**3. Automatic external defibrillators**

#### **3.1. Definition and basic AED components**

The term refers to a portable and lightweight computerized device that incorporates rhythm analysis and defibrillation systems and uses voice and/or visual prompts to guide lay rescu‐ ers and healthcare providers to safely defibrillate victims of cardiac arrest due to VF or pulseless VT.

There are two types of AED: the semi-automatic that indicates the need for defibrillation but requires that the operator deliver the shock by pushing a button and the fully automatic AED which is capable of administering a shock without the need for outside interventions. See Table 1.

nate atrial fibrillation although this arrhythmia involves multiple, micro-reentrant circuits. The term cardioversion implies to syncronize the delivery of the shock with the QRS com‐

Defibrillation is used to describe the utilization of an electric shock to terminate ventricular fibrillation (VF). VF is known to be a very persistent arrhythmia, and total elimination of the fibrillatory activity is obtained only with a relatively high energy shock that uniformly de‐

Current European Society of Cardiology and AHA guidelines suggest the following initial

**•** For atrial fibrillation, 120 to 200 joules for biphasic devices and 200 joules for monophasic

**•** For atrial flutter, 50 to 100 joules for biphasic devices and 100 joules for monophasic devi‐

**•** For ventricular tachycardia with a pulse, 100 joules for biphasic devices and 200 joules for

**•** For ventricular fibrillation or pulseless ventricular tachycardia, at least 150 joules for bi‐

Cardioversion is most commonly used for the treatment of atrial fibrillation and the devel‐ opment of biphasic defibrillators proved to be very useful. At least 2 randomized trials illus‐ trated the benefit of the biphasic waveform when compared to escalating monophasic shocks [29, 30]. First shock efficacy was greater with a biphasic waveform (68 versus 21 per‐ cent), delivered energy was 50 percent less, and the overall cardioversion rate was higher (94 versus 79 percent) [29]. There were fewer total shocks (1.7 versus 2.8), less energy deliv‐ ered (217 versus 548 joules), and a lower frequency of dermal injury (17 versus 41 percent)

Similar findings were reported for patients with atrial flutter, in whom cardioversion was successful more frequently and at lower energy levels when using biphasic waveforms [31].

The term refers to a portable and lightweight computerized device that incorporates rhythm analysis and defibrillation systems and uses voice and/or visual prompts to guide lay rescu‐ ers and healthcare providers to safely defibrillate victims of cardiac arrest due to VF or

There are two types of AED: the semi-automatic that indicates the need for defibrillation but requires that the operator deliver the shock by pushing a button and the fully automatic

plex of the patient.

6 Cardiac Defibrillation

devices.

monophasic devices.

ces.

[30].

pulseless VT.

polarizes the entire myocardium.

energy selection for specific arrhythmias [26-28]:

phasic devices and 360 joules for monophasic devices.

**3. Automatic external defibrillators**

**3.1. Definition and basic AED components**


**Table 1.** Definition, main advantages and disadvantages for the different types of AED available.

Basically these devices consist of a battery, a capacitor, electrodes and an electrical circuit designed to analyze the rhythm and send an electric shock if is needed.


**• Electrical circuit**. AEDs are highly sophisticated, microprocessor-based devices that ana‐ lyze multiple features of the surface ECG signal including frequency, amplitude, slope and wave morphology. It contains various filters for QRS signals, radio transmission and other interferences, as well as for loose electrodes and poor contact. Some devices are pro‐ grammed to detect patient movement.

phasic) is safe and has equivalent or higher efficacy for termination of VF than monophasic waveform shocks of equivalent or higher energy [35-41]. However optimal energy for this first shock has not been determined so that for biphasic defibrillators, one should use the manufacturer's recommended energy dose (120 to 200 J). If the manufacturer's recommend‐

Principles of External Defibrillators http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52512 9

Commercially available biphasic AEDs provide either fixed or escalating energy levels. Hu‐ man studies have not demonstrated evidence of harm from any biphasic waveform defibril‐ lation energy up to 360 J [40, 41]. Based on available evidence, the second and subsequent

In the absence of biphasic defibrillators, monophasic ones are acceptable. A recommenda‐ tion for higher initial energy when using a monophasic waveform was weighed by expert consensus taking in consideration the potential negative effects of a high-energy first shock versus the negative effects of prolonged VF [42]. The consensus recommends that rescuers using monophasic AED should give an initial shock of 360 J. This single dose for monopha‐ sic shocks is designed to simplify instructions to rescuers but is not a mandate to recall monophasic AEDs for reprogramming. If the monophasic AED being used is programmed

It refers to the dissipation of energy in the lungs, thoracic cage and the other anatomic struc‐ tures of the chest. In an animal study, only 4% of the energy supplied reached the heart [43]. The average adult human TTI is ≈70-80 Ω and is determined by multiple factors including energy level, electrode size, interelectrode distance, interface skin-electrode, electrode pres‐

When TTI is too high, a low-energy shock will not generate sufficient current to achieve de‐ fibrillation [44, 45]. To reduce TTI, the defibrillator operator should use conductive materi‐ als. This is accomplished with the use of gel pads or electrode paste [46] with paddles or

There are several electrode characteristics that can affect defibrillation outcome. These in‐ clude electrode position, pad size and hand-held versus patch electrodes. About electrode position, data demonstrates that 4 pad positions (antero-lateral, antero-posterior, anteriorleft infrascapular and anterior-right-infrascapular) are equally effective [47].For ease of placement and education, antero-lateral is a reasonable default electrode placement. Elec‐ trode pad size is an important determinant of transthoracic current flow during external shock. Larger paddles create a lower resistance and allow more current to reach the heart [48, 49] and may cause less myocardial necrosis [50]. Thus, larger paddles are more desira‐ ble. Most manufacturers offer adult paddles, which are between 8 to 13 cm in diameter, and

sure, phase of ventilation, myocardial tissue and blood conductive properties [44].

shocks should be at an energy level equivalent or higher than the first one if possible.

ed dose is not known, defibrillation at maximal dose may be considered.

to deliver a different first or subsequent dose, that dose is acceptable.

