**8. Conclusion**

Much of the current energy supply and use, based as it is, on limited resources of fossil fuels, is deemed to be environmentally unsustainable. There is no energy production or con‐ version technology without risk or waste. Somewhere along all energy chains - from re‐ source extractions to the provision of energy service – pollutants are produced, emitted or disposed of, often with severe health and environmental impacts (Dasgupta, 2001;). Com‐ bustion of fossil fuels is chiefly responsible for urban air pollution, regional acidification and

Achieving sustainable economic development on a global scale will requires the judicious use of resources, technology, appropriate economic incentives and strategic policy planning at the local and national levels. It will also require regular monitoring of the impacts of se‐ lected policies and strategies to see if they are furthering sustainable development or if they

When choosing energy fuels and associated technologies for the production, delivery and use of energy services, it is essential to take into account economic, social and environmental consequences (Ott, 2003; Wallace, 2005). There is need to determine whether current energy use is sustainable and, if not, how to change it so that it is. This is the purpose of energy indicators, which address important issues within three of the major dimensions of sustaina‐

In most developing countries, the majority of informal sector enterprises are owned and op‐ erated by women, with women making up the largest proportion of the work force. Despite this, the contribution of women entrepreneurs to national economies is not explicit in na‐ tional statistics, leading to the development of policies that do not deal with the specific bar‐ riers faced by women linked to their gender-defined roles. Their enterprises tend to be concentrated in a relatively narrow range of activities: beer brewing, knitting, dressmaking, crocheting, cane work and retail trading. These activities tend to have disproportionately low rates of return compared to the activities undertaken by men. However, despite the low financial returns, women's enterprises provide important sources of household income, even in male-headed households. Women-headed enterprises are frequently located in the home, and these "cottage industries" tend to be overlooked by agencies because they are in the informal sector, which is diffuse and difficult to reach. When women are forced to close their enterprises, it is often for non -business reasons, and linked to factors associated with working from home. The low rates of return prevent inward investment, hindering innova‐ tion and expansion which are regarded as key factors in enterprise sustainability (Grosh & Somolekae, 1996). There is little research to explain what forces drive these start-ups and shutdowns, and how gender influences these processes. Women's access to resources (such as credit, land and education, which are recognised as key factors in microenterprise devel‐ opment) is significantly less than that of men. Generally, research in small and mediumscale enterprise sustainability indicates that a lack of working capital is one of the two most

the risk of human – induced climate change (Dasgupta, 2001; Fatona, 2009).

should be adjusted (Arrow et al, 2004).

92 New Developments in Renewable Energy

ble development: economic, social and environmental.

**7. Gender, energy, poverty and sustainable livelihoods**

Energy is central to sustainable development and poverty reduction efforts. It affects all as‐ pects of development -- social, economic, and environmental -- including livelihoods, access to water, agricultural productivity, health, population levels, education, and gender-related issues. None of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) can be met without major im‐ provement in the quality and quantity of energy services in developing countries.

Since there is an energy dimension to poverty known simply as energy poverty, which man‐ ifests when there is a lack of access to clean, safe, reliable and affordable energy. Energy is opportunity, and imperative to basic activities such as boiling water, storing vaccines, read‐ ing at night. Yet, more than three billion people worldwide rely on traditional fuels such as wood, charcoal, dung, and kerosene for cooking and light.

It is well documented that there are more women than men living in poverty. Because of traditional socio-cultural roles, women and girls in developing countries bear the burden / responsibility of collecting fuel for household energy consumption. Women are at the nexus between poverty and energy, so to talk about either it's necessary to apply a gender lens.

Gender-sensitive energy programmes can ease the double burden of lack of sufficient ener‐ gy and poverty that women endure as they perform traditional household and community roles. It can also provide opportunities for education and income generation that will allow women to improve their social and economic status and raise the living standards of their families and communities. However, if energy policies are to become more gender-sensitive not only will women themselves have to become more empowered to make choices about energy, but the energy sector will also have to become more responsive to women's energy

Viewing Energy, Poverty and Sustainability in Developing Countries Through a Gender Lens

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51818

95

Moreover, it can be concluded that the energy dimensions, both of the poverty-gender nexus and the livelihoods analysis, have been poorly understood and, hence, their signifi‐ cance underestimated. It is also noteworthy here that gender analytical tools and frame‐ works that are in standard use in the agriculture, health and water sectors (the Harvard Matrix, Gender Analysis Matrix etc.) are hardly used in energy planning. This is partly be‐ cause these tools do not fully meet the needs of energy planners, focusing on general aspects of women and men's relative situations, rather than on the specific energy dimensions of poverty. To an extent the existing gender tools can be adapted to the energy sector to bring to light hidden aspects of the poverty-energy-gender nexus, but there is a clear need to de‐ velop tools specific to the energy sector to ensure that all aspects are analyzed. These gender and energy tools need to be 'user friendly' to help social planners incorporate energy dimen‐ sions in their work and energy planners to see the gender and poverty aspects of theirs.

