**3. Nutritional and nutraceutical characterization**

352 Olive Germplasm – The Olive Cultivation, Table Olive and Olive Oil Industry in Italy

value of this end product from a nutritional point of view.

**2.4. Dry-salted black olives** 

there are also some local variations:

*2.4.1. "Strinate" olives* 

"dead of cold".

*2.4.2 "Passuluna" olives* 

*Bactrocera oleae* eggs.

**2.5. Stuffed olives by Ascolana-style** 

polysaccharides, pectins and biophenols (Borzillo *et al*., 2000; Marsilio *et al*., 2000; Cardoso *et al*., 2009; Piga *et al*., 2005). Recently, some authors (Lanza *et al*., 2012) evaluated chemical and nutrient characteristics of Ferrandina oven-dried table olives with the aim to enhance the

Salt-dried olives are prepared by packing naturally black-ripe olives in alternating layers with dry coarse salt (equivalent to 10–20% w/w of the weight of olives) and spices (oregano, orange peel, bay leaves, fennel, garlic, etc) in slatted containers that allow drainage of the vegetable water drawn out by the salt. The resulting olives, or 'date olives', are shrivelled in appearance and have a salty bitter-sweet taste (Panagou, 2006). Salt is also taken up by the olive, which acts as a preservative. Processing time is around four to six weeks and the olives are best eaten within three months of processing. Addition of olive oil enhances the flavour of the olive; however, oxidation of the oil can give the olives a rancid taste. In all Italian regions the most common cultivar that is prepared by salt-drying is *Leccino* cv. but

In Marche region (areas near Ascoli Piceno and Macerata) black olives from *Leccino*, *Raggiola*, *Raggia*, *Piantone di Falerone* and *Lea* cvs. are stored in a jute bag after being combined with coarse salt. The bag, tied with a string, is hang outdoors sheltered from the rain and in a very cold place, taking care to mix the olives twice daily to prevent formation of mold and to promote a better distribution of salt. Under the bag a basin is placed to collect the vegetation water produced by the olives. The low winter temperatures favor the loss of bitter taste and cause dehydration of the olives, which assume a shriveled appearance. After 20-40 days, they are placed in glass containers for storage and with the addition of all the ingredients already described above for the preparation of dry-salted olives. The product thus obtained is called *strinate* olives from dialectal word that means

In Sicilia region (Palermo), the *passuluna olives* are natural over-ripe olives, left on the tree, harvested in December-January, washed with hot water and leave to air-dry. Really, those olives are shriveled and debittered as the result of attack of the fungus *Camarosporium dalmaticum*, introduced in the drupe from dipteran *Prolasioptera berlesiana*, parasite of

The stuffed olives by Ascolana-style are prepared from treated green olives in brine from *Ascolana tenera* cv. (PDO "Oliva Ascolana del Piceno). The meat (beef 40-70%; pork 30-50%; Table olives are a complete food from a nutritional point of view (Cannata, 1939). It is a drupe consisting primarily of water, fat, carbohydrates, protein, fiber, pectin, biophenols, vitamins, organic acids and mineral elements. The quality of this product is linked to the combined effect of various factors, such as the suitability of raw materials, the processing technologies, the nutritional composition and, in no small measure, the sensory properties.

Olive fruit is a drupe, constituted by three distinct anatomical zones: epicarp (skin), mesocarp (pulp) and endocarp (stone) containing the seed. All three influence the quality of the end product (Garrido Fernández *et al*., 1997; Montaño *et al*., 2010). The epicarp and mesocarp constitute the edible part of the olive fruit that is around 70-85 %. Information on the nutritional composition is related to 100g of edible portion (e.p.) (Table 2).

The energy value of 100 g of e.p. of Italian olives is around 200-250 kilocalories with some exceptions (455 kcal for *Majatica* olives and 164 kcal for *Bella di Cerignola* olives; Table 3). This value, referred to a diet of 2000 kcal for an adult of average build with limited physical activity, accounts for 10-12.5 % of total calories.


**Table 3.** Nutritional characteristics of some Italian table olives. n.d. = not detected; tr = traces.

The protein content is low (1.0-2.2 g; Table 3), but nutritional quality is high for the presence of essential amino acids for adults, threonine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine and lysine (Young, 1994*),* and for childrens*,* arginine, histidine and tyrosine *(*Imura & Okada,

1998*).* Aspartic and glutamic acids are the most representative amino acids, however in some preparations threonine, valine, leucine and arginine contents are >100mg (Table 4). These results are confirmed by other authors for other cultivars and treatments (Lanza *et al*., 2010; Lazovic *et al*., 1999; López *et al*., 2007; López-López *et al*., 2010b; Montaño *et al*., 2005).

