**7. Malaysia**

The palm oil industry is one of the leading industries of Malaysia that produces more than 13 million tonnes of crude palm oil annually resulting pam oil mil effluents (POME) that is approximately three times the quantity of crude palm oil. Wu et al. [43] conducted research on the biotechnological use of POME and reported that in additional to its conversion into useful substitutes for animal feed and fertilizer its fermentation leads to development of an‐ tibiotics, bioinsecticides, solvents (acetone-butanol-ethanol: ABE), Ployhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), organic acids, enzymes and hydrogen production. It could also be used as supple‐ mentary food in poultry farming. They emphasised that palm industries in Malaysia take appropriate steps to promote cleaner production for POME and their subtle actions could accelerate the research and development for an enhanced POME management. Palm oil is the most suitable and abundantly available feedstock due to its low production cost. The im‐ pact of the palm industry on the environment is an important factor which was conducted by Yee et al. [44] by conducting research on life cycle assessment of palm biodiesel consist‐ ing of three main phases: agricultural activities, oil milling and transesterification process for production of biodiesel. Comprehensive energy balance and GHG emission assessments were carried out that reveal that exploitation of palm biodiesel could generate an energy yield ratio of 3.53 (output energy/input energy) showing a net positive energy generation that ensures its sustainability. The combustion of palm biodiesel compared to petroleum-de‐ rived-diesel cut down the emission of CO2 by a factor of 38%.

The extraction of palm oil produces a huge amount of biomass from its plantation and mill‐ ing activities which is much larger compared to other types of biomass in Malaysia. This bi‐ omass has a great potential to be converted to either commercial products like animal food, fertilizer or to biofuel and to generate electricity. Shuit et al. [45] studied oil palm biomass as a sustainable energy source for Malaysia and discussed the use of oil palm biomass to biobased commercial products, synthetic biofuels and for power generation. The researchers highlighted that all conversion technologies discussed in their research are either being used by the commercial sector are still under research and development (R & D). They concluded that with the use of palm biomass Malaysia can become a major renewable energy contribu‐ tor in the world and become a role model to other countries having huge biomass feedstock.

dance of biomass from agricultural residues (rice husk and livestock manure) and forestry residues (firewood, sawdust, off cuts and woodchips). The author did not elaborate on the conversion efficiency and the heating values which were assumed for these calculations.

A vigorous growth of bamboo is reported in the northern part of Laos that traditionally can be used for construction and handicraft to food and feed. A recent study attributed to bam‐ boo a high potential as a biomass resource for biofuels or fiber, giving a rough review on the potential of three varieties of Japanese origin grown in USA [42]. Northern Laos is consid‐ ered to be one of the most under-researched regions of the globe and requires further scien‐

Lao has only one registered CDM project and another is at its validation stage. The country has a huge potential of CDM projects in forestry but it still has long way to go for capitaliz‐

The palm oil industry is one of the leading industries of Malaysia that produces more than 13 million tonnes of crude palm oil annually resulting pam oil mil effluents (POME) that is approximately three times the quantity of crude palm oil. Wu et al. [43] conducted research on the biotechnological use of POME and reported that in additional to its conversion into useful substitutes for animal feed and fertilizer its fermentation leads to development of an‐ tibiotics, bioinsecticides, solvents (acetone-butanol-ethanol: ABE), Ployhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), organic acids, enzymes and hydrogen production. It could also be used as supple‐ mentary food in poultry farming. They emphasised that palm industries in Malaysia take appropriate steps to promote cleaner production for POME and their subtle actions could accelerate the research and development for an enhanced POME management. Palm oil is the most suitable and abundantly available feedstock due to its low production cost. The im‐ pact of the palm industry on the environment is an important factor which was conducted by Yee et al. [44] by conducting research on life cycle assessment of palm biodiesel consist‐ ing of three main phases: agricultural activities, oil milling and transesterification process for production of biodiesel. Comprehensive energy balance and GHG emission assessments were carried out that reveal that exploitation of palm biodiesel could generate an energy yield ratio of 3.53 (output energy/input energy) showing a net positive energy generation that ensures its sustainability. The combustion of palm biodiesel compared to petroleum-de‐

