**4. Carrier transport and recombination mechanisms**

#### **4.1. Tunnelling current in HgCdTe, InAs and InSb photodiodes**

Tunneling current was observed by many authors in IR photodiodes made of narrow-gap A2B6 and A3B5 semiconductors (Rogalski, 1995). However, its nature seems to be under‐ stood in rare cases. For instance, the trap-assisted tunneling (TAT) via single level in the gap introduced by point defects was proved to be the main reason for the excess current in HgCdTe IR photodides at rather small reverse biases followed by the direct band-toband (BTB) tunneling current at higher biases (Nemirovsky, 1992; Rosenfeld, 1992; He, 1996). In these photodiodes the trap-assisted tunneling current is shown to be a source of the low-frequency 1/f noise. Similar results were also obtained in HgCdTe MIS structures (He, 1996). Dislocations are also known for a long time as a source of an excess current in semiconductor devices, especially when they intersect the depletion region of the p-n junction (Matare, 1971; Holt, 2007; Shikin, 1996; Whelan, 1969). As to InAs and InSb pho‐ todiodes the role of dislocations is not established clearly. Therefore, identification of the type of defects participating in the carrier transport in InAs and InSb IR photodiodes is a key problem for improvement of their performance. Usually TAT and BTB tunneling cur‐ rents were analyzed in the reverse biased IR photodiodes. This analysis performed for the forward biased InAs and InSb photodiodes revealed new aspects of tunneling transport of carriers.

#### **4.2. Dislocation-assisted tunnelling current in the forward-biased InAs and InSb photodiodes**

The photodiodes were prepared on single-crystal substrates of n-type conductivity. In order to investigate effect of dislocations on the dark current, the substrates were cut from differ‐ ent parts of ingots grown by Bridgman technique. The density of dislocations in InAs sub‐ strates measured by the etch-pit method was of the order of 104 cm-2. The damaged surface layers were removed using dynamic chemical-mechanical polishing in solution of methanol with 2% of Br2. The electron concentration and mobility in the initial substrates were (2-3) 1016 cm-3 and (2-2.5) 104 cm2 /V·s, respectively. The dislocation density was ranged from (1-2) 104 cm-2 in the central part of ingots up to 4 ∙10<sup>5</sup> cm-2 at the periphery one. The p-n junctions were prepared by thermal diffusion of preliminary synthesized CdAs2 into substrates in sealed evacuated quartz ampules. The mesa structures with active area A = 7 10-3 cm2 were delineated using standard photolithographic technique. Then Zn and In contact pads were thermally deposited onto p- and n-type sides of the junction, respectively, followed by a heat treatment in purified hydrogen atmosphere. InSb photodiodes were manufactured by implantation of beryllium into appropriately prepared substrates followed by thermal an‐ nealing. In n-InSb substrates the electron concentration and mobility were of the order of (1-2) 1015 cm-3 (6-7) 105 cm2 /V·s at 77 K, respectively. The dislocation density in InSb sub‐ strates was not exceeded 5·102 cm-2. Photodiodes had planar structure with the junction area A = 1.33 10-2 cm2 .

**Figure 2.** Current-voltage characteristics in InAs (1,2) and InSb (3) photodiodes at 77 K. Curves (1) and (2) refer to the

Infrared Photodiodes on II-VI and III-V Narrow-Gap Semiconductors

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235

**Figure 3.** Temperature dependences of the forward current measured at 10 mV in InAs (1) and InSb (2) photodiodes

dislocation density in substrates 4 104 cm-2 (1) and 2 105 cm-2, respectively.

The current-voltage characteristics are shown in Fig.2. As seen, the characteristics consist of two exponential parts. At lower bias voltages the forward current in InAs photodiodes in‐ creases with increasing the density of dislocations, whereas at higher voltages it has approx‐ imately the same magnitude for both photodiodes. Fig. 3 shows the temperature dependence of the forward current in InAs and InSb photodiodes measured at the bias volt‐ age 10 mV. At low temperatures *T* < 130 K the current is weakly dependent on temperature. At the same time at higher temperatures it exhibits an activation character. To clarify the ob‐ served peculiarities the current-voltage characteristics were investigated in InAs photodiode subjected to ultrasonic treatment with frequency 5-7 MHz and intensity ~0.4 W/cm2 during four hours at room temperature, Fig. 4.

Infrared Photodiodes on II-VI and III-V Narrow-Gap Semiconductors http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52930 235

the low-frequency 1/f noise. Similar results were also obtained in HgCdTe MIS structures (He, 1996). Dislocations are also known for a long time as a source of an excess current in semiconductor devices, especially when they intersect the depletion region of the p-n junction (Matare, 1971; Holt, 2007; Shikin, 1996; Whelan, 1969). As to InAs and InSb pho‐ todiodes the role of dislocations is not established clearly. Therefore, identification of the type of defects participating in the carrier transport in InAs and InSb IR photodiodes is a key problem for improvement of their performance. Usually TAT and BTB tunneling cur‐ rents were analyzed in the reverse biased IR photodiodes. This analysis performed for the forward biased InAs and InSb photodiodes revealed new aspects of tunneling transport of

**4.2. Dislocation-assisted tunnelling current in the forward-biased InAs and InSb**

The photodiodes were prepared on single-crystal substrates of n-type conductivity. In order to investigate effect of dislocations on the dark current, the substrates were cut from differ‐ ent parts of ingots grown by Bridgman technique. The density of dislocations in InAs sub‐ strates measured by the etch-pit method was of the order of 104 cm-2. The damaged surface layers were removed using dynamic chemical-mechanical polishing in solution of methanol with 2% of Br2. The electron concentration and mobility in the initial substrates were (2-3)

were prepared by thermal diffusion of preliminary synthesized CdAs2 into substrates in sealed evacuated quartz ampules. The mesa structures with active area A = 7 10-3 cm2 were delineated using standard photolithographic technique. Then Zn and In contact pads were thermally deposited onto p- and n-type sides of the junction, respectively, followed by a heat treatment in purified hydrogen atmosphere. InSb photodiodes were manufactured by implantation of beryllium into appropriately prepared substrates followed by thermal an‐ nealing. In n-InSb substrates the electron concentration and mobility were of the order of

strates was not exceeded 5·102 cm-2. Photodiodes had planar structure with the junction

The current-voltage characteristics are shown in Fig.2. As seen, the characteristics consist of two exponential parts. At lower bias voltages the forward current in InAs photodiodes in‐ creases with increasing the density of dislocations, whereas at higher voltages it has approx‐ imately the same magnitude for both photodiodes. Fig. 3 shows the temperature dependence of the forward current in InAs and InSb photodiodes measured at the bias volt‐ age 10 mV. At low temperatures *T* < 130 K the current is weakly dependent on temperature. At the same time at higher temperatures it exhibits an activation character. To clarify the ob‐ served peculiarities the current-voltage characteristics were investigated in InAs photodiode subjected to ultrasonic treatment with frequency 5-7 MHz and intensity ~0.4 W/cm2 during

/V·s, respectively. The dislocation density was ranged from (1-2)

/V·s at 77 K, respectively. The dislocation density in InSb sub‐

cm-2 at the periphery one. The p-n junctions

carriers.

