**11. Thailand**

non-agricultural land into sustainable energy farms; and utilization of alternative feedstocks such as waste grease [65-66]. The other biomass resources in Philippines include residues from rice, maize and sugarcane which are abundantly grown in the country. An assessment of biomass resources conducted by Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation based on marginal lands (6, 357 *km*<sup>2</sup> *equivalent to* 2.3*% of area*) reported that the Philippines has a potential of

Literature reports an average quantity of rice production per annum in Philippines calculat‐ ed over a five year period (2002 – 2006) is 14,239 Gg that generates 10,680 Gg of rice straw; 95% of the rice straw is burned in the field and only 5% used for other activities. The rice straw burnt in the field could be used to generate electricity. There are 62 countries in the world currently generating electricity using biomass and this production has steadily in‐

The Philippines currently produces biodiesel from coconut oil and is expanding jatropha production. Ethanol feedstocks used or being considered include sugarcane, corn, cassava,

It is reported that total organic waste resources of Singapore in 2006 was 1.91 M tonnes which is 74.4% of the total waste [71]. Singapore uses incineration (waste-to-energy) tech‐ nology to dispose MSW that involves the combustion and conversion of this waste into energy. This technology reduces the volume of solid wastes by 80-90% making it popular in countries having limited territory for landfills. Four incineration plants in Singapore are Ulu Pandan, Tuas, Senoko and Tuas South with turbine capacity of 16 MW, 46 MW, 56 MW and 80 MW, respectively; these plants generates 980 *million kWh* of electricity per year which is 2-3% of total electricity demand of the country; and 22, 800 *tonnes year* <sup>−</sup>1 of scrap metal is recovered for recycling. The proportions of food waste input treated by the four plants are reported as 12.88%, 16.52%, 34.66% and 39.95%, respectively. A typical in‐ cineration plant requires the energy input 70 *kWh ton* <sup>−</sup>1 of waste and generates around

Neste Oil announced in November 2007 the construction of a biorefinery capable of pro‐ ducing NExBTL renewable fuel with a capacity of *800,000 metric tonnes per annum* and the proposed plant would be the largest renewable fuel refinery in the world. Nexsol (joint venture between Peter Cremer and Kulim group) in joining with Continental Bioenergy and Natural fuels invest in Singapore for biofuels production. There will be a capacity of *1,650,000 metric tonnes per annum* of biofuels in the country with the completion of these

) is equivalent

1, 793, 000 *tonnes per year*and ethanol potential from marginal lands (0.7 *h m*<sup>3</sup>

creased by an avaeage of 13 TWh per year between 2000 and 2008 [68].

and nipa [69]. Biodiesel production in the year 2007 is reported as 35 ML [70].

to 13% of current gasoline consumption [67].

34 Sustainable Energy - Recent Studies

**10. Singapore**

20% ash [72-73].

two projects [70].

Thailand is abundant in agricultural residues: rice husk, sugar cane bagasse, wood, cassava, maize, cotton, soyabean, sorghum, caster and palm oil; and the country has a potential of 11.2*TW h yr* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> or 2.98 *GW* of power generation capacity. Sajjakulnukit et al. [74] studied the sustainable energy potential of following biomass resources in Thailand: agricultural resi‐ dues, animal manure, fuelwood saving potential through improvement of efficiency, flel‐ wood saving potential through substitution by other fuels, municipal waste and industrial waste water. A comprehensive estimation on individual resources was conducted using da‐ ta of harvested land and production statistics from the Centre for Agriculture Information (CAI). They claimed that the total energy potential of these sources is expected to be *821 PJ* for the year 2010 that corresponds to 14% of the total primary energy consumption in the same year [74].