Nutritional and Sensory Quality of Table Olives 355

6g of fiber/ 100 g of e.p. (as it can be the case for some varieties) the claim "with high content of fiber" could be used. Most preparations have a content of fibre ≥ 3g/100g of e.p.,

It is worth highlighting on table olives mineral content. Discrete calcium content was found in some samples (168.1 mg for Majatica, 92.7 mg for *Taggiasca* and 83.1 mg for *Peranzana*; Table 3). The contribution of this element, albeit insignificant, contributes along with other foods to reach the daily requirement of calcium which is 800 mg. The high Na content of some traditional preparations (≥ 1.5 g; Table 3), resulting by fermenting and packing brines, is not in contrast with sodium RDV by Dietary Guidelines for Italians (LARN, 1996), that consists of 2.27 g/day. The consumption of these table olives may be unadvisable only in hypertensive pathologies. There are some studies (Bautista Gallego *et al*., 2011; Marsilio *et al*., 2000; Panagou *et al*., 2011) on use of alternative chloride salt mixtures in substitution of common salt (NaCl) to reduce the intake of sodium, with an exception of the dry-salted

Table olives are also rich in natural antioxidants such as vitamins. They provide small amounts of B group vitamins as well as liposoluble vitamins such as pro-vitamin A and vitamin E, considered to have great antioxidant effects. The vitamin C content is low (<1 mg/kg of e.p.). Many green olive commercial presentations add, as antioxidant, ascorbic acid, which becomes a part of their final ingredients and increases the vitamin C content of the product. This compound may be progressively lost during shelf life, but depending on the time elapsed from packing, such table olives may eventually represent an interesting

All table olives analyzed (except *Nocellara del Belice* olives) are, despite treatments, still rich in natural antioxidants such as polyphenols (Table 3) and their antioxidant capacity and functional effects on human wellbeing is well ascertained (Baiano *et al*., 2009; Ben Othman *et al*., 2008; Boskou *et al*., 2006). Table olives contain simple and complex phenolic compounds

so they can be considered as a source of fibre (Table 3).

olives (4-10g/100g of e.p.) (Figure 3).

**Figure 3.** NaCl crystals on olive skin. Bar = 15 μm.

source of vitamin C.


**Table 4.** Amino acid pattern of some Italian table olives. tr = traces.

The carbohydrate content in the olive fruit is, by itself, lower than any other edible fruit (Marsilio *et al.*, 2001). However, table olives have even lower proportions of these compounds since during the fermentation process or brine storage the microorganisms present in brines consume sugars. Then table olives can be considered as practically free of sugar products. Therefore, the calculation of total carbohydrates as difference, as must be made for nutritional labeling in the US, may lead to an overestimation of the amounts of these compounds in table olives, resulting in an error for consumers. However, unfermented products such as Ferrandina olives, appreciable quantities (4.4g) of simple sugars are present (Table 3).

Table olives are a good source of dietary fibre, which in addition, has a high digestibility rate (Jimenez *et al*., 2000; López-López *et al*., 2007). In European Union countries (Reg. CE 1924/2006 and Reg. UE 116/2010) it is possible to write on the label the claim "source of fibre" if the product contains at least 3g of fiber/100g of e.p. If the product contains at least

6g of fiber/ 100 g of e.p. (as it can be the case for some varieties) the claim "with high content of fiber" could be used. Most preparations have a content of fibre ≥ 3g/100g of e.p., so they can be considered as a source of fibre (Table 3).

It is worth highlighting on table olives mineral content. Discrete calcium content was found in some samples (168.1 mg for Majatica, 92.7 mg for *Taggiasca* and 83.1 mg for *Peranzana*; Table 3). The contribution of this element, albeit insignificant, contributes along with other foods to reach the daily requirement of calcium which is 800 mg. The high Na content of some traditional preparations (≥ 1.5 g; Table 3), resulting by fermenting and packing brines, is not in contrast with sodium RDV by Dietary Guidelines for Italians (LARN, 1996), that consists of 2.27 g/day. The consumption of these table olives may be unadvisable only in hypertensive pathologies. There are some studies (Bautista Gallego *et al*., 2011; Marsilio *et al*., 2000; Panagou *et al*., 2011) on use of alternative chloride salt mixtures in substitution of common salt (NaCl) to reduce the intake of sodium, with an exception of the dry-salted olives (4-10g/100g of e.p.) (Figure 3).

**Figure 3.** NaCl crystals on olive skin. Bar = 15 μm.

354 Olive Germplasm – The Olive Cultivation, Table Olive and Olive Oil Industry in Italy

Amino acid (mg/100g e.p.)

