**2. Climate variations**

264 Biodiversity Conservation and Utilization in a Diverse World

oceans and their stable biodiversity [3].

localities [6, 18].

Marine microbiological pollution represents an expressive impact on biodiversity and human health. The microbiological activity in coastal environment can result in direct impact in human health, but can trigger the biodiversity loss, degradation of ecosystem function and impact in recreation, tourism and human wellbeing [1, 2, 6, 11, 12]. Marine pollution, such as nutrients input, runoffs, and regional and international navigation by ships can load new pathogens to the environment, and the climate change may exacerbate their effects and establishment in an area. For example, the oceans have been identified as the source of introduction of *Vibrio cholerae* that resulted in outbreaks in South America [11, 13]. Potential pathogens from the Family Vibrionaceae and Aeromonadaceae have been frequently identified in coastal humans and marine top predators. It is important to highlight that pathogens of these families are not associated with fecal contamination [1, 3]. The current scenario on the conservation of the oceans has been reflected in numerous human diseases related to marine life. The relationships of the oceans to human activities and public health is already consensus; however, its mechanisms are not well understood due to its complexity. These relationships include the focus on climate change, toxic algae poisoning and chemical and microbial contamination of marine waters and fish (Figure 1) [4, 14, 15].

The marine environment provides valuable benefits for human activities, including protein sources and economic activity through fisheries, aquaculture and navigation. Furthermore, there are the economic benefits from tourism, culture, biomedicine, recreation activities and renewable energy [4, 16]. The oceans represent a great source of biodiversity and play a vital role in water and biogeochemistry cycle. Other human benefits from the oceans are clear, and important for human wellbeing, such as artistic inspiration, increased physical activity and therefore fitness, reduced levels of stress and simply the harmony as a result of healthy

The relationship between public health and the health of the oceans are also growing due to increasing number of people living in coastal areas, mainly in tropical and subtropical regions [1, 3, 4]. In these regions, increases vulnerability to social and environmental stability resulting from natural disasters that involve the ocean and health. It is estimated that world population has reached 6.6 billion in 2007, with a projected growth to 9.3 billion by 2050, developing countries are primarily responsible for this increase [17]. Approximately 65% of the human population lives within 159 km of shoreline with growth estimated at 75% for 2025. In coastal regions the oceans remain an important source of protein, quality of life, recreation, and are an integral part of economic activities in various

Coastal residents are highly vulnerable to climate variability and extreme events. As an example, the event of a tsunami in Indonesia has caused at least 175,000 deaths in 2005. In addition to the physical impacts on the health effects of these events, epidemics occur frequently due to the favorable conditions that follow extreme phenomena, and that end up being magnified by the conditions of social and environmental vulnerability of affected populations [4]. Various infectious agents found in marine hosts including bacterial, viral and protozoan result in infectious diseases in humans [19]. The effects of climate and The oceans play an extreme important role in the climate by the storage and transportation of heat around the globe. The interaction of the ocean currents and atmospheric winds operate regulating the climate. The marine ecological processes are dependent of the variation of the temperature, as the availability of nutrients that is associated with this factor, and tend to maintain the ecologic stability [4]. An example of an extreme inter-annual variability is the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO).

ENSO is a semi-periodic variability of the inter-annual climate cycle that occurs in intervals of 2-7 years as a result of the discontinuity of the up-welling system in the eastern Equatorial Pacific, forced by the change in wind pattern [20, 21]. The ENSO results in changes in the oceanic temperature and in the atmospheric pressure in the Pacific basin. However, the impacts of the ENSO are not limited to the Pacific Basin, but can influence many continental and marine regions around the globe by changing the atmospheric circulation that disturb temperature and precipitation pattern, resulting in extreme periods and intensity of drought and heavy rains in different areas [20].

Climatic variations triggered by El Niño events are associated with ecosystem changes that results in impact on public health. These climate variations influence the population density and dispersal pattern of vectors, for example, mosquitoes and rodents, which tend to cause infectious diseases in epidemic proportions, such as malaria, dengue and hantavirus [20, 22, 23]. In addition, other diseases such as leishmaniasis and cholera outbreaks have often been associated with this climatic event [23].

