**1. Introduction**

[331] Youn YN, Seo MJ, Shin JG, Jang C & Yu YM (2003) Toxicity of greenhouse pesticides to multicolored Asian lady beetles, *Harmonia axyridis*. *Biol Control* 28:164–170. [332] Young OP & Lockley TC (1985) The striped lynx spider, *Oxyopes salticus* in agroeco‐

[333] Young OP & Edwards GB (1990) Spiders in USA field crops and their potential effect

[334] Zaki FN, El-Shaarawy MF& Farag NA (1999a) Release of two predators and two par‐

[335] Zaki FN, Farag NA & Abdel-Aziz SE (1999b) Evaluation of tolerance in *Chrysoperla*

[336] Zhang ZQ (2003) Mite of Greenhouses: Identification, Biology and Control. CABI

[337] Zhang ZQ & Sanderson JP (1990) Relative toxicity of Abamectin to the predatory mite *Phytoseiulus persimilis* (Acari: Phytoseiidae) and twospotted spider mite (Acari:

*carnea* to successive insecticidal treatments. *J Appl Entomol* 123:299-301.

asitoids to control aphids and whiteflies. *J Pest Sci* 72:19–20.

Tetranychidae). *J Econ Entomol* 83:1783–1790.

systems. *Entomophaga* 30:329-346.

56 Insecticides - Development of Safer and More Effective Technologies

on crop pests. *J Arachnol* 18:1–27.

Publishing, 244.

Pesticides use in agriculture is the most economical approach to control various pests, though they are considered major contaminant of our environment. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2005) and United Nations Environmental Program have estimated one to five million cases of pesticide poisoning among agricultural workers each year with about 20,000 fatalities, mostly reported from developing countries (Pimental et al. 1992). There are several definitions of pesticide; the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines pesticide as any substance or mixture of substances intended for prevent‐ ing, destroying or controlling any pest during the production, processing, storage or mar‐ keting of food in all agricultural commodities for controlling the pests (FAO 1986). Pesticides are playing a pivotal role in meeting the food, cotton fibre and tobacco de‐ mand of escalating population and control of vector-borne diseases. However, most of the applied pesticides get dispersed in the environment and affects the health of un-pro‐ tected agricultural and industrial workers. Pesticides are used extensively throughout the world. The three major routes of entry for pesticides include contamination of the skin, mouth and the nose. Although pesticides furnish some benefits for crop, they entail a number of risks and problems. The public health issue of pesticide exposure is further complicated by the presence of impurities in so-called, inert-ingredients such as solvents, wetting agents and emulsifiers (Hashmi&Dilshad 2011).

The main similarity between pesticide exposure of farm workers' children and lead expo‐ sure of children living in poverty is that the substances are present in the home, are difficult for the family to control, and are inequitably distributed across ethnic and socioeconomic groups. Unlike lead, the potential developmental effects of childhood exposure to many

types of pesticides are greatly understudied. Some pesticides have been shown to cause be‐ havioural effects in rodents such as hyperactivity, learning and memory problems, and al‐ tered habituation (Icenogle et al. 2004). In spite of the paucity of research on the effects of pesticides on human neurobehavioral development, there are reasons to be concerned about children's exposure. First, two widely used classes of insecticides, organophosphates and carbamates, inhibit cholinesterase. Cholinesterase inhibition leads to excess acetylcholine at the synapse, which in turn causes over activation of cholinergic neural pathways. There is evidence that organophosphate and carbamate pesticides can negatively affect early life ro‐ dent brain development by interfering with gene signalling by cholinesterases as well as by inducing faulty wiring of the brain via other mechanisms (Slotkin 1999; Aldridge et al. 2005; Sallam et al. 2006, 2009a,b).

In view of the adverse health effects from the unsafe pesticide use, the latency of the adverse effects, the reported lack of awareness of the adverse health effects of pesticides by some farmers, and the erroneous belief of invincibility by others, it becomes imperative that the potential hazards of unsafe pesticide use should be clearly communicated to the farmers. Research has often emphasized the need to increase the awareness of farmers about the con‐ sequences of unsafe pesticide use and the importance of communication and education pro‐ grams aiming to reduction of risk (Ibitayo 2006; Hashemi et al. 2008; Oluwole&Cheke 2009;

Pesticide-Residue and Its Effects on Occupational Workers

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54338

59

Exposure to pesticides at any point in the life cycle has the potential for causing a range of short‐term or long‐term health problems. Documented health effects include a wide variety of illnesses and diseases, from eye irritation, skin rashes and respiratory problems to neurological damage, birth defects, cancer and death. The risk for and severity of ad‐ verse health effects from pesticide exposure varies significantly depending on many fac‐ tors, including individual characteristics such as age and health status, the specific pesticide, and exposure circumstances. Exposure to pesticides at certain developmental stages of life can result in irreversible damage to organ structure and function. Of partic‐ ular concern is the effect of exposure at during the reproductive cycle, from preconcep‐ tion to breast feeding, because of the possibility of poor birth outcomes, congenital anomalies, developmental deficits, and possibly childhood cancer (Barthel 1981; Karabay et al. 2004; Hernandez et al. 2004; Sanborn et al. 2004; Strong et al. 2004; Hernandez et

