**Author details**

Carlos Augusto Fernandes Oliveira1\*, Fernanda Bovo1 , Carlos Humberto Corassin1 , Alessandra Vincenzi Jager1 and Kasa Ravindranadha Reddy2


## **References**

**Microorganism AF Bound**

1 µg /g 10 µg /g

*S. cerevisiae* B1

84 Aflatoxins - Recent Advances and Future Prospects

**Table 2.** Aflatoxin binding by yeasts. YCW, Yeast Cell Wall

applied to human and animal foods may be developed.

(CNPq) of Brazil for financial support and fellowships.

Carlos Augusto Fernandes Oliveira1\*, Fernanda Bovo1

**5. Concluding Remarks**

used commercially.

**Author details**

Alessandra Vincenzi Jager1

**Acknowledgements**

**(%)**

86 72

Considering the data from several studies carried out until now, it may be observed that mi‐ croorganisms, among them lactic acid bacteria and yeasts, have a huge potential application in aflatoxin degradation in foodstuffs. However, new studies are necessary to identify bacte‐ rial species with greater binding potential with aflatoxins, once there are differences in sen‐ sitivity and selectivity, besides the influence of factors that are intrinsic and extrinsic to the bacteria in the decontamination process. After this step of choosing species with greater effi‐ ciency has been overcome, new production technologies that are economically viable to be

Several studies have demonstrated that the cell wall of SC and LAB and their components are responsible for binding with aflatoxins. However, the mechanisms by which this bond occurs remain unclear. Cell walls with glucomannanes and manno-oligosaccharides have been pointed out as the responsible elements for AFB1 bond with yeasts. The great advant‐ age in the commercial use of these microorganisms as binding agents is that these strains are approved and already used in a wide range of fermented food products, being recog‐ nized as safe. However, aflatoxin may be released from the cell-aflatoxin complex with changes in the pH and temperature conditions. Therefore, further studies are necessary to determine the behavior of yeasts in the different environmental conditions before they are

The authors wish to acknowledge the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) and the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico

and Kasa Ravindranadha Reddy2

**Conditions Ref.**

, Carlos Humberto Corassin1

,

[89]

12 °C, 8 days, brewing process


[13] Hernandez-Mendoza, A., Garcia, H. S., & Steele, J. L. (2009). Screening of Lactobacil‐ lus casei strains for their ability to bind aflatoxin B1. *Food and Chemical Toxicology*, 47-1064.

[27] Haskard, C. A., El -Nezami, H. S., Kankaanpaa, P. E., Salminen, S., & Ahokas, J. T. (2001). Surface binding of aflatoxin B1 by lactic acid bacteria. *Applied and Environmen‐*

Recent Trends in Microbiological Decontamination of Aflatoxins in Foodstuffs

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51120

87

[28] Oluwafemi, F., & Silva, F. A. (2009). Removal of aflatoxins by viable and heat-killed Lactobacillus species isolated from fermented maize. *Journal of Applied Biosciences.*,

[29] Pierides, M., El -Nezami, H., Peltonem, K., Salminen, S., & Ahokas, J. (2000). Ability of dairy strains of lactic acid bacteria to bind aflatoxin M1 in a food model. *Journal of*

[30] IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer- World Health Organization. (2002). *IARC Monograph on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk to Humans.*, 82, 171. [31] Mishra, H. N., & Das, C. (2003). A Review on biological control and metabolism of

[32] Laciaková, A., Cicoòová, P., Máté, D., & Laciak, V. (2008). Aflatoxins and possibilities for their biological detoxification. *Medycyna Weterynaryjna*, 64(3), 276-279.

[33] Van Egmond, H. P., & Jonker, M. A. (2004). Worldwide regulations on aflatoxins-

[34] Walstra, P., Wouters, J. T. M., & Geurts, T. J. (2006). Dairy Science and Technology.

