**8. Oceans for public health and well-being**

The oceans have a valuable relationship with human wellbeing through ecosystem services, the source of discoveries for pharmacology and biomedicine, cultural values, and simply the satisfaction of people, which stems from the harmony of healthy oceans and their stable biodiversity. The marine ecosystem services include the stabilization of the coast, the regulation of nutrients and climate, and the management of pollutants, energy resources, and natural products of values for biomedicine, tourism and recreation. Therefore, besides the importance of the quality of the oceans to maintain the integrity of biodiversity residing in this biome, oceans also produce beneficial effects and essential for the maintenance and stability of terrestrial ecosystems to the welfare and human health [2, 3, 42].

The coastal regions provide an important natural place for human leisure, which contribute for both physical and psychological benefits. There is medical evidence showing that the access to natural environments improves health and wellbeing, prevents disease and helps the development of recover from illness. Coastal environments stimulate fitness and leisure activities (e.g. swimming, surfing and coastal walking, beach sports) [42]. These physical and mental exercises can prevent cardiovascular diseases and help to reduce obesity and cancer [42]. In addition, the leisure activities may help to prevent or improve many mental health issues, such as reduction of stress.

Great efforts have been made to evaluate the complex economic values of environmental services and natural resources. Generally, the conservation of the ecosystem is considered more economically profitable than the economic values arising from the acquisition and use of its resources, which often leave severe environmental liabilities [30, 77]. Constanza et al. [77] showed that while the coastal areas cover only 8% of global land surface, the services and benefits from this area are responsible for approximately 43% of the total value of global ecosystem services valued at 12.6 trillion dollars.

In the last six decades there has been a growing interest in bioactive substances with properties derived from marine organisms [1, 4, 16, 78]. Already in the 1950s Bergman and Feeney [79] discovered two drugs of importance to medicine (ARA-C and ARA-A), based on nucleoside present in marine sponges (*Tectitethya crypta* and *Streptomyces antibiotics*). Formulated synthetically from the discovery of these researchers, the Ara-C is indicated for the treatment of non-lymphocytic leukemia, the leukemia meninges and chronic myelocytic leukemia, whereas the Ara-A is indicated for the treatment of viral infections caused by *Herpes simplex* and *Herpes zoster* [4, 43, 80]. Another valuable contribution of importance to medicine was the discovery of azidothymidine, AZT. This synthetic derivative, originating from marine sponges, is currently still one of the most effective drugs in the treatment of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) [43, 80]. From the work of these researchers, scientists began to explore marine biodiversity and its potential for the discovery of new bioactive compounds, aimed at advancement of pharmacology and biomedicine in the treatment of diseases known to cause severe damage on the population. The success of the discovery of new bioactive compounds and their pharmacological effects, extracted from marine organisms has been demonstrated from formulations of new anticancer treatments, and infectious diseases and inflammation [81]. However, much emphasis has been attributed to the discovery of anti-cancer compounds derived from marine organisms due in large part to the availability of funds for supporting studies aiming to find new compounds. The oceans are rich source of chemical and biological diversity, with hundreds of thousands, maybe even millions of new species are still unknown, especially micro-organisms that represent a great opportunity for the discovery of new species and new chemicals. Another approach of extreme importance is the study of marine organisms as a basis for discovery in biomedicine. Research on the natural history, taxonomy, physiology and biochemistry of marine organisms has served as a model for biomedical research to elucidate issues relevant to the physiology, biochemistry and human disease.

#### **9. Conclusions**

276 Biodiversity Conservation and Utilization in a Diverse World

and greater susceptibility to disease [1, 70].

of human exposure relating to ocean pollution.

health issues, such as reduction of stress.

**8. Oceans for public health and well-being** 

consumption [74].

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) pose potential risks to human health and the environment. Exposure to POPs can cause serious human and environmental health impacts including certain cancers, birth defects, dysfunctional immune and reproductive systems

The main human exposure to POPs in the oceans is through fish consumption [74]. One of the most relevant POPs even today is the pesticide DDT, which despite its commercialization and application banned in most countries, is still used in some tropical and subtropical nations for vector control, such as malaria [69, 75, 76]. According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), DDT is possibly carcinogenic and sub-acute exposures may cause problems in the central nervous system and also impair the immunological integrity. Similarly, PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) have caused severe impacts on the exposed organisms and public health, mainly through fish

PAHs are pollutants of great environmental persistence, and together with its derivatives have important carcinogenic, mutagenic and genotoxic [71]. PAHs are formed by thermal transformation of fossil fuels. Thus, forest fires, industrial processes and petrochemical activities are major contributors to environmental contamination by PAHs [1, 71]. These can also be formed naturally, but anthropogenic is that is causing concern. PAHs are highly soluble and rapidly absorbed through the lungs, the intestines and the skin of experimental animals, regardless of route of administration. The carcinogenic effects of some PAHs Of crucial importance to environmental and public health, fish consumption is the main source

The oceans have a valuable relationship with human wellbeing through ecosystem services, the source of discoveries for pharmacology and biomedicine, cultural values, and simply the satisfaction of people, which stems from the harmony of healthy oceans and their stable biodiversity. The marine ecosystem services include the stabilization of the coast, the regulation of nutrients and climate, and the management of pollutants, energy resources, and natural products of values for biomedicine, tourism and recreation. Therefore, besides the importance of the quality of the oceans to maintain the integrity of biodiversity residing in this biome, oceans also produce beneficial effects and essential for the maintenance and

The coastal regions provide an important natural place for human leisure, which contribute for both physical and psychological benefits. There is medical evidence showing that the access to natural environments improves health and wellbeing, prevents disease and helps the development of recover from illness. Coastal environments stimulate fitness and leisure activities (e.g. swimming, surfing and coastal walking, beach sports) [42]. These physical and mental exercises can prevent cardiovascular diseases and help to reduce obesity and cancer [42]. In addition, the leisure activities may help to prevent or improve many mental

stability of terrestrial ecosystems to the welfare and human health [2, 3, 42].

The pressure of human activities on marine environment generates ecosystem modifications that affect the people depending on the vulnerability of the population exposed. The past and current human development needs great modification to ensure the stabilization and homeostasis of the ocean. In addition, it is important to better understand the dynamic of the marine processes which can contribute to prevent the risks associated with human exposure. It includes the development of a system capable to generate information of a wide range of complex environment processes that should be used to prevent human and biodiversity impacts. Climate change and other anthropogenic pressures have the ability to influence many environmental factors, important for human health, such as fisheries, HABs, pathogens and contaminants. Environmental model are required to better understand the ocean and ecosystem dynamics their role on climate change, as well as to prevent impacts resulting from the modifying ecosystems. The development of indicators is needed to establish measures to study and prevent the impacts of the oceans changes on human health. The conservation of the marine environments, principally those with no apparent alterations, are greatly encouraged to avoid human and biodiversity.

Marine Environment and Public Health 279

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