**5. Local study**

In Egypt the information on the impact of pesticides on health aspects of farm workers and pesticides dealers is lacking and base-line information needs to be generated so that risk ex‐ posure of farming community may be minimized. Hence, this book chapter is planned to ex‐ plain how pesticides are dangerous for humankind, animals and food products; as well to determine pesticide residues in blood and their correlation with biochemical markers for as‐ sessment of adverse health effects on farmers, market workers and spray workers as well as to assess the level of knowledge on precautions of pesticides safety.

The blood in heparinised ampoules was analyzed for white blood cells (WBC), red blood cells (RBC), hemoglobin (Hb) and platelets (PLT) counts as per the method of Schalm (1986).

Pesticide-Residue and Its Effects on Occupational Workers

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65

Plasma was separated by centrifugation at 1500 rpm for 15 min. Serum enzymes and bio‐ chemical analysis were carried out by Medical Biochemistry Lab (Faculty of Medicine, Man‐ souraUniversity, Mansoura, Egypt). Plasma alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransfersae (AST) activities were determined according to IFCC method Bergmeyer et al. (1998 a, b) while plasma acetyl cholinesterase (AChE) activity was measured as per Ell‐ man's colorimetric method (Ellmann et al. 1961). Urea and creatinine concentrations were determined according to the methods of Sampson & Baird (1979) and Spencer (1986), respec‐ tively. Prothrombin time (PT) was measured according to method described by Dacie&

Extraction of pesticide residues in the serum was as per the method of Rivas et al. (2001). Aliquots of 2.0ml serum samples of each individual and control were spiked separately by adding appropriate volumes of working standard solutions equilibrated for 3.0 h at room temperature in a test tube. Methanol (1 ml) was sequentially added to 2.0 ml sample by mix‐ ing in a rotary mixer for 1.0 min, then 2.5 ml n-hexane: diethyl ether (1:1 v /v) was added. The solution was agitated and collected, and the aqueous phase extracted twice with 2.5 ml n-hexane: diethyl ether (1:1 v/v). The combined organic phases were evaporated and con‐

Clean-up of the extract of pesticide residues in serum was performed according to the meth‐ od of Mercedes et al. (2004). A florisil column of 200 x 12 mm topped with anhydrous so‐ dium sulfate was prepared and eluated with n-hexane. The extracts of each sample were passed twice through it. Eluate containing pesticides was evaporated and dried completely under a gentle stream of nitrogen. The samples were dissolved in 1.0 ml *n*-hexane and then

The whole cleaned up extracts of organphosphorus and pyrothroid residues were per‐ formed by GLC (Hewlett Packard 6890 series) equipped with electron capture detector (ECD) under the following conditions: column: HP-17 (30 m x 0.32 mm x 0.25 µm film thick‐ ness), temperatures: column 240ºC; detector 350ºC and injection 320ºC. The quantitative analysis of carbamate pesticide residues was performed by HPLC (Agilent 1100 Series with workstation). UV Diod-array detector set at 220 nm and the analytical column Nucleosil-C18, 5 um (4 x 250 mm) was used. The mobile phase was acetonitrile-water at flow rate 1 ml min -1. All solvents and chemicals used were of analytical grade free of interfering residues

centrated to 1.0 ml in a graduated test-tube under a gentle stream of nitrogen.

*5.1.2. Biochemical analysis*

Lewis (1984).

**b. Clean-up**

*5.1.3. Pesticide residue analysis*

**a. Extraction from blood serum**

injected into GLC and HPLC systems.

**c. Quantitative determination**

#### **5.1. Materials and methods**

The study was conducted from July 2009 to June 2010 in seven villages (El-Mahmodia, Met Tarif, ElYosifia, Deiarb, El-Daraksa, Hamada and Ali Hendi) located in Dekrnes, Meniate El-Nasr and Baniebad provinces, Dakahlyia governorate, north Egypt.

#### **Basic design and sample size**

Seventy healthy male individuals in age group of 30-55 year comprising of 30 farmers, 25 spray workers and 15 market workers were selected for the present study. The individuals selected had history of exposure to different classes of pesticides for 5 to 15 years. They were compared with 25 control individual residents of same area who had no history of pesticide exposure, either as farm worker or as pesticide dealer.

#### **Field survey**

All the individuals were provided a questionnaire seeking information on the types of pesti‐ cides they mostly used protective equipment or cloths during preparation and application of pesticides, concentrations recommended for pesticides use. In addition, the questionnaire elicited information about the re-entry period (the minimum amount of time that must pass between the times of application of pesticide and the time the farmers could go into the field without wearing personal protective equipment). The individuals selected included those who worked in both field crops and vegetables on the same ground but in different seasons.

#### *5.1.1. Hematological effects*

#### **a. Sample collection**

Fresh blood samples were collected from the arm vein (10 ml). Each blood sample was div‐ ided into three tubes, the 1st tube contained heparin for hematological assays. In the 2 tubes the blood sample was left for a short time to allow the blood to coagulate for biochemical analysis (aminotransferase (AST), Plasma alanine aminotransferase (ALT), acetyl cholines‐ terase (AChE), urea, creatinine and prothrombin time) and the 3rd tube contained blood sam‐ ple for determination of pesticide residues.

