**11. Conclusion**

354 Radioisotopes – Applications in Physical Sciences

and longer recovery (Hendry, 2001). Increased level of chromosome aberrations and micronuclei was detected in the head and neck cancer patients undergoing radiotherapy within a year post treatment (Gamulin et al., 2008). DRD phenomenon associated with the presence of an increased percentage of stable and unstable chromosome aberrations in lymphocytes was detected in patients irradiated because of ankylosing spondylitis even several years after radiotherapy. Furthermore, increased mortality was related to single treatment course of X-rays because of this diseases (Smith & Doll, 1982). However, other studies performed in adults many years after radiotherapy in childhood haven't shown genetic instability (Tawn et al., 2005). Neither was it shown in persons having professional contact with radiation, who have suffered internal plutonium contamination at least 10 years previous to the study (Whitehouse and Tawn, 2001). Furthermore, creation of mutator phenotype as a result of genetic instability seems to increase the probability of induction of tumors. It has been shown on an animal model that ionizing radiation induces genetic instability emerging as delayed *TP53* mutations and more frequent transformation of mammary gland epithelial cells, leading to the development of cancer (Ulrich and Ponnaiya, 1998). Compared to healthy persons, irradiated cancer patients show increased incidence of second-wave primary cancers (Boice et al., 1985, Brenner et al., 2000), although the bystander effect does not need to be the only cause of such events. It is well-known that genetic predispositions and environmental factors may have significant influence on the

Together with modern techniques of irradiation, such as three-dimensional conformal radiation therapy (3D-CRT) or intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT), the purpose of which is to reduce radiation dose delivered to healthy tissues, there is an increased risk of adverse effects resulting from a possible bystander effect, especially because in these techniques larger volumes of normal tissues are exposed to a small dose (Hall, 2006). The risk of secondary cancers is increased especially in prostate cancer (Brenner et al., 2000) and cervical cancer (Boice et al., 1985, Kleinerman et al., 1995, Chaturvedi et al., 2008, Trott, 2009). Prostate surgery and radiotherapy are methods having comparable efficacy, therefore any late consequences in the form of secondary tumors should be taken into account, especially in younger people with a perspective of long-time survival. Brenner et al. (2000) compared the incidence of second-wave primary cancers in prostate cancer patients treated with surgery only (more than 50 000) to that in patients treated by radiotherapy (more than 70 000) and observed a statistically significant, although small, increase in the risk of secondary cancers in the latter group (6%, p = 0.02). This risk was associated with dose and latent time and grew with increasing survival time, amounting to 15% for patients surviving over 5 years and to 34% for those surviving over 10 years. The emerging cancers were solid tumors, such as bladder, bowel and lung carcinomas and sarcomas, the latter within the field of irradiation. The authors did not observe leukemia cases. The risk of secondary cancers after radiotherapy of cervical cancer is comparable to that of prostate cancer. Kleinerman et al. (1995) compared the risk of secondary cancers in radiation-treated, invasive cervical cancer patients (almost 50 000) with that in a group of non-irradiated patients surviving more than 30 years and showed a 12% increase in newly-diagnosed secondary cancers, where the increase was 15% after 10 years and 26% after 20 years post radiotherapy. Cancers of colon, bladder, rectum, vagina and ovary were within the fields covered by the high-dose radiation, but there were also few cases of leukemia. However, half of secondary neoplasms accounted for lung cancer. Occurrence of cancer of the lung, the organ relatively distant from the original tumor irradiation field, in which the radiation

formation of tumors (Mohandas, 2001).

Radiation induced bystander effect (RIBE) is unquestionable biological phenomenon which elicits in cells not directly irradiated but being in the neighborhood of targeted cells, or being exposed to molecular signals disclosed by irradiated ones. It has been found in variable *in vitro* and *in vivo* systems. RIBE predominate at externally applied low doses and low doserate, although many data confirm its presence at clinically used doses and radionuclide exposure. It may be either detrimental or potentially beneficial event depending on dose, dose-rate, means of irradiation, cell types and environmental conditions pointing out to its

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### **12. Acknowledgment**

This paper was supported by the *grant No N N518 497 639 from the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education*.

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**18** 

**The Potential Of I-129 as an** 

Iodine has two natural isotopes – the only stable iodine isotope is 127I, whilst 129I is the only radioactive iodine isotope that is formed in nature (T½ = 1.57 · 107 years). However, the main sources of 129I in the environment are anthropogenic from nuclear fuel reprocessing plants (NFRP) and nuclear accidents. Current levels of 129I do not represent any radiological hazard to humans, but the liquid discharges of 129I from reprocessing plants into the ocean makes it a unique oceanographic tracer to study the movement of water masses, transfer of radionuclides and marine cycles of stable elements such as iodine. The gaseous releases of 129I from

reprocessing plants can be used as an atmospheric and geochemical tracer (Hou, 2004).

environment, which is distant from 129I sources such as NFRP.

systems – the atmosphere being the bridge between them.

129I and 127I have the same chemical properties and therefore it is expected that they also behave similar in environment. Lack of 129I and 127I speciation data makes it difficult to confirm or disprove this assumption. The main problem is the mobility – species of newly introduced and old − natural 129I. The old 129I is in equilibrium with 127I – natural 129I/127I ratio and this is disturbed with 129I from NFRP which is released to the environment in volatile form. As such it is rapidly transferred among surface compartments. Liquid discharges to oceans influence areas in accordance with marine currents. Wet and, to a lesser extent, dry depositions of atmospheric 129I are the main sources for 129I in terrestrial

The biggest reservoir of iodine is the ocean with an average concentration of approximately 50-60 µg L-1 seawater. From marine environment is iodine transferred to the atmosphere by volatilization mainly as iodomethane (CH3I) and then washed out to terrestrial environment by wet and dry deposition. It is accumulated in soils where it is strongly bound-adsorb to organic matter, and iron and aluminium oxides in soil (Fuge, 2005). In the accumulation processes of iodine in soil besides various physico-chemical parameters including soil type, pH, Eh, salinity, and organic matter content, soil microorganism – especially bacteria were found to play an important role (Muramatsu & Yoshida, 1999, Amachi, 2008). In this way the biogeochemical cycling of 129I is strongly connected to processes in ocean and soil

**2. Sources, inventory and levels of 129I in marine and terrestrial environment**  All 129I formed in the primordial nucleosynthesis decayed to stable 129Xe. Two natural processes responsible for natural background levels of 129I are spallation of cosmic rays on

**1. Introduction**

**Environmental Tracer** 

Andrej Osterc and Vekoslava Stibilj

*Institute Jožef Stefan,* 

*Slovenia* 

