**4. Cambodia**

The registered CDM projects in different ASEAN countries as of 1st November 2009 are giv‐

**Country Total Active Rejected**

**Table 2.** CDM projects in ASEAN countries (adopted from Status and barriers of CDM projects in ASEAN Countries,

These projects concentrate on agriculture, biomass, landfill gas to electricity, biogas from wastewater treatment and biogas from biomass. The developed countries of the region: In‐ donesia, Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand have a large number of active projects in the pipeline while Cambodia, Lao and Singapore have only a few projects. Brunei Darussalam and Myanmar have no CDM projects because Brunei Darussalam has no designated nation‐ al authority (DNA) or recently established DNA and Myanmar's previous closed-door inter‐ national policy made it unfavourable. Recently Japan showed interests to support CDM projects for sustainable development in Myanmar. The development of CDM projects high‐ lights the efforts of the host country to opt renewable energy which are available and its po‐

Brunei Darussalam has an annual waste of 189,000 ton and there are six landfill sites: one in Brunei/Muara, two in Tutong, two in Belait and one in Temburong districts. There is a po‐

and Ngoc [13] reported that Brunei with a population of 383,000 persons has a waste genera‐

of glass and 13% others. Research and development projects are underway to study the fea‐

consisting of 22% paper, 44% food waste, 2% plastic, 5% metals, 4%

[12]. Schnitzer

tential of bioenergy from this solid waste equivalent to 1.3×10<sup>5</sup> *kWh year* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

sibility for generation of electricity from solid wastes.

Cambodia 5 5 0 Indonesia 117 95 23 Lao PDR 2 2 0 Malaysia 167 128 41 Philippines 89 75 15 Singapore 8 8 0 Thailand 119 112 7 Vietnam 93 85 8

en in Table 2.

22 Sustainable Energy - Recent Studies

UNEP) [3]

tential yet to be realized.

**3. Brunei Darussalam**

tion of 0.66 *kg cap* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> *day* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

Cambodia consisting of 21 provinces has 24 isolated diesel power systems located in pro‐ vincial towns and cities. Per capita consumption is only about 48 *kW year* <sup>−</sup>1 and less than *15%* of households have access to electricity (urban 53.6%, rural 8.6%) and the amount of electricity consumption is as follows: private sector 0.5%, service sector 40%, industrial sector 14%. The supply requirements are projected to increase on average by 12.1% per year, and the peak load is expected to reach to *1,000 MW* in 2020 [19, 21]. 85% of the Cam‐ bodian population lives in rural areas and less than 10% of the rural households have ac‐ cess to electricity. Most of energy resources of the urban population are dependent on forest and 98% use woodfuel for cooking [14] and as a result its natural forests have been severely degraded due to logging over the last three decades. Researchers recommend that intervention is needed to ensure a sustainable supply of woodfuel exists in the long term. They are optimistic that increasing woodfuel production, better management of for‐ ests and firewood plantations, and introducing non-forested sources such as shrubs for cooking can lead to forest sustainability in Cambodia. Kampong Thom Providence has the highest potential of biomass as an energy source. Top et al. [14] and Top et al. [15] claim‐ ed that the potential supply was higher than demand indicating that forest resources and use of woodfuel in this providence are sustainable. Top et al. [16] stated dependence on woodfuel should be decreased by replacing traditional cooking methods with more effi‐ cient stove types. Abe et al. [17] studied the potential of rural electrification based on bio‐ mass gasification in Cambodia and reported that small scale gasification systems capable of generating electrical power in the range of 4kW would be the most appropriate for ru‐ ral mini-grid electrification. This study revealed that besides the agricultural residues con‐ sisting of rice husks, cashew nut shells and sugarcane which have high energy potential, the proper tree farming and plantation could provide sufficient sustainable sources to sup‐ ply a biomass gasification system. Koopmans [18] reported that total wood biomass for the year 1994 was 82,022 *kton* and for the year 1990 was16, 900 *ton km*−<sup>2</sup> . However, bio‐ mass gasification is economically competitive compared with diesel generation but a com‐ prehensive study to quantify biomass production across multiple rotations and with different species across Cambodia is urgently needed.

Japan Development Institute (JDI) and Kimura Chemical Plants Co., Ltd. based on the re‐ quest of the Office of the Council of Ministers conducted a study on "Cambodia Bio-energy Development Promotion Project" which was partially supported by Engineering Consulting Firms Association (ECFA), Japan and reported that bioethanol and biodiesel can be devel‐ oped using cassava and Jatropha, respectively and can be grown in Cambodia without in‐ tensive irrigation systems. It was recommended that in order to meet the future target for bioenergy production, Cambodia should expand planting for cassava and Jatropha to a few million hectors each by 2020 targeting to become a net exporter of energy [19]. This study provided a foundation for substantial investments from both local and foreign (Thailand, Malaysia, Koeria, China and Singapore) sources in the development of bioethanol and bio‐ diesel. Almost 5% of the Cambodian national land area is given to private companies for the development of agro-industrial plantations [20]. The Government of Cambodia has been providing special concession scheme to investors to invest in biodiesel production that is mainly focused on Jatropha as feedstock crops. A number of initiatives are still under either planning or implementation stages.