#### **b. Hematological analysis**

The blood in heparinised ampoules was analyzed for white blood cells (WBC), red blood cells (RBC), hemoglobin (Hb) and platelets (PLT) counts as per the method of Schalm (1986).

#### *5.1.2. Biochemical analysis*

**5. Local study**

**5.1. Materials and methods**

**Basic design and sample size**

**Field survey**

*5.1.1. Hematological effects*

**b. Hematological analysis**

ple for determination of pesticide residues.

**a. Sample collection**

In Egypt the information on the impact of pesticides on health aspects of farm workers and pesticides dealers is lacking and base-line information needs to be generated so that risk ex‐ posure of farming community may be minimized. Hence, this book chapter is planned to ex‐ plain how pesticides are dangerous for humankind, animals and food products; as well to determine pesticide residues in blood and their correlation with biochemical markers for as‐ sessment of adverse health effects on farmers, market workers and spray workers as well as

The study was conducted from July 2009 to June 2010 in seven villages (El-Mahmodia, Met Tarif, ElYosifia, Deiarb, El-Daraksa, Hamada and Ali Hendi) located in Dekrnes, Meniate El-

Seventy healthy male individuals in age group of 30-55 year comprising of 30 farmers, 25 spray workers and 15 market workers were selected for the present study. The individuals selected had history of exposure to different classes of pesticides for 5 to 15 years. They were compared with 25 control individual residents of same area who had no history of pesticide

All the individuals were provided a questionnaire seeking information on the types of pesti‐ cides they mostly used protective equipment or cloths during preparation and application of pesticides, concentrations recommended for pesticides use. In addition, the questionnaire elicited information about the re-entry period (the minimum amount of time that must pass between the times of application of pesticide and the time the farmers could go into the field without wearing personal protective equipment). The individuals selected included those who worked in both field crops and vegetables on the same ground but in different seasons.

Fresh blood samples were collected from the arm vein (10 ml). Each blood sample was div‐ ided into three tubes, the 1st tube contained heparin for hematological assays. In the 2 tubes the blood sample was left for a short time to allow the blood to coagulate for biochemical analysis (aminotransferase (AST), Plasma alanine aminotransferase (ALT), acetyl cholines‐ terase (AChE), urea, creatinine and prothrombin time) and the 3rd tube contained blood sam‐

to assess the level of knowledge on precautions of pesticides safety.

64 Insecticides - Development of Safer and More Effective Technologies

Nasr and Baniebad provinces, Dakahlyia governorate, north Egypt.

exposure, either as farm worker or as pesticide dealer.

Plasma was separated by centrifugation at 1500 rpm for 15 min. Serum enzymes and bio‐ chemical analysis were carried out by Medical Biochemistry Lab (Faculty of Medicine, Man‐ souraUniversity, Mansoura, Egypt). Plasma alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransfersae (AST) activities were determined according to IFCC method Bergmeyer et al. (1998 a, b) while plasma acetyl cholinesterase (AChE) activity was measured as per Ell‐ man's colorimetric method (Ellmann et al. 1961). Urea and creatinine concentrations were determined according to the methods of Sampson & Baird (1979) and Spencer (1986), respec‐ tively. Prothrombin time (PT) was measured according to method described by Dacie& Lewis (1984).

#### *5.1.3. Pesticide residue analysis*

#### **a. Extraction from blood serum**

Extraction of pesticide residues in the serum was as per the method of Rivas et al. (2001). Aliquots of 2.0ml serum samples of each individual and control were spiked separately by adding appropriate volumes of working standard solutions equilibrated for 3.0 h at room temperature in a test tube. Methanol (1 ml) was sequentially added to 2.0 ml sample by mix‐ ing in a rotary mixer for 1.0 min, then 2.5 ml n-hexane: diethyl ether (1:1 v /v) was added. The solution was agitated and collected, and the aqueous phase extracted twice with 2.5 ml n-hexane: diethyl ether (1:1 v/v). The combined organic phases were evaporated and con‐ centrated to 1.0 ml in a graduated test-tube under a gentle stream of nitrogen.

#### **b. Clean-up**

Clean-up of the extract of pesticide residues in serum was performed according to the meth‐ od of Mercedes et al. (2004). A florisil column of 200 x 12 mm topped with anhydrous so‐ dium sulfate was prepared and eluated with n-hexane. The extracts of each sample were passed twice through it. Eluate containing pesticides was evaporated and dried completely under a gentle stream of nitrogen. The samples were dissolved in 1.0 ml *n*-hexane and then injected into GLC and HPLC systems.