Marine Environment and Public Health 267

associated with increased surface temperature of the sea. Global warming may also promote changes in the general pattern of fecal-oral infections and foodborne illness. It is hoped that the wide geographic distribution (by both the altitude and latitude) of organisms that transmit disease (vectors) not only increase the potential for transmission, but also change the dynamics of the life cycle (e g, reproduction, survival and potential of infection) of

The imbalance in ecological relationships, due to climate change may alter the natural mechanisms of control of vectors and their host organisms, and populations of parasites. In addition, more frequent droughts and rising sea levels may force human populations to migrate to areas where infectious organisms are located, but that currently produce little impact on people. Additional effects include impacts of global change on agriculture, reductions in the ozone layer, economic impacts and increased vulnerability to disease and malnutrition. The many effects of climate change will affect all life forms on Earth, including

Due to the increasingly human populations residing on coastal regions, extreme events such as tsunamis, tornadoes, cyclones, storms and floods tend to mobilize international public attention due to increased social vulnerability [18, 30, 31]. Extreme events of the same magnitude and similar characteristics, impact differentially the different population groups depending on their level of vulnerability [1, 3, 4, 32]. While the rich industrialized nations suffer most from economic loss as a consequence to natural disasters, the poor and developing countries often suffer from extensive loss of life, incidence of diseases, and loss of social and physical structures [30]. An example is the Indian Ocean tsunami event in 2004, which triggered a series of tsunamis responsible for approximately 220,000 deaths,

Indonesia being one of the countries most affected with more than 400,000 homeless.

Natural disasters force a temporary condition of people living in crowded conditions with poor sanitation, poor management of human waste, impoverished nutrition, and incidence of waterborne diseases, low immunity and susceptibility to infectious diseases such as pneumonia, cholera, dengue, malaria, addition of trauma resulting from the magnitude of the events [32]. In addition, extreme events can also interfere in the continuity of health services due to impacts on infrastructure, or force changes of priority in health policies. Some infectious diseases may be aggravated by malnutrition or hungerrelated as a result of human migration. Recent studies show that the destructive power of hurricanes has grown around the world, dramatically raising its frequency in the last two decades in the Atlantic [33, 34]. Often the ability to anticipate and respond to natural disasters is based on understanding of climate systems, which depend on the complex interaction of the atmosphere, the continents and oceans. However, usually the main importance is focused on developing and improving measures to prevent population to environmental extremes, there is a need to improve the socioeconomic conditions in order

vectors of parasitic infectious organisms [23, 25, 26, 29].

all its biodiversity and ecological processes.

**3. Extreme events** 

to reduce these impacts.

Besides the problems related to ENSO events, other extremes events such as drought, have more insidious effects on health for the loss in agricultural production and, consequently, for severe nutritional disorders [4]. Therefore, it is not only direct impacts, but also because it tends to aggravate the socioeconomic structure of the societies affected, causing an amplification of the impacts on public health. In cases of drought triggered by climate variations associated with ENSO forests tend to become more vulnerable to fires, resulting in the massive loss of biodiversity and respiratory diseases linked to poor air quality [22].

The occurrence of El Niño in 1997-1998 resulted in the deaths of more than 21,000 people in 27 countries around the world. Altogether, 117 million people were affected. The occurrence of morbidities as a result of the pressures of these phenomena have affected around 540,000 people, while 4.9 million people were displaced from their homes, becoming homeless [24].

Like the variations, understood as an intrinsic property of the climate system, responsible for natural variations in the patterns observed in geographical scales, global climate changes occur due to temperature rise caused by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases during decades.

Global climate change may have both direct and indirect effects on public health [1, 25]. The greenhouse gases, naturally present in low concentrations in the atmosphere keep the earth's average temperature around 15°C. Without this mechanism of regulation of the global atmospheric temperature, the Earth's average could be -18°C and the planet would freeze, preventing the extensive existing biodiversity [26]. However, the anthropogenic release of greenhouse gases has increased the global temperature resulting in catastrophic effects on human and environmental health, while causing socioeconomic and cultural upheavals [27].

Focusing on disorders caused by the effects of climate change in the long term in the oceans, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) points as main influences the level rise of the oceans, the global temperature increase, the varying levels of salinity, the changes in the circulation of water masses, the decreasing concentration of oxygen, the sea level rise, and probable increase in intensity and frequency of hurricanes and cyclones [28].

One of the most discussed of global warming on the oceans is increasing the sea level. This can have catastrophic effect of introducing salt water into fresh water systems in the continent, affecting the quality and availability of this for consumption [1]. Moreover, according to the fourth IPCC report [28], there is observational evidence that an increase in the number of tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic, which began around 1970, is associated with increased surface temperature of the sea. Global warming may also promote changes in the general pattern of fecal-oral infections and foodborne illness. It is hoped that the wide geographic distribution (by both the altitude and latitude) of organisms that transmit disease (vectors) not only increase the potential for transmission, but also change the dynamics of the life cycle (e g, reproduction, survival and potential of infection) of vectors of parasitic infectious organisms [23, 25, 26, 29].

