**Textile Dyes: Dyeing Process and Environmental Impact**

Farah Maria Drumond Chequer, Gisele Augusto Rodrigues de Oliveira, Elisa Raquel Anastácio Ferraz, Juliano Carvalho Cardoso, Maria Valnice Boldrin Zanoni and Danielle Palma de Oliveira

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53659

**1. Introduction**

Dyes may be defined as substances that, when applied to a substrate provide color by a process that alters, at least temporarily, any crystal structure of the colored substances [1,2]. Such substances with considerable coloring capacity are widely employed in the textile, pharmaceutical, food, cosmetics, plastics, photographic and paper industries [3,4]. The dyes can adhere to compatible surfaces by solution, by forming covalent bond or complexes with salts or metals, by physical adsorption or by mechanical retention [1,2]. Dyes are classified according to their application and chemical structure, and are composed of a group of atoms known as chromophores, responsible for the dye color. These chromophore-containing cen‐ ters are based on diverse functional groups, such as azo, anthraquinone, methine, nitro, aril‐ methane, carbonyl and others. In addition, electrons withdrawing or donating substituents so as to generate or intensify the color of the chromophores are denominated as auxo‐ chromes. The most common auxochromes are amine, carboxyl, sulfonate and hydroxyl [5-7].

It is estimated that over 10,000 different dyes and pigments are used industrially and over 7 x 105 tons of synthetic dyes are annually produced worldwide [3,8,9]. Textile materials can be dyed using batch, continuous or semi-continuous processes. The kind of process used de‐ pends on many characteristics including type of material as such fiber, yarn, fabric, fabric

© 2013 Chequer et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 Atav; licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

construction and garment, as also the generic type of fiber, size of dye lots and quality re‐ quirements in the dyed fabric. Among these processes, the batch process is the most com‐ mon method used to dye textile materials [10].

so used in food, paper, leather and paints [26,27]. However, some azo dyes can show toxic

Textile Dyes: Dyeing Process and Environmental Impact

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53659

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The toxic effects of the azo dyes may result from the direct action of the agent itself or of the aryl amine derivatives generated during reductive biotransformation of the azo bond [22]. The azo dyes entering the body by ingestion can be metabolized to aromatic amines by the azoreductases of intestinal microorganisms. If the dyes are nitro, they can be metabolized by the nitroredutases produced by the same microorganisms [29]. Mammalian liver enzymes and other organizations may also catalyze the reductive cleavage of the azo bond and the nitroreduction of the nitro group. In both cases, if N-hydroxylamines are formed, these com‐

One of the most difficult tasks confronted by the wastewater treatment plants of textile in‐ dustries is the removal of the color of these compounds, mainly because dyes and pigments are designed to resist biodegradation, such that they remain in the environment for a long period of time. For example, the half-life of the hydrolyzed dye Reactive Blue 19 is about 46

Carneiro et al. (2010) designed and optimized an accurate and sensitive analytical meth‐ od for monitoring the dyes C.I. Disperse Blue 373 (DB373), C.I. Disperse Orange 37 (DO37) and C.I. Disperse Violet 93 (DV93) in environmental samples. This investigation showed that DB373, DO37 and DV93 were present in both untreated river water and drinking water, indicating that the effluent treatment (pre-chlorination, flocculation, coag‐ ulation and flotation) generally used by drinking water treatment plants, was not entire‐ ly effective in removing these dyes. This study was confirmed by the mutagenic activity

In this context, and considering the importance of colored products in present day societies, it is of relevance to optimize the coloring process with the objective of reducing the environ‐ mental impact of the textile industry. For this purpose, liposomes could be used to carry several encapsulated dyes, and hence improve the mechanical properties of textile products, resulting in better wash fastness properties and reducing the process temperature, thus economizing energy [34]. Another way is to use ultrasonic energy, studied with the objec‐ tives of improving dye productivity and washing fastness, and reducing both energy costs

Considering the fact that the textile dyeing process is recognized as one of the most environ‐ mentally unfriendly industrial processes, it is of extreme importance to understand the criti‐

The dyeing process is one of the key factors in the successful trading of textile products. In addition to the design and beautiful color, the consumer usually looks for some basic prod‐ uct characteristics, such as good fixation with respect to light, perspiration and washing,

cal points of the dyeing process so as to find alternative, eco-friendly methods.

effects, especially carcinogenic and mutagenic events [27,28].

pounds are capable of causing DNA damage [29, 30].

years at pH 7 and 25°C [31,32].

detected in these wastewaters [33].

and water consumption [35].