#### **c. Quantitative determination**

The whole cleaned up extracts of organphosphorus and pyrothroid residues were per‐ formed by GLC (Hewlett Packard 6890 series) equipped with electron capture detector (ECD) under the following conditions: column: HP-17 (30 m x 0.32 mm x 0.25 µm film thick‐ ness), temperatures: column 240ºC; detector 350ºC and injection 320ºC. The quantitative analysis of carbamate pesticide residues was performed by HPLC (Agilent 1100 Series with workstation). UV Diod-array detector set at 220 nm and the analytical column Nucleosil-C18, 5 um (4 x 250 mm) was used. The mobile phase was acetonitrile-water at flow rate 1 ml min -1. All solvents and chemicals used were of analytical grade free of interfering residues as tested by Gas chromatograph. The statistical significance of data was assessed by Duncan and Tukey tests at p<0.05 and p<0.01 (Snedecor& Cochran 1980).

was observed in spray workers followed by market workers (-48.7 and –41.5%, respec‐ tively). On the contrary, a significant rise in urea concentration was noticed in spray workers (+50.0%), but no significant differences were observed in creatinine concentra‐ tion. This study revealed a positive correlation between pesticides exposed with pro‐ thrombin time (PT). PT was significantly raised among the farmers, market workers and

**category**

IB II III II IB U III II II U II II II III U II II U III II U IB U U II III II IB II

**Type of use % \***

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54338

97.14 94.3 94.3 90.0 80.0 80.0 78.57 71.42 71.42 67.14 64.3 62.86 61.42 61.4 58.57 57.14 57.1 54.29 54.29 50.0 44.29 42.86 42.9 35.7 32.86 28.57 25.71 25.71 24.29 67

Rodenticide Insecticide Insecticide Nematicide Acricide IGR Fungicide Insecticide Insecticide Fungicide Herbicide Insecticide Acricide Herbicide Fungicide Insecticide Herbicide IGR Acricide Insecticide IGR Insecticide Herbicide Herbicide Insecticide Insecticide Insecticide Insecticide Insecticide

Pesticide-Residue and Its Effects on Occupational Workers

spray workers (12.0, 23.5 and 44.7% above the normal level, respectively).

**Pesticide Group WHO**

Inorganic compound Organophosphorus Organophosphorus Carbamate Avermectin Benzoylurea Inorganic compound Pyrothrid Organophosphorus Thiocarbamate Hydroxybenzonitrile Carbamate Fenpyroximate Aryloxyphenoxypropionate Thiocarbamate Organophosphorus Thiocarbamate Benzoylurea Organochlorine Organophosphorus Juvenile hormone mimic Carbamate Aryloxyphenoxypropionate Glyphosate-diammonium Pyrothrid Neonicotinoid Neonicotinoid Organophosphorus Pyrothrid

\*Source: WHO (2005) classification: Ib = Highly hazardous, II = Moderately hazardous, III = Slightly hazardous, U = Un‐

likely to pose acute hazard in normal use. \*% = Percent of most frequently by subjects.

**Table 1.** Pesticides frequently used by the subjects in this study

Zinc phosphide Chlorpyrifos Malathion Carbofuran Abamectin Lufenuron Copper hydroxide Lambdacyhalothrin Profenofos Mancozeb Brominal Pirimicarb Fenpyroximate Clodinafop - propargyl Maneb Chlorpyrifos-methyl Thiobencarb Diflubenzuron (IGR) Dicofol Dimethoate Pyriproxyfen Methomyl Fluazifop-ρ-butyl Glyphosate Fenvalerate Thiamethoxam Acetamiprid Triazophos Alpha-cypermethrin

#### **5.2. Results**

#### **Field survey**

The most frequently used pesticides by the subjects in this study are shown in Table 1. Inorganic compound, organophosphates, carbamates and pyrothrids are the most pesti‐ cides used in Egypt. Zinc phosphide was the most often used insecticide (97.14 %) fol‐ lowed by chlorpyrifos and malathion (94.3%). The study revealed that the majority of study subjects were not taking the necessary precautions to prevent hazards associated with their use (Tables 2 and 3). The results of survey revealed that 60.0, 6.7 and 12.0% of farmers, market workers and spray workers did not wear protective apparels (such as overall, boots, gloves, etc.). While 16.7, 60.0 and 80.0% of farmers, market workers and spray workers, respectively, wear overall only 10.0, 20.0 and 84.0% wear special boots and 6.7, 66.7 and 24.0% farmers, market workers and spray workers, respectively, wear gloves. The farmers did not use mask while 26.7 and 24.0 % of market and spray work‐ ers used masks. About 20 and 52 % of farmers and spray workers use hats, but pesti‐ cides marketing did not use them.

The survey revealed that the most of subjects were washing themselves after pesticides op‐ eration (Table 3). Also 83.3 and 86.7% of farmers and market workers smoke or drink and eat food during mixing or applying pesticides, while about 40.0% of pesticide sprayers prac‐ tice these habits. About 16.7% farmers and 20.0% pesticide spray workers do have knowl‐ edge on re-entry periods. Majority of farmers and pesticide spray workers do not bother to read the pesticide labels and contrarily 80% pesticide market workers read labels. Interest‐ ingly 20.0, 13.3 and 40.0% of farmers, market workers and spray workers, respectively, re‐ ported that they re–used the pesticide containers, while the majority of farmers and spray workers (80.0 and 60.0 %, respectively) leave it in the field after use.

