**7. Contemporary trends in visual and material culture**

#### **7.1. Textiles**

**Figure 1.** Design connecting the tangible elements of culture.

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**6. Nigerian visual and material culture**

development from traditional to contemporary practices.

Oladokun, 2009).

Behind every man-made object is a valuable concept, beliefs, customs, rituals, habits and ideas that shape its perception within a socio-cultural environment. Visual culture has been described as the artistic tastes and interpretation of what is aesthetically pleasing to an individual depending upon the surroundings and the environment. However, it is not just artistic differences that are influenced by environmental differences. In addition, there is the practicality of the visual statement. Based on the separate goals and purposes that need to be met by aesthetics and the way in which they are interpreted within a specific locale, visual rhetoric widely varies based on classical cultural differences. There are innate differences in the way people view images because our interpretations of aesthetics and practicality stem directly from our localized cultural experiences. The interpretation of design as visual and material culture enables a broad understanding and critical awareness of its meanings as material objects, images and cultural practices that position human beings in time and space. The term "material culture" is often used by archaeologists as a non-specific way of referring to artefacts or other concrete things left by past cultures. Material culture means something else to art historians. Interestingly enough, when they speak of material culture they look at an object within its environmental and cultural context as things left by past cultures. The organization of cultural activities such as business or economic activities led to cultural industries. The idea of 'creative industries' originated from a concern with the cultural industries. The core of the cultural industry is its creativity (Kwanashee, Aremu, Okoi &

Nigeria is a large society that has different subcultures because it is made up of people bearing different value systems which influence each other to shape a specific culture for the society as a whole. The conventions and values that underlie Nigerian visual and material culture are rooted in the visual art and design forms and the key continuities and changes that characterize The local textile industry is diverse, with such branches as spinning, weaving, knitting, sewing, dyeing, embroidery and printing, all of which are significant for clothing, a material culture that is a part and parcel of human life. Common woven fabrics in Nigeria are "Etu", "Alari", "Sanyan", "Fuu" and "Waka", which are used for different purposes ranging from day-to-day and ceremonial use, as in for religious purposes. Cloth weaving is an outstanding craft among the variety of textiles produced in Nigeria. The woven cloths are done on narrow looms in the south-western towns of Iseyin, Oyo, Ogbomoso and Okene in Kogi State; Akwete cloth is made in Akete in Abia State. They are woven materials produced in attractive designs with rich colours and made for male and females. Resistance tie and dye textile products are traditional indigenous crafts done in different societies in Nigeria. Examples are the Hausa traditional indigo dye carried out in the Northern Nigerian areas of Kano, Sokoto and Zaria. The Kano indigo-vegetable dyeing pits are one of the most fascinating aspects of the old city. Various designs are folded into the material before dyeing and the fabric is often beaten to achieve its shiny, attractive appearance. The techniques employed to obtain this look are unmatched around the world. Moreover, although the methods adopted are ancient, these lush works of art on fabric always remain extremely popular and continue to be in great demand.

**Figure 2.** A typical dye pit at Kano (2012).

Other styles of indigenous textiles are found in the Yoruba towns of Oshogbo, Ilorin, Ondo, Ibadan, Ogbomoso, Oyo and Abeokuta (Eicher, 1976). Local cassava starch is used as a basic resistance material. The blue dye is obtained from a local shrub and dyeing is carried out in large pots at Abeokuta, Ibadan, Ife and Osogbo, while in the northern part of the country it is done in open dye pits which are two to three metres deep. A local vegetable from which an indigo colour is extracted are employed as the colouring agent. This textile craft has been encouraged through the training of the less privileged in such national programmes as Better Life for Rural Women, which was later taken over by the Family Economic and Advancement Programme, set up in 1990. These programmes were meant to develop and encourage the talent and creative energy of women at the grassroots level of society. The Textile Traditional and Research Centre is located at Gbongan / Ife road, Oshogbo, Osun State of Nigeria. The National Research Centre is focused on the textile traditions of Nigeria with a view to encour‐ aging the industry to grow, thereby promoting job opportunities and transforming the rural economy. Below is a sample of the popular *Alari*, as represented by the field research of Maiwada, Dutsenwai and Waziri 2012 (see Fig. 3). The *Alari* that is also *either* referred to as *Aso Oke* or *Aso Ebi*, that is (Commemoration Cloth) was described by Makinde and Ajiboye (2009) as significant attire used for social functions in Yoruba land.