*3.2.2. Transthoracic impedance*

through the use of self-adhesive pads.

*3.2.3. Others factors affecting defibrillation success*

pediatric paddles, which are smaller [51].

**• Controls.** The typical controls on an AED include a power button, a display screen on which trained rescuers can check de heart rhythm and a discharge button. Defibrillators that can be operated manually have also an energy select control and a charge button. Certain defibrillators have special controls for internal paddles or disposable electrodes.

**Figure 3.** Appearance of a common AED with pads attached

#### **3.2. Defibrillation success**

Defibrillation is considered successful when it terminates VF for at least 5 seconds following the shock [32]. DFT is the lowest effective energy needed to restore the cardiac rhythm. De‐ fibrillation basically depends on successful energy selection and TTI.

#### *3.2.1. Energy levels*

Modern AEDs are energy-based devices that can deliver the electrical shock in a monopha‐ sic or biphasic waveform. Although monophasic AEDs are not currently manufactured any‐ more they are still relatively easy to find in clinical practice. Energy levels vary by the type of device and the optimal energy level for defibrillation has not been determined yet.

Studies comparing biphasic shocks to a more traditional approach with 3 monophasic esca‐ lating shocks [33,34] have shown that defibrillation with relatively low energy (≤ 200 J bi‐ phasic) is safe and has equivalent or higher efficacy for termination of VF than monophasic waveform shocks of equivalent or higher energy [35-41]. However optimal energy for this first shock has not been determined so that for biphasic defibrillators, one should use the manufacturer's recommended energy dose (120 to 200 J). If the manufacturer's recommend‐ ed dose is not known, defibrillation at maximal dose may be considered.

Commercially available biphasic AEDs provide either fixed or escalating energy levels. Hu‐ man studies have not demonstrated evidence of harm from any biphasic waveform defibril‐ lation energy up to 360 J [40, 41]. Based on available evidence, the second and subsequent shocks should be at an energy level equivalent or higher than the first one if possible.

In the absence of biphasic defibrillators, monophasic ones are acceptable. A recommenda‐ tion for higher initial energy when using a monophasic waveform was weighed by expert consensus taking in consideration the potential negative effects of a high-energy first shock versus the negative effects of prolonged VF [42]. The consensus recommends that rescuers using monophasic AED should give an initial shock of 360 J. This single dose for monopha‐ sic shocks is designed to simplify instructions to rescuers but is not a mandate to recall monophasic AEDs for reprogramming. If the monophasic AED being used is programmed to deliver a different first or subsequent dose, that dose is acceptable.

### *3.2.2. Transthoracic impedance*

**• Electrical circuit**. AEDs are highly sophisticated, microprocessor-based devices that ana‐ lyze multiple features of the surface ECG signal including frequency, amplitude, slope and wave morphology. It contains various filters for QRS signals, radio transmission and other interferences, as well as for loose electrodes and poor contact. Some devices are pro‐

**• Controls.** The typical controls on an AED include a power button, a display screen on which trained rescuers can check de heart rhythm and a discharge button. Defibrillators that can be operated manually have also an energy select control and a charge button. Certain defibrillators have special controls for internal paddles or disposable electrodes.

Defibrillation is considered successful when it terminates VF for at least 5 seconds following the shock [32]. DFT is the lowest effective energy needed to restore the cardiac rhythm. De‐

Modern AEDs are energy-based devices that can deliver the electrical shock in a monopha‐ sic or biphasic waveform. Although monophasic AEDs are not currently manufactured any‐ more they are still relatively easy to find in clinical practice. Energy levels vary by the type

Studies comparing biphasic shocks to a more traditional approach with 3 monophasic esca‐ lating shocks [33,34] have shown that defibrillation with relatively low energy (≤ 200 J bi‐

of device and the optimal energy level for defibrillation has not been determined yet.

fibrillation basically depends on successful energy selection and TTI.

grammed to detect patient movement.

8 Cardiac Defibrillation

**Figure 3.** Appearance of a common AED with pads attached

**3.2. Defibrillation success**

*3.2.1. Energy levels*

It refers to the dissipation of energy in the lungs, thoracic cage and the other anatomic struc‐ tures of the chest. In an animal study, only 4% of the energy supplied reached the heart [43]. The average adult human TTI is ≈70-80 Ω and is determined by multiple factors including energy level, electrode size, interelectrode distance, interface skin-electrode, electrode pres‐ sure, phase of ventilation, myocardial tissue and blood conductive properties [44].

When TTI is too high, a low-energy shock will not generate sufficient current to achieve de‐ fibrillation [44, 45]. To reduce TTI, the defibrillator operator should use conductive materi‐ als. This is accomplished with the use of gel pads or electrode paste [46] with paddles or through the use of self-adhesive pads.

#### *3.2.3. Others factors affecting defibrillation success*

There are several electrode characteristics that can affect defibrillation outcome. These in‐ clude electrode position, pad size and hand-held versus patch electrodes. About electrode position, data demonstrates that 4 pad positions (antero-lateral, antero-posterior, anteriorleft infrascapular and anterior-right-infrascapular) are equally effective [47].For ease of placement and education, antero-lateral is a reasonable default electrode placement. Elec‐ trode pad size is an important determinant of transthoracic current flow during external shock. Larger paddles create a lower resistance and allow more current to reach the heart [48, 49] and may cause less myocardial necrosis [50]. Thus, larger paddles are more desira‐ ble. Most manufacturers offer adult paddles, which are between 8 to 13 cm in diameter, and pediatric paddles, which are smaller [51].