104

**photodiodes**

1016 cm-3 and (2-2.5) 104 cm2

234 Photodiodes - From Fundamentals to Applications

(1-2) 1015 cm-3 (6-7) 105 cm2

.

four hours at room temperature, Fig. 4.

area A = 1.33 10-2 cm2

cm-2 in the central part of ingots up to 4 ∙10<sup>5</sup>

**Figure 2.** Current-voltage characteristics in InAs (1,2) and InSb (3) photodiodes at 77 K. Curves (1) and (2) refer to the dislocation density in substrates 4 104 cm-2 (1) and 2 105 cm-2, respectively.

**Figure 3.** Temperature dependences of the forward current measured at 10 mV in InAs (1) and InSb (2) photodiodes

I=I01exp( e(U <sup>−</sup> IRs)

perimental data for InSb photodiodes at 77 K (I0/A = 8.85∙10-5A/sm<sup>2</sup>

ty factor and *R*S is the series resistance.

eni

A is the junction area.

E0

) + I02exp( e(U <sup>−</sup> IRs)

E0

where *I*01 and *I*02 are the pre-exponential factors, *E*0 is the characteristic energy; *β* is the ideali‐

The temperature dependence of the pre-exponential factor in equation (1) is then given by:

where ρ is the density of dislocations, νD is the Debye frequency, UD is the diffusion poten‐ tial. The lifetime of carriers in the depletion region τ0 was determined from the relation I02 =

Because of in the investigated photodiodes the diffusion potential linearly depends on tem‐ perature (Sukach, 2005), the exponential dependence of I01 on temperature should be ob‐ served. Also, in accordance with Evstropov, the characteristic energy E0 is independent on the concentration of free carriers. These consequences of the analyzed model may be used for discrimination of the tunneling current via dislocations. For instance, by using typical ex‐

meV and νD = 3.3∙1012 s-1, which was determined from the known value of Debye tempera‐ ture TD = 160 K (Madelung, 1996), the dislocation density ρ = 4.2∙104 cm-2 was estimated. This value is almost two orders of magnitude higher than in the starting substrates. Rela‐ tively high density of dislocations can be explained by the fact that during the heat treat‐ ment the edge of the junction was not removed from the zone of radiation defects formed by ion implantation of beryllium in InSb. However, the same discrepancy between experimen‐ tal and theoretical data was also observed in InAs photodiodes prepared by diffusion tech‐ nique. Moreover, in the investigated InAs photodiodes the characteristic energy E0 was found to be varied from ~30 meV up to ~60 meV in contrast to theoretical predictions. It must be stressed that values of E0 experimentally obtained in this study are close to those observed in diodes made of wide-gap GaP and SiC (Evstropov, 1997, 2000; Ageev, 2009). This means that the tunneling current via dislocations is characterized by the same features

independent on semiconductor materials used for manufacture of diode structures.

The observed discrepancy between theoretical and experimental data may be caused by sev‐ eral reasons. First of all, in the model developed by Evstropov dislocation lines are assumed to be fully occupied by carriers and have a length of the order of the depletion region width. This seems to be not typical for dislocations in semiconductors (Matare, 1971; Holt and Ya‐ cobi, 2007; Shikin, 1995). Also, the presence of jogs, inclusions of impurity atoms, kinks, etc., results in a loss of translation symmetry along the dislocation line and spatial localization of mobile carriers. Thus only short dislocation segments can contribute to the direct current conduction (Holt, 2007; Kveder, 1985; Nitccki, 1985). It is supposed that this is the main rea‐ son why the direct current conduction along dislocation cores is not clearly demonstrated so

WA/τ0, where ni is the intrinsic concentration of carriers, W is the depletion region width,

I01 =e*ρν*DAexp( eUD

βkT ) (1)

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237

Infrared Photodiodes on II-VI and III-V Narrow-Gap Semiconductors

) (2)

, UD = 160 mV, E0 = 29

**Figure 4.** Current-voltage characteristics in InAs photodiodes before and after ultrasonic treatment (curves 1 and 2, respectively), and after one-year storage (3).

The dark current as a function of bias voltage was measured immediately after ultrasonic treatment as well as after approximately one-year storage of photodiodes at laboratory con‐ dition. It must be pointed out that the ultrasonic treatment results in pronounced increase of the dark current at lower bias voltages, whereas those parts of the current-voltage character‐ istics measured at higher voltages were remained almost unchanged. Also, it is important to note that after storage of samples within one year the excess current caused by ultrasonic treatment is decreased to approximately the starting values.

An explanation of experimental results is based on the assumption that dislocations inter‐ secting the depletion region are responsible for the excess current at small forward biases. A model for tunneling current via dislocations intersecting the depletion region of the junction has been proposed by Evstropov et al. (Evstropov, 1997, 2000). Experimentally it has been also investigated by Ageev with co-authors (Ageev, 2009). According to this model, mobile carriers (holes and electrons) are moved along acceptor-like and donor-like dislocation lines which has been modeled by a chain of parabolic potential barriers with variable height.

In the symmetric junction the forward current flows due to direct recombination of electrons and holes at the middle of the depletion region. The current-voltage characteristics can be described by the formula

Infrared Photodiodes on II-VI and III-V Narrow-Gap Semiconductors http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52930 237

$$\mathbf{I} = \mathbf{I}\_{01} \exp\left(\frac{\mathbf{e}(\mathbf{U} - \mathrm{IR}\_{\circ})}{\mathbf{E}\_{0}}\right) + \mathbf{I}\_{02} \exp\left(\frac{\mathbf{e}(\mathbf{U} - \mathrm{IR}\_{\circ})}{\beta \mathrm{kT}}\right) \tag{1}$$

where *I*01 and *I*02 are the pre-exponential factors, *E*0 is the characteristic energy; *β* is the ideali‐ ty factor and *R*S is the series resistance.

The temperature dependence of the pre-exponential factor in equation (1) is then given by:

$$\mathbf{I}\_{01} = \mathbf{e}\rho\nu\_{\rm D} \mathbf{A} \exp\left(\frac{\mathbf{e}\mathbf{U}\_{\rm D}}{\mathbf{E}\_{0}}\right) \tag{2}$$

where ρ is the density of dislocations, νD is the Debye frequency, UD is the diffusion poten‐ tial. The lifetime of carriers in the depletion region τ0 was determined from the relation I02 = eni WA/τ0, where ni is the intrinsic concentration of carriers, W is the depletion region width, A is the junction area.

