**4. Breeding objectives**

Since, opium poppy is widely and commonly used for dual purpose i.e. food (seed) and pharmaceuticals (alkaloids) so the major emphasis has been given for its genetical upgrada‐ tion on both these aspects. The different breeding objectives are depicted in following sub‐ headings.

#### **4.1. Breeding for modified opium yield, seed yield and specific alkaloid variety**

Due to ever increasing global demand of opium latex raised by the pharmaceutical indus‐ tries for manufacturing of life saving drugs, scientists/plant breeders took the challenge of developing high opium yielding varieties. However, they have been able to develop several high opium yielding varieties, but yet it is not able to fulfill the pressure created due to en‐ hance global demand raised as a consequence of population growth. At present our scien‐ tists have been able to discover more than 80 alkaloids of immense medicinal importance. Despite of their best possible efforts to identify more and more alkaloids, the demand for five major alkaloids i.e. morphine, codeine, thebaine, narcotine and papaverine have elevat‐ ed due to major application in medical field. The importance of these five major alkaloids has been discussed earlier. Previously, morphine being the main pain killer was in high de‐ mand, for which our scientist made great success in development of high morphine contain‐ ing varieties. But now a days, the demand for specific alkaloids i.e. thebaine, codeine, narcotine and papaverine have arisen due to their specific use in different medical treat‐ ments. The scientists are now trying to develop varieties with specific alkaloid in opium la‐ tex through conventional and molecular techniques. Opium poppy is a narcotic crop, due to the presence of morphine (narcotic constituent) in major proportion of opium latex. In recent days, scientists are working to develop low morphine or morphine less varieties to check its illegal cultivation. The development of low morphine or morphine less varieties can also help Narcotics Department, as it will not require issuing license for growing opium poppy to the cultivators. Globally, different group of researchers are engaged in this direction us‐ ing both conventional and molecular approaches.

Poppy seeds having high nutritive values are also in high demand and major emphasis has been given for the development of food grade poppy which can only be possible, if opiumless poppy varieties can be developed. Both conventional and molecular approaches are be‐ ing applied aiming at this target, fortunately a variety "Sujata" has been developed by Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow [33]. The development of such varieties can assist opium cultivators to grow food grade poppy without any restriction or permission in form of license. Seeds of opium poppy have high value in global market which puts a great pressure on plant breeders to develop high seed yielding varieties that can substantiate the ever increasing global demands. The importance of poppy seeds has been described earlier in details. However, many high seed yielding varieties have been de‐ veloped but since global population is increasing at an enormous rate, plant breeders are continuously putting their best possible efforts to capture this ever increasing demand.

#### **4.2. Breeding for disease resistant variety, causal organism and their management**

**4. Breeding objectives**

214 Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields

ing both conventional and molecular approaches.

headings.

Since, opium poppy is widely and commonly used for dual purpose i.e. food (seed) and pharmaceuticals (alkaloids) so the major emphasis has been given for its genetical upgrada‐ tion on both these aspects. The different breeding objectives are depicted in following sub‐

Due to ever increasing global demand of opium latex raised by the pharmaceutical indus‐ tries for manufacturing of life saving drugs, scientists/plant breeders took the challenge of developing high opium yielding varieties. However, they have been able to develop several high opium yielding varieties, but yet it is not able to fulfill the pressure created due to en‐ hance global demand raised as a consequence of population growth. At present our scien‐ tists have been able to discover more than 80 alkaloids of immense medicinal importance. Despite of their best possible efforts to identify more and more alkaloids, the demand for five major alkaloids i.e. morphine, codeine, thebaine, narcotine and papaverine have elevat‐ ed due to major application in medical field. The importance of these five major alkaloids has been discussed earlier. Previously, morphine being the main pain killer was in high de‐ mand, for which our scientist made great success in development of high morphine contain‐ ing varieties. But now a days, the demand for specific alkaloids i.e. thebaine, codeine, narcotine and papaverine have arisen due to their specific use in different medical treat‐ ments. The scientists are now trying to develop varieties with specific alkaloid in opium la‐ tex through conventional and molecular techniques. Opium poppy is a narcotic crop, due to the presence of morphine (narcotic constituent) in major proportion of opium latex. In recent days, scientists are working to develop low morphine or morphine less varieties to check its illegal cultivation. The development of low morphine or morphine less varieties can also help Narcotics Department, as it will not require issuing license for growing opium poppy to the cultivators. Globally, different group of researchers are engaged in this direction us‐

Poppy seeds having high nutritive values are also in high demand and major emphasis has been given for the development of food grade poppy which can only be possible, if opiumless poppy varieties can be developed. Both conventional and molecular approaches are be‐ ing applied aiming at this target, fortunately a variety "Sujata" has been developed by Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow [33]. The development of such varieties can assist opium cultivators to grow food grade poppy without any restriction or permission in form of license. Seeds of opium poppy have high value in global market which puts a great pressure on plant breeders to develop high seed yielding varieties that can substantiate the ever increasing global demands. The importance of poppy seeds has been described earlier in details. However, many high seed yielding varieties have been de‐ veloped but since global population is increasing at an enormous rate, plant breeders are continuously putting their best possible efforts to capture this ever increasing demand.

