**3. Education for sustainability**

**2. Stages of child development**

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A child is a human being in the "cradle" of her or his development. Childhood is the period from birth until about the 12th year of a person's life. It is a time of great physical develop‐ ment, manifested by progressive increase in height and weight of the child. It is also the pe‐ riod when the human being develops psychologically, and during which changes occur in behaviour and the foundations of personality are developed. Regarding the maturity of all species that inhabit the Earth, the human being is the one with the slowest growth and de‐ velopment rates of all. The human is a rather slow developing species; for example, in the time that a child learns to walk and run with sufficient equilibrium, other species reach full

According to Wallon (1981), the human being is determined physiologically and socially, subject to internal arrangements (affective), and external situations (sensorial-motor). In this way the study of human development must consider the subject as grounded in its relation‐ ship with the environment. This author considers the following five stages of development: impulsive-emotional - 0 months-1 year (the predominant affection); sensor-motor and pro‐ jective - 3 months-3 years (dominated by intelligence); personalism - 3-6 years (formation of the personality of the individual and self-awareness); categorical stage - 6-11 years (develop‐ ment of memory capacities and voluntary attention); stage of adolescence - 11-16 years (physical and psychological changes). However, the stages of human development do not cease in adolescence, as, according to Wallon (1981), the learning processes that occur

Jean Piaget considered that the development of children also occurred in stages, however, according to Piaget and Inhelder (1995), the key is the sequential order of stages and not the age at which each one arises. To make up a new stadium, one must have passed through and overcome the previous stages. Jean Piaget believed that there are four stages of develop‐ ment, which he detailed in his Cognitive Theory. These stages are: the sensor-motor stage - 0 months-2 years; preoperative - 2-7 years (egocentricity); stage of concrete operations - 7-11 years (integrated mental organization); and stage of formal operations - 12 years and over

The previous section, aimed at contextualizing the work in this chapter, which is centred on children, presented the stages of their cognitive development (psychosocial and emotional). In order to support this contextualization, a set of observations of children at play, presented in Table 1, were made, as a form of recognition in practice of the concepts presented. These observations also allowed inference of the type of activities, the duration thereof and the re‐ actions of children during play. Especially in the cases where two children of different ages were observed playing together, the observed states of the children are different in some cases. These result from the diverse stages of development of the children and the adequate‐

maturity, as is the case of rats, who reach sexual maturity in only 15 days.

throughout life involve crossing a new stage of development.

ness and appeal and complexity of the activities being carried out.

(development of abstract thinking operations).

**2.1. Observation of children at play**

In order to find a point of connection between sustainability and education for sustainability a search was initially made for concepts and needs within sustainable development. Subse‐ quently, an analysis was made of the universe in education for sustainability and a letter from the Earth is presented, which is a declaration of fundamental principles for building a society that is fair, sustainable and peaceful.

#### **3.1. Sustainable development**

Enough for everyone, forever. These words resonate with the ideas of limited resources, re‐ sponsible consumption, equality and equity and a long-term perspective, all of them corre‐ sponding to important concepts of sustainable development (Portuguese Ministry of Education, 2006). Sustainable development involves meeting present needs without com‐ promising the ability of future generations to also meet theirs. The concept of sustainable development involves not only fostering positive impacts locally, but this should be thought in global terms, giving rise to the sense of universal responsibility. Hence, sustainable devel‐ opment is all about a joint effort carried out between different areas, whether social, eco‐ nomic, ecological or political, thus trying to strike a balance between economic growth, social equality and the preservation of natural resources and habitats. Ensuring that the peo‐ ple from all over the world are able to satisfy their basic needs, while assuring that future generations can have the same quality of life is at the core of the sustainable development agenda.

ment it may be possible to modify consumer relations and ensure environmental sustaina‐

Care for the community of life with understanding, compassion and love. Build democratic societies that are just, participatory, sustainable and peaceful. Conserving Earth's bounty and beauty for present and future generations.

protection and in case of insufficient recognition, taking preventive measures. Adopt patterns of production, consumption and reproduction that safeguard Earth's

Encourage the study of ecological sustainability and promote the free exchange of

regenerative capacity, human rights and the welfare of communities.

Eradicate poverty as an ethical, social and environmental problem.

universal access to education, health care and employment.

to the rights of indigenous peoples and minorities.

Treat all living beings with respect and consideration. Promote a culture of tolerance, non-violence and peace.

In Portugal, there are a set of pedagogical guidelines to support education for citizenship, which are published in the booklet entitled "Guidelines for Education for Sustainability", de‐ veloped jointly by the Directorate General for Innovation and Curriculum Development, Ministry of Education and the Portuguese Association for Environmental Education (AS‐ PEA). Its realization is based on the Earth Charter (Table 2), which was published by UNESCO in 2000 and approved by the UN in 2002. Published in 2006, this guide aims to foster and support primary school teachers in the arduous task of educating for sustainable development, and in serving as a basis for curriculum and civic education of children and youth. "The authors believe that the school, among other institutional actors, plays an in‐ valuable training role that must be exercised and enjoyed in large areas, including not only formal knowledge and curriculum (...) "(Evaristo, 2006). Making the school a hub for pro‐

biological diversity and natural processes that sustain life.

