**5. Development centered in contexts of use**

ble such as Orkut, Facebook, and other social networks, can be useful for the promotion

CMC offers users with autism control over their environment as well as over problems with prosody and intonation [49]. A study developed by e-mail with adults with Asperg‐ er's Syndrome has found that visual anonymity, time flexibility and the permanence al‐ lowed by the internet help diminish the social and emotional pressures of interpersonal communication as well as the cognitive complexity of the processes involved [49]. In par‐ ticular, the authors state that online communities provide a space for interchanges and talks for people with similar interests or problems, so people with autism do benefit from those possibilities and structuring characteristics of CMC. In their study, 16 adults with high functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome have been interviewed on their daily ac‐ tivities and participation in social networks and attested that CMC tends to be beneficial for the initiation of social interactions – more than half of the interviewees participated in some type of social network. However, limitations and drawbacks in the interactions in social networks have been reported as well, which often refer to initiation of contact, maintenance of interaction for long periods and issues of security and trust. As a result,

those users seek to interact with people already known from other spaces6

developed by our research group are reported in the following session.

In spite of the benefits reported in studies, few address AC in technological systems with nonverbal subjects with autism. We know that communication with subjects with autism can resemble the "Tower of Babel" and challenges are greater when subjects are non-verbal7. In this case, we are in a rather complex situation which requires the adoption of strategies and resources to "climb up the tower". In the researches presented here, we notice that the use of technology is promising for the processes of communication and interaction. That brings us to some important questions: is it possible to identify the same benefits when allying the potential of CMC with AC? And, if so, how to use AC with mobile devices with non-verbal

In this specific research node (AC, technology and autism), there are few studies on mobile devices for AC that focus people with the syndrome. In the literature review, in addition to the work of our research group, we found a research with the system Sc@ut [47]. Sc@ut is an AC system adapted to be a communicator for Pocket PC and Nintendo DS. According to the authors, the use of the system in groups of children with autism has shown an improvement in the behavior of subjects in oral language. With some subjects, the models of communication provided by the system were used to train social skills and daily life activities8 [48]. The studies

6 This is typical within other social groups investigated. In general, confidence is stronger and more consistent

7 Researches point out that a third of children with autism are non-verbal. Such proportion fells to 14 to 20% when they

8 Another product under development by [47] is a platform for the creation of pedagogic activities for Ipad and Iphone. Activities are diverse including navigation, association, memory games, puzzles, sequencing, visual and aural perception, vocabulary, visuo-spatial coordination, among others. However, this product (Picaa) has not been tested with children

.

of interaction of people with autism [27, 49, 50].

664 Recent Advances in Autism Spectrum Disorders - Volume I

children with autism?

among stigmatized group minorities [54].

receive early intervention [55].

with autism yet.

Since 2009, when we started the development of SCALA, we have aimed at supporting language development of children with autism presenting deficits in communication. The epistemological basis of the sociohistorical theory, which we adopt, implies a conceptual reorganization of the software development process known as User-Centered Design (UCD). In UCD, the objective goes beyond subject-object interaction and focuses on designing strategies to allow interaction and communication between children with autism and other interlocutors [32, 34, 56]. SCALA is composed of three modules: board, narratives and free communication and follows a UCD approach.

From a sociohistorical perspective and the theoretical premises already presented, our approach not only contemplates the subject with disabilities, but that subject in interaction, which broadens our focus of investigation to (a) the **social contexts** in which (b) **cultural practices** of communication and literacy are developed by (c) **different participants** through (d) **mediating actions**.

The general guidelines of the UCD consider the macro context of human development in social interaction as the basis for the analysis of cases. Characteristics and needs of individuals cannot be understood apart from the contexts in which they belong. As a consequence, the develop‐ ment of assistive technology goes beyond a functional view of the human being. In spite of so, we do not ignore functional aspects in our proposal, we consider them within the cultural spectrum in which the AC is to operate. Each individual "inhabits" many contexts in which is more or less active in face of different cultural practices. In some cases, those practices happen within a triadic mediated action (individual-mediator-object) which entails learning and development. So, our focus of analysis is always the individual in relation with his/her different contexts. On its turn, each context impacts our relationships, consequently, the mediations that are possible. In time, we do not regard the cultural context as something that limits the individual, but as an element that shapes the relationship. This is why it is of importance to consider social contexts in the development of technology that will be employed as a qualita‐ tive resource and psychological tool in the mediating action.