**2. Dyeing process**

In the textile industry, up to 200,000 tons of these dyes are lost to effluents every year during the dyeing and finishing operations, due to the inefficiency of the dyeing process [9]. Un‐ fortunately, most of these dyes escape conventional wastewater treatment processes and persist in the environment as a result of their high stability to light, temperature, water, de‐ tergents, chemicals, soap and other parameters such as bleach and perspiration [11]. In addi‐ tion, anti-microbial agents resistant to biological degradation are frequently used in the manufacture of textiles, particularly for natural fibers such as cotton [11,12]. The synthetic origin and complex aromatic structure of these agents make them more recalcitrant to biode‐ gradation [13,14]. However, environmental legislation obliges industries to eliminate color from their dye-containing effluents, before disposal into water bodies [9,12].

The textile industry consumes a substantial amount of water in its manufacturing processes used mainly in the dyeing and finishing operations of the plants. The wastewater from tex‐ tile plants is classified as the most polluting of all the industrial sectors, considering the vol‐ ume generated as well as the effluent composition [15-17]. In addition, the increased demand for textile products and the proportional increase in their production, and the use of synthetic dyes have together contributed to dye wastewater becoming one of the substan‐ tial sources of severe pollution problems in current times [6,9].

Textile wastewaters are characterized by extreme fluctuations in many parameters such as chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), pH, color and salini‐ ty. The composition of the wastewater will depend on the different organic-based com‐ pounds, chemicals and dyes used in the dry and wet-processing steps [6,18]. Recalcitrant organic, colored, toxicant, surfactant and chlorinated compounds and salts are the main pol‐ lutants in textile effluents [17].

In addition, the effects caused by other pollutants in textile wastewater, and the presence of very small amounts of dyes (<1 mg/L for some dyes) in the water, which are nevertheless highly visible, seriously affects the aesthetic quality and transparency of water bodies such as lakes, rivers and others, leading to damage to the aquatic environment [19,20].

During the dyeing process it has been estimated that the losses of colorants to the environ‐ ment can reach 10–50% [13,14,17,21,22]. It is noteworthy that some dyes are highly toxic and mutagenic, and also decrease light penetration and photosynthetic activity, causing oxygen deficiency and limiting downstream beneficial uses such as recreation, drinking water and irrigation [13,14,23]

With respect to the number and production volumes, azo dyes are the largest group of colo‐ rants, constituting 60-70% of all organic dyes produced in the world [2,24]. The success of azo dyes is due to the their ease and cost effectiveness for synthesis as compared to natural dyes, and also their great structural diversity, high molar extinction coefficient, and medi‐ um-to-high fastness properties in relation to light as well as to wetness [2,25]. They have a wide range of applications in the textile, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries, and are al‐ so used in food, paper, leather and paints [26,27]. However, some azo dyes can show toxic effects, especially carcinogenic and mutagenic events [27,28].

The toxic effects of the azo dyes may result from the direct action of the agent itself or of the aryl amine derivatives generated during reductive biotransformation of the azo bond [22]. The azo dyes entering the body by ingestion can be metabolized to aromatic amines by the azoreductases of intestinal microorganisms. If the dyes are nitro, they can be metabolized by the nitroredutases produced by the same microorganisms [29]. Mammalian liver enzymes and other organizations may also catalyze the reductive cleavage of the azo bond and the nitroreduction of the nitro group. In both cases, if N-hydroxylamines are formed, these com‐ pounds are capable of causing DNA damage [29, 30].

One of the most difficult tasks confronted by the wastewater treatment plants of textile in‐ dustries is the removal of the color of these compounds, mainly because dyes and pigments are designed to resist biodegradation, such that they remain in the environment for a long period of time. For example, the half-life of the hydrolyzed dye Reactive Blue 19 is about 46 years at pH 7 and 25°C [31,32].

Carneiro et al. (2010) designed and optimized an accurate and sensitive analytical meth‐ od for monitoring the dyes C.I. Disperse Blue 373 (DB373), C.I. Disperse Orange 37 (DO37) and C.I. Disperse Violet 93 (DV93) in environmental samples. This investigation showed that DB373, DO37 and DV93 were present in both untreated river water and drinking water, indicating that the effluent treatment (pre-chlorination, flocculation, coag‐ ulation and flotation) generally used by drinking water treatment plants, was not entire‐ ly effective in removing these dyes. This study was confirmed by the mutagenic activity detected in these wastewaters [33].

In this context, and considering the importance of colored products in present day societies, it is of relevance to optimize the coloring process with the objective of reducing the environ‐ mental impact of the textile industry. For this purpose, liposomes could be used to carry several encapsulated dyes, and hence improve the mechanical properties of textile products, resulting in better wash fastness properties and reducing the process temperature, thus economizing energy [34]. Another way is to use ultrasonic energy, studied with the objec‐ tives of improving dye productivity and washing fastness, and reducing both energy costs and water consumption [35].

Considering the fact that the textile dyeing process is recognized as one of the most environ‐ mentally unfriendly industrial processes, it is of extreme importance to understand the criti‐ cal points of the dyeing process so as to find alternative, eco-friendly methods.