Hand-held paddle electrodes may be more effective than self-adhesive patch electrodes be‐ cause if applied with pressure they may improve electrode-to-skin contact and reduce TTI [52]. Nevertheless they are never used for AEDs because of the need for training.

**STEP 1: power ON. This initiates text or voice prompts which guide the operator through subsequent** 

**HOW TO USE AN AUTOMATED EXTERNAL DEFIBRILLATION** 

Principles of External Defibrillators http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52512 11

**STEP 2: Attach electrode pads. Self-adhesive electrodes must be placed to the skin of the victim's in the position is often illustrated on pad or AED. If there isn't good contacts between electrode pads and skin, the device will emite** 

**when electrodes are attached. IF VF is present, it will announce a message, visual or auditory alarm.** 

**most devices, the capacitors charge automatically if a treatable rhythm is detected.** 

**STEP 3: Analyze the rhythm. The operator must ensure that no one is touching the victims and avoid all movement affecting the patient. In some devices the operator presses an ANALYZE button while in others begin automatically** 

**STEP 4: clear the victim and press the SHOCK button. Always a loudly "clear the patient" message will appear. In** 

The location of a public access AED should be displayed to large groups of people, regard‐ less of age or activity. In order to make them highly visible, public access AEDs are often brightly colored, and are mounted in protective cases near the entrance of a building. In Sep‐ tember 2008, the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation issued a 'universal AED sign' to be adopted throughout the world to indicate the presence of an AED (figure 5).

**steps.**

**an alert message to chek them.** 

**Figure 4.** How to use an AED. Basic steps.

**Figure 5.** Universal AED sign

#### **3.3. Automated rhythm analysis**

One of the most important features of an ideal AED is the accuracy of rhythm diagnosis. As demonstrated in both in vitro and clinical studies, accuracy in terms of sensitivity and spe‐ cificity is high, surpassing 90% [53, 54]. The rare errors noted in trials occurred when the de‐ vice failed to recognize certain varieties of VF or when operators failed to follow recommended instructions [54, 55]. In order to diagnose VF the device must identify an ECG waveform with amplitude of at least 0.8mV faster than a preprogrammed rate while for VT the criteria are: frequency of at least 120 beats/minute, QRS duration of more than 160 ms and absence of P wave. ECG analysis is done in consecutive segments of 2.7 seconds and the diagnosis must coincide in 2 out of 3 segments in order to give a decision.

Although AEDs are not designed to deliver synchronized shocks (such as cardioversion for VT with pulse), these devices will recommend a nonsynchronized shock for monomorphic or polymorphic VT if the rate and R-wave morphology exceed preset values. This is why AEDs should be placed in the analysis mode only when full cardiac arrest has been con‐ firmed (patient unconscious) and all movement has ceased.

There is evidence that VF waveform analysis can predict defibrillation success rate. Several animal and model studies suggest that this analysis may help to identify the optimal timing or waveform for each patient [56, 57]. However this feature is not yet sufficiently accurate to be implemented in clinical practice.

#### **3.4. Device maintenance and quality assurance**

Appropriate maintenance of the AED is vital for proper operation. AED manufacturers pro‐ vide specific recommendations for maintenance and readiness, which should be followed carefully. Failure to properly maintain the defibrillator or power supply is responsible for the majority of reported malfunctions. Newer AED models require almost no maintenance. These devices conduct a self-check of operation and indicate "readiness to use".

#### **3.5. How to use an AED**

#### *3.5.1. Basic steps*

AEDs are designed to be used by laypersons who ideally should have received AED train‐ ing at some point in the past. Generally these devices are very intuitive and user-friendly so that even untrained bystanders can perfectly employ them to deliver an electric shock to a VF victim [58]. The basic steps common to all trademarks that need to be taken to deliver a shock are indicated in figure 4. In contrast, the more sophisticated manual and semi-auto‐ matic defibrillators used by health professionals can perform other functions but require a skilled operator able to interpret electrocardiograms.

**STEP 2: Attach electrode pads. Self-adhesive electrodes must be placed to the skin of the victim's in the position is often illustrated on pad or AED. If there isn't good contacts between electrode pads and skin, the device will emite an alert message to chek them.** 

**STEP 3: Analyze the rhythm. The operator must ensure that no one is touching the victims and avoid all movement affecting the patient. In some devices the operator presses an ANALYZE button while in others begin automatically when electrodes are attached. IF VF is present, it will announce a message, visual or auditory alarm.** 

**STEP 4: clear the victim and press the SHOCK button. Always a loudly "clear the patient" message will appear. In most devices, the capacitors charge automatically if a treatable rhythm is detected.** 

**Figure 4.** How to use an AED. Basic steps.

**steps.**

Hand-held paddle electrodes may be more effective than self-adhesive patch electrodes be‐ cause if applied with pressure they may improve electrode-to-skin contact and reduce TTI

One of the most important features of an ideal AED is the accuracy of rhythm diagnosis. As demonstrated in both in vitro and clinical studies, accuracy in terms of sensitivity and spe‐ cificity is high, surpassing 90% [53, 54]. The rare errors noted in trials occurred when the de‐ vice failed to recognize certain varieties of VF or when operators failed to follow recommended instructions [54, 55]. In order to diagnose VF the device must identify an ECG waveform with amplitude of at least 0.8mV faster than a preprogrammed rate while for VT the criteria are: frequency of at least 120 beats/minute, QRS duration of more than 160 ms and absence of P wave. ECG analysis is done in consecutive segments of 2.7 seconds and the

Although AEDs are not designed to deliver synchronized shocks (such as cardioversion for VT with pulse), these devices will recommend a nonsynchronized shock for monomorphic or polymorphic VT if the rate and R-wave morphology exceed preset values. This is why AEDs should be placed in the analysis mode only when full cardiac arrest has been con‐

There is evidence that VF waveform analysis can predict defibrillation success rate. Several animal and model studies suggest that this analysis may help to identify the optimal timing or waveform for each patient [56, 57]. However this feature is not yet sufficiently accurate to

Appropriate maintenance of the AED is vital for proper operation. AED manufacturers pro‐ vide specific recommendations for maintenance and readiness, which should be followed carefully. Failure to properly maintain the defibrillator or power supply is responsible for the majority of reported malfunctions. Newer AED models require almost no maintenance.

