**2. Bioelectronics**

Bioelectronics is a new multidisciplinary scientific area that results from the combination of biology, electronics and nanotechnology. Multifunctional devices can be made by integrating biological materials with electronic elements providing a novel and broad platform for biochemical and biotechnological processes. These functional devices can be used to develop sensing devices, such as enzyme-based biosensors [1], DNA-sensors [2], immunosensors [3], and to develop implantable biofuel cells [4] for biomedical applications, self-powered biosensors [1], autonomously operated devices, among others.

## **2.1. Biosensors**

Functional devices can successfully convert (bio)chemical information into electronic one by means of an appropriate transducer which contains specific molecular recognition

© 2013 Borges et al., licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 Borges et al., licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

structures. In this way, biosensors can be described as integrated receptor-transducer devices which provide selective quantitative or semi-quantitative analytical information using biological recognition elements. The main advantages of biosensors, over traditional analytical detection techniques, are their cost-effectiveness, fast and portable detection, which makes *in situ* and real time monitoring possible. Implantable biosensors can made a continuous monitoring of metabolites providing an early signal of metabolic balances and assist in the prevention and cure of various disorders, for instance diabetes and obesity [5].

Cellulose-Based Bioelectronic Devices 69

for many devices in the bioengineering and medical fields. (MEMS)-based electrical power generation devices can allow the autonomous operation of implantable biosensors by direct power supply or supplement the existing battery-based power systems. Harvesting energy directly from the environment is one of the most effective and promising approaches for powering nanodevices. Mechanical energy surrounds us in our daily life, taking the form of sonic waves, mechanical vibrations and impacts. These vibrations can be converted into electricity via electrostatic, electromagnetic, and piezoelectric microgenerators [15-17]. For instance, harvesting energy from the human body can be possible by converting hydraulic energy from blood flow, heart beats and blood vessels contraction [18]. Another consideration

More recently, biofuel cells have also been considered for energy harvesting. Implantable fuel cell systems, convert endogenous substances and oxygen into electricity by means of a spatially separated electrochemical reaction. Unlike conventional fuels cells, which rely on expensive rare metal catalyst and/or operate on reformed fossil fuels, biofuel cells rely on the chemical reactions driven by diverse biofuels and biological catalyst. Biofuel cells can be classified according to the biocatalyst. Almost all biochemical processes are catalyzed by enzymes. Systems using specific isolated enzymes at least for a part of their operation are known as enzymatic fuel cells [20], while those utilizing whole organisms containing

After all, energy harvesting devices and their applications are expanding and becoming more attractive especially with advance in microelectronics and MEMS. MEMS-based generation techniques have many characteristics that make them appealing for biological applications, including the ability to control their physical and chemical characteristics on

The demand for products made from renewable and sustainable resources, non-petroleum based, and with low environmental safety risk is persistently increasing. For that reason, renewable materials have been widely explored by consumers, industry, and government. Half of the biomass produced by photosynthetic organisms such as plants, algae, and some bacteria is made up of cellulose, which is the most abundant molecule on the planet. Natural cellulose-based materials, such as wood and cotton, have been used by our society as engineering materials for thousands of years. Cellulose exhibit excellent characteristics, which include hydrophilicity, chirality, biodegradability, capacity for broad chemical modication, and ability to form semicrystalline ber morphologies, which drawn considerably increased

Cellulose plays a significant role in the structural support of wood, plants, and composites because of its high mechanical properties. Wood remains the most important raw material

interest and encouraged interdisciplinary research on cellulose-based materials.

is to use body heat to generate electricity using a thermoelectric generator [19].

complete pathways are known as microbial fuel cells [21].

the micrometer and nanometer scale.

**3.1. Cellulose source materials** 

**3. Cellulose** 

Enzymes are well-known biological sensing materials used in the development of biosensors due to their specificity. However, since they have poor stability in solution, enzymes need to be stabilized by immobilization. Enzyme immobilization can be made by covalent linkage, physical adsorption, cross-linking, encapsulation or entrapment [6, 7]. The choice of the immobilization method depends on the nature of the biological element, the type of transducer used, the physicochemical properties of the analyte and the conditions in which the biosensor should operate [8, 9]. Moreover, it is essential that the biological element exhibit maximum activity in its immobilized environment.

As a result, the development of a sensing device based on enzymes is in a good agreement with the present concerns of Green Chemistry due to inherently being a clean process. Notwithstanding some shortcomings such as high sensitivity to environmental factors (like pH, ionic strength and temperature), dependence on some cofactors and limited lifetime hinder the utilization of enzymes in some specific situations.

To overcome the drawbacks, enzyme-free biosensors have been actively developed owing to their simple fabrication, stability and reproducible characteristics. Novel nanoparticle (NP) modified electrodes and other functionalized electrodes have been tested in the design of enzyme-free biosensors [10, 11]. Nanostructured materials have the advantage to be easily functionalized exhibiting high electrocatalytic activity and stability. For instance, carbonbased nanostructures have been widely studied as a platform which can hybridize with other functionalized materials, such as metal and metal oxides, forming nanocomposites with improved electrochemical properties [12]. Overall, these nanostructures can provide optimal composite electrode materials for high-performance enzyme-free biosensors.

## **2.2. Implantable energy harvesting devices**

The rising interest in Micro Electrical Mechanical Systems (MEMS) due to expanding application areas and new products opportunities, gave rise to the need for reliable and cost effective MEMS, especially in areas such as biosensors, energy harvesting, and drug delivery [13, 14].

Biomedical technology usually requires various portable, wearable, easy-to-use, and implantable devices that can interface with biological systems. Currently, implantable medical microsystems are powered by small batteries with limited lifetime. Although, the scientific progress in this area has enabled a decrease in the electrical requirements of the miniaturized devices, the development of a suitable power source remains a major challenge for many devices in the bioengineering and medical fields. (MEMS)-based electrical power generation devices can allow the autonomous operation of implantable biosensors by direct power supply or supplement the existing battery-based power systems. Harvesting energy directly from the environment is one of the most effective and promising approaches for powering nanodevices. Mechanical energy surrounds us in our daily life, taking the form of sonic waves, mechanical vibrations and impacts. These vibrations can be converted into electricity via electrostatic, electromagnetic, and piezoelectric microgenerators [15-17]. For instance, harvesting energy from the human body can be possible by converting hydraulic energy from blood flow, heart beats and blood vessels contraction [18]. Another consideration is to use body heat to generate electricity using a thermoelectric generator [19].

More recently, biofuel cells have also been considered for energy harvesting. Implantable fuel cell systems, convert endogenous substances and oxygen into electricity by means of a spatially separated electrochemical reaction. Unlike conventional fuels cells, which rely on expensive rare metal catalyst and/or operate on reformed fossil fuels, biofuel cells rely on the chemical reactions driven by diverse biofuels and biological catalyst. Biofuel cells can be classified according to the biocatalyst. Almost all biochemical processes are catalyzed by enzymes. Systems using specific isolated enzymes at least for a part of their operation are known as enzymatic fuel cells [20], while those utilizing whole organisms containing complete pathways are known as microbial fuel cells [21].

After all, energy harvesting devices and their applications are expanding and becoming more attractive especially with advance in microelectronics and MEMS. MEMS-based generation techniques have many characteristics that make them appealing for biological applications, including the ability to control their physical and chemical characteristics on the micrometer and nanometer scale.