The biomass is processed to generate either electricity or heat using conventional power plants. For successful utilization of biomass for energy production a continuous and secure supply of it to the power plants is the fundamental requirement. Sometimes biomass projects could face difficulties due to limited accessibility, logistical problems, seasonal availability, variation in biomass prices and increased utilization for other applications. Junginger et al. [75] described a methodology to set up fuel supply strategies for large-scale biomass conversion units (between *10* and *40 MWe*). The proposed methodology was dem‐ onstrated on a case study in an agricultural region in Northeastern Thailand. The study ex‐ amined variations in residue quantities produced, limited accessibility of residues, utilization by other competitors and logistical risks. Four expected major risks in near future were considered. The first is an increased demand for residues as fuel, especially rice husk; the second risk is the possibility of a bad harvest; the third is the possibly increased demand of rice straw and sugarcane tops and leaves as a raw material for the pulp and paper indus‐ try; and the fourth concerns transportation and logistics. To overcome these risks different fuel supply scenarios were incorporated to show how biomass quantities and prices may vary under different conditions. It was noted that both residue quantities and prices can vary strongly which are dependent on fluctuating harvests, increased utilization by compet‐ itors and varying transportation costs. The researchers concluded that the combustion bio‐ mass plant is economical for agricultural residues.

The amount of agricultural residues (paddy, sugarcane and oil palm) estimated in the year 1997 was about *61 million ton*, of which *41 million ton* equivalent to about *426 PJ* of energy, was unused. The potential of biogas resources due to industrial waterwaste and live stock manure is 7800 and 13, 000*TJ yr* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> , respectively. Prasertsan and Sajjakulnukit [76] identified that one of the barriers to promote biomass energy production projects in Thailand is the lack of awareness and confidence that created misconceptions in the Thai people on the use of renewable energy in general and biomass energy in particular. This is because of the fact that education on acid rain that can destroy crops produced a negative impact on the com‐ mon man and they consider a biomass power plant as a monster. They stressed the need of a new policy approach to overcome the barriers for utilization of biomass energy in Thailand. Krukanont and Prasertsan [77] used Geographic Information System (GIS) to compute the potential of rubber for power generation in the rubber dominated growing area of south Thailand. The authors identified the location of eight potential rubber-fired power plants along *700 km* of the highway in this region which are economically feasible with a total ca‐ pacity of 186.5 *MWe* having the fuel procurement area in the range of less than *35 km*.

maximum combustion efficiency for rice husk with excess air of about 60% was 86%. A fur‐ ther increase in excess air for rice husk decreases combustion efficiency rather than an in‐

Potential and Use of Bioenergy in The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Countries – A Review

Janvijitsakul and Kuprianov [82] investigated the emission of CO and NOx in a newly-built,

tents and high-calorific value (*LHV* =15.7 *MJ k g* <sup>−</sup>1)for wide range of excess air, 3-59%. They reported the emission of NOx as 75-143 ppm (corrected to 7% O2 dry flue gas) at elevated

which shows an inverse correlation with excess air. The total Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocar‐ bons (PAHs) emission was found to predominate for the coarse ash particles due to the ef‐ fects of a highly developed internal surface in a particle volume. The highest emission was

Shrestha et al. [83] examined the development of energy system during 2000-2050 and its en‐ vironmental implications in Thailand. The energy system was ranked into two components: energy supply and conversion (energy extraction, imports and conversion of primary ener‐ gy to secondary energy i.e. power generation), and service demand. New as well as twenty existing technologies were considered for power generation in four different scenarios: *glob‐ al market integration* (TA1); *dual track* (TA2); *sufficiency economy* (TB1); and *local stewardship* (TB2). They concluded that industry and commercial sectors remain the most intensive user of electricity throughout the study period. The share of coal and natural gas for power gen‐ eration would account for almost 85% while 15% was from renewable energies like biomass and hydro. Energy used by road transportation considerably increased during this period. In the last two decades of study period clean fuels based vehicles become important and play a dominant role. Thailand imports energy which would increase from 50% in 2000 to 89% in 2050 and this could impose energy security issue for the country. A considerable in‐ crease in emission of SO2 and NOx was estimated with reference to that of the emission in 2000. In all four scenarios, SO2 emission would be much faster that the NOx emission which