[35] Salminen, S., Von, Wright. A., & Ouwehand, A. C. (2004). Lactic acid bacteria: micro‐

[36] Sybesma, W. F., & Hugenholtz, J. (2004). Food fermentation by lactic acid bacteria for the prevention of cardiovascular disease. In: Arnoldi A. Functional Foods, Cardio‐

[37] Onilude, A. A., Fagade, O. E., Bello, M. M., & Fadahunsi, I. F. (2005). Inhibition of aflatoxin-producing aspergilli by lactic acid bacteria isolates from indigenously fer‐

[38] Fuchs, S., Sontag, G., Stidl, R., Ehrlich, V., Kundi, M., & Knasmüller, S. (2008). Detoxi‐ fication of patulin and ochratoxin A, two abundant mycotoxins, by lactic acid bacte‐

[39] Shetty, P. H., & Jespersen, L. (2006). Saccharomyces cerevisiae and lactic acid bacteria as potential mycotoxin decontaminating agents. *Trends in Food Science & Technology*,

[40] Ciegler, A., Lillehoj, E. B., Peterson, R. E., & Hall, H. H. (1966). Microbial detoxifica‐

[41] El -Nezami, H., Mykkänen, H., Haskard, C., Salminen, S., & Salminen, E. (2004). Lac‐ tic acid bacteria as a tool for enhancing food safety by removal of dietary toxins. In:

biological and functional aspects. 3.ed. New York Marcel Dekker, Inc.

mented cereal gruels. *African Journal of Biotechnology*, 4(12), 1404-1408.

tion of aflatoxin. *Applied Environmental Microbiology*, 14(6), 934-939.

aflatoxin. *Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition*, 43(3), 245-264.

The situation in 2002. *Toxin Reviews*, 23, 273-293.

vascular Disease and Diabetes. Boca Raton CRC Press

ria. *Food and Chemical Toxicology*, 46-1398.

*tal Microbiology*, 67(7), 3086-3091.

*Food Protection*, 63(5), 645-650.

Boca Raton, CRC Press.

17-48.

16-871.


[27] Haskard, C. A., El -Nezami, H. S., Kankaanpaa, P. E., Salminen, S., & Ahokas, J. T. (2001). Surface binding of aflatoxin B1 by lactic acid bacteria. *Applied and Environmen‐ tal Microbiology*, 67(7), 3086-3091.

[13] Hernandez-Mendoza, A., Garcia, H. S., & Steele, J. L. (2009). Screening of Lactobacil‐ lus casei strains for their ability to bind aflatoxin B1. *Food and Chemical Toxicology*,

[14] Gratz , S., Mykkänem, H. , & El-Nezami, H. (2005). Aflatoxin B1 binding by a mixture of Lactobacillus and Propionibacterium: in vitro versus ex vivo. *Journal of Food Protec‐*

[15] El -Nezami, H., Kankaanpaa, P., Salminen, S., & Ahokas, J. (1998). Physicochemical alterations enhance the ability of dairy strains of lactic acid bacteria to remove afla‐

[16] Line, J. E., & Brackett, R. E. (1995). Factors affecting aflatoxin B1 removal by Flavo‐

[17] El -Nezami, H., Kankaanpaa, P., Salminen, S., & Ahokas, J. (1998). Ability of dairy strains of lactic acid bacteria to bind a common food carcinogen, aflatoxin B1. *Food*

[18] Fazeli, M. R., Hajimohammadali, M., Moshkani, A., Samadi, N., Jamalifar, H., Khosh‐ ayand, M. R., et al. (2009). Aflatoxin B1 binding capacity of autochthonous strains of

[19] Alberts, J. F., Gelderblomb, W. C. A., Botha, A., & Van Zyl, W. H. (2009). Degradation of aflatoxin B1 by fungal laccase enzymes. *International Journal of Food Microbiology*,

[20] Wu, Q., Jezkova, A., Yuan, Z., Pavlikova, L., Dohnal, V., & Kuca, K. (2009). Biological

[21] Oliveira, C. A. F., & Germano, P. M. L. (1997). Aflatoxinas: conceitos sobre mecanis‐ mos de toxicidade e seu envolvimento na etiologia do câncer hepático celular. *Revista*

[22] Oatley, J. T., Rarick, M. D., Ji, G. E., & Linz, J. E. (2000). Binding of aflatoxin B1 to

[23] Peltonem, K., El-Nezami, H., Haskard, C., Ahokas, J., & Salminen, S. (2001). Aflatoxin B1 binding by dairy strains of lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria. *Journal of Dairy*

[24] Murphy, P. A., Hendrich, S., Landgren, C., & Bryant, C. M. (2006). Food Mycotoxins:

[25] Creppy, E. E. (2002). Update of survey, regulation and toxic effects of mycotoxins in

[26] Bakirci, I. (2001). A study on the occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in milk and milk prod‐

toxin from contaminated media. *Journal of Food Protection*, 61(4), 466-468.

bacterium aurantiacum. *Journal of Food Protection*, 58(1), 91-94.

lactic acid bacteria. *Journal of Food Protection*, 72(1), 189-192.

degradation of aflatoxins. *Drug Metabolism Reviews*, 41(1), 1-7.

bifidobacteria in vitro. *Journal of Food Protection*, 63(8), 1133-36.

ucts produced in Van province of Turkey. *Food Control*, 12-47.

