**2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)**

The United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) established in‐ ternational policy framework for reducing greenhouse gas emission that was adopted at the third Conferences of the Parties (COP-3), the Kyoto Protocol aims to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases at a level that would prevent dangerous climate change. To make this target achievable and cost effective, provision was given that reduction in GHG could be carried out at any location on the globe because ultimately it has the same effect on the environment. Therefore, it is economically more feasible if developed countries reduce GHG emissions in developing countries rather than at home. This flexible mecha‐ nism to reduce GHG emission introduces a new concept known as "the Clean Development Mechanism, (CDM)". The CDM enables developed countries to invest in emission reduction projects in developing countries. It will provide the opportunity to the developing countries to achieve sustainable development and assist developed countries in achieving reduction in GHG in cost effective way [2].

The host country undertaking the CDM projects reduces GHG emission and has the poten‐ tial to earn carbon credits that can then be traded with a buyer (developed country) provid‐ ing an additional revenue to finance the project. The introduction of this idea provides new opportunities for developing countries to set up projects that would not be otherwise possi‐ ble without carbon credits and have the potential to [3]:


**•** waste to energy (disposal and management of municipal solid waste, agricultural and for‐ est residues)

rent energy sources but also eliminates disposal problems associated with generated agricul‐

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has established an international policy framework for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through a programme known as "Clean Development Mechanism" (CDM). A number of such projects have been initiated in ASEAN countries which are beneficial to reduce emission of GHG due to open field burning of forest as well as agricultural residues. With these projects not only the emission of GHG is reduced but more sustainable methodologies in managing nat‐

The objective of this study is to report the potential and the present use of bioenergy in the ASEAN countries focusing on power generation potentials using available biomass resour‐

The United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) established in‐ ternational policy framework for reducing greenhouse gas emission that was adopted at the third Conferences of the Parties (COP-3), the Kyoto Protocol aims to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases at a level that would prevent dangerous climate change. To make this target achievable and cost effective, provision was given that reduction in GHG could be carried out at any location on the globe because ultimately it has the same effect on the environment. Therefore, it is economically more feasible if developed countries reduce GHG emissions in developing countries rather than at home. This flexible mecha‐ nism to reduce GHG emission introduces a new concept known as "the Clean Development Mechanism, (CDM)". The CDM enables developed countries to invest in emission reduction projects in developing countries. It will provide the opportunity to the developing countries to achieve sustainable development and assist developed countries in achieving reduction in

The host country undertaking the CDM projects reduces GHG emission and has the poten‐ tial to earn carbon credits that can then be traded with a buyer (developed country) provid‐ ing an additional revenue to finance the project. The introduction of this idea provides new opportunities for developing countries to set up projects that would not be otherwise possi‐

**•** improve local waste management practices (disposal of waste through composting or

**•** support the use of renewable energy (e.g. combined heat power production from bio‐

**•** encourage energy efficiency initiatives (cogeneration, efficient chillers, energy saving

ural resources to achieve more efficiency has also been demonstrated.

ces and the utilisation of CDM projects to achieve energy sustainability.

**2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)**

ble without carbon credits and have the potential to [3]:

GHG in cost effective way [2].

combustion, landfill gas recovery)

mass, biogas, solar, wind)

lamps, heat recovery)

tural residues [1].

20 Sustainable Energy - Recent Studies

The host country is directly responsible for assessing the sustainability of CDM projects as per Bonn agreement "The Conference of parties agrees to affirm that it is the host party's prerogative to confirm whether a clean development mechanism project activity assists it in achieving sustainable development" (UNFCCC, 2001). The developing countries of ASEAN community (Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar and Vietnam) are lacking in technical know‐ how along with non availability of data for assessing the sustainability of proposed CDM projects make it difficult to compute the net reduction in GHG emission on completion of the proposed project. Feasibility studies are carried out by hiring foreign expertise to com‐ pete for such projects which is time consuming and usually responsible for delay leading to fewer approved CDM projects for these countries [2]. The priority areas identified by the member of ASEAN nations for CDM projects are tabulated in Table 1.