Context, under such conception, exceeds the notion of physical space. It constitutes a condition that represents the action and is crossed by a space-time dimension. This dimension includes not only physical space but social space, and four types of time: a) present, which is the microgenetic time, i.e., the time now, b) lived, which refers to human history, or the ontogenetic time c) historical, which refers to one's personal story and is related to culture; and, at last, d) future, which is a projection, what one imagines will happen, one's own expectations and that of others, the wishes, the intentions that projects oneself to the future. Those four times frames pervade contexts and are constantly updated, so, they must be taken into consideration when we project assistive technology systems.

The analysis of the different frames of time starts with the present one – microgenetic – and through it, the others are recovered. An ethnographic approach is central in that analysis because "informants" provides information about lived and historical time that allows us to project into the future [57]. As ethnographic research is strongly based on discourse, therefore, discourse itself is a powerful informant. Because discourse is imbued with subjectivity, a report of memories and expectations, it may be argued that it does not provide a wholly truthful account. However, as subjectivity is an important aspect within the sociohistorical research, triangulation of the data is adopted as a regulating mechanism [58].

The configuration of contexts underlies sociohistorical research. The nature of contexts is a discursive one, in which language emerges and allows us to analyze various elements: persons, situations, cultural practices and mediating actions within those practices (Figure 1) in relation to time. Thus, context cannot be regarded as a static element as it plays a role in the interaction too. Besides the agents (people) – subject A1, subject A2 –, overlapping contexts need to be included in the analysis of contexts of use.

The overview of contexts constitutes the macro level of investigation necessary to deepen the understanding of the phenomenon of communication within educational spaces. In the micro level, triads (subject-mediator, non-verbal subject and mediating actions) represent the starting point for the understanding of the processes of mediation with technologies. Such methodo‐ logical perspective supports the development of technological resources (for instance, SCALA) in a differentiated way, that is, different from traditional processes of development and different from processes based on UCD, which involve users in the process of development and take their needs, expectations and experiences into consideration.

In SCALA, there is not a single model of user but a diverse range of agents involved with many peculiarities that differ in expectations and experiences, this is why we propose a broader view. We are not only interested in the user, as in the UCD, but in the peculiarities and specificities of the various agents in interaction as well. Our focus encompasses the action implied in the interaction, the cultural practices in which agents and technological resources are embedded.

Besides UCD, another proposal is the Activity-Centered Design (ACD). ACD focuses the activity that is performed and, as in the UCD, tries to create a model of activity. Considering that literacy practices cannot be thought of as an activity but as a set of practices that vary across different situations, we propose a Context-Centered Design (CCD). In this sort of development, differentiated sociohistorical contexts provide the guidelines to orient system development. In other words, what people do in different contexts, with different objectives and scenarios is what guides this project development. Figure 1 shows a scheme of CCD.

Figure 1. Scheme of Context-Centered Design (CCD)

**Figure 1.** Scheme of Context-Centered Design (CCD)

present time.

Three multi-case researches underlie SCALA developed. The first research allowed us to identify mediation strategies and validate the methodological proposal for intervention with communication with children with ASD [33]. The second case study was concerned with the interaction and intervention with a child aged 5-6 diagnosed with ASD and presenting deficits in communication. This case study was a follow-up to the previous one and derived strategies for the development of communication with the use of a first prototype in this phase [35]. Interventions allowed a broader understanding of the process of use implementation of AC with children with autism, and provided input on how a tool for such purpose should be developed.