An Update. *Journal of Food Science*, 71(5), 51-65.

Europe. *Toxicology Letters*, 127-19.

47-1064.

135-47.

*tion*, 68(11), 2470-2474.

86 Aflatoxins - Recent Advances and Future Prospects

*and Chemical Toxicology*, 36-321.

*de Saúde Pública*, 31(4), 417-424.

*Science*, 84, 2152-2156.


Salminen S, Von Wright A, Ouwehand A. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Microbiological and Functional Aspects. 3.ed. Nova Iorque Marcel Dekker , 397-406.

[55] Lahtinen, S. J., Haskard, C. A., Ouwehand, A. C., Salminen, S. J., & Ahokas, J. T. (2004). Binding of aflatoxin B1 to cell wall components of Lactobacillus rhamnosus

Recent Trends in Microbiological Decontamination of Aflatoxins in Foodstuffs

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51120

89

[56] Shetty, P. H., Hald, B., & Jespersen, L. (2007). Surface binding of aflatoxin B1 by Sac‐ charomyces cerevisiae strains with potential decontaminating abilities in indigenous

[57] Hernandez-Mendoza, A., Guzman-de-Peña, D., & Garcia, H. S. (2009). Key role of tei‐ choic acids on aflatoxin B1 binding by probiotic bacteria. *Journal of Applied Microbiolo‐*

[58] Hernandez-Mendoza, A., Guzman-de-Peña, D., González-Córdova, A. F., Vallejo-Córdoba, B., & Garcia, H. S. (2010). In vivo assessment of the potential protective ef‐ fect of Lactobacillus casei Shirota against aflatoxin B1. *Dairy Science and Technology*,

[59] Bolognani, F., Rummey, C. J., & Rowland, I. R. (1997). Influence of carcinogen bind‐ ing by lactic acid-producing bacteria on tissue distribution and in vivo mutagenicity

[60] Lee, Y. K., El -Nezami, H., Haskard, C. A., Gratz, S., Puong, K. Y., Salminen, S., & Mykkänen, H. (2003). Kinetics of adsorption and desorption of aflatoxin B1 by viable

[61] D'Souza, D. H., & Brackett, R. E. (2001). Aflatoxin B1 degradation by Flavobacterium aurantiacum in the presence of reducing conditions and seryl and sulfhydryl group

[62] El -Nezami, H., Mykkänen, H., Kankaanpaa, P., Salminen, S., & Ahokas, J. (2000). Ability of Lactobacillus and Propionibacterium strains to remove aflatoxin B1 from

[63] Hathout, A. S., Mohamed, S. R., El -Nekeety, A. A., Hassan, N. S., Aly, S. E., & Abdel-Wahhab, M. A. (2011). Ability of Lactobacillus casei and Lactobacillus reuteri to pro‐ tect against oxidative stress in rats fed aflatoxins-contaminated diet. *Toxicon*, 58-179.

[64] El -Nezami, H. S., Mykkänen, H., Kankaanpää, P., Suomalainen, T., Ahokas, J. T., & Salminen, S. (2000). The ability of a mixture of Lactobacillus and Propionibacterium to influence the faecal recovery of aflatoxins in healthy Egyptian volunteers: a pilot

[65] Mc Kinney, R. E. (2004). Environmental pollution control microbiology: a fifty-year

[66] Joannis-Cassan, C., Tozlovanu, M., Hadjeba-Medjdoub, K., Ballet, N., & Pfohl-Lesz‐ kowicz, A. (2011). Binding of zearalenone, aflatoxin B1, and ochratoxin A by yeastbased products: a method for quantification of adsorption performance. Journal of

strain GG. *Food Additives and Contaminants*, 21(2), 158-164.

*gy*, 107-395.

90-729.

fermented foods. *International Journal of Food Microbiology*, 113-41.

of dietary carcinogens. *Food and Chemical Toxicology*, 35-535.

and nonviable bacteria. *Journal of Food Protection*, 66(3), 426-430.

the chicken duodenum. *Journal of Food Protection*, 63(4), 549-552.

inhibitors. *Journal of Food Protection*, 64(2), 268-271.

clinical study. *Bioscience and Microflora*, 19-41.

perspective. Boca Raton, CRC Press.

