*2.3.2. Barriers for technologies for individual use: Hybrid vehicles, LEDs, and PV*

Other than wind power, there are studies that identify IPRs as a major barrier for technological diffusion. The case study on hybrid vehicles in India is one of them. It indicates that IPRs are the major barrier in this case as well since "IPRs are dominated by a concentrated set of foreign companies" (Case Study 5). It states "all of the companies owning commercially viable hybrid technologies are based in developed countries." The results of the case study on LED also suggest that IPRs are the key barrier for the diffusion of LED (Case Study 3). They case study demonstrates that "it is a highly protected technology. As there are various processes involved in manufacturing LED chips, each process is patented and requires huge investment. At present the cost of investing in both chip manufacturing and resolving the IPR issues is substantially high compared to importing the chips." In this regard, there may be important lessons to learn from the previously mentioned case on wind power for producing local technologies despite the existence of IPRs-related barriers. In the case of LED, however, the results of the study indicate there is a separate key barrier for the diffusion of the technology in India. The case study identifies the size of the market as a major financial barrier for technology diffusion in India. It states that there is "no clear indication about the type of market that exists for LED." Furthermore, it stresses that "the leading players worldwide are not considering India as a potential region for investment as they do not see any market in India at present."

Interestingly, in contrast to hybrid vehicles and LEDs, the results of the case study on PV in India suggest that IPRs are not an essential barrier for the diffusion of the technology in India (Case Study 6). It maintains that mature production technology for silicon cells is available on the market without licenses since related patents have expired. Moreover, an increasing number of Indian firms are planning on producing the entire PV value chain and are expanding into other areas, such as thin film technology.