#### *5.2.1. Hematological effects*

No significant differences were observed between RBC counts in pesticides-exposed sub‐ jects and control group (Table 4). However, a significant decrease in hemoglobin [Hb] level (-12.1%) and platelet count (-6.6% below control level) was observed in pesticide-sprayer group. On contrary, a significant increase in WBC counts was noticed in pesticides market and spray workers groups (34.6 and 73.9% above the control level, respectively) as com‐ pared with control.

#### *5.2.2. Biochemical effects*

A slight insignificant increase was observed in AST and ALT activities in all the subjects (Table 5). Higher level of both these enzymes was observed in pesticide sprayers (8.41 and 34.41% above the control level, respectively). A significant decrease in AChE activity was observed in pesticide-exposed groups in comparison to control. High inhibition rate was observed in spray workers followed by market workers (-48.7 and –41.5%, respec‐ tively). On the contrary, a significant rise in urea concentration was noticed in spray workers (+50.0%), but no significant differences were observed in creatinine concentra‐ tion. This study revealed a positive correlation between pesticides exposed with pro‐ thrombin time (PT). PT was significantly raised among the farmers, market workers and spray workers (12.0, 23.5 and 44.7% above the normal level, respectively).

as tested by Gas chromatograph. The statistical significance of data was assessed by Duncan

The most frequently used pesticides by the subjects in this study are shown in Table 1. Inorganic compound, organophosphates, carbamates and pyrothrids are the most pesti‐ cides used in Egypt. Zinc phosphide was the most often used insecticide (97.14 %) fol‐ lowed by chlorpyrifos and malathion (94.3%). The study revealed that the majority of study subjects were not taking the necessary precautions to prevent hazards associated with their use (Tables 2 and 3). The results of survey revealed that 60.0, 6.7 and 12.0% of farmers, market workers and spray workers did not wear protective apparels (such as overall, boots, gloves, etc.). While 16.7, 60.0 and 80.0% of farmers, market workers and spray workers, respectively, wear overall only 10.0, 20.0 and 84.0% wear special boots and 6.7, 66.7 and 24.0% farmers, market workers and spray workers, respectively, wear gloves. The farmers did not use mask while 26.7 and 24.0 % of market and spray work‐ ers used masks. About 20 and 52 % of farmers and spray workers use hats, but pesti‐

The survey revealed that the most of subjects were washing themselves after pesticides op‐ eration (Table 3). Also 83.3 and 86.7% of farmers and market workers smoke or drink and eat food during mixing or applying pesticides, while about 40.0% of pesticide sprayers prac‐ tice these habits. About 16.7% farmers and 20.0% pesticide spray workers do have knowl‐ edge on re-entry periods. Majority of farmers and pesticide spray workers do not bother to read the pesticide labels and contrarily 80% pesticide market workers read labels. Interest‐ ingly 20.0, 13.3 and 40.0% of farmers, market workers and spray workers, respectively, re‐ ported that they re–used the pesticide containers, while the majority of farmers and spray

No significant differences were observed between RBC counts in pesticides-exposed sub‐ jects and control group (Table 4). However, a significant decrease in hemoglobin [Hb] level (-12.1%) and platelet count (-6.6% below control level) was observed in pesticide-sprayer group. On contrary, a significant increase in WBC counts was noticed in pesticides market and spray workers groups (34.6 and 73.9% above the control level, respectively) as com‐

A slight insignificant increase was observed in AST and ALT activities in all the subjects (Table 5). Higher level of both these enzymes was observed in pesticide sprayers (8.41 and 34.41% above the control level, respectively). A significant decrease in AChE activity was observed in pesticide-exposed groups in comparison to control. High inhibition rate

workers (80.0 and 60.0 %, respectively) leave it in the field after use.

and Tukey tests at p<0.05 and p<0.01 (Snedecor& Cochran 1980).

66 Insecticides - Development of Safer and More Effective Technologies

**5.2. Results**

**Field survey**

cides marketing did not use them.

*5.2.1. Hematological effects*

pared with control.

*5.2.2. Biochemical effects*


\*Source: WHO (2005) classification: Ib = Highly hazardous, II = Moderately hazardous, III = Slightly hazardous, U = Un‐ likely to pose acute hazard in normal use. \*% = Percent of most frequently by subjects.

**Table 1.** Pesticides frequently used by the subjects in this study


**Treatments AST(u / ml-1) ALT(u / ml-1) AchE(u / ml-1) Urea(mg /**

\*The values in parenthesis are the percent content in comparison to the respective control.

workers, respectively, had no insecticide residues in their blood.

Market workers

Duncan test.

*5.2.3. Pesticide residues*

**5.3. Discussion**

moderately hazardous.

