays principle):* The costs associated with preventing or limiting any damage caused by a project to biological, geological and landscape diversity shall be borne by the project owner, unless this is unreasonable in the light of the nature of the project and of the damage.

Finally, the act introduced the concepts of *priority species* and *selected habitat types*. These are threatened species or nature types which will be given special concern through specific conservation programs.

In order to implement these various intensions, increased ecological knowledge is often needed about species and habitats, cumulative effects, and risks. We see how ecology feeds politics, and how political intentions again ask for more ecology to be able to practice ecological intentions.

#### **3.3. Global warming: A test on long-term thinking**

Already around 1970, specialists in atmospheric physics warned about a gradual global warming, due to increased concentration of CO2 caused by humans. A "greenhouse effect" due to "climate gases" was gradually considered as a dangerous threat both to man and biodiversity, and in 1992 the Convention on Climate Change was born in Rio de Janeiro to reduce emissions. A much used concept is "climate quota", which means that one country can pay another country for reducing their emissions, instead of reducing its own. Unfortunately, global CO2-concentrations have continued to rise, and at the Rio + 20 meeting in 2012, the international hope was to limit temperature increase to 2o C. The ghost in this situation is the concept of "tipping point" [30]. At a certain temperature, which is unknown, natural mecha‐ nisms may take over and rapidly push temperature still higher by feedback mechanisms, out of human control. For instance, more open water at the poles means that more solar radiation is absorbed, and if the permafrost of the tundra starts to melt, the strong greenhouse gas methan (CH4) will be released to an increasing degree. Besides a massive extinction of species, large groups of people will suffer due to unstable weather with drought, floods, strong cyclones, and rise in sea level. The concept of "climate refugees" is already on the lips.

Our hope is that temperature stabilises below the tipping point. Realistic visions about "carbon-neutral communities" based on "renewable energy" or "carbon-catching and storing" exist, but such options are followed up only slowly. Until now, extra "climate taxes" on CO2 emissions have had little effect. It is still cheap and comfortable to do business as usual. Also, there is a conflict between the two Rio aims: biodiversity and climate. In Norway, for instance, there is a great potential to save energy through better design in buildings etc. Also, existing hydroelectric power stations can be upgraded to become more efficient. Nature conservation organisations want to give energy saving priority, and argue that the "greenest energy is the energy which is not used". However, politicians are thinking along other lines, and the official energy politics in 2012-Norway is to increase the total use of energy. To achieve this, large plans exist for wind parks and new hydroelectric power stations. These plans are marketed as "green", "clean" or "environmentally friendly", although they may destroy nature of inter‐ national value. Furthermore, this extra energy is not needed at present, and it does not substitute a corresponding reduction in the use of fossil energy. This is an example of tensions between possibilities and practice, between NGOs and politicians, which raises temperature also in energy debates. Such debates are to a large degree rhetoric, and "greenwashing" of increased energy use is often a problem.

Solar energy is an interesting option for the future, and some people have the vision of a "solar age". No one owns the solar energy, and it can be downloaded by anyone anywhere. Seen from above, places where people live contain large areas of roofs on which this energy can be collected free.

#### **3.4. Nature as a source of life quality: How to express it?**

Many people claim that contact with nature has a strong recreational effect, and that loss of nature would reduce their life quality (Figure 1). The conceptual framework for these values is still limited, but we shall present some fruitful studies, that have appeared during the past decades. The mental value of nature contact is still undercommunicated and deserves both more concern and further research.

The Way We Think Shapes Our Future: On the Importance of Fruitful Concepts, Well-Founded Attitudes… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54702 137

biodiversity, and in 1992 the Convention on Climate Change was born in Rio de Janeiro to reduce emissions. A much used concept is "climate quota", which means that one country can pay another country for reducing their emissions, instead of reducing its own. Unfortunately, global CO2-concentrations have continued to rise, and at the Rio + 20 meeting in 2012, the

concept of "tipping point" [30]. At a certain temperature, which is unknown, natural mecha‐ nisms may take over and rapidly push temperature still higher by feedback mechanisms, out of human control. For instance, more open water at the poles means that more solar radiation is absorbed, and if the permafrost of the tundra starts to melt, the strong greenhouse gas methan (CH4) will be released to an increasing degree. Besides a massive extinction of species, large groups of people will suffer due to unstable weather with drought, floods, strong cyclones, and rise in sea level. The concept of "climate refugees" is already on the lips.