Because of in the investigated photodiodes the diffusion potential linearly depends on tem‐ perature (Sukach, 2005), the exponential dependence of I01 on temperature should be ob‐ served. Also, in accordance with Evstropov, the characteristic energy E0 is independent on the concentration of free carriers. These consequences of the analyzed model may be used for discrimination of the tunneling current via dislocations. For instance, by using typical ex‐ perimental data for InSb photodiodes at 77 K (I0/A = 8.85∙10-5A/sm<sup>2</sup> , UD = 160 mV, E0 = 29 meV and νD = 3.3∙1012 s-1, which was determined from the known value of Debye tempera‐ ture TD = 160 K (Madelung, 1996), the dislocation density ρ = 4.2∙104 cm-2 was estimated. This value is almost two orders of magnitude higher than in the starting substrates. Rela‐ tively high density of dislocations can be explained by the fact that during the heat treat‐ ment the edge of the junction was not removed from the zone of radiation defects formed by ion implantation of beryllium in InSb. However, the same discrepancy between experimen‐ tal and theoretical data was also observed in InAs photodiodes prepared by diffusion tech‐ nique. Moreover, in the investigated InAs photodiodes the characteristic energy E0 was found to be varied from ~30 meV up to ~60 meV in contrast to theoretical predictions. It must be stressed that values of E0 experimentally obtained in this study are close to those observed in diodes made of wide-gap GaP and SiC (Evstropov, 1997, 2000; Ageev, 2009). This means that the tunneling current via dislocations is characterized by the same features independent on semiconductor materials used for manufacture of diode structures.

**Figure 4.** Current-voltage characteristics in InAs photodiodes before and after ultrasonic treatment (curves 1 and 2,

The dark current as a function of bias voltage was measured immediately after ultrasonic treatment as well as after approximately one-year storage of photodiodes at laboratory con‐ dition. It must be pointed out that the ultrasonic treatment results in pronounced increase of the dark current at lower bias voltages, whereas those parts of the current-voltage character‐ istics measured at higher voltages were remained almost unchanged. Also, it is important to note that after storage of samples within one year the excess current caused by ultrasonic

An explanation of experimental results is based on the assumption that dislocations inter‐ secting the depletion region are responsible for the excess current at small forward biases. A model for tunneling current via dislocations intersecting the depletion region of the junction has been proposed by Evstropov et al. (Evstropov, 1997, 2000). Experimentally it has been also investigated by Ageev with co-authors (Ageev, 2009). According to this model, mobile carriers (holes and electrons) are moved along acceptor-like and donor-like dislocation lines which has been modeled by a chain of parabolic potential barriers with

In the symmetric junction the forward current flows due to direct recombination of electrons and holes at the middle of the depletion region. The current-voltage characteristics can be

respectively), and after one-year storage (3).

236 Photodiodes - From Fundamentals to Applications

variable height.

described by the formula

treatment is decreased to approximately the starting values.

The observed discrepancy between theoretical and experimental data may be caused by sev‐ eral reasons. First of all, in the model developed by Evstropov dislocation lines are assumed to be fully occupied by carriers and have a length of the order of the depletion region width. This seems to be not typical for dislocations in semiconductors (Matare, 1971; Holt and Ya‐ cobi, 2007; Shikin, 1995). Also, the presence of jogs, inclusions of impurity atoms, kinks, etc., results in a loss of translation symmetry along the dislocation line and spatial localization of mobile carriers. Thus only short dislocation segments can contribute to the direct current conduction (Holt, 2007; Kveder, 1985; Nitccki, 1985). It is supposed that this is the main rea‐ son why the direct current conduction along dislocation cores is not clearly demonstrated so far (Holt and Yacobi, 2007). Further, as originally proposed by Shockley (Holt and Yacobi, 2007) and according to Labusch (Labusch, 1982) and Labusch and Schröter (Labusch and Schröter, 1983) dislocations in semiconductors introduce one-dimensional energy bands into the gap, located near the conduction and valence band edges. Direct recombination transi‐ tions between these bands seem to be not effective. The much more effective is the recombi‐ nation through deep defect states in the gap (Kveder, 2001; Seibt, 2009).

and Luecke, 1956). The driving force of the long-term relaxation of the forward current may

Infrared Photodiodes on II-VI and III-V Narrow-Gap Semiconductors

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52930

239

In conclusion, the excess current experimentally observed in InAs and InSb photodiodes at forward biases is related to dislocations intersecting the depletion region. Pronounced effect of ultrasonic treatment on the forward current is explained by transformation of defects seg‐ regated around dislocations. A model for the carrier transport via dislocations is proposed.

**4.3. Trap-assisted tunnelling current in the reverse-biased InAs and InSb photodiodes**

The effect of traps in the depletion region of a photodiode on the TAT current was consid‐ ered by several authors (Wang, 1980; Kinch, 1981; Nemirovsky, 1989, 1991; Rosenfeld and Bahir, 1992; He and Celik-Butler, 1995). The calculation of the TAT current in a reversebiased photodiode is carried out using several simplifying assumptions: the p-n junction is abrupt with a linear variation of potential (constant electric field) across the depletion re‐ gion; the traps are uniformly distributed; the initial states are occupied whereas the final states are empty. Under these assumptions, the TAT current is proportional to the trap den‐ sity, but depends exponentially on the trap-ionization energy and the electric field strength. Within this model the observed soft reverse breakdown current-voltage characteristics were

For instance, in Fig. 5 and 6 are shown typical current-voltage characteristics and 1/f noise

boron implanting into epitaxial films grown by LPE method, followed by surface passiva‐ tion and low-temperature post-implanting anneal. In the calculation of TAT current thermal and tunnel transitions from the valence band to deep defect states in the gap followed by tunnel transitions to the conduction band were taken into account. That is, the TAT current

+

were ωcNc and ωvNv are the tunneling rates. In order to fit experimental and calculated data it has been supposed that are non-uniformly distributed through the depletion region (Iva‐

the top of the valence band and the capture rates for holes and electrons Cp ≈ 10-7 - 10-6 cm3

and Cn = (0.1-0.01)Cp, respectively. The determined trap energy correlates well with the pre‐

(Nemirovsky, 1991). Note that in photodiodes investigated by Nemirovsky et al., the TAT

(10-100)Cp. Our data are in accordance with the study performed by Rosenfeld and Bahir for

1 *ωcNc* + *cnn*<sup>1</sup>

=0.75Eg in photodiodes prepared by boron implantation to bulk material

) −1

(3)

/s

= 0.72Eg above

/s) and Cn =

*Jtat* <sup>=</sup>*qW Nt*( <sup>1</sup>

*ωvNv* + *cp p*<sup>1</sup>

siv, 1999). The best fit was obtained for the acceptor-like traps with energy Et

current was dominant by donor-like traps with the capture rates Cp=(10-10-10-9cm3

acceptor-like centers in HgCdTe photodiodes (Rosenfeld and Bahir, 1992).


by stress and electric fields around dislocations.

adequately explained.

spectra measured in n+

is given by

viously used Et

Further analysis of experimental data is based on assumption that the p-n junctions in the investigated diodes are non-homogeneous and there are two conduction paths for mobile carriers in the junction. The tunneling current flows via the dislocations intersecting the de‐ pletion region whereas the recombination current flows via homogeneous region free of dis‐ locations. At low bias voltages the tunneling current is dominant, so the forward I-U characteristic is described by the first term in equation (1). Thus, the weak dependence of the forward current on temperature in Fig.3 can be qualitatively understood. With increas‐ ing the bias voltage this current is masked by the recombination current which can be ex‐ plained within the well known SRH model (Sze, 1981). This change in the current mechanism is described by the second term in equation (1).