The imbalance in ecological relationships, due to climate change may alter the natural mechanisms of control of vectors and their host organisms, and populations of parasites. In addition, more frequent droughts and rising sea levels may force human populations to migrate to areas where infectious organisms are located, but that currently produce little impact on people. Additional effects include impacts of global change on agriculture, reductions in the ozone layer, economic impacts and increased vulnerability to disease and malnutrition. The many effects of climate change will affect all life forms on Earth, including all its biodiversity and ecological processes.

#### **3. Extreme events**

266 Biodiversity Conservation and Utilization in a Diverse World

associated with this climatic event [23].

homeless [24].

during decades.

upheavals [27].

Climatic variations triggered by El Niño events are associated with ecosystem changes that results in impact on public health. These climate variations influence the population density and dispersal pattern of vectors, for example, mosquitoes and rodents, which tend to cause infectious diseases in epidemic proportions, such as malaria, dengue and hantavirus [20, 22, 23]. In addition, other diseases such as leishmaniasis and cholera outbreaks have often been

Besides the problems related to ENSO events, other extremes events such as drought, have more insidious effects on health for the loss in agricultural production and, consequently, for severe nutritional disorders [4]. Therefore, it is not only direct impacts, but also because it tends to aggravate the socioeconomic structure of the societies affected, causing an amplification of the impacts on public health. In cases of drought triggered by climate variations associated with ENSO forests tend to become more vulnerable to fires, resulting in the massive loss of biodiversity and respiratory diseases linked to poor air quality [22].

The occurrence of El Niño in 1997-1998 resulted in the deaths of more than 21,000 people in 27 countries around the world. Altogether, 117 million people were affected. The occurrence of morbidities as a result of the pressures of these phenomena have affected around 540,000 people, while 4.9 million people were displaced from their homes, becoming

Like the variations, understood as an intrinsic property of the climate system, responsible for natural variations in the patterns observed in geographical scales, global climate changes occur due to temperature rise caused by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases

Global climate change may have both direct and indirect effects on public health [1, 25]. The greenhouse gases, naturally present in low concentrations in the atmosphere keep the earth's average temperature around 15°C. Without this mechanism of regulation of the global atmospheric temperature, the Earth's average could be -18°C and the planet would freeze, preventing the extensive existing biodiversity [26]. However, the anthropogenic release of greenhouse gases has increased the global temperature resulting in catastrophic effects on human and environmental health, while causing socioeconomic and cultural

Focusing on disorders caused by the effects of climate change in the long term in the oceans, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) points as main influences the level rise of the oceans, the global temperature increase, the varying levels of salinity, the changes in the circulation of water masses, the decreasing concentration of oxygen, the sea level rise,

One of the most discussed of global warming on the oceans is increasing the sea level. This can have catastrophic effect of introducing salt water into fresh water systems in the continent, affecting the quality and availability of this for consumption [1]. Moreover, according to the fourth IPCC report [28], there is observational evidence that an increase in the number of tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic, which began around 1970, is

and probable increase in intensity and frequency of hurricanes and cyclones [28].

Due to the increasingly human populations residing on coastal regions, extreme events such as tsunamis, tornadoes, cyclones, storms and floods tend to mobilize international public attention due to increased social vulnerability [18, 30, 31]. Extreme events of the same magnitude and similar characteristics, impact differentially the different population groups depending on their level of vulnerability [1, 3, 4, 32]. While the rich industrialized nations suffer most from economic loss as a consequence to natural disasters, the poor and developing countries often suffer from extensive loss of life, incidence of diseases, and loss of social and physical structures [30]. An example is the Indian Ocean tsunami event in 2004, which triggered a series of tsunamis responsible for approximately 220,000 deaths, Indonesia being one of the countries most affected with more than 400,000 homeless.

Natural disasters force a temporary condition of people living in crowded conditions with poor sanitation, poor management of human waste, impoverished nutrition, and incidence of waterborne diseases, low immunity and susceptibility to infectious diseases such as pneumonia, cholera, dengue, malaria, addition of trauma resulting from the magnitude of the events [32]. In addition, extreme events can also interfere in the continuity of health services due to impacts on infrastructure, or force changes of priority in health policies. Some infectious diseases may be aggravated by malnutrition or hungerrelated as a result of human migration. Recent studies show that the destructive power of hurricanes has grown around the world, dramatically raising its frequency in the last two decades in the Atlantic [33, 34]. Often the ability to anticipate and respond to natural disasters is based on understanding of climate systems, which depend on the complex interaction of the atmosphere, the continents and oceans. However, usually the main importance is focused on developing and improving measures to prevent population to environmental extremes, there is a need to improve the socioeconomic conditions in order to reduce these impacts.

