**2. Ants biology: Subfamily Ponerinae**

Ants (Vespoidea: Formicidae) belong to the insect order Hymenoptera, which includes other important families like Apidae (bees) and Vespidae (wasps) [3]. The family Formicidae consists of approximately 13.000 species of ants, most of them exibiting an advanced and sophisticated social life. With colonies ranging from tens to millions of individuals, a high diversity as well as numerical and biomass dominance in almost every habitat throughout the world, ants form an important component of terrestrial biodiversity, especially in the Neotropical Region, where about 30% of all known ant species are found [4,5]. All ant species possess eusocial habits, the most conspicuous one being the reproductive division of labor, with one to many queens specialized in reproduction, while the more and less sterile, and nonreproductive workers, help the queen(s) reproduction, tending the brood and dealing with all other tasks of the colony like food collection, nest repair, nest and/territory defense [6].

With more than 1000 species distributed in 28 genera, like *Dinoponera* and *Paraponera*, the Ponerinae subfamily is a primitive group of ants mainly found in tropical habitats [4]. It is also one the four major ant groups (Myrmicinae, Formicinae, Ponerinae and Dolichoderinae), all characterized by high species diversity and widespread geographic distribution [4]. *Dinopo‐ nera* Roger, 1861 [7] is a strictly Neotropical genus with six known species [5] that are consid‐ ered the largest ants of the world (3-4 cm in length): *D. australis*Emery, 1910; *D. gigantea*(Perty, 1833); *D. longipes* Emery, 1901; *D. lucida*Emery, 1901; *D. mutica*Emery, 1901; and *D. quadriceps* Santschi, 1921 (Figure 1). Like in other ponerine ants, *Dinoponera* colonies have a poor social organization, with small colonies that are queenless [9, 10]. Contrary to most ant species, all workers of the *Dinoponera* colony are potential reproductives with functional spermatheca. However, only one (sometimes more) worker mate and become the dominant worker with reproductive function that is regularly disputed by subdominant workers [9, 10]. Like most Ponerinae, *Dinoponera* are mostly predatory ants: their common prey are medium size to large arthropods (mainly insects) that they subdue with their sting [11, 12]

Like all Aculeata hymenopterans (Chrysidoidea, Apoidea, Vespoidea), *Dinoponera* ants have a sting apparatus that is located in the last portion of the gaster, and is formed by the sting itself (derived from the ovipositor of more basal hymenopteran groups) along with two as‐ sociated glands: the Dufour's gland and the venom gland [4,13]. In all ants, the venom gland apparatus typically consists of paired venom secreting tubules that converge into a single convoluted gland (an elongated continuation of the secretory tubule into the venom gland reservoir), which in turn empties into a sac-like reservoir that leads into the sting (in ants with sting) [4](Figure 2). In *D. australis*, it was shown that the convoluted gland has, like the free tubules, a secretory function [14]. The free tubules and convoluted gland are responsible for toxin production [14], which seems to be composed mainly of proteins [4,15]. Further‐ more, it was also shown that its morphology and ultrastructural organization presents simi‐ larity with the convoluted gland of vespine waps (Vespinae), a fact that supports the hypothesis of a phylogenetic origin of ants from wasp-like ancestors [14].

**Figure 1.** *Dinoponera quadriceps* (Quinet, Y.P. 2011)

insects, such as those belonging to the order Hymenoptera [2] will be crucial and timely for

An Integrated View of the Molecular Recognition and Toxinology - From Analytical Procedures to Biomedical

Ants (Vespoidea: Formicidae) belong to the insect order Hymenoptera, which includes other important families like Apidae (bees) and Vespidae (wasps) [3]. The family Formicidae consists of approximately 13.000 species of ants, most of them exibiting an advanced and sophisticated social life. With colonies ranging from tens to millions of individuals, a high diversity as well as numerical and biomass dominance in almost every habitat throughout the world, ants form an important component of terrestrial biodiversity, especially in the Neotropical Region, where about 30% of all known ant species are found [4,5]. All ant species possess eusocial habits, the most conspicuous one being the reproductive division of labor, with one to many queens specialized in reproduction, while the more and less sterile, and nonreproductive workers, help the queen(s) reproduction, tending the brood and dealing with all other tasks of the colony

With more than 1000 species distributed in 28 genera, like *Dinoponera* and *Paraponera*, the Ponerinae subfamily is a primitive group of ants mainly found in tropical habitats [4]. It is also one the four major ant groups (Myrmicinae, Formicinae, Ponerinae and Dolichoderinae), all characterized by high species diversity and widespread geographic distribution [4]. *Dinopo‐ nera* Roger, 1861 [7] is a strictly Neotropical genus with six known species [5] that are consid‐ ered the largest ants of the world (3-4 cm in length): *D. australis*Emery, 1910; *D. gigantea*(Perty, 1833); *D. longipes* Emery, 1901; *D. lucida*Emery, 1901; *D. mutica*Emery, 1901; and *D. quadriceps* Santschi, 1921 (Figure 1). Like in other ponerine ants, *Dinoponera* colonies have a poor social organization, with small colonies that are queenless [9, 10]. Contrary to most ant species, all workers of the *Dinoponera* colony are potential reproductives with functional spermatheca. However, only one (sometimes more) worker mate and become the dominant worker with reproductive function that is regularly disputed by subdominant workers [9, 10]. Like most Ponerinae, *Dinoponera* are mostly predatory ants: their common prey are medium size to large

Like all Aculeata hymenopterans (Chrysidoidea, Apoidea, Vespoidea), *Dinoponera* ants have a sting apparatus that is located in the last portion of the gaster, and is formed by the sting itself (derived from the ovipositor of more basal hymenopteran groups) along with two as‐ sociated glands: the Dufour's gland and the venom gland [4,13]. In all ants, the venom gland apparatus typically consists of paired venom secreting tubules that converge into a single convoluted gland (an elongated continuation of the secretory tubule into the venom gland reservoir), which in turn empties into a sac-like reservoir that leads into the sting (in ants with sting) [4](Figure 2). In *D. australis*, it was shown that the convoluted gland has, like the free tubules, a secretory function [14]. The free tubules and convoluted gland are responsible for toxin production [14], which seems to be composed mainly of proteins [4,15]. Further‐ more, it was also shown that its morphology and ultrastructural organization presents simi‐

basic and applied research.

Applications

208

**2. Ants biology: Subfamily Ponerinae**

like food collection, nest repair, nest and/territory defense [6].

arthropods (mainly insects) that they subdue with their sting [11, 12]

**Figure 2.** Secretory apparatus from *D. quadriceps* (Quinet, Y.P. 2010)

In solitary Aculeata hymenopterans, and in social bees and wasps, the venom has two main functions: prey capture and defense, respectively [13,16]. In ants, the products from the venom exhibit much higher diversity of biological roles. Particularly In stinging ants, particularly in primitive groups like Ponerinae, the primary function of venom gland products is to serve as injectable offensive or/and defensive agents (to capture prey, fight with competitors or against predators, for example) [13,16]. In more derived functions, the venom gland products are used as defensive (toxic and/or repellent) agents by non-stinging ants that topically apply them on the cuticle of enemies, as in *Crematogaster* or *Monomorium* ants for example. Venom gland products can also serve as chemical communication agents (alarm and recruitment phero‐ mones, for example) [16,17].