Experimental evidences exist that the recombination rate of minority carriers at dislocations in silicon depends strongly on dislocation decoration by transition metal impurities (Seibt, 2009). Due to the fact that the recombination of carriers captured at dislocation bands can be substantially enhanced by the presence of small amount of impurity atoms at the dislocation core, it is assumed that the low-temperature transport mechanism consists of several steps, namely: a) injection of electrons into the depletion region under the forward bias, b) capture of electrons on the dislocation core by tunneling transitions, c) electron transport along the undisturbed segments of the dislocation core and d) recombination of electrons with holes through the states in the gap related with 'native' core defects (such as jogs and kinks) or impurity atoms segregated to the dislocation core. In the case of the dislocation core can ex‐ change electrons directly with the conduction band the energy E0 is the dislocation barrier height. Using experimental values for the density of dislocations (~104 cm-2) and the forward current (10-8-10-7 A) it is easy to show that dislocations form equipotential lines. If we take into account that the dislocation resistivity is of the order of 1010 Ω/cm (Labusch, 1982), the voltage drop along a segment of dislocation of 10-5 cm is less than 10-4 V. So, it is likely that at low temperatures tunneling transitions of electrons to the dislocation core is the bottleneck for the forward current in the investigated photodiodes. Also, it is possible that these transitions can occur via local states in the gap, associated with point defects or their precipi‐ tates surrounding dislocations. In this two-step process physical meaning of E0 should be corrected taking into account the energy of these states. Because of in this study the prethreshold intensity of ultrasonic treatment was used, experimental results can be explained by rearrangement of existing defects rather than generation of new point defects. In accord‐ ance with the vibrating string model of Granato-Luecke, the intensive sonic-dislocation in‐ teraction results in an effective transformation of the absorbed ultrasonic energy into the internal vibration states of a semiconductor stimulating different defect reactions (Granato and Luecke, 1956). The driving force of the long-term relaxation of the forward current may by stress and electric fields around dislocations.

far (Holt and Yacobi, 2007). Further, as originally proposed by Shockley (Holt and Yacobi, 2007) and according to Labusch (Labusch, 1982) and Labusch and Schröter (Labusch and Schröter, 1983) dislocations in semiconductors introduce one-dimensional energy bands into the gap, located near the conduction and valence band edges. Direct recombination transi‐ tions between these bands seem to be not effective. The much more effective is the recombi‐

Further analysis of experimental data is based on assumption that the p-n junctions in the investigated diodes are non-homogeneous and there are two conduction paths for mobile carriers in the junction. The tunneling current flows via the dislocations intersecting the de‐ pletion region whereas the recombination current flows via homogeneous region free of dis‐ locations. At low bias voltages the tunneling current is dominant, so the forward I-U characteristic is described by the first term in equation (1). Thus, the weak dependence of the forward current on temperature in Fig.3 can be qualitatively understood. With increas‐ ing the bias voltage this current is masked by the recombination current which can be ex‐ plained within the well known SRH model (Sze, 1981). This change in the current

Experimental evidences exist that the recombination rate of minority carriers at dislocations in silicon depends strongly on dislocation decoration by transition metal impurities (Seibt, 2009). Due to the fact that the recombination of carriers captured at dislocation bands can be substantially enhanced by the presence of small amount of impurity atoms at the dislocation core, it is assumed that the low-temperature transport mechanism consists of several steps, namely: a) injection of electrons into the depletion region under the forward bias, b) capture of electrons on the dislocation core by tunneling transitions, c) electron transport along the undisturbed segments of the dislocation core and d) recombination of electrons with holes through the states in the gap related with 'native' core defects (such as jogs and kinks) or impurity atoms segregated to the dislocation core. In the case of the dislocation core can ex‐ change electrons directly with the conduction band the energy E0 is the dislocation barrier

current (10-8-10-7 A) it is easy to show that dislocations form equipotential lines. If we take into account that the dislocation resistivity is of the order of 1010 Ω/cm (Labusch, 1982), the voltage drop along a segment of dislocation of 10-5 cm is less than 10-4 V. So, it is likely that at low temperatures tunneling transitions of electrons to the dislocation core is the bottleneck for the forward current in the investigated photodiodes. Also, it is possible that these transitions can occur via local states in the gap, associated with point defects or their precipi‐ tates surrounding dislocations. In this two-step process physical meaning of E0 should be corrected taking into account the energy of these states. Because of in this study the prethreshold intensity of ultrasonic treatment was used, experimental results can be explained by rearrangement of existing defects rather than generation of new point defects. In accord‐ ance with the vibrating string model of Granato-Luecke, the intensive sonic-dislocation in‐ teraction results in an effective transformation of the absorbed ultrasonic energy into the internal vibration states of a semiconductor stimulating different defect reactions (Granato

cm-2) and the forward

nation through deep defect states in the gap (Kveder, 2001; Seibt, 2009).

238 Photodiodes - From Fundamentals to Applications

mechanism is described by the second term in equation (1).

height. Using experimental values for the density of dislocations (~104

In conclusion, the excess current experimentally observed in InAs and InSb photodiodes at forward biases is related to dislocations intersecting the depletion region. Pronounced effect of ultrasonic treatment on the forward current is explained by transformation of defects seg‐ regated around dislocations. A model for the carrier transport via dislocations is proposed.

#### **4.3. Trap-assisted tunnelling current in the reverse-biased InAs and InSb photodiodes**

The effect of traps in the depletion region of a photodiode on the TAT current was consid‐ ered by several authors (Wang, 1980; Kinch, 1981; Nemirovsky, 1989, 1991; Rosenfeld and Bahir, 1992; He and Celik-Butler, 1995). The calculation of the TAT current in a reversebiased photodiode is carried out using several simplifying assumptions: the p-n junction is abrupt with a linear variation of potential (constant electric field) across the depletion re‐ gion; the traps are uniformly distributed; the initial states are occupied whereas the final states are empty. Under these assumptions, the TAT current is proportional to the trap den‐ sity, but depends exponentially on the trap-ionization energy and the electric field strength. Within this model the observed soft reverse breakdown current-voltage characteristics were adequately explained.