The utilization of rice straw residues for power production can improve the renewable ener‐ gy development plan in Thailand. The major goal for biomass-fuelled power plants is to de‐ liver energy at a reasonable cost. Delivand et al. [84] conducted economic feasibility assessment of rice straw utilization for electricity generation through combustion in Thai‐ land and concluded that to ensure a secure fuel supply smaller scale power plants with ca‐ pacities 5−10 *M We*are more practicable. Literature reports the production of biofuels in the

The Ministry of Energy (MOE) of Thailand stated three main sources of biomass namely ag‐ ricultural residues, forest industry and the residential sector. The potential and targeted ca‐ pacity of biomass is *1751 MW* corresponding to *623 MW* from rice husk, *106 MW* from bagasse and *32 MW* from wood residue. The Energy Policy and Planning Office (EPPO) dis‐ closed in March 2010 the existence of *76* biomass power plants generating *673 MW* of electri‐

*<sup>o</sup>* . The emission of CO was 128-716 ppm (7% O2 dry flue gas)

at the total yield of PAHs due to fly ash was

rice husk with medium-ash con‐

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51917

37

crease compared with those of sawdust and bagasse.

bed temperature of 900−950 *C*

.

year 2008 of 822 ML [70].

10 *μg kW* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> *h* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

noted for acenaphthylene, 4.1 *μg kW* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> *h* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

400 *kW* conical fluidized-bed combustor for firing 80 *kg h* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

is due to the substantial use of coal for electricity generation.

The Government of Thailand encourages the production of bioethanol from local energy crops like cassava and sugarcane to prevent energy risks when crude oil prices fluctuate greatly or increase rapidly. This fuel has been used for vehicle in various types of ethanol blend with gasoline (known as gasohol) i.e. E10, E20 and E85. E10, a 10% blend of bioethanol with 90% gasoline, was introduced in the market in 2004. E20, a 20% ethanol blend, was in‐ troduced in 2008 after E10 had penetrated the market. Later, E85 gasohol was launched in 2008 [78]. Due to Government promotion strategies, the total gasohol consumption in Thai‐ land has increased from 0.61*Mlday* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> in 2004 to 10.48*Mlday* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> in 2008 [79]. The Thai renewa‐ ble energy policy has set the target to increase the use of ethanol up to 3 *Mlday* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> by 2011. The growing demand for biofuels increases the demand for feedstocks that in turn is antici‐ pated to increase the land for agriculture requirements. To cope with the target for 2011 about 6.36*M ton yr* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> of cassava are needed with an assumption of *133.21* ethanol produced per ton of cassava roots. This demand will change the cropping system and land require‐ ment which contribute approximately 58-60% of the net green house gas (GHG) emissions. GHG emission can be reduced by increasing productivity rather than cultivating land [78]. Silalertruksa and Gheewala [80] stated that feedstock efficiency would be increased and hence GHG emission be reduced by improving soil quality with organic fertilizers, prevent‐ ing the sugarcane leaves burning during harvesting, enhancing the waste recycling program from ethanol plants such as biogas recovery, organic fertilizer and DDG or DDGS produc‐ tion. They recommended that the use of renewable fuels in ethanol plants, implementing en‐ ergy conservation measures and providing technical knowledge associated with cassava ethanol production to the industry also need to be encouraged.