The feminization of energy poverty is a vicious cycle impeding sustainable development. Improved access to clean energy is absolutely critical to rural women and girls' develop‐ ment and empowerment. From this year, 2012, the declared year of Sustainable Energy for

The International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that demand for energy will increase by 40 per cent in the next 20 years (IEA, 2011). The heavy dependence on fossil fuel to meet present needs, coupled with rising costs, negative environmental impacts and future growth in demand, has placed renewable energy at the forefront of sustainable development issues as a core component of future development, both in developed and developing countries. A reliable energy source is a prerequisite for sustainable development and poverty allevia‐ tion, and the Millennium Development Goals cannot be achieved without first addressing energy issues. For example, health clinics, schools and other vital infrastructure cannot run properly, while access to drinking water and sanitation cannot be guaranteed without a reli‐

Giving the energy poor access to energy is therefore a development imperative. Yet at the same time, successfully mitigating and adapting to climate change will require a global shift toward renewable energy. Unmanageable and unforeseen climate risks threaten to negate development efforts, so action taken to reduce energy poverty must also be compatible with

In short, sustainable development requires sustainable energy. A green economy based on fairness, social welfare, and environmental integrity must be powered by green energy; en‐

All, let us remember to keep gender at the centre of discussion and decision-making.

needs.

able energy source.

climate protection.

Rural women spend long hours collecting fuel and carrying it home over long distances. The time and labour feeds into another dimension of poverty, time poverty, limiting women's ability to engage in productive or income-generating activities. Sometimes referred to as: women's invisible work, reproductive work, women's double burden, women's double day, time poverty cripples opportunity for education and income generation, which as a result often means her family will remain trapped in poverty.

Women's health suffers from carrying heavy loads of firewood long distances. In the home, over a makeshift cookstove and lantern, the exposure to smoke from fuel-based cooking and lighting contributes to over 2 million deaths per year (WHO, 2002). After-dark and without light, women suffer disproportionately from energy poverty from reduced security and gen‐ der-based violence.

An estimated 265 million tonnes of greenhouse gases are emitted annually from burning fuel for light globally, accelerating the effects of climate change and deforestation (WHO, 2002). Climate change makes women's long workday even longer due to unpredictable rains causing food, fuel and water scarcity and therefore longer treks to collect the necessities.

A number of relationships between energy, poverty and gender are clear. The poor, in gen‐ eral, pay more for energy than the rich, certainly in relative terms but also often in absolute terms. Those living in poverty cannot afford the upfront cash for appliances which increase the efficiency of fuel use, or enable the transition from traditional energy to modern energy. The options for poor people are in fact very limited indeed, a situation which has been called energy poverty. Biomass fuels (wood, charcoal, dung etc.) are likely to remain for some time the primary fuels for process heat and cooking because electricity is in almost all situations more expensive for such applications. Other options, such as solar cookers and household biogas systems, have not been able to meet the demand for cooking energy, prob‐ ably because they require significant changes to cooking practices or are too expensive.

Having accepted that the energy sector is central to human development, the first expecta‐ tion of a gender-aware policy would be that it recognizes the different needs, role, responsi‐ bilities and realities of women and men. With this in view, the gender-aware policy would ensure that the policy statement, planning and strategies for intervention promote equality and equity. The key to planning and energy policy that promotes even development of men and women while also providing remediation of past discriminations in the sector is to un‐ dertake gender mainstreaming in the sector.

This means that gender analysis must be undertaken to assess the implications of any course of action or intervention on men and women. It also means that budgetary allocations must be sufficient to address the needs of men and women. More women need to come into influ‐ ential position in the energy sector.

Gender-sensitive energy programmes can ease the double burden of lack of sufficient ener‐ gy and poverty that women endure as they perform traditional household and community roles. It can also provide opportunities for education and income generation that will allow women to improve their social and economic status and raise the living standards of their families and communities. However, if energy policies are to become more gender-sensitive not only will women themselves have to become more empowered to make choices about energy, but the energy sector will also have to become more responsive to women's energy needs.

It is well documented that there are more women than men living in poverty. Because of traditional socio-cultural roles, women and girls in developing countries bear the burden / responsibility of collecting fuel for household energy consumption. Women are at the nexus between poverty and energy, so to talk about either it's necessary to apply a gender lens.