AEDs are designed to be used by laypersons who ideally should have received AED train‐ ing at some point in the past. Generally these devices are very intuitive and user-friendly so that even untrained bystanders can perfectly employ them to deliver an electric shock to a VF victim [58]. The basic steps common to all trademarks that need to be taken to deliver a shock are indicated in figure 4. In contrast, the more sophisticated manual and semi-auto‐ matic defibrillators used by health professionals can perform other functions but require a

These devices conduct a self-check of operation and indicate "readiness to use".

[52]. Nevertheless they are never used for AEDs because of the need for training.

diagnosis must coincide in 2 out of 3 segments in order to give a decision.

firmed (patient unconscious) and all movement has ceased.

**3.3. Automated rhythm analysis**

10 Cardiac Defibrillation

be implemented in clinical practice.

**3.5. How to use an AED**

*3.5.1. Basic steps*

**3.4. Device maintenance and quality assurance**

skilled operator able to interpret electrocardiograms.

The location of a public access AED should be displayed to large groups of people, regard‐ less of age or activity. In order to make them highly visible, public access AEDs are often brightly colored, and are mounted in protective cases near the entrance of a building. In Sep‐ tember 2008, the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation issued a 'universal AED sign' to be adopted throughout the world to indicate the presence of an AED (figure 5).

**Figure 5.** Universal AED sign

#### *3.5.2. Integration of AED use with basic life support measure*

When arriving at the scene of a suspected cardiac arrest, rescuers must rapidly integrate car‐ diopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) with the use of the available AED. In general 3 actions must occur simultaneously: (1) activation of the Emergency System, (2) CPR and (3) opera‐ tion of the AED (figure 6).

are equipped with pediatric attenuator systems to reduce the delivered energy to a dose suitable for children [63]. It seems that most AEDs can accurately detect VF in children with

**Unresponsive Person?** 

**Not Breathing normally (Open Airway)** 

**Begin CPR 30:2**  Until AED is attached and turned-on

> **AED Assesses Rhythm**

Continue until Emergency Care arrive

European and AHA guidelines recommend the using conventional, adults AEDs in chil‐ dren > 8 years old (approximately 25 kg body weight) with the same energy recommen‐ dation as in adult population. In children < 8 years it is reasonable to use a pediatric dose-attenuator system but if none is available the rescuer should use a standard AED. Infants should be treated with manual or dose-attenuating defibrillators although there are isolated cases of adult AED use in infants with good outcomes and without apparent

The design of AEDs is centered on being easy to use even for the untrained lay rescuers. A variety of studies have demonstrated that it is feasible especially when the rescuers receive instructions via telephone from emergency dispatchers [65, 66]. However, in order to im‐ prove outcomes in out-of-hospital cardiac arrests, the 'ideal' rescuer should have minimal

Call Emergency

Principles of External Defibrillators http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52512 13

**NO SHOCK ADVISED** 

Immediately resume CPR for 2 min.

a high degree of sensitivity and specificity, but more studies are needed.

**SHOCK ADVISED** 

**1 SHOCK**  Immediately resume CPR for 2 min

**Figure 6.** AED and CPR algorithm.

myocardial damage [64].

**3.6. AED for the masses**

*3.6.1. AED use training*

Latest European Resuscitation Council Guidelines [59] emphasize a number of changes compared to the 2005 version:


Modified prototype AEDs record information about frequency and depth of chest compres‐ sions during CPR. These devices are now commercially available and can prompt rescuers to improve CPR performance.

#### *3.5.3. AED use in pediatric and adolescent population*

Cardiac arrest is less common in children than adults. In pediatric population cardiac arrest causes are more diverse with only 5% to 15% of all cases being attributed to VF [60]. The lowest-energy dose for effective defibrillation and upper limit for safe defibrillation in in‐ fants and children are not known, but doses > 4 J/kg have effectively defibrillated children [61] and pediatric animal models [62]. Biphasic shocks appear to be at least as effective as monophasic shocks and less harmful, initial doses of 2 J/kg may be considered. Some AEDs are equipped with pediatric attenuator systems to reduce the delivered energy to a dose suitable for children [63]. It seems that most AEDs can accurately detect VF in children with a high degree of sensitivity and specificity, but more studies are needed.

**Figure 6.** AED and CPR algorithm.

*3.5.2. Integration of AED use with basic life support measure*

should be done in the classical 30:2 sequence.

minutes CPR and subsequent rhythm reanalysis.

*3.5.3. AED use in pediatric and adolescent population*

stop to reanalyze the cardiac rhythm

spark and should not be used.

to improve CPR performance.

tion of the AED (figure 6).

