**Acknowledgements**

vascularized grafts in one-step procedure, as it has already been performed in many experi‐ ments on animal models. [22] Furthermore, as reminded, the angiogenetic properties of ADSCs

Tendon tissue engineering is relatively unexplored due to the difficulty to maintain in vitro preservation of tenocyte phenotype: only recently research has demonstrated the fundamental role of in vitro mechanical stimuli in maintaining the phenotype of tendinous tissues. [34] The main growth factors inducing tendon differentiation include fibroblast growth factor (FGF), platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB), epidermal growth factor (EGF), insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 and members of the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)/bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) family. Several in vivo and in vitro studies have showed the ability of ADSCs to differentiate in tenocytes under specific stimuli and under biomechanical force. [34] Furthermore, recent experiments have focused on the possibility of re-cellularize by means of seeded ADSCs a decellularized human tendon. [35] Thus, an integration of ADSCs, growth factors, mechanical stimuli and biopolymers may provide a solution for the treatment

Incubation of ADSCs under neuro-inductive conditions (culture medium containing EGF, FGF, NGF and BDNF) has shown the potential to form neurospheres expressing neurospecific markers, including nestin¸ βIII tubulin, S100 and glial fibrillar acidic protein (GFAP). [36] Moreover, seeding of these neurospheres in different scaffolds (hyaluronan based membranes and fibrin glue meshes) demonstrated further differentiation in glial-like and neuronal-like cells. [37] Although these are only preliminary researches, these promising results are of significant clinical interest. ADSCs-induced neural cells may provide beneficial therapeutic effects in treatment of injuries occurring to both the peripheral and central nervous systems such as in the treatment of neurodegenerative states, including Parkinson's disease, Hungtin‐

Regenerative medicine is an evolving field of research and therapeutics in which adipose tissue and ADSCs hold great promise for translational research and future clinical applications in many fields of tissue regeneration with a wide range of potential clinical implications. In the past decade, preclinical data from in vitro studies and pre-clinical animal models has been provided on the reproducibility, safety and efficacy of ADSCs in tissue regeneration or tissue engineering, supporting their use in clinical applications and establishing the basis for a translational application in the bedside: consistently, recent preliminary clinical trials have confirmed positive outcomes. The enhancing effect of ADSCs on autologous repair might enable better clinical outcomes and play a relevant role in healing acute and chronic tissue

have been already investigated in several clinical trials to treat various diseases.

*6.1.4. Bio-engineered tendon*

198 Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering

of difficult tendon injuries

**7. Prospectives**

*6.1.5. ADSCs and neuronal tissue-engineering*

ton's disease, multiple sclerosis and Alzheimer's disease.

Authors acknowledge their colleagues of the Clinic of Plastic Surgery of the University of Padua and of related laboratories for their kind support in the critical review of current clinical and preclinical experimental literature.