Control 21.4 a 18.6 a 1874.6a 28.8 bc 1.25 a 10.96 d Farmers 21.8 a(+1.8) \* 22.4 a(+20.43) 1573.4b(-16.1) 23.4 c(-18.75) 1.12 a(-10.4) 12.28 c(+12.0)

Spray - workers 23.2 a(+8.4) 25.6 a(+34.4) 962.0 c(-48.7) 43.2 a(+50.0) 1.33 a(+6.4) 15.86a(+44.7) LSD0.005 11.2 14.76 165.11 12.72 0.298 0.99

The figures superscripted with same alphabets in the same column do not significantly differ from each other as per

The detection limits of pesticides ranged between 0.001 to 0.0025 µg ml-1.Percent recoveries in reference samples were 82-93%. Accordingly, the sample analysis data was corrected for these recoveries. About 76.7, 92.5 and 100% of farmers, market workers and spray workers had varied levels of insecticide residues in their blood (Table 6). About 60.0 and 23.3% of farmers had chlorpyrifos and lambada-cyhalothrine (0.022 and 0.014 mg kg-1) residues above the acceptable daily intake (ADI) in their blood. In addition, most of the pesticides market workers were observed to have multiple pesticide residues above ADI. About 80.0% of them had carbofuran residues and 73.3% had chlorpyrifos (0.217 and 0.137 mg kg-1). All pesticides spray workers had high amount of residues detected in their blood; most of them had chlorpyrifos (84.0%), profenofos (72.0%), lambda-cyhalothrine (64.0%), pirimicarb (52.0%), carbofuran (28.0%) and triaziphos (24.0%) residues above the recommended ADI levels because of their extensive use. Further, about 23.3 and 7.5% of farmers and market

The present study was carried out in some villages located in Dakahlyia Governorate, Egypt, where infestation level of pests is very high. Ever growing demand for enhancing crop production to meet the requirements of increasing population and the need to enhance farm income tends farmers to use pesticides excessively and irresponsibly. The major pesti‐ cides used (58.62%) by the farmers, market workers and spray workers in the study area in‐ clude zinc phosphide, chlorpyrifos, malathion, carbofuran, abamectin, lufenuron and copper hydroxide. As per WHO (2005) most of pesticides used are classifies either highly or

Interviews showed that the majority of farmers and pesticide spray workers do not take the necessary precautionary measures to prevent hazards associated with their use. Also, the

**Table 5.** Effect of pesticide residues on biochemical parameters of farmers, pesticide market and spray workers

23.2 a(+8.41) 22.6 a(+21.51) 1096.2 c(-41.5) 36.8 ab(+27.8) 1.21 a(-3.2) 13.54 b(+23.54)

**dl-1)**

**Creatinine(m g / dl-1)**

Pesticide-Residue and Its Effects on Occupational Workers

**Prothrombin Time (second)** 69

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54338

**Table 2.** The response of farmers, pesticide marketing and spray workers regarding wearing of protective equipment


**Table 3.** The response of farmers, pesticide market and spray workers regarding practices on safety measures during pesticide operations


The figures superscripted with same alphabets in the same column do not significantly differ from each other as per Duncan test.

\*The values in parenthesis are the percent content in comparison to the respective control.

**Table 4.** Effect of pesticide residues on hematological parameters of farmers, pesticide market and spray workers


The figures superscripted with same alphabets in the same column do not significantly differ from each other as per Duncan test.

\*The values in parenthesis are the percent content in comparison to the respective control.

**Table 5.** Effect of pesticide residues on biochemical parameters of farmers, pesticide market and spray workers

#### *5.2.3. Pesticide residues*

**Precautions equipment Farmers**

68 Insecticides - Development of Safer and More Effective Technologies

pesticide operations

Duncan test.

**(%)**

**Pesticide- market workers (%)**

Wear overall 16.7 60.0 80.0 48.57 Special boots 10.0 20.0 84.0 25.70

Gloves 6.7 66.7 24.0 25.70 Mask 0.0 26.7 24.0 14.29

Wide hat 20.0 0.0 52.0 27.14

**Table 2.** The response of farmers, pesticide marketing and spray workers regarding wearing of protective equipment

Wash after pesticide operation 66.7 93.3 88.0 80.00

Smoke, drink and eating food 83.3 86.7 40.0 60.57

Re-entry period 16.7 0.0 20.0 14.29

Read pesticide labels 36.7 80.0 24.0 41.43

Re-use pesticide containers 20.0 13.3 40.0 25.70

Didn't follow precautions 16.7 6.7 12.0 14.29

**Table 3.** The response of farmers, pesticide market and spray workers regarding practices on safety measures during

**Treatments RBCs (106) HGB (mg) Platelets (103) WBCs (103)** Control 5.02 a 13.74 a 299.0 a 4.68 c

Farmers 4.83 a (-3.78)\* 14.04 a (+2.18) 240.2 ab (-19.67) 4.66 c (-0.43)

Market workers 4.7 a (-6.37) 13.42 a (-2.33) 263.4 ab (-11.91) 6.3 b (+34.6)

Spray workers 4.68 a (-6.77) 12.08 b (-12.08) 159.6 b (-46.62) 8.14 a (+73.93)

LSD 5 % 0.844 1.30 103.89 1.121

The figures superscripted with same alphabets in the same column do not significantly differ from each other as per

**Table 4.** Effect of pesticide residues on hematological parameters of farmers, pesticide market and spray workers

\*The values in parenthesis are the percent content in comparison to the respective control.