12 Cardiac Defibrillation

compared to the 2005 version:

When arriving at the scene of a suspected cardiac arrest, rescuers must rapidly integrate car‐ diopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) with the use of the available AED. In general 3 actions must occur simultaneously: (1) activation of the Emergency System, (2) CPR and (3) opera‐

Latest European Resuscitation Council Guidelines [59] emphasize a number of changes

**•** Chest compression should be initiated as soon as possible and should be continued while the adhesive pads of the AED are being attached and during defibrillator charging. If only one rescuer is present, he should initially attach the pads and start afterwards chest com‐ pressions. With a sole rescuer present, it is recommended to do only chest compressions with no ventilation. If 2 or more rescuers are present chest compression and ventilation

**•** Minimize interruptions in CPR. The importance of early, uninterrupted chest compres‐ sion is emphasized in all guidelines. Interrupt CPR only when it is necessary to analyze the rhythm and deliver a shock. The delivery of defibrillation should be achievable with an interruption in chest compressions of no more than 5 seconds. After an electrical shock it is recommended to start CPR immediately for the next 2 minutes and only after that

**•** In the previous version of guidelines, CPR was recommended for 2-3 minutes before ana‐

**•** The previous recommendation for three-stacked shocks is also withdrawn for the out-ofhospital VF. This strategy should be employed only with witnessed VF in the hospital set‐ ting such as in the cath-lab or for patients with recent heart surgery. All cardiac arrests in out-of-hospital setting should be treated with an initial shock if found in VF followed by 2

**•** Electrode pastes and gels can spread between the two paddles, creating the potential for a

Modified prototype AEDs record information about frequency and depth of chest compres‐ sions during CPR. These devices are now commercially available and can prompt rescuers

Cardiac arrest is less common in children than adults. In pediatric population cardiac arrest causes are more diverse with only 5% to 15% of all cases being attributed to VF [60]. The lowest-energy dose for effective defibrillation and upper limit for safe defibrillation in in‐ fants and children are not known, but doses > 4 J/kg have effectively defibrillated children [61] and pediatric animal models [62]. Biphasic shocks appear to be at least as effective as monophasic shocks and less harmful, initial doses of 2 J/kg may be considered. Some AEDs

lyzing a rhythm. Now this recommendation was withdrawn for lack of benefit.

European and AHA guidelines recommend the using conventional, adults AEDs in chil‐ dren > 8 years old (approximately 25 kg body weight) with the same energy recommen‐ dation as in adult population. In children < 8 years it is reasonable to use a pediatric dose-attenuator system but if none is available the rescuer should use a standard AED. Infants should be treated with manual or dose-attenuating defibrillators although there are isolated cases of adult AED use in infants with good outcomes and without apparent myocardial damage [64].

#### **3.6. AED for the masses**

#### *3.6.1. AED use training*

The design of AEDs is centered on being easy to use even for the untrained lay rescuers. A variety of studies have demonstrated that it is feasible especially when the rescuers receive instructions via telephone from emergency dispatchers [65, 66]. However, in order to im‐ prove outcomes in out-of-hospital cardiac arrests, the 'ideal' rescuer should have minimal training on AED use and basic CPR. Multiple approaches for AED training and maintenance of learned skills have been employed (face-to-face, video or web-based training) with vari‐ ous degrees of success [67, 68].

plained by a lower than expected cardiac arrest rate with only 50% of the events being witnessed and by a low usage of AED (only in 32 victims out of 117). In deciding whether AEDs are appropriate for home use, cost and the increasing role of implantable cardi‐

Principles of External Defibrillators http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52512 15

**• AED use in hospitals** was studied because of data suggesting thatdelayed defibrillation is common during in-hospital arrest even though medical personnel are often trained in rhythm interpretation and manual defibrillation. A delay of more than 2 minutes between collapse and defibrillation was associated with a lower probability of survival [81]. While small studies with AED allocated to specific clinical and non-clinical areas of the hospital suggested improved survival [82, 83], large registry data showed discrepant results [84]. Patients with in-hospital cardiac arrest by VF/pulseless VT reanimated using an AED had the same survival rate as those who were not treated with these devices. The patients with cardiac arrest without a shockable rhythm (asystole or pulseless electrical activity) had significantly worse survival when an AED was used, probably because of delays/ interruptions in CPR needed for AED rhythm analysis. The optimal strategy of AED dis‐ tribution and its ultimate benefit may depend upon a particular hospital's staffing, geog‐

**•** Several clinical, randomized, prospective studies confirmed a robust survival benefit when victims of cardiac arrest in public places where reanimated by lay rescuers who did CPR and used an AED versus CPR only. The survival rate to discharge was 23.4%when an AED was used versus 14% with CPR only in PAD trial [85] and 38% versus 9% in the largest cohort of patients that included 13.000 individuals [86]. Cost efficiency analysis showed a cost of \$35,000 to \$57,000 per quality adjusted life-year [87, 88], which is compa‐ rable to other widely-accepted medical interventions such as bone marrow transplant (\$52,000 per quality adjusted life-year) and heart transplant (\$59,000 per quality adjusted life-year). So convincing was the evidence of AED benefit that USA authorities establish‐ ed rules to implement AED programs in schools and many other federal locations [89].

The wearable cardioverter-defibrillator (WCD) (LifeVest®, ZOLL) is an external device ca‐ pable of automatic detection and defibrillation of VT and VF. Its main indication is in situa‐ tions where implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) may be initially deferred or may become unnecessary if the arrhythmic substrate is temporary or if the risk of ICD implanta‐ tion is too high. While the WCD can be worn for years, typically the device is used for sever‐ al months as temporary protection against cardiac arrest. The main indications were a WCD

**•** Recent myocardial infarction or coronary revascularization with severely reduced left

overter-defibrillators in high risk individuals must be taken into consideration.

**• Survival benefit and cost efficiency in public access defibrillation**

raphy, and patient profile.

**3.7. Wearable cardioverter-defibrillator**

*3.7.1. Definition and indications*

may be used are as follows:

ventricular ejection fraction

#### *3.6.2. Public access defibrillation*

This concept includes all those strategies or programs to implement early defibrillation in the community. It has emerged from the recognition that AEDs and training lay people to use it are promising methods to achieve rapid defibrillation and survival in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.