**Table 4.** Amino acid pattern of some Italian table olives. tr = traces.

present (Table 3).

The carbohydrate content in the olive fruit is, by itself, lower than any other edible fruit (Marsilio *et al.*, 2001). However, table olives have even lower proportions of these compounds since during the fermentation process or brine storage the microorganisms present in brines consume sugars. Then table olives can be considered as practically free of sugar products. Therefore, the calculation of total carbohydrates as difference, as must be made for nutritional labeling in the US, may lead to an overestimation of the amounts of these compounds in table olives, resulting in an error for consumers. However, unfermented products such as Ferrandina olives, appreciable quantities (4.4g) of simple sugars are

Table olives are a good source of dietary fibre, which in addition, has a high digestibility rate (Jimenez *et al*., 2000; López-López *et al*., 2007). In European Union countries (Reg. CE 1924/2006 and Reg. UE 116/2010) it is possible to write on the label the claim "source of fibre" if the product contains at least 3g of fiber/100g of e.p. If the product contains at least

1998*).* Aspartic and glutamic acids are the most representative amino acids, however in some preparations threonine, valine, leucine and arginine contents are >100mg (Table 4). These results are confirmed by other authors for other cultivars and treatments (Lanza *et al*., 2010; Lazovic *et al*., 1999; López *et al*., 2007; López-López *et al*., 2010b; Montaño *et al*., 2005).

> Ferrandina black olives *Majatica*

Natural black olives *Peranzana*

Treated green olives *Intosso*

Aspartic acid 150 214 131 Threonine 70 129 80 Serine 80 124 74 Glutamic acid 150 226 128 Proline 50 tr tr Glycine 70 115 65 Alanine 80 115 66 Valine 60 104 63 Isoleucine 100 86 50 Leucine 140 173 98 Phenylalanine + Tyrosine 100 168 117 Lysine 10 18 tr Histidine 30 26 28 Arginine 70 120 68 Other amino acids tr tr tr

> Table olives are also rich in natural antioxidants such as vitamins. They provide small amounts of B group vitamins as well as liposoluble vitamins such as pro-vitamin A and vitamin E, considered to have great antioxidant effects. The vitamin C content is low (<1 mg/kg of e.p.). Many green olive commercial presentations add, as antioxidant, ascorbic acid, which becomes a part of their final ingredients and increases the vitamin C content of the product. This compound may be progressively lost during shelf life, but depending on the time elapsed from packing, such table olives may eventually represent an interesting source of vitamin C.

> All table olives analyzed (except *Nocellara del Belice* olives) are, despite treatments, still rich in natural antioxidants such as polyphenols (Table 3) and their antioxidant capacity and functional effects on human wellbeing is well ascertained (Baiano *et al*., 2009; Ben Othman *et al*., 2008; Boskou *et al*., 2006). Table olives contain simple and complex phenolic compounds

(at least 30 different phenolic compounds) in amounts ranging between 100 and 350 mg/100g of e.p. (the same quantity of 1kg of extra virgin olive oil!). It was demonstrated that the variability of those main phenolic compounds can be related to a combination of agronomic and/or technological processes. The polyphenol content and composition depends on several factors such as cultivar, stage of ripening, location and processing (Blekas *et al.*, 2002; Bianchi, 2003; Romero *et al.*, 2004). Recent research has focused on a phenolic compound of nutraceutical value, oleocanthal (dialdehydic form of deacetoxyligstroside aglycon) as NSAI-like drugs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs), with Ibuprofene-like activity (Beauchamp *et al*., 2005).

Nutritional and Sensory Quality of Table Olives 357

Natural green olives *Itrana* 

Natural black olives *Cellina N.*

Natural black olives *Itrana* 

**Table 5.** Fatty acid composition percentage of some Italian table olives. n.d. = not detected; tr = traces.

Fatty acids

Sevillan green olives *Intosso*

Sevillan green olives *Bella di Cerignola*

Ferrandina black olives *Majatica* 

Myristic acid C14:0 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. Palmitic acid C16:0 11.8 11.4 9.8 15.1 14.7 10.1 13.6 19.6 Palmitoleic acid C16:1 0.6 0.8 1.1 2.9 1.3 1.1 1.4 1.9 Heptadecanoic acid C17:0 0.1 0.1 n.d. 0.1 n.d. n.d. 0.1 n.d. Heptadecenoic acid C17:1 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 n.d. Stearic acid C18:0 2.9 2.2 3.0 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 2.2 Oleic acid C18:1 76.4 79.6 76.8 63.4 70.2 80.7 76.5 70.8 Linoleic acid C18:2 6 6.3 4.7 8.0 13.6 10.7 5.2 5.5 4.7 Arachic acid C20:0 0.8 0,4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.4 Linolenic acid C18:3 3 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.2 Eicosenoic acid C20:1 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 Behenic acid C22:0 0.1 n.d. 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Lignoceric acid C24:0 n.d. 0.1 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.1 0.1 Trans fatty acids 0.02 tr 0.02 0.01 tr tr 0.01 tr