projects should be designed in such a way that do not aggravate the loss of forests for sus‐ tainability and viability for long term applications. There was approximately *13 million Mg* oven-dry-weight of forest biomass in 2005 [24] another study reports that aboveground for‐ est biomass ranged from ∼5000 *to* 11, 000 *million Mg*[25]. It is reported that the quantity of wet biomass that can be harvested from 'production forest' and 'other land with tree cover' could be approximated in three ranges which are: *5083 million Mg* (a lower bound), *5410 mil‐ lion Mg* (a moderate bound) and *10,726 million Mg* (an upper bound). The wet biomass was converted to dry weight equivalent using data from the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005: Indonesian Country Report [26], State of the World's Forest 2005 [24]; and global For‐ est Resourses Assessment 2005: progress towards Sustainable Forest Management [27]. Sun‐ tana et al. [23] reported that if Indonesia converts forest biomass into bio-methanol for electricity generation and as a gasoline substitute then annually 10,063,731 households could be provided with electricity continuously using a *1kW* fuel cell. The results reported are ob‐ tained using widely accepted calculation methods due to Vogt et al. [23A] which uses the quantity of biomethonal produced from the annually collected forest biomass and the amount of electricity and transportation fuel that could be substituted by the biomethanol produced from the annually forest materials. With the use of only 5% of forest biomass and converting it to bio-methanol as a gasoline substitute would be equivalent to the total quan‐ tity of gasoline consumed in Indonesia during the year 2005. The use of bio-methanol as a substitute for fossil fuel to power vehicles could avoid the emissions of 8.3-34.9% of the total carbon emitted in Indonesia. Timber extraction data from the 1980s reveal that *7.5 million m3 per year* log wastes are generated during harvesting operation that corresponds to about *3.75 million Mg* biomass and is equivalent to collecting biomass materials from 124, 000 *ha year* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> of forest land. 29.5 million litres of bio-methanol can be produce with an efficiency of 25% and could avoid *21.7* Gigagrams *(Gg)* of carbon if it is substitute for natural gas-methanol in

Potential and Use of Bioenergy in The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Countries – A Review

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51917

25

fuel cells or *1.97 Gg* of carbon when it is used to supplement gasoline.

obtained from rice bran per year.

Indonesia is the third-largest producer of rice in the world and produced 65,150,764 metric ton in 2010 compared with 64,398,890 metric ton in 2009. Rice bran containing 13.5% oil has a potential for extraction of biodiesel. Gunawan et al. [28] studied rice bran for a potential source of biodiesel production in Indonesia and claimed that 96,000 ton of biodiesel can be

Oil palms is another energy crop which were grown on 3.6 Mhectares of land in 2005 and Indonesia is strengthening its production with the increasing worldwide demand for biodie‐ sel derived from oil palms. These trees start bearing fruits approximately 30 months after planting in field and continue to be fertile for a period of 20-30 years ensuring a consistent supply of oil. The estimate for the additional land demands for palm oil plantation in 2020 range from *1 to 28 Mha* in Indonesia that can be met to a large extent by degraded land as well as agricultural management such as implementation of best management practices and earlier replanting with higher yielding plants. Palm oil production has played a major role in land use change in Indonesia [29] and it produces 44% of the world's palm oil as per re‐ cords for the year 2009. It is predicted that palm oil would be the leading internationally traded edible oil by the year 2012 [30] and the palm oil industry in Indonesia looks forward

Bioenergy, energy efficiency, waste management, deforestation and forest degradation are the potential areas for CDM projects in Cambodia. There are four approved project on bio‐ gas, one on waste/heat gas utilisation and one on biomass and completion of these projects would be able to reduce an annual emission of CO2 of 204, 308 *t year* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> [4]. Literature reports that the country lost 29% of its primary evergreen forests to severe degradation between 2000 and 2005 [21]. A case study is under validation to manage these degraded evergreen primary forests in Cambodia for sustained flow of timber and other ecosystem services that could lead to financial incentives through a carbon payment scheme under global climate change mitigation through reduction emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD-plus) scheme [22].

The aggregate technical potential for electricity generation from biomass consisting of forest products, agricultural crops and residues, municipal waste and sewerage has been estimat‐ ed using computer simulation techniques at18, 852 *GWh per year*. The findings do not ex‐ plicitly indicate the provision of efficiency in this analysis. Small scale projects based on simplified technologies are most appropriate as CDM projects for Cambodia. However sev‐ eral CDM projects are in implementation or registration/validation phases but low aware‐ ness among policy makers and the private sector, weak institutional capacity, lack of human and technical resources, inappropriate policies and strategies are the major limitations to avail opportunities for carbon trading through CDM [3]. Four out of five active CDM projects on rice husk cogeneration, rubber plantation, improved cookstove and biogas in Cambodia would reduce emission by *4.2 MT CO2e* over a period on 7-30 years.