Resuscitation guidelines recommend early defibrillation (within 5 minutes of collapse) in or‐ der to increase survival from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. The only way to achieve this goal is by generalizing of AEDs in the community. It is now accepted than an AED should be available for immediate use by trained laypersons wherever large numbers of people congregate [69, 70] such as airports, convention centers, sports stadiums and arenas, large industrial buildings, high-rise offices, large health fitness facilities. Furthermore AED should be provided also to the traditional emergency medical services (EMS), to non-medical emer‐ gency responders (police officers and firefighters), as well as placed in hospitals and in the private homes of high-risk individuals.


plained by a lower than expected cardiac arrest rate with only 50% of the events being witnessed and by a low usage of AED (only in 32 victims out of 117). In deciding whether AEDs are appropriate for home use, cost and the increasing role of implantable cardi‐ overter-defibrillators in high risk individuals must be taken into consideration.


#### **3.7. Wearable cardioverter-defibrillator**

#### *3.7.1. Definition and indications*

training on AED use and basic CPR. Multiple approaches for AED training and maintenance of learned skills have been employed (face-to-face, video or web-based training) with vari‐

This concept includes all those strategies or programs to implement early defibrillation in the community. It has emerged from the recognition that AEDs and training lay people to use it are promising methods to achieve rapid defibrillation and survival in out-of-hospital

Resuscitation guidelines recommend early defibrillation (within 5 minutes of collapse) in or‐ der to increase survival from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. The only way to achieve this goal is by generalizing of AEDs in the community. It is now accepted than an AED should be available for immediate use by trained laypersons wherever large numbers of people congregate [69, 70] such as airports, convention centers, sports stadiums and arenas, large industrial buildings, high-rise offices, large health fitness facilities. Furthermore AED should be provided also to the traditional emergency medical services (EMS), to non-medical emer‐ gency responders (police officers and firefighters), as well as placed in hospitals and in the

**• AED use by EMS.** In the USA initial large scale implementation of AED was with EMS and took place in the 1980s and 1990s. This strategy allowed EMS first responders, many of them who were emergency medical technicians without training in rhythm interpreta‐ tion, to provide early defibrillation to cardiac arrest victims.Meta-analyses found that EMS AED programs resulted in a significant, overall 9 percent increase in survival [71, 72] although not all of the individual reports showed survival advantage [73].One plausible explanation for this discrepancy is that the resuscitation algorithms originally used for AED rhythm analysis required considerable interruptions in CPR [74], and that the in‐ crease in "hands-off" time reduced the chances of successful resuscitation [75]. More re‐ cent AED algorithms and guideline recommendations for minimally interrupted cardiac resuscitation have demonstrated improved outcomes for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest

**• AED use by police officers and firefighters** was implemented in various USA states. Po‐ licemen were provided with AED and trained how to use them. Several studies demon‐ strated that this approach was able to significantly increase survival to hospital discharge and without neurological deficits [78, 79]. However this advantage was evident only in those states where police officers were able to get to the victim before EMS emphasizing

**• AED use in private homes** is a strategy that seems useful sincethree-quarters of sudden cardiac arrests occur in the victim's home. This approach was investigated by a random‐ ized trial that included 7001 patients with previous anterior wall myocardial infarction who were not candidates for an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator [80]. There was no survival benefit for AED and CPR group versus CPR only. The negative result may be ex‐

one more time the importance of early defibrillation.

ous degrees of success [67, 68].

*3.6.2. Public access defibrillation*

private homes of high-risk individuals.

cardiac arrest.

14 Cardiac Defibrillation

victims [76, 77].

The wearable cardioverter-defibrillator (WCD) (LifeVest®, ZOLL) is an external device ca‐ pable of automatic detection and defibrillation of VT and VF. Its main indication is in situa‐ tions where implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) may be initially deferred or may become unnecessary if the arrhythmic substrate is temporary or if the risk of ICD implanta‐ tion is too high. While the WCD can be worn for years, typically the device is used for sever‐ al months as temporary protection against cardiac arrest. The main indications were a WCD may be used are as follows:

**•** Recent myocardial infarction or coronary revascularization with severely reduced left ventricular ejection fraction

**•** Newly diagnosed nonischemic cardiomyopathy with severely reduced left ventricular ejection fraction

The tachycardia detection rate is programmable for VF between 120 and 250 beats/minute and the VF shock delay can be programmed from 25 to 55 seconds. The VT detection rate is programmable between 120 bpm to the VF setting with a VT shock delay of 60 to 180 sec‐ onds. Additional shock delays (up to 30 seconds) may optionally be allowed during sleep. VT signals can allow synchronized shock delivery on the R wave, but if the R wave cannot be identified, unsynchronized shocks will be delivered. The shock energy is biphasic and

Principles of External Defibrillators http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52512 17

can be programmed from 75 to 150 joules, with up to five shocks delivered per event.

cardia or asystole. (cannot + either/or vs. can + neither/nor)

*3.7.3. Efficacy of WCD and other aspects*

tole with an associated mortality of 74%

while using the WCD.