The extraction of palm oil produces a huge amount of biomass from its plantation and mill‐ ing activities which is much larger compared to other types of biomass in Malaysia. This bi‐ omass has a great potential to be converted to either commercial products like animal food, fertilizer or to biofuel and to generate electricity. Shuit et al. [45] studied oil palm biomass as a sustainable energy source for Malaysia and discussed the use of oil palm biomass to biobased commercial products, synthetic biofuels and for power generation. The researchers highlighted that all conversion technologies discussed in their research are either being used

tific research to investigate bamboo's properties as a biofuel crop.

rived-diesel cut down the emission of CO2 by a factor of 38%.

ing on the CDM opportunities [3].

28 Sustainable Energy - Recent Studies

**7. Malaysia**

The Government introduced the "National Biofuel Policy" in 2006 to reduce the huge de‐ mand for transport fuel that concentrates on five strategic thrusts: biofuel for transport, bio‐ fuel for industry, biofuel technologies, biofuel export and biofuel for a cleaner environment. Early 2006 saw the launch of B5 (Envodiesel) blended diesel with 5% locally refined, bleach‐ ed and deodorized (RBD) palm olein however this product was abandoned in 2008 when engine manufacturers decided to stop the use of Envodiesel as it clogs the engine in the long run. Therefore, B5 (Envodiesel) palm oil methyl esters with 5% blend of diesel that meets the European Union (EU) standards was targeted for export. For marketing any biodiesel re‐ quires certification from the engine manufacturers as fuel as was done in Brazil that uses vast agricultural resources and opted for a different fuel system known as flex-fuel engine to adapt to biothanol (E85). The flex-fuel engines can burn any proportion of blend in the com‐ bustion chamber through electronic sensors which sense as soon as fuel is injected and ad‐ just ignition time. However, for biodiesel not a single modified vehicle patent has been developed so far. The researchers suggested that Malaysian car manufacturers look into the improvement in a diesel engine that includes modifications on fuel supply system so that biodiesel developed in Malaysia can also be used in the country [46]. Goh and Lee [47] stat‐ ed that a palm based biofuel refinery could provide an alternative for Malaysia as a reliable energy supply. With the full use of palm biomass 35.5% of national energy consumption can be secured using a land area of only 8% of current palm cultivation.

A renewable energy feed-in-tariffs (FiT) to support generation of green electricity in the country was introduced by the Malaysian Government under the 10th Malaysian plan which includes all renewable energy technologies, differentiates tariffs by technology, and drives the tariffs based cost of the generation. In the proposal it is also suggested that the FiT pro‐ gramme would add 2% to the average electricity price in the country. Under such a system, electricity generated from renewable energy resources is paid a premium price for delivery to the grid and an exemption for a rise in electricity costs in available for low-income con‐ sumers [48]. Chua et al. [49] reported on the feed-in-tariff (FiT) outlook in Malaysia and claimed that this process can lead to a stable investment environment that can generate the development of renewable energy deployment in the country. They quoted the examples of Germany, Spain and Thailand who adopted this process successfully and created more em‐ ployment, a great investment market and security as it is renewable and helps in reduction of GHG emission. Biomass and biogas including solid waste are expected to be continued as the main sources of renewable energy for the next 20 years. A Municipal solid waste (MSW) of approximately 17,000 tonnes per day throughout the country has been handled by the lo‐ cal authorities and waste management consortia. The largest source of MSW are domestic waste (49%) followed by industrial waste(24%), commercial/institutional (16%), construction (9%) and municipal (2%). It is expected that approximately 9 mil tonnes of MSW will be pro‐ duced a year by 2020 and the potential of renewable energy generation through waste dis‐ posal in Malaysia is extremely high. There are 150 landfill sites in operation that are contributing to the immense potential of land fill gas formation. The Jana landfill Gas power generation plant is connected to the national grid and has a capacity of 2.096 MW using two gas engines rated at capacity of 1048 kW, the landfill receives 3000 tonnes of garbage daily. Malaysia also uses the incineration method for solid waste disposal and has one unit that utilizes 1500 tonnes of MSW per day with an average calorific value of 2200 kcal/kg and dai‐ ly generates 640 kW of electricity.

