**4. Occurrence of Aflatoxin in Spices**

The popularity of hot peppers (*Capsicum annuum* L.), also known as chili peppers, as spices or vegetables and for other uses increases every year. Powdered red pepper is one of the fa‐ vorite spices in South Asia and is commonly used for flavoring, seasoning, and imparting aroma or coloring to foods. Hot peppers are the principal component of curry and chili powder and can be used to make pepper sauce, red pepper, and paprika [54].

**Food Type**

Ground red pepper

Ground red pepper

Smoked Paprika

**Table 3.** Aflatoxins in spices.

a. Total: AFB1+ AFB2+ AFG1+ AFG2

**5. Occurrence of Aflatoxin in Milk and Dairy Products**

and AFM1 excreted has been estimated to be 1-3% [5].

**Country Contaminated/**

**Total examined**

Pepper Turkey 12/90 Totala 1.1-97.5 TLC [56] Pepper Turkey 12/49 Totala 7.5-200 TLC [58] Pepper Malaysia 4/4 AFB1 0.65-2.1 ELISA [27]

Paprika Spain 8/17 Totala 1.8-50.4 HPLC [62]

Chilli Malaysia 8/8 AFB1 0.58-3.5 ELISA [27] Chilli Spain 6/11 Totala 1.9-65.7 HPLC [62] Cumin Malaysia 2/3 AFB1 1.89-4.64 ELISA [27] Spices Hungary 23/91 AFB1 0.14-15.7 HPLC [55] Spices Portuqual 34/79 AFB1 1.0-59.0 HPLC [61]

Most of AFB1 and AFB2 ingested by mammals are eliminated through urine and faeces, however a fraction is biotransformed in the liver and excreted together with milk in the form of AFM1 and AFM2, respectively. AFM1 could be detected in milk 12-24 h after the first AFB1 ingestion, reaching a high level after a few days. The ratio between AFB1 ingested

The system responsible for the biotransformation of AFB1 basically has five mechanisms, represented by reactions of reduction, hydration, epoxidation, hydroxylation and ortho-de‐ methylation. The aflatoxicol is produced by reduction of AFB1 by an NADPH-dependent cytoplasmic enzyme present in the soluble fraction of the liver. The toxicity of aflatoxicol is apparently much smaller than AFB1, but the conversion is reversible and the aflatoxi‐ col can serve as a reservoir toxicity of AFB1 in the intracellular space, it can be converted in this mycotoxin by microsomal dehydrogenase. The aflatoxicol can also be metabolized to AFM1 and AFH1. The hydration process results in a metabolite AFB2a. This com‐ pound has the main action the inhibition of enzymes, in the liver and other tissues, caus‐ ing a reduction in proteic synthesis AFM1 and AFQ1 are results of hydroxylation reaction

Turkey 33/164 Totala "/5 HPLC [33]

Ethiopia 8/60 AFB1 250-525 ELISA [57]

Spain 4/4 Totala 22.3-83.7 HPLC [62]

**Aflatoxin Concentration (ppb)**

**Method Reference**

Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Food http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51031 151

Spices are often contaminated with mycotoxins (Table 3). The climatic conditions prevailing in the tropics are especially favorable for mold contamination and mycotoxin production. Of the different mycotoxins, aflatoxin is the commonest contaminant in spices [55].

Peppers are very susceptible to aflatoxin contamination, which is affected by atmospheric temperature, humidity, insects, and drying and processing conditions. Mold contamination can occur in the field during crop production and during storage when conditions are favor‐ able. Sun drying is a common postharvest practice in some countries, which involves spreading peppers on soil in a single layer. Because of the drying processes are on the soil, some peppers are contaminated with fungus [54, 56].

Substantial aflatoxin contamination of ground red pepper has been reported from Ethiopia, where eight of 60 samples collected from markets, shops and storage facilities were contami‐ nated with AFB1 in concentrations of 250-525 µg kg-1 [57]. In Turkey, 24% and 13% of sam‐ ples of different pepper types contained 7.5-200 [58] and 1.1-97.5 µg kg-1 [56] total aflatoxins, respectively. Elshafie et al. [59] were surveyed one hundred and five samples of seven spices (cumin, cinnamon, clove, black pepper, cardamom, ginger, and coriander) for the mycoflora and AFs in the Sultanate of Oman. Twenty fungal species were isolated in which *A. flavus, A. niger. Penicillium, Rhizopus,* and *Syncephalastrum racemosum* were the most dominant. Of the seven spices studied, clove was found to be the least contaminated, while cumin was the most contaminated. None of the 15 selected samples of the spices contaminated by *A. flavus* were found to contain AFs [59]. Cooking revealed that the aflatoxin content of spices did not decrease [60].

