**9. Philippines**

The Philippines is an agricultural country which generates an average of *36,172.50 tons* of waste annually and the waste generation rate is reported as 0.52 *kg cap* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> *day* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> in urban areas and 0.30 *kg cap* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> *day* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> in rural areas that can significantly contribute the country's en‐ ergy supply. Apart from agricultural residues woodfuels including woodwastes and fuel‐ wood from forested lands are extensively used. The estimated bioenergy resources from non-plantation biomass consisting of agricultural residues, animal manure, fuelwood re‐ leased through efficiency improvement of current/base energy systems, fuelwood released through substitution by other fuels, municipal solid waste and back liquor are to be 969 PJ in the year 2010. However, the total bioenergy potential is expected to be rise in future but the consumption of fossil fuel is projected to grow at a faster rate. Literature states that in order to fully utilize the potential of non-plantation biomass concentration should be focus on their development and efficient use [62].

**8. Myanmar**

32 Sustainable Energy - Recent Studies

nol from cassava and sweet sorghum [61].

Energy utilization in Myanmar mainly depends upon traditional energy; 64% from fuel wood, charcoal and biomass; and 35% from crude oil and petroleum, natural gas, coal and lignite and hydropower. 52.5% of the total land area is covered with forest and potential available annual yield of wood-fuel is 19.12 million cubic tons. The cultivation of Jetropha was initiated in 2006 as a national project on 3.15 million acres that will increase to *6 million ha* by 2015, and expected biodiesel production would be 20 million tonnes. Two small scale biodiesel plants were established in Northern Shan State and MICDE (Myanmar Industrial Crops Development) respectively. There are four plants under Government of Myanmar (Ethanol Distillery No. 2 Sugar Mill, Kan-ba-lu Distillery, Taung-sin-aye Distillery and Matta-ya Distillery) in the country producing 667 *tons per day* of 99.5% Ethanol. There are three projects for biodiesel production by the private sector: Technology Company Limited man‐ aging 10,000 acres of land at Ayeyarwaddy Division, Ngapudaw TS to cultivate mainly ja‐ tropha and later cassava and sugarcane; MICDE is preparing an MOU to carry out biodiesel production with a Korean Company (Hae Joyub Bio Energy Myanmar Corporation) to culti‐ vate 150,000 ha of land provided by MICDE to produce biofuel crops; and Great Wall com‐ pany is cultivating 1000,000 acres of sugarcane in Northern Shan State to produce bioethanol. There are also Government plans to develop large scale production of bioetha‐

The Government of Myanmar is planning to establish biofuel villages at some townships states and divisions where potential biofuel crops can be cultivated. A community-based bi‐ odiesel demonstration project is being carried out to educate and introduce the community to the importance of biofuels, their impact on our environment and their economical im‐

The Ministry of Science and Technology is providing services for installing biogas plants de‐ signed for small village electrification. There are 105 biogas plants installed generating 945 kW of electricity. There is an estimated paddy production of 22,000,000 tons per year; esti‐ mated husk volume 4,392,000 tons per year; and 11,695 (small, medium and large) rice mills. Small and medium scale rice mills use rice husk as fuel to generate steam for steam engines. The rice mills using rice husks for gasification are becoming popular among people. 352,000

The Philippines is an agricultural country which generates an average of *36,172.50 tons* of

areas and 0.30 *kg cap* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> *day* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> in rural areas that can significantly contribute the country's en‐ ergy supply. Apart from agricultural residues woodfuels including woodwastes and fuel‐ wood from forested lands are extensively used. The estimated bioenergy resources from non-plantation biomass consisting of agricultural residues, animal manure, fuelwood re‐

in urban

waste annually and the waste generation rate is reported as 0.52 *kg cap* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> *day* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

pacts on the country as a whole and on individuals in particular [61].

tons of husk per year is used to generate electricity [61].

**9. Philippines**

Elauria et al. [63] discussed the total annual biomass production potential from forest in the Philippines is in the range of 3.7−20.37 *Mt* that can generate an energy of *55.5* to *305.6 mil‐ lion GJ* assuming that energy content of wood is 15 *GJt* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> and if 1 *Mt*of woody biomass can generate 1 *TWh* of electrical power, then the annual electricity generation potential ranges from *3.7* to *20.37 TWh*. It could be concluded that the potential of electricity generated trough bioenergy plantation would lie in the range of 3% to 22% of the country's projected electricity demand for the year 2008 and it can reduce a significant amount of GHG emis‐ sion. The reported results are based on the theoretical model consisting of three possible schemes: incremental biomass demand (IBD), sustainable biomass demand (SBD), and full biomass demand (FBD).

In February 2004, the Government of Philippines through a Department of Energy Circular made it compulsory for the incorporation of one per cent of coconut biodiesel blend in diesel fuel for use in all government vehicles. The president of Philippines in January 2006 intro‐ duced a law "The Biofuels Act 2006" that focused on the future development and use of this fuel in the country initially consisting of 5 per cent proportions for bioehtanol and one per cent for diesel blend with provisions for increasing their blend as recommended by the Na‐ tional Biofuels Board (NBB). The Philippines National Oil Company-Alternative Fuels Cor‐ poration (PNOC-AFC) was given a task for "identification and development of low-cost biofuel feedstock: jatropha for biodiesel and sweet sorghum and cellulosic for bioehtanol" and identified the following targets to achieve by 2012: 1,500 hectares of jatropha meganurseries cum pilot plantations; 700,000 hectares of biofuel crop plantations; and one million MT biodiesel refineries. Later a special clause in the biofuels act was introduced stating that this act shall not be interpreted as prejudicial to the clean development mechanisms (CDM) projects that cause carbon dioxide and greenhouse gas emission reduction by means of fuel use which encouraged and engaged the interests of biofuel producers to introduce biofuels-CDM projects in country [64].