**4.1. Breeding for modified opium yield, seed yield and specific alkaloid variety**

Diseases are major problem in cultivation of any crop. The development of multiple disease resistant varieties is in need from very long time in opium poppy. A number of diseases oc‐ cur which ruins the entire crop and ultimately the opium products. Several researchers espe‐ cially plant breeders have faced many challenges during specific breeding objectives due to severe disease in opium poppy. Our scientists have put their best possible efforts and con‐ tinuously trying to develop such varieties resistant to major diseases through molecular and conventional tools. One of the major hindrances in any successful breeding program is the prevalence of certain fungal, bacterial, insect borne diseases etc., which cause an unexpected loss in terms of productivity. Opium poppy crop is highly susceptible to certain diseases but the most contagious diseases are caused by fungus results high losses in yield.

Some commonly found fungal, bacterial, viral and pest related diseases in opium poppy are summarized below:-

**Downy Mildew:** The causal agent for this most serious and widely spread disease of opium poppy is *Peronospora arborescens*. The symptoms include hypertrophy and curvature of the stem and flower stalks. The infection starts spreading upwards from the lower leaves and the entire leaf surface gets covered by brown powder. The plants dies prematurely as the stem, branches and even capsules are also attacked by this causal organism. In India, the disease appears annually on the crop from seedling to maturity stage mainly in the areas of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. Capsule formation is also adversely affected due to infection causing significant reduction in opium yield. The primary inoculum of the pathogen is oospore which is present in infested soil and leaf debris introgresses through underground plant parts and infects the plant giving rise to stunting and chlorotic syn‐ drome etc in the fields of opium poppy [34]. The major control measures of the disease in‐ clude disinfection and spraying of the seed beds with 0.5% Bordeaux mixture and different copper containing fungicides. Some other control measures include use of Bisdithane (0.15%) followed by Benlate (0.05%), Gramisan, dusting with Thiram. **Powdery Mildew:** This disease is caused by *Erysiphae polygoni* and causes severe losses in opium production. It caused severe damage to poppy in Rajasthan in 1972. The symptoms appear in late stages of plant growth with white powder on the surface of leaves and capsules. The control meas‐ ures include field sanitation along with spray of Spersul (0.5%) and seed disinfection. **Collar Rot disease:** This is one of the most severe fungal diseases of opium poppy caused by *Rhi‐ zoctonia solani* Kühn. Decline in seed yield, premature death of infected plant appears with the progress of disease in plants [35].

**Seed borne diseases:** Seed borne diseases are also a curse to opium poppy crop both in terms of production and yield. The major effect of seed borne disease is on capsules and seeds only, which results reduction in germination percentage and seedling delays. Some commonly spreading seed borne diseases have been discussed. **Leaf Blight** (causal agent - *Pleospora calvescens*): Symptoms include defused yellow spots followed by premature drying of infected leaves. During the course of pathogenesis, toxins are released by the parasites en‐ abling it to assimilate the requisite nutrient. High temperature and heavy rainfall favors the disease. **Seedling Blight** (causal agents - *Phytium ultimum* and *Phytium mamimmatum*): Few studies undertaken on characterization of the disease revealed that the disease affects phys‐ iological process in poppy. However, no control measures could be found with total control effects. **Leaf Spots** (causal agent - *Helminthosporium sps*.): The main symptoms include dech‐ lorosis of the leaves accompanied by curling. The disease is not of much importance, but due to correlation between opium alkaloids and leaf spot, it may be considered harmful. Several control measures to control the disease include seed disinfection or spraying of seed beds with 0.5% Bordeaux or any other copper fungicides, incorporation of lime as CaCO3 at 285 kg/ha, Systox, Ogranol, borate and manganese superphosphate, germisan, Gramisan and spray of Bavistin. **Wilt & Root Rot** (causal agent - *Fusarium semitectum*): This is another major problem in poppy cultivation where plants in advance stage rapidly wilt due to desic‐ cation. The infection appears at the stem base followed by damping of roots. The disease causes reduction in opium yield and can be controlled only by the removal of infected plants.