Protect and restore the integrity of Earth's ecological systems, with special attention given to

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Addressing the prevention of environmental problems as the best method of environmental

Ensure that economic institutions at all levels promote human development in an equitable

Affirm gender equality and equity as prerequisites to sustainable development and ensure

Defend, without discrimination, the right of everyone to a social and natural environment, by promoting human dignity, bodily health and spiritual well-being, with special attention given

Strengthen democratic institutions at all levels, and provide transparency and effective governance to ensure inclusive participation in decision making and access to justice. Integrate knowledge, values and skills for a sustainable way of life into formal education and

bility of our planet changing the current situation.

Respect Earth and life in all its diversity.

knowledge and its application.

and sustainable manner.

lifelong learning,

**Table 2.** Earth Charter - basic principles (Portuguese Ministry of Education, 2006).

**3.3. Analysis of the educational universe in the area of sustainability**

Section Principles

I - Respect and care for community life

II - Ecological Integrity

III - Social and economic

justice

IV - Democracy, nonviolence and peace

#### **3.2. Education for sustainable development**

'The early childhood years are the most significant and when the greatest developments in the life of a person take place and are generally regarded as the foundation upon which the rest of an individual's life is built (Mustard 2000; Rutter, 2002). Children, viewed beyond their genetic heritage, are influenced by the environment around them and by their relation‐ ships with their parents and with other people, so when considering the formation of emo‐ tions in children, one must look at all the ways in which the child responds to all persons with whom he or she crosses, and all the images she or he sees. The education of children is the greatest responsibility of parenting, with the aim to create "adulthood" and not perpetu‐ ate childhood, parents should bet early on in showing their children the emotional realities with which life confronts everyone, sooner or later.

As is well known, children follow the examples of parents and of all those who are part of their reality. It is however up to parents to ensure the safety of small children that are not yet able to assess the dangers that surround them, and to educate them to become citizens of a just society where everyone can exercise their rights to equality and solidarity. One ought to never forget that home is the real trainer of people. Values such as education and person‐ al development must be transmitted within the family, however, in current times, and with the economic and social situation most people are confronted with today, it becomes in‐ creasingly difficult. Parents spend less time with their children, thus hindering the teaching of personal and social values which includes education for sustainable development. To compensate this, the school seeks to fill the gaps in education by the family, but there is still a need for restructuring at the curriculum level. The school curriculum structure does not necessarily facilitate the task of educating for sustainable development. For example, experi‐ mental teaching activities can be a real challenge when teaching is confined to a classroom. Furthermore, the assessment systems are, often, based in a competitive model in which indi‐ vidual grades become the main goal of the students. This is, in fact, an environment that hin‐ ders the promotion of values central to the notion of sustainable development, such as 'participation' or 'cooperation' (Portuguese Ministry of Education, 2006).

The call for a rampant consumerism that translates into large discharges of toxic waste and garbage are two major global problems. Through early education for sustainable develop‐ ment it may be possible to modify consumer relations and ensure environmental sustaina‐ bility of our planet changing the current situation.

Education, 2006). Sustainable development involves meeting present needs without com‐ promising the ability of future generations to also meet theirs. The concept of sustainable development involves not only fostering positive impacts locally, but this should be thought in global terms, giving rise to the sense of universal responsibility. Hence, sustainable devel‐ opment is all about a joint effort carried out between different areas, whether social, eco‐ nomic, ecological or political, thus trying to strike a balance between economic growth, social equality and the preservation of natural resources and habitats. Ensuring that the peo‐ ple from all over the world are able to satisfy their basic needs, while assuring that future generations can have the same quality of life is at the core of the sustainable development

'The early childhood years are the most significant and when the greatest developments in the life of a person take place and are generally regarded as the foundation upon which the rest of an individual's life is built (Mustard 2000; Rutter, 2002). Children, viewed beyond their genetic heritage, are influenced by the environment around them and by their relation‐ ships with their parents and with other people, so when considering the formation of emo‐ tions in children, one must look at all the ways in which the child responds to all persons with whom he or she crosses, and all the images she or he sees. The education of children is the greatest responsibility of parenting, with the aim to create "adulthood" and not perpetu‐ ate childhood, parents should bet early on in showing their children the emotional realities

As is well known, children follow the examples of parents and of all those who are part of their reality. It is however up to parents to ensure the safety of small children that are not yet able to assess the dangers that surround them, and to educate them to become citizens of a just society where everyone can exercise their rights to equality and solidarity. One ought to never forget that home is the real trainer of people. Values such as education and person‐ al development must be transmitted within the family, however, in current times, and with the economic and social situation most people are confronted with today, it becomes in‐ creasingly difficult. Parents spend less time with their children, thus hindering the teaching of personal and social values which includes education for sustainable development. To compensate this, the school seeks to fill the gaps in education by the family, but there is still a need for restructuring at the curriculum level. The school curriculum structure does not necessarily facilitate the task of educating for sustainable development. For example, experi‐ mental teaching activities can be a real challenge when teaching is confined to a classroom. Furthermore, the assessment systems are, often, based in a competitive model in which indi‐ vidual grades become the main goal of the students. This is, in fact, an environment that hin‐ ders the promotion of values central to the notion of sustainable development, such as

The call for a rampant consumerism that translates into large discharges of toxic waste and garbage are two major global problems. Through early education for sustainable develop‐

'participation' or 'cooperation' (Portuguese Ministry of Education, 2006).

agenda.