Fluidized bed technology is used to convert agricultural and wood residues into energy and emission of various pollutants from this process depends on fuel analysis, combustor design and operating conditions. It is reported that unburned pollutants are expected at insignifi‐ cant levels with supply of sufficient combustion air. Permchart and Kouprianov [81] studied combustion of three different biomass fuels: sawdust, rice husk and pre-dried sugarcane bagasse in a single fluidized combustor (FBC) with a conical bed using silica sand as the in‐ ert bed material and fairly uniform axial temperature. They reported that emission of CO for rice husk was much greater than those for sawdust and bagasse for similar operating condi‐ tions due to the presence of coarser particles and higher ash concentration. They noted that the emission of CO can be rapidly diminished with an increase in excess air of up to 50―60% but has a weak dependence with excess air in the range of 60―100%. The emission of NO strongly depends on the fuel-nitrogen contents rather than operating conditions. They concluded that sawdust is the most environmentally friendly biomass whereas rice husk produce noticeable environmental impact. A maximum efficiency of 99% was obtained for sawdust and bagasse at the maximum combustor load with an excess air of 50-100%. The maximum combustion efficiency for rice husk with excess air of about 60% was 86%. A fur‐ ther increase in excess air for rice husk decreases combustion efficiency rather than an in‐ crease compared with those of sawdust and bagasse.

Krukanont and Prasertsan [77] used Geographic Information System (GIS) to compute the potential of rubber for power generation in the rubber dominated growing area of south Thailand. The authors identified the location of eight potential rubber-fired power plants along *700 km* of the highway in this region which are economically feasible with a total ca‐

The Government of Thailand encourages the production of bioethanol from local energy crops like cassava and sugarcane to prevent energy risks when crude oil prices fluctuate greatly or increase rapidly. This fuel has been used for vehicle in various types of ethanol blend with gasoline (known as gasohol) i.e. E10, E20 and E85. E10, a 10% blend of bioethanol with 90% gasoline, was introduced in the market in 2004. E20, a 20% ethanol blend, was in‐ troduced in 2008 after E10 had penetrated the market. Later, E85 gasohol was launched in 2008 [78]. Due to Government promotion strategies, the total gasohol consumption in Thai‐

in 2004 to 10.48*Mlday* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

of cassava are needed with an assumption of *133.21* ethanol produced

The growing demand for biofuels increases the demand for feedstocks that in turn is antici‐ pated to increase the land for agriculture requirements. To cope with the target for 2011

per ton of cassava roots. This demand will change the cropping system and land require‐ ment which contribute approximately 58-60% of the net green house gas (GHG) emissions. GHG emission can be reduced by increasing productivity rather than cultivating land [78]. Silalertruksa and Gheewala [80] stated that feedstock efficiency would be increased and hence GHG emission be reduced by improving soil quality with organic fertilizers, prevent‐ ing the sugarcane leaves burning during harvesting, enhancing the waste recycling program from ethanol plants such as biogas recovery, organic fertilizer and DDG or DDGS produc‐ tion. They recommended that the use of renewable fuels in ethanol plants, implementing en‐ ergy conservation measures and providing technical knowledge associated with cassava

Fluidized bed technology is used to convert agricultural and wood residues into energy and emission of various pollutants from this process depends on fuel analysis, combustor design and operating conditions. It is reported that unburned pollutants are expected at insignifi‐ cant levels with supply of sufficient combustion air. Permchart and Kouprianov [81] studied combustion of three different biomass fuels: sawdust, rice husk and pre-dried sugarcane bagasse in a single fluidized combustor (FBC) with a conical bed using silica sand as the in‐ ert bed material and fairly uniform axial temperature. They reported that emission of CO for rice husk was much greater than those for sawdust and bagasse for similar operating condi‐ tions due to the presence of coarser particles and higher ash concentration. They noted that the emission of CO can be rapidly diminished with an increase in excess air of up to 50―60% but has a weak dependence with excess air in the range of 60―100%. The emission of NO strongly depends on the fuel-nitrogen contents rather than operating conditions. They concluded that sawdust is the most environmentally friendly biomass whereas rice husk produce noticeable environmental impact. A maximum efficiency of 99% was obtained for sawdust and bagasse at the maximum combustor load with an excess air of 50-100%. The

in 2008 [79]. The Thai renewa‐

by 2011.