The Brazilian coast present 8,698 kilometers long of extension, covering about 514,000 square kilometers. The heterogeneity and vulnerability of this coastal region is obstacle for environmental management, principally due to the proportion of the population living in this environment (18%). As an example, 16 out of 28 metropolitan regions in Brazil are located along the coast. Coastal erosion is particularly a phenomenon that results in an elevated risk to the large number of people inhabiting coastal areas along the Brazilian coast [35, 36]. Despite of the widespread range or coastal eroded regions, the configuration of the magnitude of the disasters are not equally distributed. Environmental influences (e.g. wind, wave and wave partners and trends) have been identified as the developer to seashore erosion, but human intervention in the morphodynamic of river mouth or sedimentary flux has influenced such disasters. In Atafona beach, São João da Barra (northern coast of Rio de Janeiro state) the coastal erosion has dramatically impacted the region [37]. The landward advance of the sea has already caused several consequences for local residents, including habitation loss, economical impacts, and historic and touristic impairments. In places where before there were houses and streets, and an established local commerce, is now part of coastal water or shows a scenario of destruction: about 400 houses in 16 blocks away have been demolished by the power of the waves (Figure 2). Atafona is located at the south side of the Paraíba do Sul River, the main river of the Rio the Janeiro state. The environmental variables and anthropogenic influences are thought to trigger the disasters that have been observed since 1950 [37]. The reduction of the fluvial discharge, as result of the human activities along Paraíba does Sul River, has contributed to the degradation of the coastal zone in Atafona. The sea level rise triggered by the climate change probably may influence increasing the impact in the coastal.

Marine Environment and Public Health 269

occupy the highest scales of this chain are vulnerable to the adverse effects of these toxins [3, 38]. The greatest risk of poisoning and gastrointestinal infections are linked to sea food consumption, especially of bivalve mollusks (mussels and oysters), because they are filter feeders, which makes these organisms accumulate large amounts of HABs. Bathers are also exposed to the effects of blooms of toxic algae by ingestion and inhalation of "spray"

Worldwide, sea weed toxins have been associated with cases of human poisoning and animals fatalities [38, 40]. Moreover, massive blooms of toxic and nontoxic algae can cause sharp decrease of oxygen (hypoxia) in place of occurrence, resulting in massive death of marine life and affecting recreation, fish commerce, tourism and public health [38]. From 5000 species of phytoplankton, about 300 occur in massive blooms and slightly more than 80 are known to be toxic [3, 41]. The HAB species are classified as toxin producers (can contaminate sea food or kill fish) and as high biomass producers (can cause hypoxia or anoxia and die off of marine life, when reach high concentrations) [42]. The "toxic producers" HAB species can cause shellfish poisonings and potential impacts on public health, and the "high biomass produces" are thought to promote massive mortalities of fish

Some blooms of toxic algae can persist in the environment due to the inhibiting power of the toxins on the growth of other phytoplankton species, or reduce the predation of zooplankton. The human poisonings caused by exposure to HABs cause serious problems to human health, which can lead to death or produce sequels. However, it is not uncommon physicians in coastal regions, where most cases occur, erroneously diagnose the symptoms of poisoning, or attributed other factors to them [43]. In addition, there is evidence that colorectal cancer is strongly associated with the ingestion of biotoxins produced by marine microalgae through the consumption of bivalve mollusks [44]. There are five recognized types of poisoning caused by ingestion of HAB: paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP), diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP), amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP) and ciguatera poisoning (CFP) [1, 3, 4, 6, 38, 39]. Different from the other four types of HAB poisoning the CFP is caused by the ingestion of reef fishes contaminated by toxins produced by dinoflagellates. Therefore the toxin can enter in the food chain and

Although there is record of HABs before the transformation of coastal ecosystems by anthropogenic activities, in recent decades has increased dramatically the number of problems associated with HABs around the globe. However, part of this growth is associated with the growth of environmental monitoring. A potential route of spread of these organisms lies in the transport of ballast water in ships. In addition, bivalve mollusks commercially introduced for aquaculture in the countries can also carry the organism in various ways [45]. Global environmental changes such as the destruction of reefs, nutrient enrichment of coastal waters by nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as global climate change, may serve to explain the increase of red tides reported worldwide, as well as the growth of human diseases related with exposure to marine toxins or associated with the events. Also, cholera outbreaks have been associated with HABs from the knowledge that marine

produced by the action of breaking waves containing HABs [39].

and reductions in yields in deteriorated environments.

impact top predators, such as humans [42].

**Figure 2.** Images showing the coastal erosion caused by the sea energy in Atafona, São João da Barra, northern Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil. Downloaded from: http://viafanzine.jor.br/site\_vf/pag/1/na\_terra\_fotos.htm