It is noted that future trends of biofuel usage are expected to show an increase in demand, ergo necessitating significant and sustainable sources. Pam Oil may not be able to meet such future production scales as it limits the availability of land for food production, fodder and other crops. Ahmad et al. [54] proposed microgales as a sustainable energy source for bio‐ diesel production and reported that these are more sustainable source of biofuels in terms of food security and environmental impact compared to palm oil. Micralgae are photosynthetic microorganisms that convert sunlight, water and CO2 to algal biomass and its total world commercial production is about 10,000 tonnes per year [55] while in a tropical zone its natu‐

Potential and Use of Bioenergy in The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Countries – A Review

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51917

31

.

Singh et al. [56] and Singh et al. [57] discuss the management of biomass residues and urban solid waste respectively. They propose vermicomposing solid organic waste of industrial and municipal origin as a viable alternative technology based on a decomposition process involving the joint action of earthworms and microorganisms, as the end product is patho‐ gen free, odourless, and nutrient rich compared to conventional compost. The application of vermicomposing to agriculture could lead to plant nutrient recycling and the facilitation of soil degradation monitoring. It could also reduce dependency on inorganic fertilizer which

There are the technical obstacles related to the development of biofuel in ASEAN countries which are highlighted by Goh and Lee [58]. The feasibility studies should base on funda‐ mental technology and practicalities rather than unrealistic assumptions. It is noted that some countries in this region do not follow pubic tendering for awarding biofuel project and introduced non-professionals in this field creating a fledgling industry which collapse due to deceitful activities. In order to overcome these flaws the policies should be transparent and carefully planned by considering all possible aspects which could be arise in the future. Projects under development should follow up with strict monitoring and the capability of companies involved in biofuel projects should be thoroughly investigated and evaluated

Banana is one of other important crops that are cultivated in Malaysia and the Malaysian climate is most suitable for it. Banana takes almost 10-12 months from planting to harvesting and gives its fruit only once indicating that the crop is to dispose of as soon as fruit-produc‐ ing period is over leading to a huge source of biomass. However, biomass can directly be converted into energy with direct combustion but the relatively high moisture contents of banana residues suggests that supercritical water gasification and anaerobic conversion would be a better choice and these can give higher conversion efficiency. India is the leading country in this field which converts banana residues into methane using Compact Biogas Plant (CBP) [59]. Tock et al [60] studied the production of banana for the years 2003-2008; and its energy and power potential for Malaysia. They claimed that a total power of 949.65 *MW* comprising of 80.52 *MW* from direct combustion and 869.13 *MW* from anaerobic could be obtained from banana residues which are 5% of the total energy consumption of

ral production is reported as1.535 *kg m*−<sup>3</sup> *day* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

is more conducive to a sustainable ecosystem.

prior to issuing licences.

energy.

The authors claimed that a total of about 2500 *MW* capacity is estimated from *25 mil tonnes* of palm oil residues and 39 *mil m*<sup>3</sup> of POME which are used for power generation and cogener‐ ation. In addition to that there is also a substantial amount of unexploited biomass waste from logging, padi, sugar and other residues. It was concluded that the potential cumulative installed capacity of biomass will reach to 1340 *MW* in 2050 from 110 *MW* in 2010. Two dem‐ onstration projects under BioGen of total capacity 13.5 MW are under construction and on completion could deliver *10.5 MW* to the national grid. The Biogen project reported that the total potential for biomass and biogas mill waste was *2600 MW per annum* in 2005.