The WCD has also the capability to store data regarding arrhythmias or asystole, patient's compliance with the device, noise and interference. All this information is stored and later transmitted via modem to the manufacturer network where it is available for clinician re‐ view. Of note is that WCD cannot deliver either antitachycardia pacing or pacing for brady‐

In the USA postmarket study of 3569 patients, there were 80 sustained VT/VF events that occurred and the success of the first shock in terminating VT/VF in the unconscious patients was 100% with a survival rate of 86%. Death after a successful first shock occurred because recurrent VT/VF, bystander preventing therapy in one case, electrocardiogram signal dis‐ ruption from a fall, and to inhibition of detection due to the pacing stimulus artifact from a unipolar pacemaker (one case). This study also reported that long-term survival was similar in WCD patients compared to a cohort of ICD patients [90]. Nevertheless, WCD does not offer pacemaker functions and in this study 23 out of 3569 patients (0.6%) experienced asys‐

Although the WCD is a very efficient device, cardiac arrest still can develop in some circum‐ stances: patient does not wear the device, WCD is improperly positioned, or bystander in‐ terference. These results highlight the importance of patient education and compliance

Some of the shocks that a WCD delivers may be inappropriate due to electronic noise, malfunc‐ tion of the device or supraventricular tachycardia. The rate of inappropriate shocks by a WCD is comparable to the ICD rate [90, 91]. However WCD inappropriate shocks can be potentially reduced due to the ability to abort shock by pressing response buttons if the patient is awake. Also, when ECG noise occurs, the device emits an alarm prompting the patient to try to elimi‐

In spite of being an extremely efficient device, WCD has some important limitations that need to be acknowledged. It does not provide pacemaker functions and it requires patient interac‐ tion and compliance. The device must be removed for bathing and during this time periods a caregiver should be present. In one German study [91], mean daily use of WCD was 21.3 hours/ day. The primary complaints associated with the WCD were the weight of the device, prob‐

nate the electronic noise by changing body position or tightening of the electrode belt.

lems sleeping, particularly when noise alarms occurred and skin rash or itching.


#### *3.7.2. How a WCD works*

This device is composed of four non adhesive monitoring electrodes, three defibrillation electrodes incorporated into a chest strap assembly and positioned for apex-posterior defib‐ rillation and a defibrillation unit carried on a waist belt. The monitoring electrodes must be placed circumferentially around the chest and held in place with an elastic belt. They pro‐ vide 2 surface ECG leads. It is essential that the vest be properly fitted in order to have ade‐ quate skin contact and avoid noise and frequent alarms. See figure 7.

**Figure 7.** LifeVest®, ZOLL: main components and how it should be worn.

Arrhythmia detection by the WCD is programmed using rate criteria. When an arrhythmia is detected, the WCD emits audible and vibration alarms. The patients are trained to hold response buttons during these alarms in order to avoid a shock while awake. If an electric shock will be delivered a voice cautions the patient and bystanders to the impending shock. A patient's response serves as a test of consciousness; if no response occurs, the device charges, extrudes gel from the defibrillation electrodes, and delivers up to five biphasic shocks at preprogrammed energy levels with a maximum output of 150 joules.

The tachycardia detection rate is programmable for VF between 120 and 250 beats/minute and the VF shock delay can be programmed from 25 to 55 seconds. The VT detection rate is programmable between 120 bpm to the VF setting with a VT shock delay of 60 to 180 sec‐ onds. Additional shock delays (up to 30 seconds) may optionally be allowed during sleep. VT signals can allow synchronized shock delivery on the R wave, but if the R wave cannot be identified, unsynchronized shocks will be delivered. The shock energy is biphasic and can be programmed from 75 to 150 joules, with up to five shocks delivered per event.

The WCD has also the capability to store data regarding arrhythmias or asystole, patient's compliance with the device, noise and interference. All this information is stored and later transmitted via modem to the manufacturer network where it is available for clinician re‐ view. Of note is that WCD cannot deliver either antitachycardia pacing or pacing for brady‐ cardia or asystole. (cannot + either/or vs. can + neither/nor)

#### *3.7.3. Efficacy of WCD and other aspects*

**•** Newly diagnosed nonischemic cardiomyopathy with severely reduced left ventricular

**•** Severe cardiomyopathy as a bridge to heart transplantation or in patients with ventricular

**•** Need for interruption of ICD therapy or the temporary inability to implant an ICD (e.g.

**•** Ambulatory event monitoring, often performed for several weeks in an effort to deter‐

This device is composed of four non adhesive monitoring electrodes, three defibrillation electrodes incorporated into a chest strap assembly and positioned for apex-posterior defib‐ rillation and a defibrillation unit carried on a waist belt. The monitoring electrodes must be placed circumferentially around the chest and held in place with an elastic belt. They pro‐ vide 2 surface ECG leads. It is essential that the vest be properly fitted in order to have ade‐

Arrhythmia detection by the WCD is programmed using rate criteria. When an arrhythmia is detected, the WCD emits audible and vibration alarms. The patients are trained to hold response buttons during these alarms in order to avoid a shock while awake. If an electric shock will be delivered a voice cautions the patient and bystanders to the impending shock. A patient's response serves as a test of consciousness; if no response occurs, the device charges, extrudes gel from the defibrillation electrodes, and delivers up to five biphasic

shocks at preprogrammed energy levels with a maximum output of 150 joules.

**•** Syncope and a high risk of ventricular tachyarrhythmias

quate skin contact and avoid noise and frequent alarms. See figure 7.

**Figure 7.** LifeVest®, ZOLL: main components and how it should be worn.

mine an arrhythmic etiology for syncope

ejection fraction

assist devices

*3.7.2. How a WCD works*

infection)

16 Cardiac Defibrillation

In the USA postmarket study of 3569 patients, there were 80 sustained VT/VF events that occurred and the success of the first shock in terminating VT/VF in the unconscious patients was 100% with a survival rate of 86%. Death after a successful first shock occurred because recurrent VT/VF, bystander preventing therapy in one case, electrocardiogram signal dis‐ ruption from a fall, and to inhibition of detection due to the pacing stimulus artifact from a unipolar pacemaker (one case). This study also reported that long-term survival was similar in WCD patients compared to a cohort of ICD patients [90]. Nevertheless, WCD does not offer pacemaker functions and in this study 23 out of 3569 patients (0.6%) experienced asys‐ tole with an associated mortality of 74%

Although the WCD is a very efficient device, cardiac arrest still can develop in some circum‐ stances: patient does not wear the device, WCD is improperly positioned, or bystander in‐ terference. These results highlight the importance of patient education and compliance while using the WCD.