Coconut is one of the three major agricultural by-products of the Philippines and the feasi‐ bility study for coconut as a biodiesil was conducted that concentrate on economics, social, political and environmental issues concludes that coconut has a potential for biodiesel pro‐ duction and the energy required for biodiesel processing (thermal energy and electricity re‐ quirement) can be met with its residue consisting of husk (*4.1 million tons per year*), frond (*1.8 million tons per year*) and shell (*4.5 million tons per year*). The reduction in the CO2 emission was estimated to be in the range 3.70−5.01×10<sup>6</sup> of tons per year which is 2.85−3.85*%* of the Philippines' total CO2 emission in 2010. The authors claimed that the production of biodiesel could further be increased by improving agricultural yields for coconut through improved irrigation; genetic engineering and other technological advances; conversion of additional non-agricultural land into sustainable energy farms; and utilization of alternative feedstocks such as waste grease [65-66]. The other biomass resources in Philippines include residues from rice, maize and sugarcane which are abundantly grown in the country. An assessment of biomass resources conducted by Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation based on marginal lands (6, 357 *km*<sup>2</sup> *equivalent to* 2.3*% of area*) reported that the Philippines has a potential of 1, 793, 000 *tonnes per year*and ethanol potential from marginal lands (0.7 *h m*<sup>3</sup> ) is equivalent to 13% of current gasoline consumption [67].

**11. Thailand**

11.2*TW h yr* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

same year [74].

mass plant is economical for agricultural residues.

manure is 7800 and 13, 000*TJ yr* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

Thailand is abundant in agricultural residues: rice husk, sugar cane bagasse, wood, cassava, maize, cotton, soyabean, sorghum, caster and palm oil; and the country has a potential of

Potential and Use of Bioenergy in The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Countries – A Review

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51917

35

sustainable energy potential of following biomass resources in Thailand: agricultural resi‐ dues, animal manure, fuelwood saving potential through improvement of efficiency, flel‐ wood saving potential through substitution by other fuels, municipal waste and industrial waste water. A comprehensive estimation on individual resources was conducted using da‐ ta of harvested land and production statistics from the Centre for Agriculture Information (CAI). They claimed that the total energy potential of these sources is expected to be *821 PJ* for the year 2010 that corresponds to 14% of the total primary energy consumption in the

The biomass is processed to generate either electricity or heat using conventional power plants. For successful utilization of biomass for energy production a continuous and secure supply of it to the power plants is the fundamental requirement. Sometimes biomass projects could face difficulties due to limited accessibility, logistical problems, seasonal availability, variation in biomass prices and increased utilization for other applications. Junginger et al. [75] described a methodology to set up fuel supply strategies for large-scale biomass conversion units (between *10* and *40 MWe*). The proposed methodology was dem‐ onstrated on a case study in an agricultural region in Northeastern Thailand. The study ex‐ amined variations in residue quantities produced, limited accessibility of residues, utilization by other competitors and logistical risks. Four expected major risks in near future were considered. The first is an increased demand for residues as fuel, especially rice husk; the second risk is the possibility of a bad harvest; the third is the possibly increased demand of rice straw and sugarcane tops and leaves as a raw material for the pulp and paper indus‐ try; and the fourth concerns transportation and logistics. To overcome these risks different fuel supply scenarios were incorporated to show how biomass quantities and prices may vary under different conditions. It was noted that both residue quantities and prices can vary strongly which are dependent on fluctuating harvests, increased utilization by compet‐ itors and varying transportation costs. The researchers concluded that the combustion bio‐

The amount of agricultural residues (paddy, sugarcane and oil palm) estimated in the year 1997 was about *61 million ton*, of which *41 million ton* equivalent to about *426 PJ* of energy, was unused. The potential of biogas resources due to industrial waterwaste and live stock

that one of the barriers to promote biomass energy production projects in Thailand is the lack of awareness and confidence that created misconceptions in the Thai people on the use of renewable energy in general and biomass energy in particular. This is because of the fact that education on acid rain that can destroy crops produced a negative impact on the com‐ mon man and they consider a biomass power plant as a monster. They stressed the need of a new policy approach to overcome the barriers for utilization of biomass energy in Thailand.

, respectively. Prasertsan and Sajjakulnukit [76] identified

or 2.98 *GW* of power generation capacity. Sajjakulnukit et al. [74] studied the

Literature reports an average quantity of rice production per annum in Philippines calculat‐ ed over a five year period (2002 – 2006) is 14,239 Gg that generates 10,680 Gg of rice straw; 95% of the rice straw is burned in the field and only 5% used for other activities. The rice straw burnt in the field could be used to generate electricity. There are 62 countries in the world currently generating electricity using biomass and this production has steadily in‐ creased by an avaeage of 13 TWh per year between 2000 and 2008 [68].

The Philippines currently produces biodiesel from coconut oil and is expanding jatropha production. Ethanol feedstocks used or being considered include sugarcane, corn, cassava, and nipa [69]. Biodiesel production in the year 2007 is reported as 35 ML [70].