**3.2. Education for sustainable development**

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with which life confronts everyone, sooner or later.


**Table 2.** Earth Charter - basic principles (Portuguese Ministry of Education, 2006).

#### **3.3. Analysis of the educational universe in the area of sustainability**

In Portugal, there are a set of pedagogical guidelines to support education for citizenship, which are published in the booklet entitled "Guidelines for Education for Sustainability", de‐ veloped jointly by the Directorate General for Innovation and Curriculum Development, Ministry of Education and the Portuguese Association for Environmental Education (AS‐ PEA). Its realization is based on the Earth Charter (Table 2), which was published by UNESCO in 2000 and approved by the UN in 2002. Published in 2006, this guide aims to foster and support primary school teachers in the arduous task of educating for sustainable development, and in serving as a basis for curriculum and civic education of children and youth. "The authors believe that the school, among other institutional actors, plays an in‐ valuable training role that must be exercised and enjoyed in large areas, including not only formal knowledge and curriculum (...) "(Evaristo, 2006). Making the school a hub for pro‐ duction and dissemination of information on education for sustainable development for stu‐ dents and parents is one of the objectives of ASPEA.

**6.** Proceed to the development of the detailed concept and produce prototypes enabling testing under controlled conditions of safety, initially with adults and ensuring no haz‐ ard is presented by the prototypes when seeking to involve children in their use. (Note:

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**7.** In this process the results of usability testing can motivate changes to the project de‐ scription and a new iteration of design refinement and testing, reiterating until the de‐ velopment team is satisfied with the results, or the resources allocated to the

**8.** Development of production processes and of release, distribution, and marketing docu‐

Since there was no published methodology found alluding to the subject discussed in this chapter with respect to the design of toys, authors opted for the generation of a new meth‐ odology. The assessment of this proposed methodology was achieved through the imple‐ mentation of projects based on it. Table 3 describes the strengths and weaknesses found in the pursuit of the conceptual design phase, which includes the first four steps (Table 3).

Given the academic nature of the development of plans to evaluate the proposed methodol‐ ogy, steps 5, 6, 7 and 8 could not be tested fully. However, step 6 was partially implemented, given the production of two prototypes, without adopting the colours, materials and the fi‐

Not having found a published methodology, the authors chose to develop a methodology for designing toys focused on the stages of psychosocial and emotional development of chil‐ dren from an early age. One of the most prevalent weaknesses of the methodology relates to the initial survey to be carried out about the stages of physical, cognitive, sensor-motor, so‐ cial and emotional development of children, which may be considered as limiting creativity. As strengths, the proposed methodology's capacity to foster iteration and improvement af‐

The sustainable design methodologies proposed by Fuad-Luke (2004) and Ryan (2009) were taken as a basis on which to develop a proposal for toy design satisfying sustainability goals. The former is rather more detailed than the latter, with a high level of detail given to the process, which is deemed easy to follow. As a strong point in Ryan's (2009) proposal, authors emphasize the fact that not only does it cover a perspective focused on the product but it also encompasses product and service systems with strategic orientation towards sus‐ tainable design goals. Both methodologies share the common goal to create products or arte‐ facts that safeguard the continuity of the planet's resources, thereby creating a combined economic, social, and environmental solution. The concern with the product life cycle is also a common point in both methods. Fuad-Luke (2004) presents a methodology for the eco-plu‐

at this stage children should be able to keep the prototype toys).

development have been exhausted.

**4.1. Evaluation of the proposed methodology**

nal dimensions of the toys that were designed.

ter the prototyping phase is highlighted.

**4.2. Toy design methods considering sustainable design goals**

mentation.

The Earth Charter is a reference to relevant and unique training programs that aim to devel‐ op learning processes in students for a more just, sustainable and peaceful society, (Portu‐ guese Ministry of Education, 2006).

The literature review of concepts related to education for sustainability and sustainable de‐ velopment, contributed significantly to the design phase of this work. In Portugal there was already a breakthrough in early education for sustainable development, which seeks to instil values such as early environmental sustainability in school children. However, authors can see that this whole journey tends to occur mostly at the theoretical level, neglecting the prac‐ tical part as a crucial incentive. It is worth highlighting the commitment and positive atti‐ tude of the Ministry of Education to prepare a script that aims to guide teachers in the arduous task that is education for sustainable development.
