**2. Climate change, energy and emission profile in Turkey**

Turkey's total carbondioxide (CO2) emissions amountedto 239milliontons (Mt)in2006 (Tables 1-3). Emissions grew by 5% compared to 2001 levels and by just over 50% compared to 1990 levels. Oil has historically been the most important source of emissions, followed by coal and gas.Oilrepresented45%oftotal emissions in2004,while coalrepresented40%andgas 15%.The contribution of each fuel has however changed significantly owing to the increasingly impor‐ tant role of gas in the country's fuel mix starting from the mid-1980s [3,11,12].


**Table 1.** Key indicators in Turkey [3,13].

fuels, as well as electricity-are essential. Convenient, affordable energy is also important for improving health and education, and for reducing the human labour required to cook and

Meanwhile, global climate change poses an unprecedented threat to all human beings. While this problem is important in the long-run, most decision-makers recognise (especially in the developing countries), that there are many other critical sustainable development issues that affect human welfare more immediately. However, even in the short term, climate is an essential resource for development. For example, in many countries (especially the poorest ones), existing levels of climatic variability and extreme events pose significant risks for agriculture, economic infrastructure, and vulnerable households. Climatic hazards continue to take their human and economic toll even in wealthy countries. Such climate threats, which undermine development prospects today, need to be better addressed in the context of the

There is a growing concern that long-run sustainable development may be compromised unless measures are taken to achieve balance between economic, environmental and social outcomes. Since the early 1980s, Turkish energy policy has concentrated on market liberali‐ zation in an effort to stimulate investment in response to increasing internal energy demand [8]. Turkey's new government has continued this policy despite lower energy demand induced by the 2001 economic crisis. On the other hand, CO2 and other greenhouse gas emissions of

More generally, climate change and sustainable development interact in a circular fashion. Climate change vulnerability, impacts and adaptation will influence prospects for sustainable development, and in turn, alternative development paths will not only determine greenhouse gas (GHG) emission levels that affect future climate change, but also influence future capacity to adapt to and mitigate climate change. Impacts of climate change are exacerbated by development status, adversely affecting especially the poor and vulnerable socio-economic groups. The capacity to adapt to climate change goes beyond wealth, to other key pre-requisites of good development planning, including institutions, governance, economic management

The key to an effective climate change response strategy is a better understanding of relevant policy linkages. Development planners, naturally, place development first, and therefore, climate policies need to be integrated within national sustainable development strategies. In particular, they would like to know whether specific climate change impacts and response measures will make existing development efforts less, or more, sustainable in terms of their

Turkey's total carbondioxide (CO2) emissions amountedto 239milliontons (Mt)in2006 (Tables 1-3). Emissions grew by 5% compared to 2001 levels and by just over 50% compared to 1990

the country are increasing rapidly due to energy and electricity utilization [9].

meet other basic needs [3-6].

4 New Developments in Renewable Energy

and technology [1,10].

long-run evolution of local and regional climates [1,7].

economic, social and environmental dimensions [1].

**2. Climate change, energy and emission profile in Turkey**


**Table 2.** Key sources for CO2 emissions from fuel combustion for Turkey in 2006 [3,14].


**Fuel type**

**Installed capacity (MWe)**

**Table 4.** Electric power capacity development in Turkey [11].

yet signed the Kyoto Protocol [3,11,14,21].

for suburban lines [3,17-20].

**Generation (GWh)**

**2005 2010 2020**

Present Situation and Future Prospect of Energy Utilization and Climate Change in Turkey

**Generation (GWh)**

**Installed capacity (MWe)**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54319

**Generation (GWh)**

7

**Installed capacity (MWe)**

Coal 14465 48386 16106 104040 26906 174235

Natural gas 10756 66417 18923 125549 34256 225648

Fuel oil 2124 10531 3246 18213 8025 49842

Renewables 14112 50900 25102 86120 30040 104110

Nuclear 0.0 0.0 2000 14000 10000 70000

Total 41457 176234 65377 347922 109227 623835

On the other hand, the transport sector is dominated by road transport. Vehicle ownership is only seven vehicles per hundred inhabitants compared to the OECD average of fifty. Capacity utilization of available rail lines for passenger transport is low for inter-city traffic and higher

**3. Climate change and greenhouse gas emissions policies in Turkey**

Turkey was a member of the OECD when the United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Changes (UNFCCC) was adopted in 1992, and was therefore included among the socalled Annex I and Annex II countries. Under the convention, Annex I countries have to take steps to reduce emissions and Annex II countries have to take steps to provide financial and technical assistance to developing countries. However, in comparison to other countries included in these annexes, Turkey was at a relatively early stage of industrialization and had a lower level of economic development as well as a lower means to assist developing countries. Turkey was not given a quantified emissions reduction or limitation objective in the Kyoto Protocol. Following a number of negotiations, in 2001 Turkey was finally removed from the list of Annex II countries but remained on the list of Annex I countries with an accompanying footnote specifying that Turkey should enjoy favorable conditions considering differentiated responsibilities. This led to an official acceptance of the UNFCCC by the Turkish Grand National Assembly in October 2003, followed by its enactment in May 2004. Turkey has not