**Figure 4.** Artist and Designer Nike Davies Okundaye (source: http://www.nikeart.com/main.html).

Ojo (2004) reportedly worked extensively on appliqué and quilting. He described it as a product of the expression of traditional resources which provides an avenue for problem solving in a particular stylistic artistic vacuity and has been identified as bridgehead craft for matching and contacting the confluence of handcraft and the brain. Quilting is about the joining together of layers of fabrics by the tiny running of stitches, while padding is secured between the two outer layers; appliqué is the principle of stitching a multi-colour piece of fabric

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In culture and musical costumes, they are both used in embellishing masquerades and as garments for creating identity by some Nigerian musicians, such as "Lágbájá". They are used in bedding, cushions, pillowcases and head rests, etc. They are found to match manufacturer's specifications in the mass production industries as featured in areas such as the lapels of footballers' boots, goal keepers' chest and knee protectors, while life jackets, sports wares and hand gloves are now being manufactured using the a textile process that assist in the process of machine quitting technique. A typical example of a culture costume by Lágbájá is shown in figure 6, below. If you were to call out the name Lágbájá in Yoruba, you could be calling for somebody, anybody, everybody or nobody! The Nigerian musician Lágbájá has made a commitment to always wear a mask on stage so as to hide his identity. He is described by the phrase: 'The man without a face who speaks for the people without a voice'. His masks and costumes have many different designs. Generally, Lágbájá's music blends jazz, afrobeat, highlife, juju, funk and traditional Yoruba music, using horns, guitars and keyboards along with traditional Nigerian instruments. Sometimes, the music is purely instrumental but when there are lyrics, they are in Yoruba, English or a combination of the two commonly spoken in Lagos. The lyrics focus on issues relating to democracy and fairness in society; the titles of the

to a contrasting background in order to illustrate stories depicting communal events.

songs themselves get the desired message across. (See Fig. 6)

**Figure 3.** *Agbada (Alari*) produced in Ogun State, Nigeria (source: http//www.aijcrnet.com).

Some other very interesting textile crafts made in Nigeria, especially at Nike gallery, Oshogbo in Osun State, have to do with experimentation with many yarns, which simultaneously change the way the yarn colours are viewed. They are made with a high percentage of wool and 20% or more fancy or strengthening yarns, such as silks, ribbons, cotton or even metallic yarns. Rugs are also made using 100% pure single-type yarns to get warm or beautifully cool cottons. They are designed to fit traditional and contemporary spaces. They are used for floor carpets, picnic rugs and therapy mats, blankets, throws and even duvets, wall hangings and corporate art pieces. Figure 4 shows her gallery logo, her elegant portrait in an elaborate costume and a sample of her batik cloth.

**Figure 4.** Artist and Designer Nike Davies Okundaye (source: http://www.nikeart.com/main.html).

Other styles of indigenous textiles are found in the Yoruba towns of Oshogbo, Ilorin, Ondo, Ibadan, Ogbomoso, Oyo and Abeokuta (Eicher, 1976). Local cassava starch is used as a basic resistance material. The blue dye is obtained from a local shrub and dyeing is carried out in large pots at Abeokuta, Ibadan, Ife and Osogbo, while in the northern part of the country it is done in open dye pits which are two to three metres deep. A local vegetable from which an indigo colour is extracted are employed as the colouring agent. This textile craft has been encouraged through the training of the less privileged in such national programmes as Better Life for Rural Women, which was later taken over by the Family Economic and Advancement Programme, set up in 1990. These programmes were meant to develop and encourage the talent and creative energy of women at the grassroots level of society. The Textile Traditional and Research Centre is located at Gbongan / Ife road, Oshogbo, Osun State of Nigeria. The National Research Centre is focused on the textile traditions of Nigeria with a view to encour‐ aging the industry to grow, thereby promoting job opportunities and transforming the rural economy. Below is a sample of the popular *Alari*, as represented by the field research of Maiwada, Dutsenwai and Waziri 2012 (see Fig. 3). The *Alari* that is also *either* referred to as *Aso Oke* or *Aso Ebi*, that is (Commemoration Cloth) was described by Makinde and Ajiboye

(2009) as significant attire used for social functions in Yoruba land.

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**Figure 3.** *Agbada (Alari*) produced in Ogun State, Nigeria (source: http//www.aijcrnet.com).

costume and a sample of her batik cloth.