**Precautions Farmers(%) Market workers(%) Spray**

**Pesticide-spray workers (%)**

**workers(%)**

Mean (%)

**Mean(%)**

The detection limits of pesticides ranged between 0.001 to 0.0025 µg ml-1.Percent recoveries in reference samples were 82-93%. Accordingly, the sample analysis data was corrected for these recoveries. About 76.7, 92.5 and 100% of farmers, market workers and spray workers had varied levels of insecticide residues in their blood (Table 6). About 60.0 and 23.3% of farmers had chlorpyrifos and lambada-cyhalothrine (0.022 and 0.014 mg kg-1) residues above the acceptable daily intake (ADI) in their blood. In addition, most of the pesticides market workers were observed to have multiple pesticide residues above ADI. About 80.0% of them had carbofuran residues and 73.3% had chlorpyrifos (0.217 and 0.137 mg kg-1). All pesticides spray workers had high amount of residues detected in their blood; most of them had chlorpyrifos (84.0%), profenofos (72.0%), lambda-cyhalothrine (64.0%), pirimicarb (52.0%), carbofuran (28.0%) and triaziphos (24.0%) residues above the recommended ADI levels because of their extensive use. Further, about 23.3 and 7.5% of farmers and market workers, respectively, had no insecticide residues in their blood.

#### **5.3. Discussion**

The present study was carried out in some villages located in Dakahlyia Governorate, Egypt, where infestation level of pests is very high. Ever growing demand for enhancing crop production to meet the requirements of increasing population and the need to enhance farm income tends farmers to use pesticides excessively and irresponsibly. The major pesti‐ cides used (58.62%) by the farmers, market workers and spray workers in the study area in‐ clude zinc phosphide, chlorpyrifos, malathion, carbofuran, abamectin, lufenuron and copper hydroxide. As per WHO (2005) most of pesticides used are classifies either highly or moderately hazardous.

Interviews showed that the majority of farmers and pesticide spray workers do not take the necessary precautionary measures to prevent hazards associated with their use. Also, the low-level education of study groups coupled with lack of good training of pesticides result‐ ed in high exposure hazards (Tijani 2006; Damals et al. 2006). Similar results were obtained by Tchounwou et al. (2002) who reported that in Menia El-Kamh in Sharkia Governorate (Egypt) more than 95% of farm workers do not practice safety precautions during pesticide formulation and application.

carbamate compounds. Similar results were noticed among the cotton growers in India (Mancini et al. 2005); in Palestinian farm workers (Abu Mourad 2005) and the tobacco farmers in Pakistan (Khan et al. 2008). In orchard farmers of Kashmir about 31.9% pa‐ tients (124 out of 389) were orchard-farm workers and the orchard residents and orchard playing children had higher serum cholinesterase (<6334 U/l) level (Bhat et al. 2010).

Pesticide-Residue and Its Effects on Occupational Workers

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71

In present study there was significant increase in urea concentration in pesticide sprayers, with no significant changes in creatinine level in all cases. Some previous studies have shown subtle nephrotoxic changes in workers occupationally exposed to pesticides with higher levels of creatinine and urea (Attia 2006; Shalaby 2006; Khan et al. 2008). Neverthe‐ less, Al-Sarar et al. (2009) observed insignificant elevated levels of serum urea and creatinine among pesticide sprayers of RiyadhMunicipality, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In addition, this study revealed significant increase in prothrombin time (PT) in all cases studied. In gen‐ eral, this noticeable effect of pesticide upon blood coagulation could be attributed to the great defect in blood coagulability and to the severe damage of capillaries (Clarke & Clarke

Pesticide residues in blood are likely to appear at very low concentrations because as soon as it enters into the body most of the chemical may be metabolized and the metabolites may accumulate to induce toxic effect (Soomro et al. 2008). However, the ultra low quantities of contaminants present in body indicate toxicological impact on exposed population. Present results revealed that all pesticide spray workers had insecticide residues in their blood; however, 23.3 and 7.5% farmers and pesticides marketing workers did not have residues. In addition, the amounts of these residues are high in spray workers than its values in other groups, but these amounts are very low in farmers. The spray workers during spray on crops are directly exposed to pesticides while mixing, handling, spraying as well as through contaminated soil, air, drinking water, eating food and smoking at work places. Also, pesti‐ cides market workers are directly exposed to pesticides while handling and opening of pes‐ ticide containers in pesticide stores, but farmers are working in the field after pesticides operation. In our study, most of subjects had multiple pesticide residues above the ADI in their blood, which is injurious to health. Most of them had chlorpyrifos, profenofos, carbo‐ furan and lambda-cyhalothrin residues. Similar results were obtained by Coye et al. (1986) and Khan et al. (2008) who reported that the tobacco farmers had multiple pesticide residues above ADI in their blood consisting of 63% methomyl; 56% thiodicarb; 62% cypermethrin; 49% imidaclprid; 32% methamidophos and 27% had endosulfan residues. Sosan et al. (2008) has reported that 42 out of 76 cacao farmers had residues of diazinon, endosulfan, propoxur and lindine in their blood. Similarly Bhat et al.(2010) has reported that 90.04% brain tumour patients (389 out of 432) in Kashmir were orchard farmers exposed to high levels of multiple

types of neurotoxic and carcinogenic pesticides for more than 10-20 years.