**Diseases caused by bacteria:** It would be worthwhile if there is a lack of description of bac‐ terial disease in opium poppy. Since the bacteria are ubiquitous in nature, opium poppy is also not left by bacterial infection where heavy losses occur. Systemic infection prevails with the entry of bacterium through stomata and aquapores in later stage of growth. Multiplica‐ tion of the bacterium starts in vascular system. Seeds are malformed and discolored as a re‐ sult of infection. Plant parts are also damaged due to bacterial infection.

**Diseases caused by viruses:** There are certain viral diseases in opium poppy which are caused by Cabbage ring spot virus, beat yellow virus etc., which are transmitted through beans, sap, aphids etc. The symptoms include yellowing of plants, elongation of stem, irreg‐ ular chlorotic bands along the veins, stunting etc. These viral disease cause heavy losses to poppy crop in terms of seed and opium yield and sometimes the whole plant dies results total loss of crop.

**Diseases caused by insect and pests:** Apart from different diseases caused by fungus, bacte‐ ria, viruses etc., some insects are also known to damage poppy crop. The most common among them are those damaging roots i.e. Root Weevil, damaging leaf and stem i.e. Aphids, floral damage i.e. thrips and sawfly, capsule damage by head gall fly, capsule weevil, capsu‐ le borer etc. A brief description of these are summarized here. **Root weevil** (causal agent - *Sternocarus fuliginosus*): This pest is known for maximum damage to poppy crop by boring into upper parts of the roots which ultimately turns blackish and leaves wither due to chlo‐ rosis while the larva mines the leaf lamina. The control measures include dusting of BHC (12%) along with superphosphate. However, the application of lindane 1.3D @10kg/acre in soil before sowing is beneficial. **Cutworm** (causal agent - *Agrotis spp*.): The larva of this pest is dark brown with red colour head, active at night and remains hidden in cracks in the ground. It mostly targets young plants destroying basal part of the stem while the adult, brown in color and dark color spots on wings also destroys the crop severely. The control measures include hand picking of the caterpillars and spraying of NSKE 5%. Additionally, poison bait with rice bran, jiggery and carbonyl can also be used as preventive measures. **Aphid** (causal agent - *Myzus persicae)*: This is also another major pest of opium poppy crop. The nymphs and adults suck the leaf sap results damage of leaf and consequently whole plant. The adults are yellowish green rarely reddish. The control measures include spray of neem oil 0.5% or NSKE 5%. However, natural enemies like coccinellid beetle can also be en‐ couraged. **Capsule borer** (causal agent - *Helicoverpa armigera)*: The capsule borer is also a se‐ rious pest in opium poppy which harms capsule to a maximum extent. It destroys whole capsule eating up the floral head and seeds. The larva is greenish with dark grey lines along the sides of the body. The control measures include hand picking of the larvae along with pheromone traps is recommended while spray of NPV 250 lit/ha is also beneficial. The use of Bt spray formulation @ 2g/2ml per litre of water and use of egg parasitoids *Trichogramma chilonis* @ 5cc/ha is also found effective.

#### **4.3. Breeding for growing conditions:**

studies undertaken on characterization of the disease revealed that the disease affects phys‐ iological process in poppy. However, no control measures could be found with total control effects. **Leaf Spots** (causal agent - *Helminthosporium sps*.): The main symptoms include dech‐ lorosis of the leaves accompanied by curling. The disease is not of much importance, but due to correlation between opium alkaloids and leaf spot, it may be considered harmful. Several control measures to control the disease include seed disinfection or spraying of seed beds with 0.5% Bordeaux or any other copper fungicides, incorporation of lime as CaCO3 at 285 kg/ha, Systox, Ogranol, borate and manganese superphosphate, germisan, Gramisan and spray of Bavistin. **Wilt & Root Rot** (causal agent - *Fusarium semitectum*): This is another major problem in poppy cultivation where plants in advance stage rapidly wilt due to desic‐ cation. The infection appears at the stem base followed by damping of roots. The disease causes reduction in opium yield and can be controlled only by the removal of infected

**Diseases caused by bacteria:** It would be worthwhile if there is a lack of description of bac‐ terial disease in opium poppy. Since the bacteria are ubiquitous in nature, opium poppy is also not left by bacterial infection where heavy losses occur. Systemic infection prevails with the entry of bacterium through stomata and aquapores in later stage of growth. Multiplica‐ tion of the bacterium starts in vascular system. Seeds are malformed and discolored as a re‐

**Diseases caused by viruses:** There are certain viral diseases in opium poppy which are caused by Cabbage ring spot virus, beat yellow virus etc., which are transmitted through beans, sap, aphids etc. The symptoms include yellowing of plants, elongation of stem, irreg‐ ular chlorotic bands along the veins, stunting etc. These viral disease cause heavy losses to poppy crop in terms of seed and opium yield and sometimes the whole plant dies results

