**12. Vietnam**

cal power, negotiation with the Metropolitan Electrical Authority (MEA) and the Provincial Electrical Authority (PEA) for *30* plants of capacity of *290 MW* are under way, *40* approved plants with a capacity of *290 MW* are waiting for signing Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) contracts and *211* power plants of capacity *1585 MW* are under construction and waiting for Commercial Operation Date (COD) [85]. The Government of Thailand under the 15 years of the Alternative Energy Development Plan (AEDP) lay down targets to generate electricity utilising biomass in 2022 in three phases: short term (*2008-2011*) to achieve generation of power at *2800 MW*, mid-term (*2012-2016*) to attain a power at *3220 MW*, and long-term (*2017-2020*) to reach the objective of generation of electricity at *3700 MW*, respectively [85]. The 15 years of the Alternative Energy Development Plan (AEDP) presents electricity gener‐ ation utilising biogas in 2022 in three phases: short term (*2008-2011*) to achieve generation of power at 6*0 MW*, mid-term (*2012-2016*) to attain a power at 9*0 MW*, and long-term (*2017-2020*) to reach the objective of generation of electricity at 12*0 MW*, respectively [85]. Similarly for MSW: short term (*2008-2011*) to achieve generation of power at 78 *MW*, midterm (*2012-2016*) to attain a power at 13*0 MW*, and long-term (*2017-2020*) to reach the objec‐ tive of generation of electricity at 16*0 MW*, respectively [85]. It is reported that to date 1,610 MW, 46 MW and 5 MW of electricity generation has been obtained using biomass, biogas

Literature reports industrial wastewater and livestock manure are the major resources of bi‐ ogas in Thailand that have a potential of *7800* and *13,000 TJ per year*, respectively. This amount of waste can produce *620 million m3* of biogas. The installed capacity of biogas pow‐ er is *146 MW*. The Energy Policy and Planning Office (EPPO) highlighted in March 2010 the working of *41* biogas power plants feeding *43 MW* of power to the grid, negotiations are in progress with the Metropolitan Electrical Authority (MEA) and the Provincial Electrical Au‐ thority (PEA) for 15 plants with a capacity of *41 MW*, *31* approved plants with a capacity of *44 MW* are waiting for signing Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) contracts and *33* power plants with a capacity of *72 MW* are under construction and waiting for COD [85]. The Gov‐ ernment of Thailand under the 15 years of Alternatives Energy Development Plan (AEDP) lay down targets to generate electricity utilising biogas in 2022 in three phases: short term (*2008-2011*) to achieve generation of power at *60 MW*, mid-term (*2012-2016*) to attain a pow‐ er at *90 MW*, and long-term (*2017-2020*) to reach the objective of generation of electricity at

Thailand generates approximately *14.5 million tonnes* of MSW annually consisting of food waste (*41-61%*), paper (*4-25%*) and plastic (*3.6-28%*) which is decomposed to produce land‐ fill gas comprised of *60%* methane and *40%* CO2 using 90 landfills and three incinerators. The installed capacity of generating electricity from MSW is *13 MW*. The Energy Policy and Planning Office (EPPO) declared in March 2010 that 8 MSW power plants are in operation generating 11 MW of electricity which is fed to the grid, negotiations with Metropolitan Electrical Authority (MEA) and Provincial Electrical Authority (PEA) are being held for *10* plants with a capacity of *305 MW*, *15* approved plants with a capacity of *68 MW* are waiting for signing PPA contract and *14* plants with of capacity *96 MW* are under construction and waiting for COD [85]. The Government of Thailand under the 15 years of AEDP lay down

and MSW.

38 Sustainable Energy - Recent Studies

*120 MW*, respectively [85].

Biomass resource potential on marginal lands which is 6.5% of the total area of the country is reported to be 11, 281, 000 *tonnes year* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> and ethanol potential from this land at a rate of 4.4 *h m*<sup>3</sup> is *79%* of the current gasoline consumption [86]. Biofuels development in Vietnam is in its early stages compared with other ASEAN community, biofuels plants are in process of cultivation, potential feedstock are cassava, sugarcane, rubber seeds, jathropa and catfish oil. The country has a strong national target for biofules as alternative to fossil fuel and woking on ethanol and vegitable oil to replace 1% of country's petroleum demand by 2015, and 5% in 2025.