Food Protection; , 74(7), 1175-1185.


[55] Lahtinen, S. J., Haskard, C. A., Ouwehand, A. C., Salminen, S. J., & Ahokas, J. T. (2004). Binding of aflatoxin B1 to cell wall components of Lactobacillus rhamnosus strain GG. *Food Additives and Contaminants*, 21(2), 158-164.

Salminen S, Von Wright A, Ouwehand A. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Microbiological and

[42] Shahin, A. A. M. (2007). Removal of aflatoxin B1 from contaminated liquid media by dairy lactic acid bacteria. *International Journal of Agriculture and Biology*, 9(1), 71-75.

[43] Rasic, J. L., Skrinjar, M., & Markov, S. (1991). Decrease of aflatoxins B1 in yoghurt

[44] Biernasiak, J., Piotrowska, M., & Libudzisz, Z. (2006). Detoxification of mycotoxins by probiotic preparation for broiler chickens. Mycotoxin Research; , 22(4), 230-235.

[45] Kabak, B., & Dobson, A. D. W. (2009). Biological strategies to counteract the effects of

[46] Kabak, B., & Var, I. (2008). Factors affecting the removal of aflatoxin M1 from food model by Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium strains. *Journal of Environmental Science*

[47] Elgerbi, A. M., Aidoo, K. E., Candlish, A. A. G., & Williams, A. G. (2006). Effects of lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria on levels of aflatoxin M1 in milk and phosphate

[48] Haskard, C., Binnion, C., & Ahokas, J. (2000). Factors affecting the sequestration of aflatoxin by Lactobacillus rhamnosus strain GG. *Chemico-Biological Interactions*,

[49] Azab, R. M., Tawakkol, W. M., Hamad, A. R. M., Abou-Elmagd, M. K., El -Agrab, H. M., & Refai, M. K. (2005). Detection and estimation of aflatoxin B1 in feeds and its bio‐

[50] Bovo, F., Corassin, C. H., Rosim, R. E., & Oliveira, C. A. F. (2012). Efficiency of lactic acid bacteria strains for decontamination of aflatoxin M1 in phosphate buffer saline

[51] Sarimehmetoglu, B., & Küplülü, Ö. (2004). Binding ability of aflatoxin M1 to yoghurt

[52] Lillehoj, E. B., Stubblefield, R. D., Shannon, G. M., & Shotwell, O. L. (1971). Aflatoxin M1 removal from aqueous solutions by Flavobacterium aurantiacum. *Mycopathologia*

[53] Farzaneh, M., Shi, Z. Q., Ghassempour, A., Sedaghat, N., Ahmadzadeh, M., Mirabol‐ fathy, M., & Javan-Nikkhah, M. (2012). Aflatoxin B1 degradation by Bacillus subtilis

[54] Gao, X., Ma, Q., Zhao, L., Lei, Y., Shan, Y., & Ji, C. (2011). Isolation of Bacillus subtilis: screening for aflatoxins B1, M1 and G1 detoxification. *European Food Research and Tech‐*

degradation by bacteria and fungi. *Egypt Journal of Natural Toxins*, 2-39.

solution and in skimmed milk. *Food and Bioprocess Technology*.

bacteria. Ankara Üniversitesi Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi; , 51-195.

UTBSP1 isolated from pistachio nuts of Iran. *Food Control*, 23-100.

Functional Aspects. 3.ed. Nova Iorque Marcel Dekker , 397-406.

and acidified milks. *Mycopathologia*, 113-117.

*and Health, Part B.*, 43-617.

88 Aflatoxins - Recent Advances and Future Prospects

*et mycologia applicata.*, 45-259.

*nology*, 232-957.

128-39.

buffer. *Milchwissenschaft*, 61(2), 197-199.

mycotoxins. *Journal of Food Protection*, 72(9), 2006-2016.


[67] Armando, M. R., Dogi, C. A., Pizzolitto, R. P., Escobar, F., Peirano, M. S., Salvano, M. A., Sabini, L. I., Combina, M., Dalcero, A. M., & Cavaglieri, L. R. (2011). Saccharomy‐ ces cerevisiae strains from animal environment with in vitro aflatoxin B1 binding ability and anti-pathogenic bacterial influence. *World Mycotoxin Journal*, 4(1), 59-68.