There are three generation of biodiesel feedstock: the first generation is due to food crops (FGC); the second generation deals with non-food crops (SGC); and the third generation ex‐ tracts it from microalagae and palm oil. Algae are grown in open ponds or photo-bioreactors and can produce in areas unsuitable for agriculture. Due to their high productivity, current yields of algae fuels in test facilities lie well above those of FGC [48, 50]. Goh and Lee [51] reported that total energy potential available from the third generation biodiesel (TGB) is 6.50×10<sup>6</sup> *GJ* while the energy consumption in transportation section for the year 2007 in the State of Sabah was 7.41×10<sup>6</sup> *GJ* which is equivalent to 88% of the energy demand of the State. Ahmad et al. [52] presented a comparison of microalgae with other biodiesel feedstocks and concluded that microalgae that grow rapidly with high oil contents have the potential to produce an oil yield that is up to 25 times higher than the yield of traditional biodiesel crops, such as oil palm. The authors recommended that two national car manufacturers: Proton and Perodua should concentrate on the development of flexible fuel vehicles to pro‐ mote TGB.

ASEAN countries have abundant sources of agro-industrial residues that can serve as feed‐ stocks for production of SGB. Goh et al. [53] studied the potential of SGF in Malaysia and reported that the total capacity and domestic demand of SGB are26, 161 *ton day* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> and 6677 *ton day* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> , respectively. This indicates that SGB is capable of providing energy to the country provided that lignocellulosic biomass are fully converted into bioethanol and it can reduce 19% of the total CO2 emissions in Malaysia. The data for the year 2007 on SGB reveal a production of *9549 ktonnes* with predicted increasing waste generation trends in future, the estimated potential of bioethanol is 2.58 × 10<sup>8</sup> *GJ* using a net calorific value of 27 GJ per ton. The transport sector of Malaysia consumed total amount of energy equivalent to 6.58×10<sup>7</sup> *GJ*in the year 2007. The authors determined that if lignocellulosic biomass were fully utilized to produce second-generation bioethanol it would fullfill 35.5% of the coun‐ try's energy demand. Due to a lack of awareness by the policy makers and other related is‐ sues this potential could not be harnessed.

It is noted that future trends of biofuel usage are expected to show an increase in demand, ergo necessitating significant and sustainable sources. Pam Oil may not be able to meet such future production scales as it limits the availability of land for food production, fodder and other crops. Ahmad et al. [54] proposed microgales as a sustainable energy source for bio‐ diesel production and reported that these are more sustainable source of biofuels in terms of food security and environmental impact compared to palm oil. Micralgae are photosynthetic microorganisms that convert sunlight, water and CO2 to algal biomass and its total world commercial production is about 10,000 tonnes per year [55] while in a tropical zone its natu‐ ral production is reported as1.535 *kg m*−<sup>3</sup> *day* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> .

contributing to the immense potential of land fill gas formation. The Jana landfill Gas power generation plant is connected to the national grid and has a capacity of 2.096 MW using two gas engines rated at capacity of 1048 kW, the landfill receives 3000 tonnes of garbage daily. Malaysia also uses the incineration method for solid waste disposal and has one unit that utilizes 1500 tonnes of MSW per day with an average calorific value of 2200 kcal/kg and dai‐

The authors claimed that a total of about 2500 *MW* capacity is estimated from *25 mil tonnes* of

ation. In addition to that there is also a substantial amount of unexploited biomass waste from logging, padi, sugar and other residues. It was concluded that the potential cumulative installed capacity of biomass will reach to 1340 *MW* in 2050 from 110 *MW* in 2010. Two dem‐ onstration projects under BioGen of total capacity 13.5 MW are under construction and on completion could deliver *10.5 MW* to the national grid. The Biogen project reported that the