The biomass resources in Vietnam are: agricultural (paddy, maize, cassava, sweet potato), forest (natural, planted, wood, dispersed), industrial crops (sugarcane, peanut, coconut, cot‐ ton, jute, sedge, elephant grass) and other waste (industrial residues consisting of sawdust and molasses, livestock residues and solid waste) which accounts for 60-65% of the primary energy consumption and is being used for cooking fuel, organic fertilizer, biogas for domes‐ tic cooking, electricity production (in paper mills) and bioethanol production. The Govern‐ ment of Vietnam introduced a state biofuel development program in November 2007 aiming to develop renewable biofuels from biologically derived organic resources to replace a part of fossil fuels for future State energy security and environmental protection. The targets for these programs are: to develop *100 thousand tons* of E5 and *50 thousand tons* of B5 (0.4% of mass fuel consumption of the country) by the year of 2010; 250,000 tons of ethanol and vege‐ table oils equivalent 5 *mill tons*of E5 and B5 by the year 2015; and the production of ethanol and vegetable oil will reach 1.8 *mill tons*by the year 2020. A joint project between Petrosetco Vietnam and Itochu Company Japan is constructing a bioethanol factory that would be on completion capable of producing 100 *mill liters per year*using cassava starch. The country is in the process of developing new types of biomass as raw materials for biofuels from sea known as "Kappaphycus alvarezii (Green and Brown), Gracilaria tenuistipitata". The litera‐ ture does not report any production current activities of vegitable oil in Veitnam. Projects are largely still in the developing stage under the government, save for B5 production levels sourced from fish operating at 50,000 tonnes per year [86A, 86B].

ble source of energy production; and developing and assessing biomass utilization scenarios assuming various system scales and conversion technologies. Their findings reveal three im‐ portant facts. Firstly, electricity and heat energy obtained from rice husk burning furnaces, kilns, or stoves are the energy sources highly in demand by Mekong Delta's rural industries in both the present and the future. Secondly, the biomass based power plants use rice husk and straw as a fuel for generating power which accounts for 73-87% and 8-10%, respectively, of total unused agricultural residues in 2007-2030. Thirdly, the use of biomass power plant due in 2007-2030 could potentially reduce emission by 163−871 *kTCO*2−*eq*, equivalent to

Potential and Use of Bioenergy in The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Countries – A Review

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51917

41

Literature reports that a 4.4 GW of renewable energy moderate capacity potential exists in Vietnam that could be utilised to replace conventional fuel-generating capacities to produce electricity in the country. Among other renewables like hydro energy and geothermal ener‐ gy, biomass resources consisting of rice husk, paddy straw, bagasse (sugarcane, coffee husk and coconut shells), wood and plant residues have a potential of 1000−1600 *MW* generating electricity equivalent to 22.7% of the total expected potential of renewable energy for the

The largest obstacle to implementation of CDM projects is lack of technical knowhow, diffi‐ culties calculating emission reductions and submitting the requisite evidence of 'additionali‐ ty' as compared with the business-as-usual scenario. The energy sector is also faced with a lack of reliable official data on the Vietnamese power grid, making it more difficult to calcu‐

ASAEN countries are the main producers of palm oil and rubber with substantial planta‐ tions of coconut and paddy fields and they have started cultivation of jatropha on large areas. ASEAN countries are located in the equatorial region of the globe that provides a con‐ stant warm temperature and humid conditions throughout the year and makes this region suitable for a variety of large areas of plantation. The region has a potential of unwanted bi‐ omass (wastes from only palm oil, sugarcane and rice excluding all others) of up to 208.68 *million tonnes per annum* that is generated from the by-products after the milling proc‐ ess. This unwanted biomass has a potential of generating electricity up to 71.47 *TWh* which was 14.37% of total residential electricity usage for all ASEAN countries in 2006; with a con‐

land available in Mynmar, Vietnam, Cambodia and Lao that is still unused due to lack of sufficient funding, infrastructure and a skilled workforce. At the moment these countries are considered as undeveloped and use traditional agricultural methods for cultivation. Under the ASEAN cooperation framework, these countries can take help from other members through technology transfer and skilled manpower to modernise their agricultural sector and increase agricultural revenues. It is expected that with this cooperation the total land area of 10.74 *million hectares*, after deducting the area of plantations from total agricultural

biomass energy yield. There is a huge agricultural

21−109*%* of GHG emission in the study area over the same period of time.

late viable emission factors and baselines for ascertaining CO2 savings.

country that accounts for 4.4 *GW* [91].