Our hope is that temperature stabilises below the tipping point. Realistic visions about "carbon-neutral communities" based on "renewable energy" or "carbon-catching and storing" exist, but such options are followed up only slowly. Until now, extra "climate taxes" on CO2 emissions have had little effect. It is still cheap and comfortable to do business as usual. Also, there is a conflict between the two Rio aims: biodiversity and climate. In Norway, for instance, there is a great potential to save energy through better design in buildings etc. Also, existing hydroelectric power stations can be upgraded to become more efficient. Nature conservation organisations want to give energy saving priority, and argue that the "greenest energy is the energy which is not used". However, politicians are thinking along other lines, and the official energy politics in 2012-Norway is to increase the total use of energy. To achieve this, large plans exist for wind parks and new hydroelectric power stations. These plans are marketed as "green", "clean" or "environmentally friendly", although they may destroy nature of inter‐ national value. Furthermore, this extra energy is not needed at present, and it does not substitute a corresponding reduction in the use of fossil energy. This is an example of tensions between possibilities and practice, between NGOs and politicians, which raises temperature also in energy debates. Such debates are to a large degree rhetoric, and "greenwashing" of

Solar energy is an interesting option for the future, and some people have the vision of a "solar age". No one owns the solar energy, and it can be downloaded by anyone anywhere. Seen from above, places where people live contain large areas of roofs on which this energy can be

Many people claim that contact with nature has a strong recreational effect, and that loss of nature would reduce their life quality (Figure 1). The conceptual framework for these values is still limited, but we shall present some fruitful studies, that have appeared during the past decades. The mental value of nature contact is still undercommunicated and deserves both

C. The ghost in this situation is the

international hope was to limit temperature increase to 2o

136 Environmental Change and Sustainability

increased energy use is often a problem.

more concern and further research.

**3.4. Nature as a source of life quality: How to express it?**

collected free.

**Figure 1.** Nature, with beauty and silence, is a rich source for mental recreation. For many people, nature is an arena for the quality of life. From Jotunheimen mountains, Norway. Photo: S. Hågvar.

Callicott [31] listed the various values of biodiversity, pointing to both *intrinsic values* (diversity for its own sake) and *instrumental values* like various goods, ecological services, and informa‐ tion. Finally, he added the *psycho-spiritual* values, which include aesthetic beauty, religious awe, scientific knowledge, etc. The present author followed up the concept of psycho-spiritual values and pointed at nature as an *arena for the quality of life* [32]. He addressed these values as important among the "third generation" of environmental problems. While pollution prob‐ lems were the main focus at the first UN conference in Stockholm in 1972, a "second genera‐ tion" of environmental problems including climate change and biodiversity loss were discussed in the UN conference in Rio, 1992. He argued that it is due time to address the psychospiritual values in an international context as a "third generation" environmental challenge, broadening the perspective of nature loss to include our mental health.

Edward O. Wilson is a famous biologist who has coined several biological terms, but he has also contributed with an important concept regarding our mental relation to nature. He argues that humankind has a subconscious interest and fascination for other life forms (Figure 2), and calls this "biophilia". The term literally means "love of life or living systems." In his book *Biophilia. The human bond with other species* [22] he reminds us that we have evolved in nature, just like all other species. Genetically, we have not changed significantly since we lived completely surrounded by nature. Since nature is our original home, it may not be surprising that our brain – maybe unconsciously – enjoys contact with nature. Wilson argues strongly for rescuing the species richness of our planet – not only because species have an inherent value, an ecological value, and an applied value – but also because the wonders of life fascinates us and elevates our life quality. Nature presents us for both beauty and mystery, which appeals to our brain. Biodiversity may thus be regarded as an important basis for the human spirit.

**Figure 2.** Wilson's "biophilia" concept indicates that man has a basic interest in, and is fascinated by other life forms. Larva of the Privet Hawk-moth, *Sphinx ligustri.* Photo: S. Hågvar.

Many studies have shown that contact with nature is good for our mental health. A classic book in this context is *The Experience of Nature* by Kaplan & Kaplan [33]. They documented that contact with nature – from gardening and urban parks to the experience of wilderness – increased people's life quality. Regarding nearby nature they concluded:

*People feel more satisfied with their homes, with their jobs, and with their lives when they have sufficient access to nature in the urban environment. People value natural settings for the diverse opportunities they provide – to walk, to see, to think. They are not necessarily aware of the many forms of encounter they have with nature or the variety of benefits that accrue.*

The modern, busy life often makes us feel worn out, and in need for a break or a recovery period. This worn-out state is generally not physical. Rather, these situations involve what we are calling "mental fatigue". A mentally fatigued person finds it burdersome to concentrate, and to pay attention to something uninteresting. Kaplan & Kaplan found that we have two types of attention: An active and voluntary "directed attention" which we use when we concentrate upon a task, and a passive, "involuntary attention" which requires no effort. When we become mentally fatigued so that we need recreation, it is the directed attention which is exhausted. A key issue here involves the concept of "inhibition". In order to maintain one's focus on a particular thought, you have to inhibit the stimuli around you that compete for your attention. To resist the attractions of what you hear, see (or mental associations you get), for instance if you work in a room together with other people, demands mental effort. In short, continuous distraction breaks down your valuable, directed attention. For such "burned-outpeople", nature is a good arena for mental recreation. The directed attention is resting and recovering, at the same time as we can enjoy nature's "soft fascination" by our passive, involuntary attention. Such psychological insight, based upon fruitful concepts, documents the value of having access to nature, as a mental source for recreation and life quality.

an ecological value, and an applied value – but also because the wonders of life fascinates us and elevates our life quality. Nature presents us for both beauty and mystery, which appeals to our brain. Biodiversity may thus be regarded as an important basis for the human spirit.