**Table 3.** Greenhouse gas emissions by gas in Turkey (million tons CO2 eq) [3,13,14].

According to recent projections, total primary energy supply (TPES) will almost double between 2006 and 2020, with coal accounting for an increasingly important share, rising from 24% in 2006 to 36% in 2020, principally replacing oil, which is expected to drop from 40% to 27%. Such trends will lead to a significant rise in CO2 emissions, which are projected to reach nearly 600 Mt in 2020, over three times 2004 levels [3,12,14,15].

In 2006, public electricity and heat production were the largest contributors of CO2 emissions, accounting for 30% of the country's total. The industry sector was the second largest, repre‐ senting 28% of total emissions, followed by transport, which represented 20% and direct fossil fuel use in the residential sector with 8%. Other sectors, including other energy industries, account for 14% of total emissions. Since 1990, emissions from public electricity and heat production have grown more rapidly than in other sectors, increasing by 6%. Simultaneously, the shares of emissions from the residential and transport sectors both dropped by 7% and 3% respectively while the share of emissions from the manufacturing industries and construction sector remained stable [3,11,13,16].

Over 40% of all energy is used by the industrial sector and nearly 35% in the residential sector. The rest is split between transportation and commercial services. Industry in Turkey is energy intensive, especially iron and steel manufacturing and cement production sectors, by far the largest energy users. In the residential and commercial building sector, more than 80% of energy is used for space heating. Use of electrical appliances is rapidly increasing and boosting power demand. Table 4 shows the electric power capacity development in Turkey. Increasing use of air-conditioning, especially in the Mediterranean region, has shifted the peak hours of electricity demand to noon in the summer. Electricity consumption for lighting accounts for 30-40% of power consumption in the residential sector.

Present Situation and Future Prospect of Energy Utilization and Climate Change in Turkey http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54319 7


**Table 4.** Electric power capacity development in Turkey [11].

**Years CO2 CH4 N2O F gases Total**

1990 139.6 29.2 1.3 0.0 170.1

1992 152.9 36.7 4.0 0.0 193.6

1994 159.1 39.2 2.2 0.0 200.5

1996 190.7 45.0 6.1 0.4 242.1

1998 202.7 47.7 5.6 0.7 256.6

2000 223.8 49.3 5.8 1.1 280.0

2002 216.4 46.9 5.4 1.9 270.6

2004 241.9 46.3 5.5 2.9 296.6

2005 256.3 49.4 3.4 3.2 312.4

According to recent projections, total primary energy supply (TPES) will almost double between 2006 and 2020, with coal accounting for an increasingly important share, rising from 24% in 2006 to 36% in 2020, principally replacing oil, which is expected to drop from 40% to 27%. Such trends will lead to a significant rise in CO2 emissions, which are projected to reach

In 2006, public electricity and heat production were the largest contributors of CO2 emissions, accounting for 30% of the country's total. The industry sector was the second largest, repre‐ senting 28% of total emissions, followed by transport, which represented 20% and direct fossil fuel use in the residential sector with 8%. Other sectors, including other energy industries, account for 14% of total emissions. Since 1990, emissions from public electricity and heat production have grown more rapidly than in other sectors, increasing by 6%. Simultaneously, the shares of emissions from the residential and transport sectors both dropped by 7% and 3% respectively while the share of emissions from the manufacturing industries and construction

Over 40% of all energy is used by the industrial sector and nearly 35% in the residential sector. The rest is split between transportation and commercial services. Industry in Turkey is energy intensive, especially iron and steel manufacturing and cement production sectors, by far the largest energy users. In the residential and commercial building sector, more than 80% of energy is used for space heating. Use of electrical appliances is rapidly increasing and boosting power demand. Table 4 shows the electric power capacity development in Turkey. Increasing use of air-conditioning, especially in the Mediterranean region, has shifted the peak hours of electricity demand to noon in the summer. Electricity consumption for lighting accounts for

**Table 3.** Greenhouse gas emissions by gas in Turkey (million tons CO2 eq) [3,13,14].

nearly 600 Mt in 2020, over three times 2004 levels [3,12,14,15].

30-40% of power consumption in the residential sector.

sector remained stable [3,11,13,16].

6 New Developments in Renewable Energy

On the other hand, the transport sector is dominated by road transport. Vehicle ownership is only seven vehicles per hundred inhabitants compared to the OECD average of fifty. Capacity utilization of available rail lines for passenger transport is low for inter-city traffic and higher for suburban lines [3,17-20].