pacity of 186.5 *MWe* having the fuel procurement area in the range of less than *35 km*.

ble energy policy has set the target to increase the use of ethanol up to 3 *Mlday* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

ethanol production to the industry also need to be encouraged.

land has increased from 0.61*Mlday* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

about 6.36*M ton yr* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

36 Sustainable Energy - Recent Studies

Janvijitsakul and Kuprianov [82] investigated the emission of CO and NOx in a newly-built, 400 *kW* conical fluidized-bed combustor for firing 80 *kg h* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> rice husk with medium-ash con‐ tents and high-calorific value (*LHV* =15.7 *MJ k g* <sup>−</sup>1)for wide range of excess air, 3-59%. They reported the emission of NOx as 75-143 ppm (corrected to 7% O2 dry flue gas) at elevated bed temperature of 900−950 *C <sup>o</sup>* . The emission of CO was 128-716 ppm (7% O2 dry flue gas) which shows an inverse correlation with excess air. The total Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocar‐ bons (PAHs) emission was found to predominate for the coarse ash particles due to the ef‐ fects of a highly developed internal surface in a particle volume. The highest emission was noted for acenaphthylene, 4.1 *μg kW* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> *h* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> at the total yield of PAHs due to fly ash was 10 *μg kW* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> *h* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> .

Shrestha et al. [83] examined the development of energy system during 2000-2050 and its en‐ vironmental implications in Thailand. The energy system was ranked into two components: energy supply and conversion (energy extraction, imports and conversion of primary ener‐ gy to secondary energy i.e. power generation), and service demand. New as well as twenty existing technologies were considered for power generation in four different scenarios: *glob‐ al market integration* (TA1); *dual track* (TA2); *sufficiency economy* (TB1); and *local stewardship* (TB2). They concluded that industry and commercial sectors remain the most intensive user of electricity throughout the study period. The share of coal and natural gas for power gen‐ eration would account for almost 85% while 15% was from renewable energies like biomass and hydro. Energy used by road transportation considerably increased during this period. In the last two decades of study period clean fuels based vehicles become important and play a dominant role. Thailand imports energy which would increase from 50% in 2000 to 89% in 2050 and this could impose energy security issue for the country. A considerable in‐ crease in emission of SO2 and NOx was estimated with reference to that of the emission in 2000. In all four scenarios, SO2 emission would be much faster that the NOx emission which is due to the substantial use of coal for electricity generation.

The utilization of rice straw residues for power production can improve the renewable ener‐ gy development plan in Thailand. The major goal for biomass-fuelled power plants is to de‐ liver energy at a reasonable cost. Delivand et al. [84] conducted economic feasibility assessment of rice straw utilization for electricity generation through combustion in Thai‐ land and concluded that to ensure a secure fuel supply smaller scale power plants with ca‐ pacities 5−10 *M We*are more practicable. Literature reports the production of biofuels in the year 2008 of 822 ML [70].

