**7. Modulation of energy metabolism as a tool to improve IA results**

**8. Conclusion**

mammalian species.

**Author details**

**References**

Joan E. Rodríguez-Gil1\*

Address all correspondence to: juanenrique.rodriguez@uab.cat

um without glucose. *Biol Reprod*, 71, 1437-1445.

*Develop*, 56, 207-219.

1 Dept. Animal Medicine & Surgery, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Spain

[1] Albarracín, J. L., Mogas, T., Palomo, Peña. A., Rigau, T., & Rodríguez-Gil, J. E. (2004a). In vitro" capacitation and acrosome reaction of dog spermatozoa can be fea‐ sibly attained in a defined medium without glucose. *Reprod Domest Anim*, 39, 1-7.

[2] Albarracín, J. L., Fernández-Novell, J. M., Ballester, J., Rauch, M. C., Quintero-More‐ no, A., Peña, A., Mogas, T., Rigau, T., Yañez, A., Guinovart, J. J., Slebe, J. C., Concha, I. I., & Rodríguez-Gil, J. E. (2004b). Gluconeogenesis-linked glycogen metabolism is important in the achievement of in vitro capacitation of dog spermatozoa in a medi‐

[3] Anderson, W. A., & Personne, P. (1970). The localization of glycogen in the spermato‐

[4] Balis, U. J., Behnia, K., Dwarakanath, B., & Bhatia, S. N. (1999). Oxygen consumption

[5] Ballester, J., Fernández-Novell, J. M., Rutllant, J., García-Rocha, M., Palomo, MJ, Mo‐ gas, T., Peña, A., Rigau, T., Guinovart, J. J., & Rodríguez-Gil, J. E. (2000). Evidence for a functional glycogen metabolism in mature mammalian spermatozoa. *Mol Reprod*

zoa of various invertebrate and vertebrate species. *J Cell Biol*, 44, 29-51.

characteristics of porcine hepatocytes. *Metab Eng*, 1, 49-62.

Energy management of mature mammalian spermatozoa is a much complex question than that usually devised. This complexity is due to a combination of factors, such as the exis‐ tence of rapid and profound environmental changes during the entire life of sperm postejaculation, as well as the development of many different evolutionary reproductive strategies among mammalian species, which lead sperm to develop specific energetic strat‐ egies. In this sense, factors like the time that sperm have to spend inside the female genital tract or the existence of competence among sperm from separate males inside the female will play important roles in the design of an optimal energy management strategy in each

Energy Management of Mature Mammalian Spermatozoa

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It seems obvious that a good regulation of the energy regulation mechanisms would be of the utmost importance in order to optimize sperm storage and, hence AI results. Surprising‐ ly, very few investigations have been conducted on this specific point. This could be due to the historical misinterpretation of sperm energy regulatory mechanisms. Historically, these mechanisms has be considered as being simple and linear and, hence of little practical im‐ portance [32]. In this way, the majority of semen extenders contain inordinate concentra‐ tions of various sugars, like glucose and fructose. The basis for this addition is the thinking that sperm will utilize separate sugars in a similar manner and by linear, concentration-de‐ pendent mechanisms. This strategy has at least three weak points. The first point is the fact that the optimal utilization of sugars by sperm is reached to determined concentrations of this sugars. For instance, the optimal utilization rate of glucose by sperm from dog and boar is reached to very low concentrations of the sugar, at about 0.1 mM [16, 36, 37, 45]. This indi‐ cates that the addition of low concentrations of sugar to the extenders would be enough to maintain sperm energy levels. This is not followed by the majority of extenders, in which sugars are added to concentrations above 50 mM. At these concentrations, the sperm energy machinery is overrated and non-optimal, despite the fact that cells are stored to low temper‐ atures. The second weak point is the fact that, as described above, sugars could have other effects that being mere energy supplies (see [17]). In this case, the election of either glucose or fructose in a species can influence their ability of survival by modifying specific aspects of sperm functionality. The third weak point is that mammalian sperm are abler to utilize non‐ glucidic substrates as energy sources. Nonglucidic substrates like lactate and citrate are fre‐ quently added to semen extenders in order to play roles that are not related to the maintenance of sperm energy levels. Some of these roles are, for instance, maintenance of osmolarity and pH. However, sperm cells can consume these substances and, in this way, the extender design would lose its conservative properties, since some protective functions (maintenance of osmolarity, pH, etc.) could be impaired when these substances are metabo‐ lized by sperm. Following this rationale, the exact proportion of glucose and nonglucidic substrates like citrate and lactate greatly affects several parameters of boar-semen quality analysis during storage at 15ºC-17ºC. Some of the parameters affected by the exact sugar/ non-sugar composition of extenders were the membrane integrity, the response to function‐ al tests like the osmotic resistance test and the overall mid-term survival at 15ºC-17ºC [35]. These results strongly suggest that the exact proportion of these substrates, more than their final concentration, is of the greatest importance to optimize the maintenance of sperm func‐ tion during sperm storage in refrigerated conditions.

As a conclusion, the lack of a proper knowledge of the mechanisms linked to the control of mammalian sperm energy management is hampered a further optimization of the semen ex‐ tenders utilized in the different species. This would have a detrimental effect in the subse‐ quent AI results obtained with semen stored in sub-optimally designed extenders. This highlights the great interest in more investigations in order to elucidate the exact mecha‐ nisms of energy management in all of the domestic mammalian species.