Some of the shocks that a WCD delivers may be inappropriate due to electronic noise, malfunc‐ tion of the device or supraventricular tachycardia. The rate of inappropriate shocks by a WCD is comparable to the ICD rate [90, 91]. However WCD inappropriate shocks can be potentially reduced due to the ability to abort shock by pressing response buttons if the patient is awake. Also, when ECG noise occurs, the device emits an alarm prompting the patient to try to elimi‐ nate the electronic noise by changing body position or tightening of the electrode belt.

In spite of being an extremely efficient device, WCD has some important limitations that need to be acknowledged. It does not provide pacemaker functions and it requires patient interac‐ tion and compliance. The device must be removed for bathing and during this time periods a caregiver should be present. In one German study [91], mean daily use of WCD was 21.3 hours/ day. The primary complaints associated with the WCD were the weight of the device, prob‐ lems sleeping, particularly when noise alarms occurred and skin rash or itching.

#### **3.8. Legal issues concerning AED**

In the past use of AEDs was limited partly because of the concern for subsidiary responsibility of those who are not health personnel. The fact that defibrillation is a medical act represents a legal obstacle in many countries. In 2000 the U.S. Congress approved the Act of survival in car‐ diac arrest, which extended the protection of the Good Samaritan to the users of an AED. Lay rescuers are protected from lawsuits if they act voluntarily to try to help a person who is hav‐ ing a medical emergency. The rescuer should act with good faith and make an effort help an‐ other person The rescuer's efforts must be reasonable and with common sense. This has been an important step in the diffusion and generalization of these devices.

**Author details**

**References**

Hugo Delgado, Jorge Toquero\*

1995;25:780-784.

2000;44:7-17.

\*Address all correspondence to: jorgetoquero@secardiologia.es

ment. AHA Emergency Cardiac Care Newsletter.1986;8:1-3.

medical technicians. N Engl J Med.1980;302:1379-1383.

Hospital Puerta de Hierro Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain

, Cristina Mitroi, Victor Castro and Ignacio Fernández Lozano

Principles of External Defibrillators http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52512 19

[1] White RD. EMT-defibrillation:time for controlled implementation of effective treat‐

[2] Swor RA, Jackson RE, Cynar M, sadler E, Basse E, Boji B, River-Rivera EJ, Maher A, Grubb W, Jacobson R, Dalbec DL. Bystander CPR ventricular fibrillation, and surviv‐ al in witnessed, unmonitored out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Ann Emerg. Med.

[3] Eisenberg MS, Horwood BT, Cummins RO, Reynolds-Haertle R, Hearne TR. Cardiac arrest and resuscitation: a tale of 29 cities. Ann Emerg Med.1990;19:179-186.

[4] Larsen MP, Eisenberg MS, Cummins RO, Hallstrom AP. Predicting survival from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: a graphic model. ANnnEmerg Med.1993;22:1652-1658. [5] Weaver WD, Copass MK, Bufi D, Ray R, Hallstrom AP, Cobb LA. Improved neuro‐ logic recovery and survival after early defibrillation. Circulation.1984;69:943-948. [6] Eisenberg MS, Copass MK, hallstrom AP, blake B, Bergner L, Short FA, Cobb LA. Treatment of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest with rapid defibrillation by emergency

[7] Cummins RO. From concept to standard-of-care? Review of the clinical experience with automated external defibrillations. Ann Emerg Med. 1989;18:1269-1275.

[8] Wik L, Hansen TB, Fylling F, Steen T, Vaaagenes P, Auestad BH, Steen PA. Delaying defibrillation to give basic cardiopulmonary resuscitation to patients with out-of-hos‐

[9] Cobb LA, Fahrenbruch CE, Walsh TR, Copass MK, Olsufka M, breskin M, Hallstrom AP. Influence of cardiopulmonary resuscitation prior to defibrillation in patients

[10] Holmberg M, Holmberg S, Herlitz J. Incidence, duration and survival of ventricular fibrillation in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest patients in Sweden. Resuscitation.

[11] Zoll PM, Linenthal AJ, Gibson W, et al. Termination of ventricular fibrillation in man

pital ventricular fibrillation: a randomized trail. JAMA.2003;289:1389-1395.

with out-of-hospital ventricular fibrillation. JAMA 1999;281:1182-1188.

by externally applied electric countershock. N Engl J Med 1956; 254:727.

#### **3.9. Challenges and future development for AED**

While these devices are very effective when treating ventricular arrhythmias, they still the need the presence of a bystander capable of applying and operating it. Also, it must be taken into account, that only a half of the cardiac arrests are witnessed so for a large number of patients this therapy cannot be available.

The main drawback that was observed when using an AED is that it requires interruptions in CPR in order to analyze the rhythm and to deliver the electric shock.Ongoing efforts are aimed at minimizing this time, and technical advances may eventually enable accurate rhythm interpretation even while CPR is ongoing [92, 93]. Recent resuscitation guidelines emphasize strongly the need to reduce 'hands-off' time in order to obtain a favorable result.

It was advocated that AED should be included in the category of compulsory safety equip‐ ment such as smoke alarms or fire extinguishers. However this approach has not demon‐ strated survival benefit and at the moment is cost prohibitive.

One of the future directions of research is AED analysis of shape and pattern of VF wave‐ form recorded by ECG. It promises help in guiding the rescuers for the best course of treat‐ ment with CPR, defibrillation and medication. See section 3.3