**Table 1.** The ASEAN countries proposed priority areas for CDM projects


The registered CDM projects in different ASEAN countries as of 1st November 2009 are giv‐ en in Table 2.

**4. Cambodia**

Cambodia consisting of 21 provinces has 24 isolated diesel power systems located in pro‐ vincial towns and cities. Per capita consumption is only about 48 *kW year* <sup>−</sup>1 and less than *15%* of households have access to electricity (urban 53.6%, rural 8.6%) and the amount of electricity consumption is as follows: private sector 0.5%, service sector 40%, industrial sector 14%. The supply requirements are projected to increase on average by 12.1% per year, and the peak load is expected to reach to *1,000 MW* in 2020 [19, 21]. 85% of the Cam‐ bodian population lives in rural areas and less than 10% of the rural households have ac‐ cess to electricity. Most of energy resources of the urban population are dependent on forest and 98% use woodfuel for cooking [14] and as a result its natural forests have been severely degraded due to logging over the last three decades. Researchers recommend that intervention is needed to ensure a sustainable supply of woodfuel exists in the long term. They are optimistic that increasing woodfuel production, better management of for‐ ests and firewood plantations, and introducing non-forested sources such as shrubs for cooking can lead to forest sustainability in Cambodia. Kampong Thom Providence has the highest potential of biomass as an energy source. Top et al. [14] and Top et al. [15] claim‐ ed that the potential supply was higher than demand indicating that forest resources and use of woodfuel in this providence are sustainable. Top et al. [16] stated dependence on woodfuel should be decreased by replacing traditional cooking methods with more effi‐ cient stove types. Abe et al. [17] studied the potential of rural electrification based on bio‐ mass gasification in Cambodia and reported that small scale gasification systems capable of generating electrical power in the range of 4kW would be the most appropriate for ru‐ ral mini-grid electrification. This study revealed that besides the agricultural residues con‐ sisting of rice husks, cashew nut shells and sugarcane which have high energy potential, the proper tree farming and plantation could provide sufficient sustainable sources to sup‐ ply a biomass gasification system. Koopmans [18] reported that total wood biomass for

Potential and Use of Bioenergy in The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Countries – A Review

the year 1994 was 82,022 *kton* and for the year 1990 was16, 900 *ton km*−<sup>2</sup>

different species across Cambodia is urgently needed.

mass gasification is economically competitive compared with diesel generation but a com‐ prehensive study to quantify biomass production across multiple rotations and with

Japan Development Institute (JDI) and Kimura Chemical Plants Co., Ltd. based on the re‐ quest of the Office of the Council of Ministers conducted a study on "Cambodia Bio-energy Development Promotion Project" which was partially supported by Engineering Consulting Firms Association (ECFA), Japan and reported that bioethanol and biodiesel can be devel‐ oped using cassava and Jatropha, respectively and can be grown in Cambodia without in‐ tensive irrigation systems. It was recommended that in order to meet the future target for bioenergy production, Cambodia should expand planting for cassava and Jatropha to a few million hectors each by 2020 targeting to become a net exporter of energy [19]. This study provided a foundation for substantial investments from both local and foreign (Thailand, Malaysia, Koeria, China and Singapore) sources in the development of bioethanol and bio‐ diesel. Almost 5% of the Cambodian national land area is given to private companies for the

. However, bio‐

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51917

23

**Table 2.** CDM projects in ASEAN countries (adopted from Status and barriers of CDM projects in ASEAN Countries, UNEP) [3]

These projects concentrate on agriculture, biomass, landfill gas to electricity, biogas from wastewater treatment and biogas from biomass. The developed countries of the region: In‐ donesia, Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand have a large number of active projects in the pipeline while Cambodia, Lao and Singapore have only a few projects. Brunei Darussalam and Myanmar have no CDM projects because Brunei Darussalam has no designated nation‐ al authority (DNA) or recently established DNA and Myanmar's previous closed-door inter‐ national policy made it unfavourable. Recently Japan showed interests to support CDM projects for sustainable development in Myanmar. The development of CDM projects high‐ lights the efforts of the host country to opt renewable energy which are available and its po‐ tential yet to be realized.