Requirements, like touch screens and the adaptation of the size of the figures among other aspects, have significantly contributed to the second version of SCALA. A new version, now considering mobile devices and fast connection with the internet is under development (2011-2012) and has been informed by the third study, currently involving three subjects from three different cultural contexts. From the family context, the study took into consideration daily interactions, hygiene, leisure time, among other information. Besides family, other contexts include school and laboratory. The proposal of the controlled context is to investigate

As it is possible to observe, development and investigation imbricate in a spiral process where each process repeats itself reaching greater complexity, and thus, improving the system which proceeds development according to the principles of CCD. To develop SCALA, on the one hand, we address the needs of communication of non-verbal children, the expectations of their teachers as mediators of educative practices and count on the intense participation of family to use and adapt those strategies and resources [32, 34, 59, 60]. On the other hand, research trajectory involves several investigation projects developed by the research group in different spaces and moments, with points of intersection and team consolidation through regular meetings to keep investigation

interaction with peers by inserting 3 children with autism in the same social space and at present time.

As it is possible to observe, development and investigation imbricate in a spiral process where each process repeats itself reaching greater complexity, and thus, improving the system which proceeds development according to the principles of CCD. To develop SCALA, on the one hand, we address the needs of communication of non-verbal children, the expectations of their

Requirements, like touch screens and the adaptation of the size of the figures among other aspects, have significantly contributed to the second version of SCALA. A new version, now considering mobile devices and fast connection with the internet is under development (2011-2012) and has been informed by the third study, currently involving three subjects from three different cultural contexts. From the family context, the study took into consideration daily interactions, hygiene, leisure time, among other information. Besides family, other contexts include school and laboratory. The proposal of the controlled context is to investigate interaction with peers by inserting 3 children with autism in the same social space and at

E

Building an Alternative Communication System for Literacy of Children with Autism (SCALA) with Context-Centered

Interaction (mediation)

Micro level

Time

Analysis Synthesis

Arrows = Contexts (time)

F E Analysis

Macro level

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L

L

S

Language: Tools + Symbol

F = Family Context E = School Context

L = Lab Context S = Subject

 A1 People A2 An Contexts (Time) o Present o Lived o Historical o Future Language Interaction (teacher/ researcher)

F

Three multi-case researches underlie SCALA developed. The first research allowed us to identify mediation strategies and validate the methodological proposal for intervention with communication with children with ASD [33]. The second case study was concerned with the interaction and intervention with a child aged 5-6 diagnosed with ASD and presenting defi‐ cits in communication. This case study was a follow-up to the previous one and derived strategies for the development of communication with the use of a first prototype in this phase [35]. Interventions allowed a broader understanding of the process of use implemen‐ tation of AC with children with autism, and provided input on how a tool for such purpose should be developed.

Building an Alternative Communication System for Literacy of Children with Autism (SCALA) with Context-Centered Design of Usage http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54547 667

Figure 1. Scheme of Context-Centered Design (CCD) **Figure 1.** Scheme of Context-Centered Design (CCD)

project into the future [57]. As ethnographic research is strongly based on discourse, therefore, discourse itself is a powerful informant. Because discourse is imbued with subjectivity, a report of memories and expectations, it may be argued that it does not provide a wholly truthful account. However, as subjectivity is an important aspect within the sociohistorical research,

The configuration of contexts underlies sociohistorical research. The nature of contexts is a discursive one, in which language emerges and allows us to analyze various elements: persons, situations, cultural practices and mediating actions within those practices (Figure 1) in relation to time. Thus, context cannot be regarded as a static element as it plays a role in the interaction too. Besides the agents (people) – subject A1, subject A2 –, overlapping contexts need to be

The overview of contexts constitutes the macro level of investigation necessary to deepen the understanding of the phenomenon of communication within educational spaces. In the micro level, triads (subject-mediator, non-verbal subject and mediating actions) represent the starting point for the understanding of the processes of mediation with technologies. Such methodo‐ logical perspective supports the development of technological resources (for instance, SCALA) in a differentiated way, that is, different from traditional processes of development and different from processes based on UCD, which involve users in the process of development

In SCALA, there is not a single model of user but a diverse range of agents involved with many peculiarities that differ in expectations and experiences, this is why we propose a broader view. We are not only interested in the user, as in the UCD, but in the peculiarities and specificities of the various agents in interaction as well. Our focus encompasses the action implied in the interaction, the cultural practices in which agents and technological resources are embedded.

