**5. Electricity generation and CO2 emission in Turkey**

Throughout this process, the government carried out a number of studies on the implications of climate change and its mitigation. The first efforts were undertaken by the National Climate Coordination Group in preparation for the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. Following this, a National Climate Program was developed in the scope of the UNFCCC. In 1999, a specialized Com‐ mission on Climate Change was established by State Planning Organization (DPT) in prepa‐ ration of the Eighth Five-Year Development Plan (2001-2005). The Five-Year Development Plan was the first planning document to contain proposals for national policies and measures to

Following the ratification of the UNFCCC, a number of working groups were set up with the objective to define a climate change mitigation strategy and compile the country's first national communication to the UNFCCC. These included a working group on mitigation in the energy sector and a working group on mitigation in the transport sector. However, it remains unclear as to when the strategy and national communication will be completed. The strategy aims to reduce GHG emissions through the implementation of appropriate measures and the devel‐ opment of climate-friendly technologies. Energy efficiency and the development of renewable energy sources are two important components of the strategy. However, the strategy will not include any policies that directly target GHG emissions, such as carbon taxation or emissions

Developing countries, while varying in size and population, political system, economic structure, bear many similarities. They are facing less favourable economic circumstances, worsening environmental degradation and challenges in curbing climate changes. The present paper [1] only focuses on the issues of contradictory objectives, unrealistic standards and

Policy makers in developing countries are well aware of the importance of environmental protection. However, more often than not, they are placed in a dilemma when left to balance between economic growth and environment. Conflicts often rise between social, environmen‐ tal and economic objectives [1,23]. The headlong pursuit of economic growth is the cornerstone of developing countries. A top Turkish environmental official accepted that economic growth must take precedence over environmental protection for years to come because the former is not only of great importance to maintaining political stability but also to funding the environ‐ mental clean-up. This very contradictory objective in developing countries is well materialized in the implementation of "Polluter Pays Principles" (the PPP), the value of which is dramati‐ cally belabored. A good example can be found in the way the governments deal with state-

On the other hand, for developing countries, great importance should be attached to the acceleration of environmentally responsible development rather than following the past, and arguably the present, path of the industrial world in pursuit of "unrestricted economic growth

reduce GHG emissions, and funding for climate-friendly technologies [3,22].

trading. It also does not include a specific target for emissions reductions [3,14].

**4. Global warming and environmental policy in Turkey**

limited public participation.

8 New Developments in Renewable Energy

owned enterprises (SOEs) in emissions abatement.

without considerations to its effects on the natural environment".

The electricity generation in Turkey is dominated by fossil fuels. As shown in Fig. 1, the share of fossil fuels in total generation has been steadily increasing for last two decades and reached to the peak share of 82,5% in 2008 [25]. The 57,4% of total electricity generation in 2008 was from imported fuels (natural gas, imported coal and liquid fuels). The high level of fossil fuel dependency in the electricity generation is the major cause of increase in the national GHG emissions. Since 1990, the total GHG emission of Turkey has increased more than twofold and reached 366,5 million tons of CO2e in 2008. Within the same period, the GHG emissions generated upon the electricity generation is increased more than threefold from 30 million tons in 1990 to 101,4 million tons in 2008 [9].

Turkey's GHG emissions were doubled by 2008 and reached to 366,5 million tons CO2e comparing 1990 level as shown in Fig. 2 [9]. In 2008, around 80% of the total emissions of Turkey were from CO2 while one third of CO2 emissions were from electricity generation as shown in Fig. 3 [9]. In other words, more than one quarter of total emissions (27%) are due to electricity generation by fossil fuels. Other important CO2 sources are industry, road transportation, residential and cement production [9].

**Figure 3.** Development of total and electricity generation CO2 emissions by years in Turkey.

Turkey has substantial renewable energy resources. Renewables make the second-largest contribution to domestic energy production after coal. In 2003, energy from renewable sources amounted to 10 Million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe). More than half of renewables used in Turkey are composed of combustible renewables and waste, the rest being mainly hydro and geothermal as shown in Table 5. Combustible renewables and waste used in Turkey are almost exclusively non-commercial fuels, typically wood and animal products, used in the residential sector for heating. The use of biomass for residential heating, however, has declined owing to replacement of non-commercial fuels by commercial fuels. The contribution of wind and solar is still small but is expected to increase. Electricity generation from renewables totalled 35.5 TWh and contributed 25% to total generation in 2004. In 1990, generation from renewables was 23.2 TWh and their share in power generation was higher, representing 40%. Hydro is the dominant source of renewable electricity, with only 0.15 TWh derived from other sources.

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Hydro production fluctuates annually depending on the weather [3,12,15,26-28].