Some other very interesting textile crafts made in Nigeria, especially at Nike gallery, Oshogbo in Osun State, have to do with experimentation with many yarns, which simultaneously change the way the yarn colours are viewed. They are made with a high percentage of wool and 20% or more fancy or strengthening yarns, such as silks, ribbons, cotton or even metallic yarns. Rugs are also made using 100% pure single-type yarns to get warm or beautifully cool cottons. They are designed to fit traditional and contemporary spaces. They are used for floor carpets, picnic rugs and therapy mats, blankets, throws and even duvets, wall hangings and corporate art pieces. Figure 4 shows her gallery logo, her elegant portrait in an elaborate

Ojo (2004) reportedly worked extensively on appliqué and quilting. He described it as a product of the expression of traditional resources which provides an avenue for problem solving in a particular stylistic artistic vacuity and has been identified as bridgehead craft for matching and contacting the confluence of handcraft and the brain. Quilting is about the joining together of layers of fabrics by the tiny running of stitches, while padding is secured between the two outer layers; appliqué is the principle of stitching a multi-colour piece of fabric to a contrasting background in order to illustrate stories depicting communal events.

In culture and musical costumes, they are both used in embellishing masquerades and as garments for creating identity by some Nigerian musicians, such as "Lágbájá". They are used in bedding, cushions, pillowcases and head rests, etc. They are found to match manufacturer's specifications in the mass production industries as featured in areas such as the lapels of footballers' boots, goal keepers' chest and knee protectors, while life jackets, sports wares and hand gloves are now being manufactured using the a textile process that assist in the process of machine quitting technique. A typical example of a culture costume by Lágbájá is shown in figure 6, below. If you were to call out the name Lágbájá in Yoruba, you could be calling for somebody, anybody, everybody or nobody! The Nigerian musician Lágbájá has made a commitment to always wear a mask on stage so as to hide his identity. He is described by the phrase: 'The man without a face who speaks for the people without a voice'. His masks and costumes have many different designs. Generally, Lágbájá's music blends jazz, afrobeat, highlife, juju, funk and traditional Yoruba music, using horns, guitars and keyboards along with traditional Nigerian instruments. Sometimes, the music is purely instrumental but when there are lyrics, they are in Yoruba, English or a combination of the two commonly spoken in Lagos. The lyrics focus on issues relating to democracy and fairness in society; the titles of the songs themselves get the desired message across. (See Fig. 6)

Lágbájá is definitely one of Africa's most exciting contemporary artists, whose elaborate masks and stage costumes link him to the ancient tradition of Egungun: ancestral masquerading

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Jewellery is very significant to adornment within almost all traditional cultures in Nigeria. Various investigations have been made into beadwork and clothing and other metallic materials used for adornment. According to Adesanya (2010), the jewellery in Yoruba land is made out of different materials, ranging from beads, cowries, plant seeds, annual bows, ivory, leather, stone and metals (including bronze and silver), the latter of which this article places emphasis on as its practice cuts across some major ethnic groups in Nigeria who mass produce them for economic survival. Jewellery and metal work as professions have long historical standing, symbolizing wealth and power. The Nok, Ife, Benin and Igbo-Ukwu have made significant contributions to the development of jewellery. Emeriewen (2007), in his assertion of the paradigm of the Benin Art School experience, refers to the products of metal design as the fabrication of aesthetically functional objects referred to as metal work and craft. He analysed the contribution of the Benin Art School in metal product design in the area of making decorative gongs, lamp stands, flower pot stands, maces and gavels, as well as the contempo‐ rary use of metal design for public place furniture. A sample of such metal products in bronze

Ibude (2010) has made an extensive exploration into the development of a prototype solid fuel kiln for cost-effective ceramic firing at a Nigerian university. He conceptualized this kiln's

spirits who help guide people towards truth and peace.

from Benin is highlighted in figure 7, below:

**Figure 7.** Benin ivory mask (a symbol of Nigerian craft artistry).

**7.3. Ceramics**

**7.2. Jewellery**

**Figure 5.** Works Produced at the Traditional Textile Research Centre located at Gbongan / Ife road, Oshogbo, Osun State.

**Figure 6.** Lágbájá - one of Nigeria's contemporary musicians.

Lágbájá is definitely one of Africa's most exciting contemporary artists, whose elaborate masks and stage costumes link him to the ancient tradition of Egungun: ancestral masquerading spirits who help guide people towards truth and peace.

#### **7.2. Jewellery**

**Figure 5.** Works Produced at the Traditional Textile Research Centre located at Gbongan / Ife road, Oshogbo, Osun

State.

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**Figure 6.** Lágbájá - one of Nigeria's contemporary musicians.