Generally, controlled studies have shown mixed results about chemical insecticides and chemical fertilizers. We are looking for a solution for the actual problem with intensive in‐ secticide uses. Some support the conclusion that organic production methods lead to in‐ creases in nutrients. Other studies show no demonstrable differences. A recent analysis conducted by the LondonSchool of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine provides a comprehensive

1978; Leck& Park 1981).


**Table 6.** The percent of farm workers, pesticide-market workers and pesticide-spray workers having different pesticide residues and mean concentration of residues (mg kg -1 b.w.) in their blood

Our studies revealed significant changes in HGB level and platelets counts in pesticide spray workers and WBC counts in market workers and spray workers. The results are in agreement with Amr et al. 1997; Amr (1999), Abu Mourad (2005) and Al-Sarar et al. (2009) who reported that occupational exposure to pesticides resulted in alterations of hematological parameters. The increase in ALT and AST activities are good indicators of hepatic toxicity (Hall, 2001). The present study showed that insignificant elevation in liv‐ er functions (AST and ALT levels) of all study subjects. Similar observations have been made by Al-Sarar et al. (2009). Nevertheless, significant increase in the levels of these en‐ zymes was seen in occupationally exposed workers (Tomei et al. 1998; Khan et al. 2008, 2009, 2010); and in sprayers of grape gardens in India (Patil et al. 2003). Plasma AChE activity has been used for several years as indicator to estimate the risks associated with pesticides induced toxicity in occupationally exposed workers (Dasgupta et al. 2007; Khan et al. 2008; Shalaby&Abd El-Mageed 2010). Present study revealed a negative corre‐ lation between pesticide residues with AChE activity. We found significant inhibition in its activity in exposed subjects than that of the control. High inhibition rate was ob‐ served in pesticide spray workers followed by market workers thereby indicating that the study subjects had pesticide residues in their blood especially organophosphorus and carbamate compounds. Similar results were noticed among the cotton growers in India (Mancini et al. 2005); in Palestinian farm workers (Abu Mourad 2005) and the tobacco farmers in Pakistan (Khan et al. 2008). In orchard farmers of Kashmir about 31.9% pa‐ tients (124 out of 389) were orchard-farm workers and the orchard residents and orchard playing children had higher serum cholinesterase (<6334 U/l) level (Bhat et al. 2010).

low-level education of study groups coupled with lack of good training of pesticides result‐ ed in high exposure hazards (Tijani 2006; Damals et al. 2006). Similar results were obtained by Tchounwou et al. (2002) who reported that in Menia El-Kamh in Sharkia Governorate (Egypt) more than 95% of farm workers do not practice safety precautions during pesticide

> Average mg / kg

> > 0.022 0.016 0.008 0.004 0.009 0.014 N.D 0.001 N.D N.D

**Persons having no residues 23.3 7.5 0.0**

**Table 6.** The percent of farm workers, pesticide-market workers and pesticide-spray workers having different

Our studies revealed significant changes in HGB level and platelets counts in pesticide spray workers and WBC counts in market workers and spray workers. The results are in agreement with Amr et al. 1997; Amr (1999), Abu Mourad (2005) and Al-Sarar et al. (2009) who reported that occupational exposure to pesticides resulted in alterations of hematological parameters. The increase in ALT and AST activities are good indicators of hepatic toxicity (Hall, 2001). The present study showed that insignificant elevation in liv‐ er functions (AST and ALT levels) of all study subjects. Similar observations have been made by Al-Sarar et al. (2009). Nevertheless, significant increase in the levels of these en‐ zymes was seen in occupationally exposed workers (Tomei et al. 1998; Khan et al. 2008, 2009, 2010); and in sprayers of grape gardens in India (Patil et al. 2003). Plasma AChE activity has been used for several years as indicator to estimate the risks associated with pesticides induced toxicity in occupationally exposed workers (Dasgupta et al. 2007; Khan et al. 2008; Shalaby&Abd El-Mageed 2010). Present study revealed a negative corre‐ lation between pesticide residues with AChE activity. We found significant inhibition in its activity in exposed subjects than that of the control. High inhibition rate was ob‐ served in pesticide spray workers followed by market workers thereby indicating that the study subjects had pesticide residues in their blood especially organophosphorus and

**Farmers Pesticides market workers Pesticide spray workers**

Average mg / kg

> 0.137 0.097 0.088 0.034 0.217 0.046 0.007 N.D 0.001 N.D

84.0 72.0 72.0 52.0 28.0 64.0 32.0 24.0 12.0 12.0

**%** Range mg / kg

> 0.31 – 3.76 0.16 – 2.44 0.26 – 2.67 0.47 – 1.8 0.07 – 0.49 1.08 – 2.11 0.36 – 0.97 0.0005 – 0.004 0.0007- 0.0017 0.004 – 0.01

Average mg / kg

> 0.247 0.183 0.208 0.117 0.026 0.136 0.067 0.002 0.001 0.008

**%** Range mg / kg

> 0.1 – 2.08 0.09 1.78 0.3 – 1.67 0.05 – 0.95 0.14 – 2.6 0.07 – 0.53 0.04 – 0.09 N.D 0.001 N.D

73.3 53.3 53.3 33.3 80.0 40.0 26.7 0.0 6.67 0.0

formulation and application.