There are three generation of biodiesel feedstock: the first generation is due to food crops (FGC); the second generation deals with non-food crops (SGC); and the third generation ex‐ tracts it from microalagae and palm oil. Algae are grown in open ponds or photo-bioreactors and can produce in areas unsuitable for agriculture. Due to their high productivity, current yields of algae fuels in test facilities lie well above those of FGC [48, 50]. Goh and Lee [51] reported that total energy potential available from the third generation biodiesel (TGB) is 6.50×10<sup>6</sup> *GJ* while the energy consumption in transportation section for the year 2007 in the State of Sabah was 7.41×10<sup>6</sup> *GJ* which is equivalent to 88% of the energy demand of the State. Ahmad et al. [52] presented a comparison of microalgae with other biodiesel feedstocks and concluded that microalgae that grow rapidly with high oil contents have the potential to produce an oil yield that is up to 25 times higher than the yield of traditional biodiesel crops, such as oil palm. The authors recommended that two national car manufacturers: Proton and Perodua should concentrate on the development of flexible fuel vehicles to pro‐

ASEAN countries have abundant sources of agro-industrial residues that can serve as feed‐ stocks for production of SGB. Goh et al. [53] studied the potential of SGF in Malaysia and reported that the total capacity and domestic demand of SGB are26, 161 *ton day* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

country provided that lignocellulosic biomass are fully converted into bioethanol and it can reduce 19% of the total CO2 emissions in Malaysia. The data for the year 2007 on SGB reveal a production of *9549 ktonnes* with predicted increasing waste generation trends in future, the estimated potential of bioethanol is 2.58 × 10<sup>8</sup> *GJ* using a net calorific value of 27 GJ per ton. The transport sector of Malaysia consumed total amount of energy equivalent to 6.58×10<sup>7</sup> *GJ*in the year 2007. The authors determined that if lignocellulosic biomass were fully utilized to produce second-generation bioethanol it would fullfill 35.5% of the coun‐ try's energy demand. Due to a lack of awareness by the policy makers and other related is‐

, respectively. This indicates that SGB is capable of providing energy to the

total potential for biomass and biogas mill waste was *2600 MW per annum* in 2005.

of POME which are used for power generation and cogener‐

and

ly generates 640 kW of electricity.

30 Sustainable Energy - Recent Studies

palm oil residues and 39 *mil m*<sup>3</sup>

mote TGB.

6677 *ton day* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

sues this potential could not be harnessed.

Singh et al. [56] and Singh et al. [57] discuss the management of biomass residues and urban solid waste respectively. They propose vermicomposing solid organic waste of industrial and municipal origin as a viable alternative technology based on a decomposition process involving the joint action of earthworms and microorganisms, as the end product is patho‐ gen free, odourless, and nutrient rich compared to conventional compost. The application of vermicomposing to agriculture could lead to plant nutrient recycling and the facilitation of soil degradation monitoring. It could also reduce dependency on inorganic fertilizer which is more conducive to a sustainable ecosystem.

There are the technical obstacles related to the development of biofuel in ASEAN countries which are highlighted by Goh and Lee [58]. The feasibility studies should base on funda‐ mental technology and practicalities rather than unrealistic assumptions. It is noted that some countries in this region do not follow pubic tendering for awarding biofuel project and introduced non-professionals in this field creating a fledgling industry which collapse due to deceitful activities. In order to overcome these flaws the policies should be transparent and carefully planned by considering all possible aspects which could be arise in the future. Projects under development should follow up with strict monitoring and the capability of companies involved in biofuel projects should be thoroughly investigated and evaluated prior to issuing licences.

Banana is one of other important crops that are cultivated in Malaysia and the Malaysian climate is most suitable for it. Banana takes almost 10-12 months from planting to harvesting and gives its fruit only once indicating that the crop is to dispose of as soon as fruit-produc‐ ing period is over leading to a huge source of biomass. However, biomass can directly be converted into energy with direct combustion but the relatively high moisture contents of banana residues suggests that supercritical water gasification and anaerobic conversion would be a better choice and these can give higher conversion efficiency. India is the leading country in this field which converts banana residues into methane using Compact Biogas Plant (CBP) [59]. Tock et al [60] studied the production of banana for the years 2003-2008; and its energy and power potential for Malaysia. They claimed that a total power of 949.65 *MW* comprising of 80.52 *MW* from direct combustion and 869.13 *MW* from anaerobic could be obtained from banana residues which are 5% of the total energy consumption of energy.