For instance, in Fig. 5 and 6 are shown typical current-voltage characteristics and 1/f noise spectra measured in n+ -p HgCdTe (x=0.22) photodiodes. The photodiodes were prepared by boron implanting into epitaxial films grown by LPE method, followed by surface passiva‐ tion and low-temperature post-implanting anneal. In the calculation of TAT current thermal and tunnel transitions from the valence band to deep defect states in the gap followed by tunnel transitions to the conduction band were taken into account. That is, the TAT current is given by

$$J\_{\rm tatt} = q \mathcal{W} N\_t \left( \frac{1}{\omega\_v N\_v + c\_p p\_1} + \frac{1}{\omega\_c N\_c + c\_n n\_1} \right)^{-1} \tag{3}$$

were ωcNc and ωvNv are the tunneling rates. In order to fit experimental and calculated data it has been supposed that are non-uniformly distributed through the depletion region (Iva‐ siv, 1999). The best fit was obtained for the acceptor-like traps with energy Et = 0.72Eg above the top of the valence band and the capture rates for holes and electrons Cp ≈ 10-7 - 10-6 cm3 /s and Cn = (0.1-0.01)Cp, respectively. The determined trap energy correlates well with the pre‐ viously used Et =0.75Eg in photodiodes prepared by boron implantation to bulk material (Nemirovsky, 1991). Note that in photodiodes investigated by Nemirovsky et al., the TAT current was dominant by donor-like traps with the capture rates Cp=(10-10-10-9cm3 /s) and Cn = (10-100)Cp. Our data are in accordance with the study performed by Rosenfeld and Bahir for acceptor-like centers in HgCdTe photodiodes (Rosenfeld and Bahir, 1992).

The correlation was found between the TAT current at small reverse bias voltage U ≤ 0.1 V and 1/f noise. In the case of the total dark current was completely determined by TAT mech‐

From the fitting calculation the values of the constant α *=* 10-8 - 10-7 were found. Earlier simi‐ lar correlation was observed by Nemirovsky et al.. (Nemirovsky, 1989; Nemirovsky, 1992).

It seems that parameters of traps determined from the fitting calculations within this model may be used for rough estimations only. More accurate calculations of the TAT current has been performed by Krishnamurthy et al. (Krishnamurthy, 2006). The TAT current has been calculated for a linearly varying electric field in the depletion region of the p-n junction and self consistently obtained trap-occupation probability. The calculations showed that the re‐ verse-bias dark current changes considerably both in magnitude and in shape. For a better interpretation of the observed dark currents and an estimation of trap density, these im‐

In order to explain experimental data in InAs photodiodes it has been assumed that the tun‐ neling current is controlled by small areas of the junction which are characterized by large deviation of impurity concentration from the mean value (Sukach, 2005). For instance, nonuniform distribution of impurity atoms can be realized around dislocations (Cottrell atmos‐ phere) or at the periphery of the junction. This results in increase of electric field in the junction over the value given by the equation (1) for more or less uniform distribution of charged defects in the junction. We also assumed that the tunneling current in these areas is caused by the trap-assisted tunneling described with the modified values of the junction area and electric field strength in the junction. For this purpose, the dislocation was modeled

centration was determined from the fitting calculation of I-U curves. The density of disloca‐

be determined from the Poisson equation. However, as the first approximation there has been assumed that the electric field around dislocations may be estimated using formulas for the abrupt p-n junction (Sze, 1981). Because of the tunneling rates ωcNc and ωvNv are ex‐ ponentially depend on the electric field strength, the TAT current through these regions are exponentially large in comparison with the uniform regions of the junction. The trap-assist‐ ed tunneling current was calculated for the following cases: i) traps are exchanged with both bands by thermal and tunnel transitions of carriers (curve 1), ii) tunnel transitions of carriers from the valence band to traps followed by thermal and tunnel transitions to the conduction band (curve 2), tunnel transitions of carriers from the valence band to the conduction band

tion in the range from ~1013 to ~1014 cm-3. These values seem to be reasonable for InAs. The concentration of charged defects determined from the fit of the calculated and measured da‐

<sup>I</sup>*<sup>n</sup>* <sup>=</sup>*<sup>α</sup>* ( <sup>I</sup>*TAT*

Hz. Taking this into account the

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52930

241

<sup>f</sup> ) (4)

Infrared Photodiodes on II-VI and III-V Narrow-Gap Semiconductors

with increased concentration of charged defects. Their con‐

cm-2. The electric field around a dislocation may

= Eg/2 and their concentra‐

anism the 1/f noise was observed up to frequencies 104

noise current was calculated by the formula

provements should be taken into account.

by the effective area Aeff ≈1 μm2

tion was assumed to be of the order of 104

through traps. The best fit was obtained for the energy of traps Et

**Figure 5.** Measured (dots) and calculated (solid lines) current-voltage characteristics of n+-p photodiodes at 77 K. Pa‐ rameters of traps: Et=0.72Eg, Cp=1 10-7 cm3/s, Cn=0.01Cp *,* Nt=3.2 1015 and 4.8 1015 cm-3 for curves 1 and 2, respectively.

**Figure 6.** Noise spectra for the photodiodes with R0A=1.0 Ω cm2 (1) and R0A=0.3 Ω cm2 (2) at 77 K.

The correlation was found between the TAT current at small reverse bias voltage U ≤ 0.1 V and 1/f noise. In the case of the total dark current was completely determined by TAT mech‐ anism the 1/f noise was observed up to frequencies 104 Hz. Taking this into account the noise current was calculated by the formula

$$\mathbf{I}\_n = \alpha \left(\frac{\mathbf{I}\_{TAT}}{\sqrt{\mathbf{f}}}\right) \tag{4}$$

From the fitting calculation the values of the constant α *=* 10-8 - 10-7 were found. Earlier simi‐ lar correlation was observed by Nemirovsky et al.. (Nemirovsky, 1989; Nemirovsky, 1992).

It seems that parameters of traps determined from the fitting calculations within this model may be used for rough estimations only. More accurate calculations of the TAT current has been performed by Krishnamurthy et al. (Krishnamurthy, 2006). The TAT current has been calculated for a linearly varying electric field in the depletion region of the p-n junction and self consistently obtained trap-occupation probability. The calculations showed that the re‐ verse-bias dark current changes considerably both in magnitude and in shape. For a better interpretation of the observed dark currents and an estimation of trap density, these im‐ provements should be taken into account.

**Figure 5.** Measured (dots) and calculated (solid lines) current-voltage characteristics of n+-p photodiodes at 77 K. Pa‐

Nt=3.2 1015 and 4.8 1015 cm-3 for curves 1 and 2, respectively.