Farm worker families often live near or on the farms on which they work, and thus spend much of their time in close proximity to areas where pesticides are applied on a regular ba‐ sis. Twenty‐one percent of farm workers are women (Carroll et al. 2005), who may be direct‐ ed to or inadvertently enter recently treated fields while pregnant. Women in farm worker households who do not work in the fields may still be exposed to pesticide residues brought home by farm worker household members on their shoes, clothes and skin; from nearby ap‐ plications that drift or are directly sprayed on outdoor play areas; and from chemicals used

Agricultural extension is a major channel of communication between farmers and research experts which can improve crop production from many points of view as it provides a good link between farmers and research institutes where several agricultural technologies, includ‐ ing pesticides and the relative technology, are developed, tested, and modified accordingly. Training programs can play a crucial role in pest control decisions, providing farmers with the technical knowledge that is necessary for the selection of appropriate pest management methods and also for safe and effective pesticide use. Despite the appearance of homogenei‐ ty, often small farmers have different production practices, needs, and constraints (Carr 1989). A successful agricultural extension program, therefore, should not consider all indi‐ viduals in a target group based on several variables such as age, gender, income, and types

to control pests in and around the home, especially in poor quality housing.

Sosan&Akingbohungbe, 2009; Damalas&Hashemi 2010)

al. 2006; Hayes et al. 2006; El-Wakeil et al. 2009).

of crops (Sallam 2008; Shalaby et al. 2012).

These chemicals are suspected of producing adverse health effects based on their struc‐ tural similarity to proven toxicants. Exposure to pesticides is one of the most important occupational risks among farmers in developing countries (Wesseling et al. 2001; Konrad‐ sen et al. 2003; Coronado et al. 2004; Shalaby et al. 2012). Occupational exposure to pesti‐ cides is of great interest in order to identify the hazards of pesticide use and the establishment of safe methods of pesticide handling. This is because pesticide misuse in various sectors of the agriculture often has been associated with health problems and en‐ vironmental contamination worldwide (Soares et al. 2003; Mancini et al. 2005; Remor et al. 2009). Misuse of highly toxic pesticides, coupled with a weak or a totally absent legis‐ lative framework in the use of pesticides, is one of the major reasons for the high inci‐ dence of pesticide poisoning in developing countries (Konradsen et al. 2003; Hurtig et al. 2003; Atreya 2008). In general, knowledge of the main determinants of pesticide exposure in developing countries is often poor and also exposure situations may differ among countries (Hashmi&Dilshad 2011; Shalaby et al. 2012).

The spray-workers are directly exposed to pesticides during mixing, handling, spray, and through contaminated soil, air, drinking water, eating food and smoking at work places. The farm workers are, therefore, occupationally exposed to pesticides and may absorb them by inhalation, ingestion and dermal contact (Vega 1994; Mathur et al. 2005). The residue con‐ centrations of these compounds in affected workers may lead to a variety of metabolic and systemic dysfunctions and, in some cases, outright disease states. Therefore, the excessive and repeated pesticide use has promoted toxicological problems in spraying community (Brown et al.1989; Karalliede&Senanayake 1999; Azmi et al. 2006). A major factor of pesti‐ cide contamination or poisoning in developing countries is the unsafe use or misuse of pes‐ ticides. Elements of unsafe use of pesticides that have been identified by past research include erroneous beliefs of farmers about pesticide toxicity, lack of attention to safety pre‐ cautions, environmental hazards, and information about first aid and antidotes given by the label, the use of faulty spraying equipment or lack of proper maintenance of spraying equip‐ ment, and lack of the use of protective gear and appropriate clothing during handling of pesticides (Hurtig et al. 2003; Damalas et al. 2006a, b; Ajayi&Akinnifesi 2008; Chalerm‐ phol&Shivakoti 2009; Plianbangchang et al. 2009; Sosan&Akingbohungbe 2009; Hash‐ mi&Dilshad 2011).

In view of the adverse health effects from the unsafe pesticide use, the latency of the adverse effects, the reported lack of awareness of the adverse health effects of pesticides by some farmers, and the erroneous belief of invincibility by others, it becomes imperative that the potential hazards of unsafe pesticide use should be clearly communicated to the farmers. Research has often emphasized the need to increase the awareness of farmers about the con‐ sequences of unsafe pesticide use and the importance of communication and education pro‐ grams aiming to reduction of risk (Ibitayo 2006; Hashemi et al. 2008; Oluwole&Cheke 2009; Sosan&Akingbohungbe, 2009; Damalas&Hashemi 2010)

types of pesticides are greatly understudied. Some pesticides have been shown to cause be‐ havioural effects in rodents such as hyperactivity, learning and memory problems, and al‐ tered habituation (Icenogle et al. 2004). In spite of the paucity of research on the effects of pesticides on human neurobehavioral development, there are reasons to be concerned about children's exposure. First, two widely used classes of insecticides, organophosphates and carbamates, inhibit cholinesterase. Cholinesterase inhibition leads to excess acetylcholine at the synapse, which in turn causes over activation of cholinergic neural pathways. There is evidence that organophosphate and carbamate pesticides can negatively affect early life ro‐ dent brain development by interfering with gene signalling by cholinesterases as well as by inducing faulty wiring of the brain via other mechanisms (Slotkin 1999; Aldridge et al. 2005;