Jewellery is very significant to adornment within almost all traditional cultures in Nigeria. Various investigations have been made into beadwork and clothing and other metallic materials used for adornment. According to Adesanya (2010), the jewellery in Yoruba land is made out of different materials, ranging from beads, cowries, plant seeds, annual bows, ivory, leather, stone and metals (including bronze and silver), the latter of which this article places emphasis on as its practice cuts across some major ethnic groups in Nigeria who mass produce them for economic survival. Jewellery and metal work as professions have long historical standing, symbolizing wealth and power. The Nok, Ife, Benin and Igbo-Ukwu have made significant contributions to the development of jewellery. Emeriewen (2007), in his assertion of the paradigm of the Benin Art School experience, refers to the products of metal design as the fabrication of aesthetically functional objects referred to as metal work and craft. He analysed the contribution of the Benin Art School in metal product design in the area of making decorative gongs, lamp stands, flower pot stands, maces and gavels, as well as the contempo‐ rary use of metal design for public place furniture. A sample of such metal products in bronze from Benin is highlighted in figure 7, below:

**Figure 7.** Benin ivory mask (a symbol of Nigerian craft artistry).

#### **7.3. Ceramics**

Ibude (2010) has made an extensive exploration into the development of a prototype solid fuel kiln for cost-effective ceramic firing at a Nigerian university. He conceptualized this kiln's production as a critical intervention into the exceptional functioning of the ceramic industries, largely due to the high cost of fuel and the inadequate supply of electricity to meet up with local consumption in Nigeria. The construction of a wood-fired kiln from the researchers' pilot study indicated that it is cheaper to operate in an environment that has significant forest areas and sawmilling activities. He collected the kaolin that he used locally to fabricate a refractory insulator and the dense bricks that he used to build his kiln. The kiln utilizes hardwoods as fuel as it produces better heat (more calories) and the cost of operating a wood kiln was very cheap when compare with gas, electricity and kerosene. The kiln was a prototype that became a source of reference for the development of wood kilns in tertiary institutions in Nigeria and technical manuals.

Kashim (2004) explored the richly endowed national ceramic resources to develop her capacity for high-tech, value added manufacturing activities in the production of ceramic hardware, such as ball mill lining, porcelain milling balls and pestles and mortars. This production was made through the identification, selection and synthesis of local raw materials available in Nigeria to ascertain their suitability for those whiteware ceramic bodies popularly referred to as porcelain. The prototypes were replicated using the Jigger Jolley machine and the process of slip casting using the plaster of Paris mould. Examples of the works produced include cylinders, pestles and mortars, decorative pieces, ball mill pebbles and lining. An example is the Benin Mask in figure 9, below, which indicates the outcome of the research effort. Levi O'bem Yakubu, a 1979 graduate of industrial design with a focus on ceramics from the famous Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Zaria, is the founder and chief executive of the Makurdibased Dajo Pottery Limited, a multi-award winning ceramic industry in Nigeria and world acclaimed company. He has contributed significantly to ceramics production in Nigeria using various production methodologies (see Fig. 10) Other prototype contributions are also in respect of oil burner used to fire ceramic kiln at Federal polytechnic,Auchi. See Fig. 11

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**Figure 9.** A typical cast piece of a Benin Mask in porcelain.

Adelabu (2011) developed computer-aided ceramic glaze formulation using locally sourced ceramic materials in Nigeria. He focused his study on developing standardized indigenous glaze recipes based on local raw materials in the states of Ondo, Osun and Edo through the aid of a sampled computer-aided software packages namely Matrix V6.01 and Hyperglaze software (authored by Lawrence Ewing and Richard Burkett respectively). This was done so as to establish a better technique for the process of glaze formulation in Nigeria and proffer solutions to prevailing problems of glaze composition encountered by ceramic students and practioners in Nigeria. All of these packages used to develop the Nigerian version of glaze preparation have been developed internationally in order to assist students in their glaze chemistry since the late 1970s. He developed a prototype test kiln that was used to fire the glaze product as highlighted below in figure 8: the product design established awareness as to the current software solution for ceramic glaze experimentation in Nigeria which has not hitherto been used by practicing ceramists in Nigeria.

**Figure 8.** A typical model of a kiln design constructed for the purpose of ceramic firing research (Adelabu O.S, 2011).