*,*

**Figure 6.** Noise spectra for the photodiodes with R0A=1.0 Ω cm2 (1) and R0A=0.3 Ω cm2 (2) at 77 K.

rameters of traps: Et=0.72Eg, Cp=1 10-7 cm3/s, Cn=0.01Cp

240 Photodiodes - From Fundamentals to Applications

In order to explain experimental data in InAs photodiodes it has been assumed that the tun‐ neling current is controlled by small areas of the junction which are characterized by large deviation of impurity concentration from the mean value (Sukach, 2005). For instance, nonuniform distribution of impurity atoms can be realized around dislocations (Cottrell atmos‐ phere) or at the periphery of the junction. This results in increase of electric field in the junction over the value given by the equation (1) for more or less uniform distribution of charged defects in the junction. We also assumed that the tunneling current in these areas is caused by the trap-assisted tunneling described with the modified values of the junction area and electric field strength in the junction. For this purpose, the dislocation was modeled by the effective area Aeff ≈1 μm2 with increased concentration of charged defects. Their con‐ centration was determined from the fitting calculation of I-U curves. The density of disloca‐ tion was assumed to be of the order of 104 cm-2. The electric field around a dislocation may be determined from the Poisson equation. However, as the first approximation there has been assumed that the electric field around dislocations may be estimated using formulas for the abrupt p-n junction (Sze, 1981). Because of the tunneling rates ωcNc and ωvNv are ex‐ ponentially depend on the electric field strength, the TAT current through these regions are exponentially large in comparison with the uniform regions of the junction. The trap-assist‐ ed tunneling current was calculated for the following cases: i) traps are exchanged with both bands by thermal and tunnel transitions of carriers (curve 1), ii) tunnel transitions of carriers from the valence band to traps followed by thermal and tunnel transitions to the conduction band (curve 2), tunnel transitions of carriers from the valence band to the conduction band through traps. The best fit was obtained for the energy of traps Et = Eg/2 and their concentra‐ tion in the range from ~1013 to ~1014 cm-3. These values seem to be reasonable for InAs. The concentration of charged defects determined from the fit of the calculated and measured da‐ ta was found to exceed 4·1016 cm-3. This value is more than one order of magnitude higher than the mean value of the free carriers concentration determined from the capacitance-volt‐ age measurements.

Due to Capper (1994), in n-type HgCdTe for low values of composition (x<0.25) and carrier concentrations >1015 cm-3 the Auger 1 recombination process is dominant, particularly at high temperatures (>100 K). The SRH recombination is important at lower values of carrier concentration and at low temperatures. In LPE material grown from Hg-rich solution higher values of lifetime than in corresponding material grown by other techniques were observed, presumably due to a lower level of recombination centers related with Hg vacancies. Dislo‐ cations can also contribute to the SRH recombination when present at high densities. The measured data in p-type HgCdTe indicated that the Auger 7 recombination does not limit the carrier lifetime. It is believed that the SRH recombination can explain most of the experi‐

The Auger recombination process in narrow-gap semiconductors with the three- and fourband Kane models of band structure was reexamined by Gelmomnt et al. (Gelmont, 1978; Gelmont, 1981; Gelmont, 1982; Gelmont and Sokolova, 1982). The appropriate calculations of the carrier lifetime in InAs based on Gelmont's theory has been performed by Tetyorkin and co-authors (Tetyorkin, 2011). The calculated dependences of the lifetime as a function of

The generation rate for the Auger 1 process gA1 obtained by Beattie and Landsberg is

*Eg* )3/2

light and heavy holes, respectively, μ is the ratio of the electron to the heavy-hole effective mass. In the calculation of gA1 the product of the overlap integrals |F1F2| is equal to 0.25 (Malyutenko, 1980). The calculated dependences are compared with experimental data pub‐ lished starting from the late 1950s to our days. As seen from Fig.7, the Auger 1 process is dominant at the electron concentration n > 4·1015 cm-3, whereas at n < 1·1015cm-1 the carrier lifetime is determined by the radiative mechanism. In p-InSb the radiative recombination is dominant at the concentration p< 5·1015 cm-3, Fig.8. The observed scatter of experimental da‐ ta in samples with approximately the same concentration of carriers can be attributed to the SRH recombination. The values of the carrier lifetime in samples investigated earlier were lower than those obtained later. Thus, the relation between the improvement in technology of InSb and the increase in the carrier lifetime is clearly seen from experimental data shown

exp <sup>−</sup>( 1+2*<sup>μ</sup>*

\* *mhh* \* ) *Eg*

\* and *mhh*

exp <sup>−</sup>(1 + *mhl*

1 + *<sup>μ</sup>* ) *Eg*

Infrared Photodiodes on II-VI and III-V Narrow-Gap Semiconductors

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243

*kT* (5)

*kT g*(*α*) (6)

\* are the effective masses of

mental data (Fastow, 1990).

given by

in Fig. 7 and 8.

the carrier concentration in InSb is shown in Fig. 7 and 8.

5/2*e* <sup>4</sup> *me*

According to Gelmont, the generation rate for the Auger 7 is

\* / *mo*)*<sup>e</sup>* <sup>4</sup> *π*ℏ<sup>3</sup>

*<sup>ε</sup>* <sup>2</sup> *po*( *kT*

\* <sup>|</sup> *<sup>F</sup>*1*F*<sup>2</sup> <sup>|</sup> <sup>2</sup>*no*

1/2(1 + 2*μ*) ( *kT*

*Eg* )7/2

*gA*<sup>1</sup> <sup>=</sup> 8(2*π*)

*<sup>G</sup>* <sup>=</sup> <sup>18</sup>*mo*(*mh* <sup>h</sup>

In these equations, ε is the static dielectric constant, *mhl*

*gA*<sup>7</sup>

*h* <sup>3</sup> *ε* 2 (1 + *μ*)

Some arguments in favor of the measured current in InAs photodiodes is related to Cot‐ trell's atmospheres around dislocations have been obtained from investigations of effect of ultrasonic treatment on the current-voltage characteristics (Sukach and Tetyorkin, 2009). In the photodiodes subjected to ultrasonic vibration with frequency 5-7 MHz and pre-thresh‐ old intensity ~0.4 W/cm<sup>2</sup> prononced increase of the reverse current was obseved. The current is relaxed down to the starting value during nine-month storage of photodiodes at laborato‐ ry conditions. Experimental results are explained by transformation of existing complex de‐ fects rather than generation of new point defects. Most probably that this transformation is connected with Cottrell's atmospheres around dislocations which intersect the p-n junction. In accordance with the vibrating string model of Granato-Luecke (Granato and Luecke, 1966), the intensive sonic-dislocation interaction results in an effective transformation of the absorbed ultrasonic energy into the internal vibration states of a semiconductor stimulating different defect reactions. The driving force of the observed relaxation may be deformation and electric fields around dislocations.

#### **4.4. Recombination mechanisms**

The carrier lifetime in HgCdTe, InSb and InAs narrow-gap semiconductors is determined by three principal recombination mechanisms: radiative, Auger and SRH. The first two mechanisms are intrinsic, whereas SRH recombination is not intrinsic because it is carried out with assistant of deep defect states in the gap. In principle, SRH recombination can be suppressed by reducing the concentration of recombination centers. Ten types of possible band-to-band Auger recombination processes in n- and p-type semiconductors were deter‐ mined by Beattie (1962). The Auger 1 recombination mechanism in n-type material with InSb-like parabolic band structure was firstly considered by Beattie and Landsberg (Beat‐ tie and Landsberg, 1959). The Auger 7 process is important in p-type material (Beattie and Smith, 1967; Petersen,1970; Takeshima, 1972; Casselman and Petersen, 1980; Casselman, 1981). For the nonparabolic band structure, the |F1F2| dependence on k, and nongenerate statistics appropriate expressions for the Auger 7 recombination process has been de‐ duced by Beattie and Smith (1967).