[78] Devegowda, G., Aravind, B. I. R., & Morton, M. G. (1996). Saccharomyces cerevisiae and mannanoligosaccharides to counteract aflatoxicoses in broilers. Proceedings of

Recent Trends in Microbiological Decontamination of Aflatoxins in Foodstuffs

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51120

91

[79] Aravind, K. L., Patil, V. S., Devegowda, G., Umakhanta, B., & Ganpule, S. P. (2003). Efficacy of esterified glucomannan to counteract mycotoxicosis in naturally contami‐ nated feed on performance and serum biochemical, hematological parameters in

[80] Baptista, A. S., Horii, J., Calori-domingues, M. A., Gloria, E. M., Salgado, J. M., & Vi‐ zioli, M. R. (2002). Thermolysed and active yeast to reduce the toxicity of aflatoxin.

[81] Bejaoui, H., Mathieu, F., Taillandier, P., & Lebrihi, A. (2004). Ochratoxin A removal in synthetic and natural grape juices by selected oenological Saccharomyces strains.

[82] Cecchini, F., Morassut, M., Moruno, E., & Di Stefano, R. (2007). Influence of yeast strain on ochratoxin A content during fermentation of white and red must. *Food Mi‐*

[83] Angioni, A., Caboni, P., Garau, A., Farris, A., Orro, D., Budroni, M., & Cabras, P. (2007). In vitro interaction between ochratoxin A and different strains of Saccharo‐ myces cerevisiae and Kloeckera apiculata. *Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry*,

[84] Freimund, S., Sauter, M., & Rys, P. (2003). Efficient adsorption of the mycotoxins zearalenone and T-2 toxin on a modified yeast glucan. *Journal of Environmental Science*

[85] Yiannikouris, A., François, J., Poughon, L., Dussap, C. G., Bertin, G., Jeminet, G., & Jouany, J. P. (2004). Alkali extraction of β-D-gluvcans from Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell wall and study of their adsorptive properties toward zearalenone. *Journal of Agri‐*

[86] Karaman, M., Basmacioglu, H., Ortatatli, M., & Oguz, H. (2005). Evaluation of the de‐ toxifying effect of yeast glucomannan on aflatoxicosis in broilers as assessed by gross

[87] Santin, E., Paulillo, A. C., Nakagui, L. S. O., Alessi, A. C., Polveiro, W. J. C., & Maior‐ ka, A. (2003). Evaluation of the efficacy of Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell wall to amel‐ iorate the toxic effects of aflatoxin in broilers. *International Journal of Poultry Science*,

[88] Eshak, M. G., Khalil, W. K. B., Hegazy, E. M., Ibrahim, M. F., Fadel, M., & Stino, K. R. D. (2010). Effect of SCE on reduction of aflatoxicosis, enhancement of growth per‐ formance and expression of neural and gonadal genes in Japanese quail. *Journal of*

examination and histopathology. *British Poultry Science*, 46-394.

Australian Poultry Science Symposium, , 103-106.

broilers. *Poultry Science*, 82-571.

*ScientiaAgricola,*, 59(2), 257-260.

*crobiology*, 23-411.

55, 2043-2048.

2(6), 465-468.

*American Science*, 6-824.

*and Health Part B*, 38-243.

*culture and Food Chemistry*, 52-3666.

*Journal of Applied Microbiology,*, 97-1038.


[78] Devegowda, G., Aravind, B. I. R., & Morton, M. G. (1996). Saccharomyces cerevisiae and mannanoligosaccharides to counteract aflatoxicoses in broilers. Proceedings of Australian Poultry Science Symposium, , 103-106.

[67] Armando, M. R., Dogi, C. A., Pizzolitto, R. P., Escobar, F., Peirano, M. S., Salvano, M. A., Sabini, L. I., Combina, M., Dalcero, A. M., & Cavaglieri, L. R. (2011). Saccharomy‐ ces cerevisiae strains from animal environment with in vitro aflatoxin B1 binding ability and anti-pathogenic bacterial influence. *World Mycotoxin Journal*, 4(1), 59-68.