Kashim (2004) explored the richly endowed national ceramic resources to develop her capacity for high-tech, value added manufacturing activities in the production of ceramic hardware, such as ball mill lining, porcelain milling balls and pestles and mortars. This production was made through the identification, selection and synthesis of local raw materials available in Nigeria to ascertain their suitability for those whiteware ceramic bodies popularly referred to as porcelain. The prototypes were replicated using the Jigger Jolley machine and the process of slip casting using the plaster of Paris mould. Examples of the works produced include cylinders, pestles and mortars, decorative pieces, ball mill pebbles and lining. An example is the Benin Mask in figure 9, below, which indicates the outcome of the research effort. Levi O'bem Yakubu, a 1979 graduate of industrial design with a focus on ceramics from the famous Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Zaria, is the founder and chief executive of the Makurdibased Dajo Pottery Limited, a multi-award winning ceramic industry in Nigeria and world acclaimed company. He has contributed significantly to ceramics production in Nigeria using various production methodologies (see Fig. 10) Other prototype contributions are also in respect of oil burner used to fire ceramic kiln at Federal polytechnic,Auchi. See Fig. 11

**Figure 9.** A typical cast piece of a Benin Mask in porcelain.

production as a critical intervention into the exceptional functioning of the ceramic industries, largely due to the high cost of fuel and the inadequate supply of electricity to meet up with local consumption in Nigeria. The construction of a wood-fired kiln from the researchers' pilot study indicated that it is cheaper to operate in an environment that has significant forest areas and sawmilling activities. He collected the kaolin that he used locally to fabricate a refractory insulator and the dense bricks that he used to build his kiln. The kiln utilizes hardwoods as fuel as it produces better heat (more calories) and the cost of operating a wood kiln was very cheap when compare with gas, electricity and kerosene. The kiln was a prototype that became a source of reference for the development of wood kilns in tertiary institutions in Nigeria and

Adelabu (2011) developed computer-aided ceramic glaze formulation using locally sourced ceramic materials in Nigeria. He focused his study on developing standardized indigenous glaze recipes based on local raw materials in the states of Ondo, Osun and Edo through the aid of a sampled computer-aided software packages namely Matrix V6.01 and Hyperglaze software (authored by Lawrence Ewing and Richard Burkett respectively). This was done so as to establish a better technique for the process of glaze formulation in Nigeria and proffer solutions to prevailing problems of glaze composition encountered by ceramic students and practioners in Nigeria. All of these packages used to develop the Nigerian version of glaze preparation have been developed internationally in order to assist students in their glaze chemistry since the late 1970s. He developed a prototype test kiln that was used to fire the glaze product as highlighted below in figure 8: the product design established awareness as to the current software solution for ceramic glaze experimentation in Nigeria which has not

**Figure 8.** A typical model of a kiln design constructed for the purpose of ceramic firing research (Adelabu O.S, 2011).

technical manuals.

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hitherto been used by practicing ceramists in Nigeria.

the economic development of commercial products. Figure 12a presents a graphical logo and slogan from March 2009 by a former Nigerian President, Umaru Yar'Adua, unveiled as a part

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Calabashes - or gourds - are the fruits of several varieties of creeper, some of which are grown along with farm crops. Their creation involve carving and sawing, burning (pyro-engraving) and scorching with heated metal tools, colouring with karan dafi dye and whitening with clay.

**Figure 13.** Calabash decorations by Cynthia Oldenkamp (source: http://www.uni.edu/gai/Nigeria/Lessons/Cala‐

of the administration's efforts to rebrand the country's image globally.

**Figure 12.** A graphical logo for a Nigerian rebranding project.

**8. Craft designs**

bash.html).

**8.1. Calabash decoration**

**Figure 10.** Levi O'bem Yakubu, Chief Executive of Dajo Pottery Limited, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria (2012).

**Figure 11.** Ceramic test kiln, constructed by a Higher National Diploma student of the Federal Polytechnic, Auchi, Edo State, Nigeria (Ogunduyile, S.R, 2006).

#### **7.4. Graphics**

Graphical design is all about us, in our daily newspapers, on our commute to work, on book covers and in logos, websites, advertisements, bill boards, product packaging and posters, etc.

Graphics has been used as a tool of communication, like journalists in media organizations, radios and newspapers, and so is an artist in advertising. The mode of communication requires the use of graphical signs and symbols as a medium through which creativity is expressed, generating a societal response that is either positive or negative. Apart from the fact that products are advertised over and over until the public develop a strong feeling of acceptability for them, traditional graphics' inscriptions are influential media products that are vital to society for information dissemination, education, entertaining the public and contributing to the economic development of commercial products. Figure 12a presents a graphical logo and slogan from March 2009 by a former Nigerian President, Umaru Yar'Adua, unveiled as a part of the administration's efforts to rebrand the country's image globally.

**Figure 12.** A graphical logo for a Nigerian rebranding project.