The well known problem in the Auger recombination processes is the uncertainty in the car‐ rier lifetime introduced by the overlap integrals F1 and F<sup>2</sup> of the periodic part of the electron wave functions. As was shown by Petersen (1970, 1981), the dependence of the product | F1F2| on the wave vector k should be taken into account in p-type materials. However, in practice the constant value of |F1F2| in the range 0.1-0.3 is used for calculations of the carrier lifetime (Rogalski, 1995). This results in scatter of the calculated data within an order of magnitude. The detailed analysis of recombination process in HgCdTe can be found in nu‐ merous review articles and books (Beattie and Landsberg, (1959); Petersen, 1981; Capper, 1994; Rogalski, 2011; Chu and Sher, 2010).

Due to Capper (1994), in n-type HgCdTe for low values of composition (x<0.25) and carrier concentrations >1015 cm-3 the Auger 1 recombination process is dominant, particularly at high temperatures (>100 K). The SRH recombination is important at lower values of carrier concentration and at low temperatures. In LPE material grown from Hg-rich solution higher values of lifetime than in corresponding material grown by other techniques were observed, presumably due to a lower level of recombination centers related with Hg vacancies. Dislo‐ cations can also contribute to the SRH recombination when present at high densities. The measured data in p-type HgCdTe indicated that the Auger 7 recombination does not limit the carrier lifetime. It is believed that the SRH recombination can explain most of the experi‐ mental data (Fastow, 1990).

The Auger recombination process in narrow-gap semiconductors with the three- and fourband Kane models of band structure was reexamined by Gelmomnt et al. (Gelmont, 1978; Gelmont, 1981; Gelmont, 1982; Gelmont and Sokolova, 1982). The appropriate calculations of the carrier lifetime in InAs based on Gelmont's theory has been performed by Tetyorkin and co-authors (Tetyorkin, 2011). The calculated dependences of the lifetime as a function of the carrier concentration in InSb is shown in Fig. 7 and 8.

The generation rate for the Auger 1 process gA1 obtained by Beattie and Landsberg is given by

$$\log\_{A1} = \frac{8(2\pi)^{5/2}e^4 m\_e^{\*} \parallel F\_1 F\_2 \parallel^2 n\_o}{h^{\frac{3}{2}}e^2 (1+\mu)^{1/2} (1+2\mu)} \left(\frac{kT}{E\_g}\right)^{3/2} \exp\left[-\left(\frac{1+2\mu}{1+\mu}\right)\frac{E\_g}{kT}\right] \tag{5}$$

According to Gelmont, the generation rate for the Auger 7 is

ta was found to exceed 4·1016 cm-3. This value is more than one order of magnitude higher than the mean value of the free carriers concentration determined from the capacitance-volt‐

Some arguments in favor of the measured current in InAs photodiodes is related to Cot‐ trell's atmospheres around dislocations have been obtained from investigations of effect of ultrasonic treatment on the current-voltage characteristics (Sukach and Tetyorkin, 2009). In the photodiodes subjected to ultrasonic vibration with frequency 5-7 MHz and pre-thresh‐

is relaxed down to the starting value during nine-month storage of photodiodes at laborato‐ ry conditions. Experimental results are explained by transformation of existing complex de‐ fects rather than generation of new point defects. Most probably that this transformation is connected with Cottrell's atmospheres around dislocations which intersect the p-n junction. In accordance with the vibrating string model of Granato-Luecke (Granato and Luecke, 1966), the intensive sonic-dislocation interaction results in an effective transformation of the absorbed ultrasonic energy into the internal vibration states of a semiconductor stimulating different defect reactions. The driving force of the observed relaxation may be deformation

The carrier lifetime in HgCdTe, InSb and InAs narrow-gap semiconductors is determined by three principal recombination mechanisms: radiative, Auger and SRH. The first two mechanisms are intrinsic, whereas SRH recombination is not intrinsic because it is carried out with assistant of deep defect states in the gap. In principle, SRH recombination can be suppressed by reducing the concentration of recombination centers. Ten types of possible band-to-band Auger recombination processes in n- and p-type semiconductors were deter‐ mined by Beattie (1962). The Auger 1 recombination mechanism in n-type material with InSb-like parabolic band structure was firstly considered by Beattie and Landsberg (Beat‐ tie and Landsberg, 1959). The Auger 7 process is important in p-type material (Beattie and Smith, 1967; Petersen,1970; Takeshima, 1972; Casselman and Petersen, 1980; Casselman, 1981). For the nonparabolic band structure, the |F1F2| dependence on k, and nongenerate statistics appropriate expressions for the Auger 7 recombination process has been de‐

The well known problem in the Auger recombination processes is the uncertainty in the car‐ rier lifetime introduced by the overlap integrals F1 and F<sup>2</sup> of the periodic part of the electron wave functions. As was shown by Petersen (1970, 1981), the dependence of the product | F1F2| on the wave vector k should be taken into account in p-type materials. However, in practice the constant value of |F1F2| in the range 0.1-0.3 is used for calculations of the carrier lifetime (Rogalski, 1995). This results in scatter of the calculated data within an order of magnitude. The detailed analysis of recombination process in HgCdTe can be found in nu‐ merous review articles and books (Beattie and Landsberg, (1959); Petersen, 1981; Capper,

prononced increase of the reverse current was obseved. The current

age measurements.

242 Photodiodes - From Fundamentals to Applications

old intensity ~0.4 W/cm<sup>2</sup>

and electric fields around dislocations.

**4.4. Recombination mechanisms**

duced by Beattie and Smith (1967).

1994; Rogalski, 2011; Chu and Sher, 2010).

$$\log\_{A7}^{G} = \frac{18\eta\_o(m\_h^\* / m\_o)e^4}{\pi\hbar^3 e^2} \sum\_o p\_o \left(\frac{kT}{E\_g}\right)^{7/2} \exp\left[- (1 + \frac{m\_h^\*}{m\_h^\*})\frac{E\_g}{kT}\right] \mathbf{g}(\alpha) \tag{6}$$

In these equations, ε is the static dielectric constant, *mhl* \* and *mhh* \* are the effective masses of light and heavy holes, respectively, μ is the ratio of the electron to the heavy-hole effective mass. In the calculation of gA1 the product of the overlap integrals |F1F2| is equal to 0.25 (Malyutenko, 1980). The calculated dependences are compared with experimental data pub‐ lished starting from the late 1950s to our days. As seen from Fig.7, the Auger 1 process is dominant at the electron concentration n > 4·1015 cm-3, whereas at n < 1·1015cm-1 the carrier lifetime is determined by the radiative mechanism. In p-InSb the radiative recombination is dominant at the concentration p< 5·1015 cm-3, Fig.8. The observed scatter of experimental da‐ ta in samples with approximately the same concentration of carriers can be attributed to the SRH recombination. The values of the carrier lifetime in samples investigated earlier were lower than those obtained later. Thus, the relation between the improvement in technology of InSb and the increase in the carrier lifetime is clearly seen from experimental data shown in Fig. 7 and 8.