The Ministry of Energy (MOE) of Thailand stated three main sources of biomass namely ag‐ ricultural residues, forest industry and the residential sector. The potential and targeted ca‐ pacity of biomass is *1751 MW* corresponding to *623 MW* from rice husk, *106 MW* from bagasse and *32 MW* from wood residue. The Energy Policy and Planning Office (EPPO) dis‐ closed in March 2010 the existence of *76* biomass power plants generating *673 MW* of electri‐ cal power, negotiation with the Metropolitan Electrical Authority (MEA) and the Provincial Electrical Authority (PEA) for *30* plants of capacity of *290 MW* are under way, *40* approved plants with a capacity of *290 MW* are waiting for signing Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) contracts and *211* power plants of capacity *1585 MW* are under construction and waiting for Commercial Operation Date (COD) [85]. The Government of Thailand under the 15 years of the Alternative Energy Development Plan (AEDP) lay down targets to generate electricity utilising biomass in 2022 in three phases: short term (*2008-2011*) to achieve generation of power at *2800 MW*, mid-term (*2012-2016*) to attain a power at *3220 MW*, and long-term (*2017-2020*) to reach the objective of generation of electricity at *3700 MW*, respectively [85]. The 15 years of the Alternative Energy Development Plan (AEDP) presents electricity gener‐ ation utilising biogas in 2022 in three phases: short term (*2008-2011*) to achieve generation of power at 6*0 MW*, mid-term (*2012-2016*) to attain a power at 9*0 MW*, and long-term (*2017-2020*) to reach the objective of generation of electricity at 12*0 MW*, respectively [85]. Similarly for MSW: short term (*2008-2011*) to achieve generation of power at 78 *MW*, midterm (*2012-2016*) to attain a power at 13*0 MW*, and long-term (*2017-2020*) to reach the objec‐ tive of generation of electricity at 16*0 MW*, respectively [85]. It is reported that to date 1,610 MW, 46 MW and 5 MW of electricity generation has been obtained using biomass, biogas and MSW.

targets to generate electricity utilising biogas in 2022 in three phases: short term (*2008-2011*) to achieve generation of power at *78 MW*, mid-term (*2012-2016*) to attain a power at *130 MW*, and long-term (*2017-2020*) to reach the objective of generation of electricity at *160 MW*,

Potential and Use of Bioenergy in The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Countries – A Review

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51917

39

The contribution of Stainable Development (SD) of a CDM project is interpreted by the host country, which develop their own SD criteria for assessing CDM projects. There are no com‐ mon international standards for the host country approval processes and the development of SD criteria. Stakeholder preferences towards the SD of CDM projects are not explicit and are left to the host countries to interpret. Kerr and Parnphumeesup [2] carried out research using quantitative and qualitative methods to investigate stakeholder preferences towards SD priorities in CDM projects. This study investigate CDM's contribution to SD in the con‐ text of biomass by taking a rice husk project as a case study conducted in Thailand. Their quantitative analysis demonstrated the use of renewable energy as a highest priority fol‐ lowed by employment and technology transfer. Qualitative results obtained from this project revealed that rice husk CDM projects could contribute a lot to SD towards genera‐ tion of employment, increase in the usage of renewable energy and transfer of knowledge but it definitely produces a potential negative impact on air quality. Stakeholders advised that in order to ensure the environmental sustainability of CDM projects Thailand should cancel an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) exemption for CDM projects with an in‐ stalled capacity below 10 *MW* and apply it to all CDM projects. They recommended that the Government of Thailand develop a biomass commodity market to highlight the importance of rice husks for the country's renewable energy plan. Alternatively, farmers form coopera‐ tives that could enforce mills to buy paddy rice at higher price making sure that the true val‐

Biomass resource potential on marginal lands which is 6.5% of the total area of the country

in its early stages compared with other ASEAN community, biofuels plants are in process of cultivation, potential feedstock are cassava, sugarcane, rubber seeds, jathropa and catfish oil. The country has a strong national target for biofules as alternative to fossil fuel and woking on ethanol and vegitable oil to replace 1% of country's petroleum demand by 2015, and 5%

The biomass resources in Vietnam are: agricultural (paddy, maize, cassava, sweet potato), forest (natural, planted, wood, dispersed), industrial crops (sugarcane, peanut, coconut, cot‐ ton, jute, sedge, elephant grass) and other waste (industrial residues consisting of sawdust and molasses, livestock residues and solid waste) which accounts for 60-65% of the primary energy consumption and is being used for cooking fuel, organic fertilizer, biogas for domes‐ tic cooking, electricity production (in paper mills) and bioethanol production. The Govern‐

is *79%* of the current gasoline consumption [86]. Biofuels development in Vietnam is

and ethanol potential from this land at a rate of

respectively [85].

ue of the rice husk is paid.

is reported to be 11, 281, 000 *tonnes year* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

**12. Vietnam**

4.4 *h m*<sup>3</sup>

in 2025.