**Diseases caused by insect and pests:** Apart from different diseases caused by fungus, bacte‐ ria, viruses etc., some insects are also known to damage poppy crop. The most common among them are those damaging roots i.e. Root Weevil, damaging leaf and stem i.e. Aphids, floral damage i.e. thrips and sawfly, capsule damage by head gall fly, capsule weevil, capsu‐ le borer etc. A brief description of these are summarized here. **Root weevil** (causal agent - *Sternocarus fuliginosus*): This pest is known for maximum damage to poppy crop by boring into upper parts of the roots which ultimately turns blackish and leaves wither due to chlo‐ rosis while the larva mines the leaf lamina. The control measures include dusting of BHC (12%) along with superphosphate. However, the application of lindane 1.3D @10kg/acre in soil before sowing is beneficial. **Cutworm** (causal agent - *Agrotis spp*.): The larva of this pest is dark brown with red colour head, active at night and remains hidden in cracks in the ground. It mostly targets young plants destroying basal part of the stem while the adult, brown in color and dark color spots on wings also destroys the crop severely. The control measures include hand picking of the caterpillars and spraying of NSKE 5%. Additionally, poison bait with rice bran, jiggery and carbonyl can also be used as preventive measures. **Aphid** (causal agent - *Myzus persicae)*: This is also another major pest of opium poppy crop. The nymphs and adults suck the leaf sap results damage of leaf and consequently whole

sult of infection. Plant parts are also damaged due to bacterial infection.

plants.

216 Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields

total loss of crop.

The opium poppy is an environmental sensitive crop. The temperature, photoperiod, rain, wind etc., majorly affects on its proper growth and ultimately yield. The poppy crop re‐ quires a maximum temperature upto 20o C at the time of germination while dry weather at the maturity. The humidity in the air is the major problem which posses maximum damage to crop by insect pests. Most of the fungal diseases also prevail in damp climatic conditions. The rains are also a big problem to poppy as heavy rains enhance the growth of plants and at the time capsules are ready to lance, the crops lay down resulting in heavy opium losses. Rains at the time of lancing also damages the yield as the latex is washed away by the rain water. Mist and frost increases the amount of latex and ease in collection. Since the poppy cultivation requires enormous irrigation, wet soil during the time of sowing can result in low germination percentage. The most preferred soil type for poppy is medium loamy tex‐ tured sandy loam to loam with good aeration, soil conductivity, well drained and properly ploughed and pulverized. The best time for sowing is the first fortnight of November with temperature ranging from 20 to 25o C. However, the delay in sowing can cause poor germi‐ nation and growth and hence poor yield. The quantity of seeds required for sowing depends on the mode of sowing with 6-7 kg/ha required for broadcasting and 5-6 kg/ha for row sow‐ ing with spacing 25-30cm apart. The plant density of 3.30 lakh plants/ha should be main‐ tained. Recommended cultural practices should be followed for a good stand which include pre sowing addition of farmyard manure @ 10 t/ha, 5-6 t/ha neem cake and 30, 50, 40 kg /ha N, P, and K respectively as basal dressing. The recommended application of 60 kg/ha N in two split after 30 and 60 days after sowing as top dressing and spray of the fungicide diethe‐ lene biscarbamate (dithane M-45 0.2%) at 45 and 60 days after sowing [36] should be fol‐ lowed for obtaining maximum returns.

Germination in opium poppy requires optimal soil moisture which ensures good germina‐ tion percentage. The first irrigation in given 20-25 days after sowing followed by frequent light irrigation at an interval of 15-20 days as the weather conditions prevail. A total of 6-8 irrigation is required for a good stand which includes last irrigation before the start of lanc‐ ing. Weeding and hoeing are also necessary for providing poppy seedling a better chance to grow. The first weeding is done 20-25 days after sowing followed by 15-20 days interval. The optimum spacing between the plants should be maintained at a distance of 10cm apart. In India, lancing is done by cutting of the superficial layer of the capsule wall from which the latex oozes out. The mature green capsule is lanced with an instrument called "Nastar" having 3-4 small blades designed to ensure uniformity in depth of incisions. Generally 3-4 lancing is done in each capsule with parallel longitudinal cuts which is performed after mid day and allow the latex to remain overnight on the capsules for coagulation. In the follow‐ ing morning the latex is collected from the capsule walls with blunt edge of small iron scoop. The opium is kept in small plastic box or earthen pot or copper bowls. The latex col‐ our varies from dark to light brown to pink based on the variety. The depth of incision should not be more than 1.2 mm. After collection of opium, lanced capsules are left to dry over plants for next 15-20 days for harvesting of seeds.