In conclusion, the following peculiarities of the carrier lifetime in MWIR and LWIR HgCdTe may be pointed out: carrier lifetime can be essentially different in samples prepared by dif‐ ferent growth techniques, even if they have approximately the same carrier concentration; correlation between the lifetime and the concentration of vacancies is observed in vacancy doped materials; lifetime can be increased by doping with foreign impurities; SRH recombi‐ nation is more distinct at low temperatures and in samples with low carrier concentration.

Infrared Photodiodes on II-VI and III-V Narrow-Gap Semiconductors

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52930

245

It seems that the SRH recombination is also dominant in InAs and InSb at low temperatures and low values of the carrier concentration. It should be noted that the low-temperature an‐ nealing of n-InSb leads to a significant increase in the lifetime in samples with the carrier concentration of the order of 1014 cm-3. The highest values of the lifetime, as shown in Fig.6 (Strelnikova, 1993), were obtained in annealed samples due to significant decrease in the

Despite significant advances in the development of infrared photodiodes on narrow-gap II-VI and III-V semiconductors, theoretically predicted threshold parameters have not yet been achieved. The main reason for this is the participation of defects of different type in the processes of recombination and carrier transport. It is clear that further progress in develop‐ ment of IR photodiodes is closely connected with the band gap and defect engineering. The most impressive application of these concepts, based on knowledge of fundamental physical properties and defect states in narrow-gap semiconductors, is the development of HgCdTe

and Andriy Tkachuk2

[1] Abaeva, T. V., Bublik, V. T., Morozov, A. N., & Pereverzev, A. T. (1987). Effect of In and Sb vacancies on temperature dependence of InSb lattice parameter at high tem‐ peratures, Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Neorg. Mater. (In Russia), 0000-2337X., 23(2)

planar heterostructure photodiodes with the highest performance achieved to-day.

1 V. Lashkaryov Institute of Semiconductor Physics NAS of Ukraine, Ukraine

, Andriy Sukach1

2 V. Vinnichenko State Pedagogical University, Ukraine

concentration of recombination centers.

**5. Conclusion**

**Author details**

**References**

Volodymyr Tetyorkin1

**Figure 7.** Calculated dependences (solid lines) of the lifetime in n-InSb at 77 K. Experimental are taken from (Abduva‐ khidov, 1968; Malyutenko, 1980; Guseinov, 1971; Strelnikova, 1993; Biryulin, 2004): open square, close square, open triangle, close triangle and open circle, respectively.

**Figure 8.** Calculated dependences (solid lines) of the lifetime in p-InSb at 77 K. Experimental data are taken from (Laff and Fan, 1961; Volkov, 1967; Zitter, 1959): close square, open square and close triangle, respectively.

In conclusion, the following peculiarities of the carrier lifetime in MWIR and LWIR HgCdTe may be pointed out: carrier lifetime can be essentially different in samples prepared by dif‐ ferent growth techniques, even if they have approximately the same carrier concentration; correlation between the lifetime and the concentration of vacancies is observed in vacancy doped materials; lifetime can be increased by doping with foreign impurities; SRH recombi‐ nation is more distinct at low temperatures and in samples with low carrier concentration.

It seems that the SRH recombination is also dominant in InAs and InSb at low temperatures and low values of the carrier concentration. It should be noted that the low-temperature an‐ nealing of n-InSb leads to a significant increase in the lifetime in samples with the carrier concentration of the order of 1014 cm-3. The highest values of the lifetime, as shown in Fig.6 (Strelnikova, 1993), were obtained in annealed samples due to significant decrease in the concentration of recombination centers.

#### **5. Conclusion**

**Figure 7.** Calculated dependences (solid lines) of the lifetime in n-InSb at 77 K. Experimental are taken from (Abduva‐ khidov, 1968; Malyutenko, 1980; Guseinov, 1971; Strelnikova, 1993; Biryulin, 2004): open square, close square, open

**Figure 8.** Calculated dependences (solid lines) of the lifetime in p-InSb at 77 K. Experimental data are taken from (Laff

and Fan, 1961; Volkov, 1967; Zitter, 1959): close square, open square and close triangle, respectively.

triangle, close triangle and open circle, respectively.

244 Photodiodes - From Fundamentals to Applications

Despite significant advances in the development of infrared photodiodes on narrow-gap II-VI and III-V semiconductors, theoretically predicted threshold parameters have not yet been achieved. The main reason for this is the participation of defects of different type in the processes of recombination and carrier transport. It is clear that further progress in develop‐ ment of IR photodiodes is closely connected with the band gap and defect engineering. The most impressive application of these concepts, based on knowledge of fundamental physical properties and defect states in narrow-gap semiconductors, is the development of HgCdTe planar heterostructure photodiodes with the highest performance achieved to-day.

#### **Author details**

Volodymyr Tetyorkin1 , Andriy Sukach1 and Andriy Tkachuk2


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**Chapter 8**

**Al(Ga)InP-GaAs Photodiodes Tailored for Specific**

The sun light shining on our earth, with its main energy concentrated in visible extending to ultraviolet (UV), has activated this planet adequately. Therefore, the spectral response fea‐ tures of life-forms including human beings, as well as plentiful artificial creatures, are linked to those bands spontaneously and tightly. Photodiodes or photodetectors (PDs) with specific wavelength response in UV-visible bands have many practical and potential applications in‐ cluding ocean or water related sensing and communication, medical engineering and photo‐ dosimetry, missile guidance and countermeasures, and so on. In those wavelength bands, various groups of II-VI, III-V and VI materials could be utilized for PDs. Among them, Si PD should be the most successful one, whereas its wide response extends to near-infrared inher‐ ently, also, the performance of Si PD is limited by its indirect and relatively narrow bandg‐ ap, which restricts its applications in certain cases. Among various optional materials in those bands, the III-V Al(Ga)InP system, especially the ternary AlInP and GaInP, may work well in visible or even extending to UV band. Al0.52In0.48P and Ga0.51In0.49P, which are lattice matched to GaAs substrate, have band gaps about 2.3 eV and 1.9 eV respectively, the combi‐ nation of those two ternary materials, in conjunction with the quaternary AlGaInP system, also gives a big room in tailoring the response of the photodiodes to a specific wavelength region. Besides, profiting from the wider bandgap comparing to that of Si, higher working temperature, lower dark current and better radiation hardness could be expected for those robust materials. Furthermore, for this GaAs based III-V non-nitride system, the doping in both n and p type is feasible, a quite mature growth and processing technology can be relied

on, so photovoltaic detectors and arrays with better performance could be presumed.

In this chapter, a simple review on the material issues of PDs in these bands will appear first, then concentrated on the gas source molecular beam epitaxy (GSMBE) growth of the

> © 2012 Zhang and Gu; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2012 Zhang and Gu; licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Wavelength Range**

Yong-gang Zhang and Yi Gu

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50404

**1. Introduction**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