Besides UCD, another proposal is the Activity-Centered Design (ACD). ACD focuses the activity that is performed and, as in the UCD, tries to create a model of activity. Considering that literacy practices cannot be thought of as an activity but as a set of practices that vary across different situations, we propose a Context-Centered Design (CCD). In this sort of development, differentiated sociohistorical contexts provide the guidelines to orient system development. In other words, what people do in different contexts, with different objectives and scenarios is what guides this project development. Figure 1 shows a scheme of CCD.

Three multi-case researches underlie SCALA developed. The first research allowed us to identify mediation strategies and validate the methodological proposal for intervention with communication with children with ASD [33]. The second case study was concerned with the interaction and intervention with a child aged 5-6 diagnosed with ASD and presenting defi‐ cits in communication. This case study was a follow-up to the previous one and derived strategies for the development of communication with the use of a first prototype in this phase [35]. Interventions allowed a broader understanding of the process of use implemen‐ tation of AC with children with autism, and provided input on how a tool for such purpose

triangulation of the data is adopted as a regulating mechanism [58].

and take their needs, expectations and experiences into consideration.

included in the analysis of contexts of use.

666 Recent Advances in Autism Spectrum Disorders - Volume I

should be developed.

Three multi-case researches underlie SCALA developed. The first research allowed us to identify mediation strategies and validate the methodological proposal for intervention with communication with children with ASD [33]. The second case study was concerned with the interaction and intervention with a child aged 5-6 diagnosed with ASD and presenting deficits in communication. This case study was a follow-up to the previous one and derived strategies for the development of communication with the use of a first prototype in this phase [35]. Interventions allowed a broader understanding of the process of use implementation of AC with children with autism, and provided input on how a tool for such purpose should be developed. Requirements, like touch screens and the adaptation of the size of the figures among other aspects, have significantly contributed to the second version of SCALA. A new version, now considering mobile devices and fast connection with the internet is under development (2011-2012) and has been informed by the third study, currently involving three subjects from three different cultural contexts. From the family context, the study took into consideration daily interactions, hygiene, leisure time, among other information. Besides family, other contexts include school and laboratory. The proposal of the controlled context is to investigate interaction with peers by inserting 3 children with autism in the same social space and at present time. Requirements, like touch screens and the adaptation of the size of the figures among other aspects, have significantly contributed to the second version of SCALA. A new version, now considering mobile devices and fast connection with the internet is under development (2011-2012) and has been informed by the third study, currently involving three subjects from three different cultural contexts. From the family context, the study took into consideration daily interactions, hygiene, leisure time, among other information. Besides family, other contexts include school and laboratory. The proposal of the controlled context is to investigate interaction with peers by inserting 3 children with autism in the same social space and at present time.

As it is possible to observe, development and investigation imbricate in a spiral process where each process repeats itself reaching greater complexity, and thus, improving the system which proceeds development according to the principles of CCD. To develop SCALA, on the one hand, we address the needs of communication of non-verbal children, the expectations of their teachers as mediators of educative practices and count on the intense participation of family to use and adapt those strategies and resources As it is possible to observe, development and investigation imbricate in a spiral process where each process repeats itself reaching greater complexity, and thus, improving the system which proceeds development according to the principles of CCD. To develop SCALA, on the one hand, we address the needs of communication of non-verbal children, the expectations of their

[32, 34, 59, 60]. On the other hand, research trajectory involves several investigation projects developed by the research group in different spaces and moments, with points of intersection and team consolidation through regular meetings to keep investigation

teachers as mediators of educative practices and count on the intense participation of family to use and adapt those strategies and resources [32, 34, 59, 60]. On the other hand, research trajectory involves several investigation projects developed by the research group in different spaces and moments, with points of intersection and team consolidation through regular meetings to keep investigation on track. Spiral development starts from a deep analysis of existing systems9 adding to the results of the multi-case researches, which gradually informs the construction of requirements for the system and is constantly adjusted.