Literature reports industrial wastewater and livestock manure are the major resources of bi‐ ogas in Thailand that have a potential of *7800* and *13,000 TJ per year*, respectively. This amount of waste can produce *620 million m3* of biogas. The installed capacity of biogas pow‐ er is *146 MW*. The Energy Policy and Planning Office (EPPO) highlighted in March 2010 the working of *41* biogas power plants feeding *43 MW* of power to the grid, negotiations are in progress with the Metropolitan Electrical Authority (MEA) and the Provincial Electrical Au‐ thority (PEA) for 15 plants with a capacity of *41 MW*, *31* approved plants with a capacity of *44 MW* are waiting for signing Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) contracts and *33* power plants with a capacity of *72 MW* are under construction and waiting for COD [85]. The Gov‐ ernment of Thailand under the 15 years of Alternatives Energy Development Plan (AEDP) lay down targets to generate electricity utilising biogas in 2022 in three phases: short term (*2008-2011*) to achieve generation of power at *60 MW*, mid-term (*2012-2016*) to attain a pow‐ er at *90 MW*, and long-term (*2017-2020*) to reach the objective of generation of electricity at *120 MW*, respectively [85].

Thailand generates approximately *14.5 million tonnes* of MSW annually consisting of food waste (*41-61%*), paper (*4-25%*) and plastic (*3.6-28%*) which is decomposed to produce land‐ fill gas comprised of *60%* methane and *40%* CO2 using 90 landfills and three incinerators. The installed capacity of generating electricity from MSW is *13 MW*. The Energy Policy and Planning Office (EPPO) declared in March 2010 that 8 MSW power plants are in operation generating 11 MW of electricity which is fed to the grid, negotiations with Metropolitan Electrical Authority (MEA) and Provincial Electrical Authority (PEA) are being held for *10* plants with a capacity of *305 MW*, *15* approved plants with a capacity of *68 MW* are waiting for signing PPA contract and *14* plants with of capacity *96 MW* are under construction and waiting for COD [85]. The Government of Thailand under the 15 years of AEDP lay down targets to generate electricity utilising biogas in 2022 in three phases: short term (*2008-2011*) to achieve generation of power at *78 MW*, mid-term (*2012-2016*) to attain a power at *130 MW*, and long-term (*2017-2020*) to reach the objective of generation of electricity at *160 MW*, respectively [85].

The contribution of Stainable Development (SD) of a CDM project is interpreted by the host country, which develop their own SD criteria for assessing CDM projects. There are no com‐ mon international standards for the host country approval processes and the development of SD criteria. Stakeholder preferences towards the SD of CDM projects are not explicit and are left to the host countries to interpret. Kerr and Parnphumeesup [2] carried out research using quantitative and qualitative methods to investigate stakeholder preferences towards SD priorities in CDM projects. This study investigate CDM's contribution to SD in the con‐ text of biomass by taking a rice husk project as a case study conducted in Thailand. Their quantitative analysis demonstrated the use of renewable energy as a highest priority fol‐ lowed by employment and technology transfer. Qualitative results obtained from this project revealed that rice husk CDM projects could contribute a lot to SD towards genera‐ tion of employment, increase in the usage of renewable energy and transfer of knowledge but it definitely produces a potential negative impact on air quality. Stakeholders advised that in order to ensure the environmental sustainability of CDM projects Thailand should cancel an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) exemption for CDM projects with an in‐ stalled capacity below 10 *MW* and apply it to all CDM projects. They recommended that the Government of Thailand develop a biomass commodity market to highlight the importance of rice husks for the country's renewable energy plan. Alternatively, farmers form coopera‐ tives that could enforce mills to buy paddy rice at higher price making sure that the true val‐ ue of the rice husk is paid.
