**3. Clinical aspects of ants' stings**

Many insect stings are associated with local pathophysiological events, characterized by pain, swelling and redness at the sting site for about 1-2 days [18]. The most severe reactions are associated with allergic disorders, presenting neutrophilic and eosinophilic infiltration and specific IgE production [19]. These manifestations are common in accidents with Hymenoptera insects. Most studies that describe the clinical aspects of ant stings reported accidents with ants of the genus *Solenopsis* (Myrmicinae), known as fire ants [20,21,22]. In most serious cases, these accidental encounter with fire ants can promote multiple body rash, seizures, heart failure, and serum sickness nephritis and, more rarely, acute renal failure [23,24].

investigated, over 75 unique protein components were found with a large diversity of properties ranging in size, hydrophobicity, and overall abundance [30]. The biological effects of several ants' venoms have been attributed to their protein repertoire. As showed by [31] high molecular weight proteins are present in the venom of *Dinoponera australis*. In a compa‐ rative evaluation of protein composition of hymenopteran venom reservoirs, proteins with molecular weight ranging from 24 to 75kDa were evidenced [29]. Additionaly, two peptides with less than 10 kDa, as well as proteins with molecular weight ranging from 26-90 kDa were also found in the venom of *Myrmecia pilosula* [32]. The electrophoretic profile of wasps also shows variation in the protein molecular weight, ranging from 5 to 200kDa [33,34], whereas

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The first reported case about the therapeutic use of venoms from ants were to treat rheumatoid arthritis. In fact, insects might have components that justify its use in traditional medicine in countries of East Asia, Africa and South America [36]. Lately, several studies of ant venom aimed to demonstrate their beneficial intrinsic properties such as reduction of inflammation,

As the venom from Ponerinae subfamily is composed of a complex mixtures of proteins and neurotoxins [39] we would expected to have several pharmacological properties. Small peptides isolated from *Paraponera clavata* venom, called poneratoxin (PoTx) interfere with

Several distinctive pharmacological activities were demonstrated with peptides isolated from *Pachycondyla goeldii* and *Myrmecia* sp. In one of these works, antimicrobial activity against both Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria was observed [42, 43]. In a recent study [44], it was reported that the venom from *Pachycondila sennaarensis* has a significant antitumor effect on breast cancer cells in a dose and time dependent manner without affecting the viability of non tumor cells. In addition, some studies have also shown the renal effects of Hymenoptera venoms. In fact, in more serious accidents with venoms from wasps and bees acute renal failure

Since the description of DNA double helix by Francis Crick and James Watson (1953), re‐ combinant DNA technology and genomics revolutionized numerous areas of life science. The comprehension of the biochemical and molecular basis of inheritance had been improved our knowledge about the complexity of all forms of life and the manner how genes and proteins interact to create diversity. The genomic revolution was additionally expanded with the advent of bioinformatic, the 'omic' science (transcriptomic, proteomic, peptidome, metabolomic,

sodium channels function and have potential use as a biological insecticide [40,41].

the venoms of bees was shown to range from 2 to108 kDa [35].

**5. Pharmacology and therapeutic uses of venom form ants**

pain relief, improved function of the immune system and liver [37,38].

generally occurs [45,46, 47, 48].

glycome) and, presently, system biology.

**6. Genomic study of ant venom composition**

Accidents with ants of the Ponerinae subfamily are rare or rarely reported. In fact, several concomitant or sequential stings are necessary in order to produce significant clinical symp‐ toms of envenomation, in giant ants, multiple attacks are less probable, since workers have a solitary foraging behavior. However, some of the accidents with giants ants may have medical importance, such as the ones produced by the genus *Paraponera* and *Dinoponera*, popularly known as "true tocandira" and "false tocandira", respectively. Their stings are extremely painful and can cause potentially systemic manifestations such as fever, cold sweats, nausea, vomiting, lymphadenopathy and cardiac arrhythmias [8,25,26]. According to [27,28] the venom of these ants may be neurotoxic for other insects.