**(mg / kg b.w \*\*)**

> 0.01 0.3 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.005 0.03 0.001 0.002 0.02

**%** Range mg / kg

> 0.07 – 0.34 0.009 – 0.26 0.03 – 0.178 0.007 – 0.09 0.006 – 0.04 0.05 – 0.17 N.D \*\*\* 0.001 N.D N.D

60.0 33.3 36.7 40.0 26.7 23.3 0.0 3.3 0.0 0.0

70 Insecticides - Development of Safer and More Effective Technologies

\* Acceptable daily intake; \*\* b.W. = Body weight; \*\*\*ND= Not Detected

pesticide residues and mean concentration of residues (mg kg -1 b.w.) in their blood

**Pesticides ADI \***

Chloropyrifos Malathion Profenofos Pirimicarb Carbofuran Lambdacyhalothrin Methomyl Triazophos Dimethoate Fenvalerate

In present study there was significant increase in urea concentration in pesticide sprayers, with no significant changes in creatinine level in all cases. Some previous studies have shown subtle nephrotoxic changes in workers occupationally exposed to pesticides with higher levels of creatinine and urea (Attia 2006; Shalaby 2006; Khan et al. 2008). Neverthe‐ less, Al-Sarar et al. (2009) observed insignificant elevated levels of serum urea and creatinine among pesticide sprayers of RiyadhMunicipality, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In addition, this study revealed significant increase in prothrombin time (PT) in all cases studied. In gen‐ eral, this noticeable effect of pesticide upon blood coagulation could be attributed to the great defect in blood coagulability and to the severe damage of capillaries (Clarke & Clarke 1978; Leck& Park 1981).

Pesticide residues in blood are likely to appear at very low concentrations because as soon as it enters into the body most of the chemical may be metabolized and the metabolites may accumulate to induce toxic effect (Soomro et al. 2008). However, the ultra low quantities of contaminants present in body indicate toxicological impact on exposed population. Present results revealed that all pesticide spray workers had insecticide residues in their blood; however, 23.3 and 7.5% farmers and pesticides marketing workers did not have residues. In addition, the amounts of these residues are high in spray workers than its values in other groups, but these amounts are very low in farmers. The spray workers during spray on crops are directly exposed to pesticides while mixing, handling, spraying as well as through contaminated soil, air, drinking water, eating food and smoking at work places. Also, pesti‐ cides market workers are directly exposed to pesticides while handling and opening of pes‐ ticide containers in pesticide stores, but farmers are working in the field after pesticides operation. In our study, most of subjects had multiple pesticide residues above the ADI in their blood, which is injurious to health. Most of them had chlorpyrifos, profenofos, carbo‐ furan and lambda-cyhalothrin residues. Similar results were obtained by Coye et al. (1986) and Khan et al. (2008) who reported that the tobacco farmers had multiple pesticide residues above ADI in their blood consisting of 63% methomyl; 56% thiodicarb; 62% cypermethrin; 49% imidaclprid; 32% methamidophos and 27% had endosulfan residues. Sosan et al. (2008) has reported that 42 out of 76 cacao farmers had residues of diazinon, endosulfan, propoxur and lindine in their blood. Similarly Bhat et al.(2010) has reported that 90.04% brain tumour patients (389 out of 432) in Kashmir were orchard farmers exposed to high levels of multiple types of neurotoxic and carcinogenic pesticides for more than 10-20 years.

Generally, controlled studies have shown mixed results about chemical insecticides and chemical fertilizers. We are looking for a solution for the actual problem with intensive in‐ secticide uses. Some support the conclusion that organic production methods lead to in‐ creases in nutrients. Other studies show no demonstrable differences. A recent analysis conducted by the LondonSchool of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine provides a comprehensive review of the available literature (Dangour et al. 2009). The authors identified 46 studies with sufficient documentation and quality upon which they performed a systematic review. Eleven nutritional categories were evaluated. The nitrogen content of conventionally-grown plants was higher, and the phosphorus and titratable acidity levels were higher for organi‐ cally-grown plants. These differences were considered biologically plausible due to differen‐ ces in fertilizer use (nitrogen and phosphorus) and ripeness at harvest (titratable acidity). There was no difference for the remaining eight categories, including some key ones, includ‐ ing Vitamin C, phenolic compounds, magnesium, calcium, potassium, zinc, total soluble sol‐ ids, and copper.

3 Institute of Agric. & Nutritional Sciences, Martin Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg,

Pesticide-Residue and Its Effects on Occupational Workers

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54338

73

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