Rural women spend long hours collecting fuel and carrying it home over long distances. The time and labour feeds into another dimension of poverty, time poverty, limiting women's ability to engage in productive or income-generating activities. Sometimes referred to as: women's invisible work, reproductive work, women's double burden, women's double day, time poverty cripples opportunity for education and income generation, which as a result

Women's health suffers from carrying heavy loads of firewood long distances. In the home, over a makeshift cookstove and lantern, the exposure to smoke from fuel-based cooking and lighting contributes to over 2 million deaths per year (WHO, 2002). After-dark and without light, women suffer disproportionately from energy poverty from reduced security and gen‐

An estimated 265 million tonnes of greenhouse gases are emitted annually from burning fuel for light globally, accelerating the effects of climate change and deforestation (WHO, 2002). Climate change makes women's long workday even longer due to unpredictable rains causing food, fuel and water scarcity and therefore longer treks to collect the necessities.

A number of relationships between energy, poverty and gender are clear. The poor, in gen‐ eral, pay more for energy than the rich, certainly in relative terms but also often in absolute terms. Those living in poverty cannot afford the upfront cash for appliances which increase the efficiency of fuel use, or enable the transition from traditional energy to modern energy. The options for poor people are in fact very limited indeed, a situation which has been called energy poverty. Biomass fuels (wood, charcoal, dung etc.) are likely to remain for some time the primary fuels for process heat and cooking because electricity is in almost all situations more expensive for such applications. Other options, such as solar cookers and household biogas systems, have not been able to meet the demand for cooking energy, prob‐ ably because they require significant changes to cooking practices or are too expensive.

Having accepted that the energy sector is central to human development, the first expecta‐ tion of a gender-aware policy would be that it recognizes the different needs, role, responsi‐ bilities and realities of women and men. With this in view, the gender-aware policy would ensure that the policy statement, planning and strategies for intervention promote equality and equity. The key to planning and energy policy that promotes even development of men and women while also providing remediation of past discriminations in the sector is to un‐

This means that gender analysis must be undertaken to assess the implications of any course of action or intervention on men and women. It also means that budgetary allocations must be sufficient to address the needs of men and women. More women need to come into influ‐

often means her family will remain trapped in poverty.

dertake gender mainstreaming in the sector.

ential position in the energy sector.

der-based violence.

94 New Developments in Renewable Energy

Moreover, it can be concluded that the energy dimensions, both of the poverty-gender nexus and the livelihoods analysis, have been poorly understood and, hence, their signifi‐ cance underestimated. It is also noteworthy here that gender analytical tools and frame‐ works that are in standard use in the agriculture, health and water sectors (the Harvard Matrix, Gender Analysis Matrix etc.) are hardly used in energy planning. This is partly be‐ cause these tools do not fully meet the needs of energy planners, focusing on general aspects of women and men's relative situations, rather than on the specific energy dimensions of poverty. To an extent the existing gender tools can be adapted to the energy sector to bring to light hidden aspects of the poverty-energy-gender nexus, but there is a clear need to de‐ velop tools specific to the energy sector to ensure that all aspects are analyzed. These gender and energy tools need to be 'user friendly' to help social planners incorporate energy dimen‐ sions in their work and energy planners to see the gender and poverty aspects of theirs.

The feminization of energy poverty is a vicious cycle impeding sustainable development. Improved access to clean energy is absolutely critical to rural women and girls' develop‐ ment and empowerment. From this year, 2012, the declared year of Sustainable Energy for All, let us remember to keep gender at the centre of discussion and decision-making.

The International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that demand for energy will increase by 40 per cent in the next 20 years (IEA, 2011). The heavy dependence on fossil fuel to meet present needs, coupled with rising costs, negative environmental impacts and future growth in demand, has placed renewable energy at the forefront of sustainable development issues as a core component of future development, both in developed and developing countries.

A reliable energy source is a prerequisite for sustainable development and poverty allevia‐ tion, and the Millennium Development Goals cannot be achieved without first addressing energy issues. For example, health clinics, schools and other vital infrastructure cannot run properly, while access to drinking water and sanitation cannot be guaranteed without a reli‐ able energy source.

Giving the energy poor access to energy is therefore a development imperative. Yet at the same time, successfully mitigating and adapting to climate change will require a global shift toward renewable energy. Unmanageable and unforeseen climate risks threaten to negate development efforts, so action taken to reduce energy poverty must also be compatible with climate protection.

In short, sustainable development requires sustainable energy. A green economy based on fairness, social welfare, and environmental integrity must be powered by green energy; en‐ ergy from sources that do not unduly impact the environment or people. Green energy means satisfying growing energy needs, empowering local communities and supporting de‐ velopment, while not producing dangerous carbon emissions or causing other negative en‐ vironmental impacts.

(2011) Sustainable Growth and Applications in Renewable Energy Sources, INTECH,

Viewing Energy, Poverty and Sustainability in Developing Countries Through a Gender Lens

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51818

97

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