**6. Development and preliminary results**

help set up an initial profile of the subjects.

nication, social interaction and initial potentialities.

11 Open interviews, anamnesis and consent forms

interventions. They are referred to as Case 1, 2 and 3 in the table 1.

10 In the beginning, meetings were shorter and gradually increased in time.

across contexts.

sented in the figure 3.

In the session, an extract of some preliminary results of our research is presented. It comprises the period of time raging from August 2011 to May 2012. The subjects are three non-verbal children diagnosed with autism aged 4 years old. Three contexts have been taken into account: family, school and laboratory, but, in this report, we mainly focus on the interactions in the context of the laboratory, so, just a few considerations about other contexts are referred.

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Interactions have been planned upon the methodology of mediating actions, with particular focus on the promotion of scenes of joint attention in order to accomplish communication and social interaction of the subjects involved. Those interactions happened simultaneously with the three subjects once a week in the laboratory. Interactions in the laboratory took place weekly and duration was flexible in the beginning10 to adapt to the needs of individuals. In addition, there were visits to each subject's home and school followed by observation and initial guidance to mothers and school personnel. This way, the subjects' contexts encompass‐ ing greater social experiences and participation were accessed. The first contact was with the mothers, school and teachers with the distribution of some instruments for data collection11 to

The interventions of the researcher in the three contexts do not follow a linear fashion. Visits are scheduled according to opportunity and the needs identified in the course of the research. Interventions are filmed for later analysis and to subsidize reconstruction and development of new possibilities of interactional arrangements so as to contribute to subjects' development

Besides the scenes of joint attention, which have been promoted as part of the methodol‐ ogy of intervention, subjects had the opportunity to interact with physical AC materials as instruments of mediation of those scenes. Then, during the first weeks, AC material employing both low and high technology was used along with other resources, as Pre‐

Mediating actions had a focus on the triadic interactions of the mediator with subjects and objects acting as instruments of mediation to further expand the interactions with the other subjects. With the first interventions in the lab, it was possible to establish bonds with the children and get to know their needs and potential. Furthermore, with the help of their mothers and school teachers, it was possible to outline a descriptive profile of their forms of commu‐

In spite of the same diagnosis, the three children have very distinctive characteristics within the symptoms of the syndrome and are accompanied by diverse professionals in therapeutic

From a technological standpoint SCALA has as its main features, a module for building communication boards, a module for the construction of stories, and a module for free communication. It also encompasses common application features such as the ability to import files, edit sounds, save, export, and manage the various files generated by the system (Figure 2). The menu on the left to the user presents the categories of images that can be used with all the three modules and the horizontal menu bar displays the features.

From a predefined layout one can fill each card by clicking on the categories of images. Each image has a caption pattern which can be edited. For each card it is possible to record sounds and hear them. If the user does not want to record a sound, a speech synthesizer will read the caption (otherwise, the sound recorded by the user will be supplied).

In addition to the existing images in the system, it is possible to add personal images allowing customization and adaptation to the sociohistorical context of the user. Finally, the last feature designed was the animation of actions. This feature was introduced as empirical studies have shown evidence that animated actions may be more suitable to forge understanding of metaphorical and symbolic elements with autism [46, 61, 62].

SCALA is currently available for two platforms (web e android), which allows its use with mobile devices. In the next session, some preliminary results are presented.

**Figure 2.** Board and Story modules in the version for Android for tablets

<sup>9</sup> The main softwares available in the market have been explored, for example, Amplisoft, Boardmaker,and other free systems whose traits concerning interaction and narrative building were relevant to think about the system's require‐ ments. A complete synthesis of such assessment was developed by [35] as part of her masters research.
