**5. Conclusion**

loaded onto HA/TCP have been shown to result in the production of cementum in mice while using gelfoam (collagen based gelatin sponge) as the carrier has been reported to fail creating cementum [31, 87]. Sonoyama and co-workers have reported the creation of a root/periodontal complex being capable of supporting a porcelain crown in swine by applying both SCAP and PDLSCs in HA/TCP as a carrier [38]. In a study on canine model, we have recently succeeded to achieve regeneration on an experimentally-created defect in peridontium using autologous DPSCs loaded onto Bio-Oss scaffolds [88]. Furthermore, Nakashima et al. have reported a successful induction of whole-pulp regeneration after pulpectomy in a dog model using autologous DPSCs loaded onto 3D scaffold of collagen-I & II and SDF-1 (stromal-cell-derived factor-1) as the morphogene [89, 90]. Moreover, a culture system termed as organ-engineering methods using PDLSCs have been devel‐ oped to generate not only tooth root, but also the surrounding periodontal tissues, including PDL and alveolar bone in mouse model [84]. In addition to the above-men‐ tioned animal studies, there is a published retrospective pilot study in human. Accord‐ ing to this trial, autologous transplantation of PDL stem/progenitor cells might provide therapeutic improvement for the periodontal defects without any adverse effects during

32–72 months of follow-up [91].

106 Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering

sized calvarial defects in mice model [95].

tion-related tissue destruction in experimental colitis [43].

**4.3. Immunogenicity of allogeneic transplantation of DSCs**

**4.2. DSCs-based tissue engineering and regeneration for other organs**

Apart from the potential applications in dental tissue engineering and therapy, DSCs have been opened a dynamic field in repair and regeneration of non-dental tissues. In this context, there are many investigations indicating applicability of dental related stem cells in variety of disease models in the animal. For instance, SHED has been reported to exhibit a potential to improve parkinson's disease in rat by differentiating into dopaminergic neuron-like cells. Based on the different investigations, these cells have also the ability to promote wound healing in mice [92-94]. It has been demonstrated that SHED also contribute to repair of the critical-

Transplantation of DPSCs has been shown to improve alzheimer's and parkinson's disease as well as acute myocardial infarction in a rat model [96-98]. Similarly, transplantation of hIDPSCs in canine model with golden retriever muscular dystrophy (GRMD) resulted in some improvement [99]. In addition, it has been reported that transplantation of tissue-engineered hIDPSC sheet was successfully reconstructed the corneal epithelium in rabbits with total limbal stem cell deficiency (LSCD) [100]. Applying PDLSCs with collagen based gelatin sponge carrier have been found to improve facial wrinkles by generating large amounts of collagen fibers in the mouse indicating the potential capacity of PDLSC in the field of plastic surgery. In the case of GSCs, *Intra-peritoneal (ip)* administration of the cells displayed improvement of inflamma‐

According to the promising place of DSCs in clinical treatments in future, considering the immunogenicity of DSC transplantation is critical. Although autologous DSCs rather than allogenous ones are preferred for repair and regeneration purposes, several limitations such

Dental-related tissue contained several types of stem cells collectively referred to as dental stem cells (DSCs). In this stem cell family, there are 6 named member so far recognized and described. These include dental pulp stem cell (DPSCs), stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED), periodontal ligament stem cells (PDLSCs), stem cells from apical papilla (SCAP) of developing tooth, dental follicle stem/progenitor cells (DFPCs) and gingival stem cells (GSCs). All these easily-accessible stem cells can be derived from dental tissue obtained from both young and adult patients. Furthermore the cells are described as having immunomodulatory function. These characteristics make DSCs a unique source for repair and regeneration of injured tissue. In this context, many studies have so far been conducted on the animal models and the reports together indicated the extensive potential of the cells in tissue repair and regeneration not only in teeth but also in other organs. After all these animal studies, some centers have started clinical trials to examine the cell potential in human diseases. To exploit the extensive regenerating potential of DSCs in clinic, many additional clinical trials must be planed and conducted till therapeutic protocols using these cells become established.