These chemicals are suspected of producing adverse health effects based on their struc‐ tural similarity to proven toxicants. Exposure to pesticides is one of the most important occupational risks among farmers in developing countries (Wesseling et al. 2001; Konrad‐ sen et al. 2003; Coronado et al. 2004; Shalaby et al. 2012). Occupational exposure to pesti‐ cides is of great interest in order to identify the hazards of pesticide use and the establishment of safe methods of pesticide handling. This is because pesticide misuse in various sectors of the agriculture often has been associated with health problems and en‐ vironmental contamination worldwide (Soares et al. 2003; Mancini et al. 2005; Remor et al. 2009). Misuse of highly toxic pesticides, coupled with a weak or a totally absent legis‐ lative framework in the use of pesticides, is one of the major reasons for the high inci‐ dence of pesticide poisoning in developing countries (Konradsen et al. 2003; Hurtig et al. 2003; Atreya 2008). In general, knowledge of the main determinants of pesticide exposure in developing countries is often poor and also exposure situations may differ among

The spray-workers are directly exposed to pesticides during mixing, handling, spray, and through contaminated soil, air, drinking water, eating food and smoking at work places. The farm workers are, therefore, occupationally exposed to pesticides and may absorb them by inhalation, ingestion and dermal contact (Vega 1994; Mathur et al. 2005). The residue con‐ centrations of these compounds in affected workers may lead to a variety of metabolic and systemic dysfunctions and, in some cases, outright disease states. Therefore, the excessive and repeated pesticide use has promoted toxicological problems in spraying community (Brown et al.1989; Karalliede&Senanayake 1999; Azmi et al. 2006). A major factor of pesti‐ cide contamination or poisoning in developing countries is the unsafe use or misuse of pes‐ ticides. Elements of unsafe use of pesticides that have been identified by past research include erroneous beliefs of farmers about pesticide toxicity, lack of attention to safety pre‐ cautions, environmental hazards, and information about first aid and antidotes given by the label, the use of faulty spraying equipment or lack of proper maintenance of spraying equip‐ ment, and lack of the use of protective gear and appropriate clothing during handling of pesticides (Hurtig et al. 2003; Damalas et al. 2006a, b; Ajayi&Akinnifesi 2008; Chalerm‐ phol&Shivakoti 2009; Plianbangchang et al. 2009; Sosan&Akingbohungbe 2009; Hash‐

Sallam et al. 2006, 2009a,b).

58 Insecticides - Development of Safer and More Effective Technologies

mi&Dilshad 2011).

countries (Hashmi&Dilshad 2011; Shalaby et al. 2012).

Exposure to pesticides at any point in the life cycle has the potential for causing a range of short‐term or long‐term health problems. Documented health effects include a wide variety of illnesses and diseases, from eye irritation, skin rashes and respiratory problems to neurological damage, birth defects, cancer and death. The risk for and severity of ad‐ verse health effects from pesticide exposure varies significantly depending on many fac‐ tors, including individual characteristics such as age and health status, the specific pesticide, and exposure circumstances. Exposure to pesticides at certain developmental stages of life can result in irreversible damage to organ structure and function. Of partic‐ ular concern is the effect of exposure at during the reproductive cycle, from preconcep‐ tion to breast feeding, because of the possibility of poor birth outcomes, congenital anomalies, developmental deficits, and possibly childhood cancer (Barthel 1981; Karabay et al. 2004; Hernandez et al. 2004; Sanborn et al. 2004; Strong et al. 2004; Hernandez et al. 2006; Hayes et al. 2006; El-Wakeil et al. 2009).

Farm worker families often live near or on the farms on which they work, and thus spend much of their time in close proximity to areas where pesticides are applied on a regular ba‐ sis. Twenty‐one percent of farm workers are women (Carroll et al. 2005), who may be direct‐ ed to or inadvertently enter recently treated fields while pregnant. Women in farm worker households who do not work in the fields may still be exposed to pesticide residues brought home by farm worker household members on their shoes, clothes and skin; from nearby ap‐ plications that drift or are directly sprayed on outdoor play areas; and from chemicals used to control pests in and around the home, especially in poor quality housing.

Agricultural extension is a major channel of communication between farmers and research experts which can improve crop production from many points of view as it provides a good link between farmers and research institutes where several agricultural technologies, includ‐ ing pesticides and the relative technology, are developed, tested, and modified accordingly. Training programs can play a crucial role in pest control decisions, providing farmers with the technical knowledge that is necessary for the selection of appropriate pest management methods and also for safe and effective pesticide use. Despite the appearance of homogenei‐ ty, often small farmers have different production practices, needs, and constraints (Carr 1989). A successful agricultural extension program, therefore, should not consider all indi‐ viduals in a target group based on several variables such as age, gender, income, and types of crops (Sallam 2008; Shalaby et al. 2012).