[68] Madrigal-Santillán, E., Madrigal-Bujaidar, E., Márquez-Márquez, R., & Reyes, A. (2006). Antigenotoxic effect of Saccharomyces cerevisiae on the damage produced in mice fed with aflatoxin B1 contaminated corn. *Food and Chemical Toxicology*, 44,

[69] Rahaie, S., Emam-Djomeh, Z., Razavi, S. H., & Mazaheri, M. (2010). Immobilized Sac‐ charomyces cerevisiae as a potential aflatoxin decontaminating agent in pistachio

[70] Slizewska, K., & Smulikowska, S. (2011). Detoxification of aflatoxin B1 and change in microflora pattern by probiotic in vitro fermentation of broiler feed. *Journal of Animal*

[71] Dogi, C. A., Armando, R., Ludueña, R., Le Blanc, A. M., Rosa, C. A. R., Dalcero, A., & Cavaglieri, L. (2011). Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains retain their viability and afla‐ toxin B1 binding ability under gastrointestinal conditions and improve ruminal fer‐

[72] Stanley, V. G., Ojo, R., Woldesenbet, S., Hutchinson, D. H., & Kubena, L. F. (1993). The use of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to suppress the effects of aflatoxicosis in broiler

[73] Parlat, S. S., Özcan, M., & Oguz, M. (2001). Biological suppression of aflatoxicosis in Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) by dietary addition of yeast (Saccharo‐

[74] Lesson, S., Diaz, G., & Summers, J. (1995). Poultry metabolic disorders and mycotox‐

[75] Yildiz, A. O., Parlat, S. S., & Yildirim, I. (2004). Effect of dietary addition of live yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) on some performance parameters of adult Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) induced by aflatoxicosis. *Revue Médecine Vétérinaire*,

[76] Raju, M. V. L. N., & Devegowda, G. (2000). Influence of esterified-glucomannan on performance and organ morphology, serum biochemistry and haematology in broil‐ ers exposed to individual and combined mycotoxicosis (aflatoxin, ochratoxin and T-2

[77] Jouany, J. P., Yiannikouris, A., & Bertin, G. (2005). The chemical bonds between my‐ cotoxins and cell wall components of Saccharomyces cerevisiae have been identified.

mentation. *Food Additives and Contamiantes, Part A.*, 28(12), 1705-1711.

2058-2063.

90 Aflatoxins - Recent Advances and Future Prospects

nuts. *Brazilian Journal of Microbiology*, 41-82.

chicks. *Poultry Science*, 72(10), 1867-1872.

ins. Montreal (Canada), University Books.

toxin). *British Poultry Science*, 41(5), 640-650.

155(1), 38-41.

*Archiva Zootechnica*, 8-26.

myces cerevisiae). *Research in Veterinary Science*, 7-207.

*and Feed Sciences;*, 20-300.


[89] Chu, F. S., Chang, C. C., Ashoor, S. H., & Prentice, N. (1975). Stability of Aflatoxin B1 and Ochratoxin A in Brewing. *Applied Microbiology*, 29(3), 313-316.

**Chapter 5**

**Novel Methods for Preventing and Controlling**

Eva Guadalupe Lizárraga-Paulín, Susana Patricia Miranda-Castro,

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

peratures and the daily net evaporation [5].

Ernesto Moreno-Martínez, Irineo Torres-Pacheco and Alma Virginia Lara-Sagahón

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50707

**1. Introduction**

**Aflatoxins in Food: A Worldwide Daily Challenge**

Talking about Aflatoxins is not a new issue. Aflatoxins are a big problem that day by day turns more important due to their implication in crop production, food quality and human and animal health. Aflatoxins are also everywhere because those toxic secondary metabo‐ lites are mycotoxins produced by a large number of Aspergillus species, being *A. flavus*, and *A. parasiticus* the main producers; nevertheless, species like *A. nomius, A. pseudotamarii, A. parvisclerotigenus, A.bombycis, A. ochraceoroseus, A. rambellii, Emericella astellata* and *E. venezue‐ lensis* are aflatoxin generators too [1,2]. Since those toxins have been recognized as a signifi‐ cant worldwide problem in 1960 (because of being isolated and identified as the causative toxins in "Turkey-X-disease" after 100,000 turkeys died in England from liver acute necrosis and bile duct hyperplasia after consuming groundnuts infected with *Aspergillus flavus*) [3-5], researchers have studied lots of ways to fight against this threat; however, after more than a half century, aflatoxins are still a big problem that has not been easy to deal with, because humans are not able to manipulate essential factors that affect aflatoxin contamination like the region weather, the crop genotype, the soil type, the minimum and maximum daily tem‐

Aflatoxins (AF) affect almost everything we eat: cereals (maize, wheat and rice principally) and their derivates; oilseeds (cotton, peanut, rapeseed, coconut, sunflowers and others), cas‐ sava, nuts, dry fruits, delicatessen products, spices, wines, legumes, fruits, milk and milk de‐

> © 2013 Lizárraga-Paulín et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 Lizárraga-Paulín et al.; licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