**13. Unified ASEAN bioenergy outlook**

version efficiency of 30% and 10 *MJ k g* <sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

The main feedstocks for biodiesel production in Vietnam are "Basa" fish oil, used cooking oil and rubber seed oil. The potential of "Basa" for the year 2005 was estimated to be of *60,000 tones* that could produce *48,000 tons* of biodiesel. Saigon Petro and Agifish are in the processing of developing a project with a capacity of producing 10, 000 *tons per year*biodisel. There is *73,800 tons* of used oil with a potential of producing 33,000 tons of biodiesel. Saigon Petro is developing a facility to extract 2 *tons per day* biodiesel using 4−5 *tons per day* of used cooking oil. Rubber trees are planted on more than 500, 000 *ha*in 2006 and it is planned to rise to 1, 000, 000 *ha* that can produce 200, 000−300, 000 *tons* rubber fruits every year, equiv‐ alent to 17, 600−330, 000 *tons*of rubber oil which is not edible and one of important bio-re‐ source to biodiesel production. It can either be used directly by thermal cracking to hydrocarbon or in form of ethyl ester, blended with petroleum diesel. Biodiesel from ethyl ester of Vietnamese rubber seed oil according to the European standard for determination of biodiesel (E.DIN 51606), blended from 5% to 20% with petroleum diesel, can be used as a fuel for electric generators and car diesel motors [87].

Many projects have been carried out to develop cultivation of jatropha in different provi‐ dences of Vietnam and some of these projects are in pilot scale for production of biodiesel [87]. Nguyen [88] studied the rice husk potential of Vietnam (1995 – 2002) and noted a rise in the planted area (6,766,000 to 7,485,000 hectors); rice husk output which was assumed to be 20% of paddy increased from 4,993,000 tons to 6,813,000 tons; 30% of the rice husk was as‐ sumed to be used to generate electricity and with this assumption a rise in the supply of rice husk for generating power was increased from 923,000 tons to 1,249,000 tons. This study re‐ ports that there are 615 rice mills in the country and each mill collects rice within a radius of 20 km. The electricity generated using rice husk that feeds power to a grid can reduce the emission by 0.615 *kg of CO*<sup>2</sup> *per kWh* compared with the conventional fossil fuel. Off grid can reduce 0.8 *kg of CO*<sup>2</sup> *per kWh* [89].

Rice husk and straw are the most available biomass for energy production in the Mekong Delta. Dang et al. [90] studied energy needs for this region by estimating the current and future energy demands of rural industries; identifying the type and quantity of most availa‐ ble source of energy production; and developing and assessing biomass utilization scenarios assuming various system scales and conversion technologies. Their findings reveal three im‐ portant facts. Firstly, electricity and heat energy obtained from rice husk burning furnaces, kilns, or stoves are the energy sources highly in demand by Mekong Delta's rural industries in both the present and the future. Secondly, the biomass based power plants use rice husk and straw as a fuel for generating power which accounts for 73-87% and 8-10%, respectively, of total unused agricultural residues in 2007-2030. Thirdly, the use of biomass power plant due in 2007-2030 could potentially reduce emission by 163−871 *kTCO*2−*eq*, equivalent to 21−109*%* of GHG emission in the study area over the same period of time.

Literature reports that a 4.4 GW of renewable energy moderate capacity potential exists in Vietnam that could be utilised to replace conventional fuel-generating capacities to produce electricity in the country. Among other renewables like hydro energy and geothermal ener‐ gy, biomass resources consisting of rice husk, paddy straw, bagasse (sugarcane, coffee husk and coconut shells), wood and plant residues have a potential of 1000−1600 *MW* generating electricity equivalent to 22.7% of the total expected potential of renewable energy for the country that accounts for 4.4 *GW* [91].

The largest obstacle to implementation of CDM projects is lack of technical knowhow, diffi‐ culties calculating emission reductions and submitting the requisite evidence of 'additionali‐ ty' as compared with the business-as-usual scenario. The energy sector is also faced with a lack of reliable official data on the Vietnamese power grid, making it more difficult to calcu‐ late viable emission factors and baselines for ascertaining CO2 savings.