**Figure 2.** Wilson's "biophilia" concept indicates that man has a basic interest in, and is fascinated by other life forms.

Many studies have shown that contact with nature is good for our mental health. A classic book in this context is *The Experience of Nature* by Kaplan & Kaplan [33]. They documented that contact with nature – from gardening and urban parks to the experience of wilderness –

*People feel more satisfied with their homes, with their jobs, and with their lives when they have sufficient access to nature in the urban environment. People value natural settings for the diverse opportunities they provide – to walk, to see, to think. They are not necessarily aware of the many forms of encounter*

increased people's life quality. Regarding nearby nature they concluded:

Larva of the Privet Hawk-moth, *Sphinx ligustri.* Photo: S. Hågvar.

138 Environmental Change and Sustainability

*they have with nature or the variety of benefits that accrue.*

In the best-seller book *Last child in the woods: Saving our children from nature-deficit disorder* [34], Richard Louv worried about American children growing up without contact with nature. Not only is nature gradually lost where children grow up, but today's access to electronic media results in sedentary children who often prefer to stay indoors. Access to electrical outlets may be more attractive than access to nature! The author concluded that this lifestyle was both mentally and physically negative for children and coined the concept of "nature-deficit disorder". The book and the concept have inspired city planners to include green areas, especially remnants of real nature, as an important element in long-term city planning. For instance, in the author's home city, San Diego, "undeveloped areas" like canyons with a rich plant and animal life were earlier regarded as a problem since they were difficult to urbanize. Instead, a process was started to preserve this varied near-nature by creating "San Diego Urban Canyonlands Park". A new view on nearby nature had been triggered – but someone had to trigger it! There is now a growing understanding in the USA that protection of nearby nature has not only to do with biodiversity conservation, but also with the conservation of people's physical and mental health.

In his book *The big connection. How modern Swedes consider man's place in nature* [35], psychiatrist Nils Uddenberg studied how important contact with nature is for Swedish people. Both large studies with many people, and in-depth-interviews with fewer persons from different social groups documented that contact with nature was important for their life quality. In a large study covering one thousand people, 94 percent agreed with the following statement: "Strol‐ ling in the forest and fields makes me relaxed and harmonious". However, when people were asked to explain why nature mattered, they had problems finding words to explain their statement. They lacked concepts and formulations for this purpose. People often ended up with religious concepts like holy, cathedral, or divinity to try to communicate their experiences, even if they were not religious. In my opinion, here is a field where a further development of concepts should be welcomed. Emotions are valuable for us, but difficult to communicate. The situation might be paralleled by the difficulties of explaining a deep musical experience.

Nature's health-promoting effect in the Nordic countries Norway, Sweden and Denmark, came into focus three years ago by a report from Nordic Council of Ministers [36]. While epidemic diseases represented the main health problem in earlier times, the health of today's people is mainly threatened by *non-epidemic life style diseases*. There are two of them: Over‐ weight due to inactivity, and a depressed mental state, maybe due to a strong materialistic focus. Physical activity is good for both diagnoses, but the effect is best if the physical activity occurs in nature. Nature greets us with the absence of stress, combined with beauty, silence, and other positive experiences. Furthermore, physical and mental improvements support each other through so-called "effect-chains", resulting in improved life quality. In Sweden, and to a certain degree also in Norway, doctors have begun to order outdoor activity as a "green prescription" instead of tablets. Rather than heading to the chemist, people are heading to nature. This is cheap medicine, since nature is free and always open. The new trend reminds us of the importance of having access to near-nature, a resource which is shrinking in many Nordic cities and other densely populated areas. Areal planners are increasingly aware that to preserve green areas and greenbelts are good health politics. Health improvements by green prescription is, of course, also economically favourable for the society by shortening the hospital queues.

Concepts like threatened nature types and threatened species are now universally used. Sometimes we also see the term "threatened nature phenomenons". The Monarch butterfly is famous for its long, yearly migrations between Canada in north and Mexico and California in south. Although the Monarch is not an endangered species the annual migration is considered a threatened phenomenon by IUCN. Since there are very few overwintering sites where the adults aggregate, their populations become vulnerable. These sites are threatened by human activities, mainly logging, development, and agriculture. In 1984, the Monarch Project was created in order to save these sites. The Mexican conservation organization, Monarca, works closely with governmental agencies and local people to establish land protection and enhance alternative economic development in the region.

Also the spectacular, yearly migration of wildebeest and zebras over long distances through Tanzania and Kenya is a threatened nature phenomenon. Plans about a highway through the Serengeti national park, which would halt the necessary migrations, has till now been stopped, due to international protests.

The concept of threatened nature phenomenons deserves to be used more actively. People are not only fascinated by the teeming diversity of other life forms, but perhaps even more about what they are doing: What kind of processes nature reveals for us, and how it all functions. And least of all: Nature's secrets and mystery, about which we like to wonder. In light of the psychological value of nature experiences we should also use the concept of "threatened nature experiences". And furthermore, we should regard nature as a "resource of positive experien‐ ces". My favourite concept, trying to include nature's various contributions to our mental health, is *nature-dependent life quality*.