Although the mold *A. flavus* grows well on the spices, the production of AFs is lower than in cereals. This indicates that spices are not an ideal substrate for AF formation. It has been shown that essential oils extracted from spices, e.g. cloves, can inhibit mold growth and AF production completely. According to some reports, fungal growth was weak on curcumin, black pepper and white pepper and no AF was detected in black or white pepper after 10 days at 25 °C. According Martins et al. [61], the results of the survey indicate that there is little evidence for significant AF contamination in spices. The majority of samples contained AFs at low levels and others were negative (cardamom, cloves, ginger and mustard). In the meat industry (sausage, dry cured ham, luncheon meat) and in confection of ethnic dishes, AF contamination of spices is probably not relevant as a direct health hazard [61].


**Table 3.** Aflatoxins in spices.

**4. Occurrence of Aflatoxin in Spices**

150 Aflatoxins - Recent Advances and Future Prospects

some peppers are contaminated with fungus [54, 56].

decrease [60].

The popularity of hot peppers (*Capsicum annuum* L.), also known as chili peppers, as spices or vegetables and for other uses increases every year. Powdered red pepper is one of the fa‐ vorite spices in South Asia and is commonly used for flavoring, seasoning, and imparting aroma or coloring to foods. Hot peppers are the principal component of curry and chili

Spices are often contaminated with mycotoxins (Table 3). The climatic conditions prevailing in the tropics are especially favorable for mold contamination and mycotoxin production. Of

Peppers are very susceptible to aflatoxin contamination, which is affected by atmospheric temperature, humidity, insects, and drying and processing conditions. Mold contamination can occur in the field during crop production and during storage when conditions are favor‐ able. Sun drying is a common postharvest practice in some countries, which involves spreading peppers on soil in a single layer. Because of the drying processes are on the soil,

Substantial aflatoxin contamination of ground red pepper has been reported from Ethiopia, where eight of 60 samples collected from markets, shops and storage facilities were contami‐ nated with AFB1 in concentrations of 250-525 µg kg-1 [57]. In Turkey, 24% and 13% of sam‐ ples of different pepper types contained 7.5-200 [58] and 1.1-97.5 µg kg-1 [56] total aflatoxins, respectively. Elshafie et al. [59] were surveyed one hundred and five samples of seven spices (cumin, cinnamon, clove, black pepper, cardamom, ginger, and coriander) for the mycoflora and AFs in the Sultanate of Oman. Twenty fungal species were isolated in which *A. flavus, A. niger. Penicillium, Rhizopus,* and *Syncephalastrum racemosum* were the most dominant. Of the seven spices studied, clove was found to be the least contaminated, while cumin was the most contaminated. None of the 15 selected samples of the spices contaminated by *A. flavus* were found to contain AFs [59]. Cooking revealed that the aflatoxin content of spices did not

Although the mold *A. flavus* grows well on the spices, the production of AFs is lower than in cereals. This indicates that spices are not an ideal substrate for AF formation. It has been shown that essential oils extracted from spices, e.g. cloves, can inhibit mold growth and AF production completely. According to some reports, fungal growth was weak on curcumin, black pepper and white pepper and no AF was detected in black or white pepper after 10 days at 25 °C. According Martins et al. [61], the results of the survey indicate that there is little evidence for significant AF contamination in spices. The majority of samples contained AFs at low levels and others were negative (cardamom, cloves, ginger and mustard). In the meat industry (sausage, dry cured ham, luncheon meat) and in confection of ethnic dishes,

AF contamination of spices is probably not relevant as a direct health hazard [61].

powder and can be used to make pepper sauce, red pepper, and paprika [54].

the different mycotoxins, aflatoxin is the commonest contaminant in spices [55].