Hydropower generationclimbedfrom2Mtoe (23.1TWh)in1990 to 3.0Mtoe (35.3TWh)in2004, growing on average by 3.8% per year. The economic hydropower potential has been estimat‐ ed at 128 TWh per year, of which 35% has been exploited. The government has a strategy for developing the hydropower potential and expects a few hundred plants to be constructed over the long term adding more than 19 GW of capacity. Construction costs would be approximate‐ ly US\$ 30 billion. The government expects hydropower capacity to reach about 31000 MW in 2020. Some 500 projects (with a total installed capacity over 20400 MW), which are in different phasesoftheprojectcycle,areawaitingrealization.Ontheotherhand,Turkeyhasalotofpotential for small hydropower (< 10 MW), particularly in the eastern part of the country. At present the

**6. Hydropower as a renewable energy in Turkey**

**Figure 1.** Share of fossil fuels in electricity generation of Turkey by years (%).

**Figure 2.** Development of cumulative GHG emissions of Turkey by years.

**Figure 3.** Development of total and electricity generation CO2 emissions by years in Turkey.

### **6. Hydropower as a renewable energy in Turkey**

**Figure 1.** Share of fossil fuels in electricity generation of Turkey by years (%).

10 New Developments in Renewable Energy

**Figure 2.** Development of cumulative GHG emissions of Turkey by years.

Turkey has substantial renewable energy resources. Renewables make the second-largest contribution to domestic energy production after coal. In 2003, energy from renewable sources amounted to 10 Million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe). More than half of renewables used in Turkey are composed of combustible renewables and waste, the rest being mainly hydro and geothermal as shown in Table 5. Combustible renewables and waste used in Turkey are almost exclusively non-commercial fuels, typically wood and animal products, used in the residential sector for heating. The use of biomass for residential heating, however, has declined owing to replacement of non-commercial fuels by commercial fuels. The contribution of wind and solar is still small but is expected to increase. Electricity generation from renewables totalled 35.5 TWh and contributed 25% to total generation in 2004. In 1990, generation from renewables was 23.2 TWh and their share in power generation was higher, representing 40%. Hydro is the dominant source of renewable electricity, with only 0.15 TWh derived from other sources. Hydro production fluctuates annually depending on the weather [3,12,15,26-28].

Hydropower generationclimbedfrom2Mtoe (23.1TWh)in1990 to 3.0Mtoe (35.3TWh)in2004, growing on average by 3.8% per year. The economic hydropower potential has been estimat‐ ed at 128 TWh per year, of which 35% has been exploited. The government has a strategy for developing the hydropower potential and expects a few hundred plants to be constructed over the long term adding more than 19 GW of capacity. Construction costs would be approximate‐ ly US\$ 30 billion. The government expects hydropower capacity to reach about 31000 MW in 2020. Some 500 projects (with a total installed capacity over 20400 MW), which are in different phasesoftheprojectcycle,areawaitingrealization.Ontheotherhand,Turkeyhasalotofpotential for small hydropower (< 10 MW), particularly in the eastern part of the country. At present the total installed capacity of small hydropower is 176 MW in 70 locations, with annual genera‐ tion of 260 GWh. Ten units are under construction with a total installed capacity of 53 MW and estimated annual production of 133 GWh. Furthermore, 210 projects are under planning with a total capacity of 844 MW and annual production of about 3.6 TWh [3,29].

Hydropower is solar energy in a naturally and ideally concentrated form that can be utilized with the help of a mature and familiar technology with unsurpassed rates of efficiency. Moreover, it does not deprive future generations in terms of raw materials, or burdening them with pollutants or waste. Hydroelectric power plants utilize the basic national and renewable resource of the country. Although the initial investment cost of hydropower seems relatively high, the projects have the lowest production costs and do not depend on foreign capital and

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The generation of hydropower provides an alternative to burning fossil fuels or nuclear power, which allows for the power demand to be met without producing heated water, air emissions, ash, or radioactive waste. Of the two alternatives to hydropower, in the last decade, much attention has been given to thermal power production because of the adverse effect of CO2 emissions. With the increasing threat of greenhouse gases originating from such anthropogenic activities on the climate, it was decided to take action. Thus the Framework Convention on Climate Change was enacted on 21 March 1994 and has been signed by 174 countries to date

Dams that produce electricity by this most productive renewable clean energy source in the world provide an important contribution to the reduction of air pollution. The result of an investigation held in the USA suggests that the productivity of hydroelectric power-plants is higher than 90% of thermal plants and this figure is twice that of thermal plants. In case of Turkey, the public has been wrongly informed. Some people have claimed that hydro plants do not produce as much energy as planned because of irregular hydrological conditions and rapid sedimentation of reservoirs. It is also claimed that the cost of the removal of dams entirely filled by sediment at the end of their physical lives is not considered in the total project cost, and that there are major problems in recovering the cost of investment and environmental

In terms of selection of the capital costs of renewable technologies by 2015; the World Bank Study [32], the market analysis and data tables of the International Energy Agency [33] and report prepared by the Ministry of Environment and Forestry [34] are benefited from. On the other hand, the calculated prices are adjusted for the year 2015 by learning rates for each technology. The learning rates are the decrease in cost of technologies for each doubling of capacity due to technological and operational improvements in these kinds of technologies. The formula used to calculate the future cost of technology is given below

support, when considering long-term economic evaluation [3,30,31].

[3,31].

issues [3,5,31].

as [34]:

**8. Cost of the renewable energy technology**

**7. The role of hydropower and dams for sustainable energy**


**Table 5.** Renewable energy supply in Turkey [3,12].

Hydropower is solar energy in a naturally and ideally concentrated form that can be utilized with the help of a mature and familiar technology with unsurpassed rates of efficiency. Moreover, it does not deprive future generations in terms of raw materials, or burdening them with pollutants or waste. Hydroelectric power plants utilize the basic national and renewable resource of the country. Although the initial investment cost of hydropower seems relatively high, the projects have the lowest production costs and do not depend on foreign capital and support, when considering long-term economic evaluation [3,30,31].