Natural black olives *Moresca* 

Natural black olives *Peranzana* 

Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) were the major group (66.8-82.1 %), saturated fatty acids (SFA) represented less than 22.4 % and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) range 4.9- 14.2 %. The trans fatty acids had a very limited occurrence (less than 0.02%). The intake of linolenic acid (C18:3 3), precursor for the synthesis of long chain 3 fatty acids, is appreciable but the ratio 6:3 is still too far towards 6 and depends on the cultivar (6.7- 23.5; Table 5). Several sources of information suggest that human beings evolved on a diet with a ratio of 6 to 3 essential fatty acids of approximately 1 whereas in Western diets the ratio is 15-16.7. Western diets are deficient in omega-3 fatty acids, and have excessive amounts of omega-6 fatty acids compared with the diet on which human beings evolved and their genetic patterns were established (Simopoulos, 2008). The ratio of oleic to palmitic acid in dietary fats has a regulatory influence on certain thrombogenic and fibrinolytic markers during the postprandial state in healthy subjects (Pacheco *et al*., 2006). It has a recommended ratio of at least 5. Also the polyunsaturated/saturated fatty acid (PUFA/SFA) ratio is used to assess the nutritional quality of the lipid fraction in foods. Consumption of saturated fatty acids has been associated with coronary heart disease (Serrano *et al*., 2005). Consequently, nutritional guidelines have recommended that the PUFA/SFA ratio should be above 0.4–0.5 (Wood *et al*., 2008). The mean values of the indexes (*cis* PUFA/SFA + TFA) and (*cis* MUFA + *cis* PUFA/SFA + TFA), which were most commonly used to express nutritional value of edible fats (Alonso *et al*. 2002; Anwar *et al*., 2006; Garrido-Fernandez, 2008), presented very high values due to the absence of trans fatty acids. These results are in

Organic acids (oxalic, succinic, malic, citric and lactic) are present in rather low percentage, such as to give the olive pulp a total acidity between 4-10g/kg (expressed as citric acid) and a pH between 3.8 and 5.0. The content of oxalic and malic acids decreases in the course of maturation and the content of citric acid increases, while succinic acid seems to remain constant. In addition, the ratio of citric and malic acids decreases in the course of maturation to reach, at the moment of maximum oil accumulation (inolition), values close to 1 (Garrido Fernández *et al*., 1997).

Crude fat content was determined by extraction in a Soxhlet apparatus, according to the procedures described previously for olives (Lanza *et al*., 2010a). The olive product with the lowest fat content was that of *Bella di Cerignola* processed with the Sevillan method (15.5 g), while the highest was that of *Majatica* oven-drying by Ferrandina-style (46.9 g). It is noticeable the difference between the fat content of *Itrana* processed as "Oliva Bianca di Itri" and "Oliva Nera di Gaeta" (17.7 and 21.7 g, respectively) is certainly due to the different periods of harvesting and maturation.

To analyze the fat composition, the olive fruits were pitted and triturated with a grinder. The olive paste was warmed up in a water bath at 28±2 °C for 30 min and the oil was extracted by centrifugation at 5000 rpm for 30 min. The resulting surnatant oil, preleased with a Pasteur pipette, was filtered in the presence of Na-sulphate anhydrous and stored at 4 °C in aluminum foil wrapped falcon tubes until analyses. This procedure simulates the extraction of olive oil in olive mill (crushing, mixing and centrifugation) and was used to prevent changes in the oil quality as much as possible (Lanza *et al*., 2012).

Table 5 shows the detailed fatty acid composition (relative percentage within the lipid fraction) of oil extracted from for different table olives. Oleic acid is the predominant one (63.4-80.7 %), palmitic acid was the second most abundant fatty acid (9.8-19.6 %), followed by linoleic acid (4.7-13.6 %) and stearic acid (1.6-3.0 %), a pattern common to most reported data (Lanza *et al*., 2010a; Sousa *et al*., 2011; Sakouhi *et al*., 2008; Borzillo *et al*., 2000; López *et al.*, 2006; López-López *et al*., 2010a; Ünal & Nergiz, 2003; Issaoui *et al*., 2011). Recent research showed that intestinal mucosal cells utilize dietary oleic acid as a substrate to produce the lipid messenger oleoylethanolamide (OEA) that plays an important role in the regulation of animal food intake and body weight in human physiological and pathophysiological conditions (Schwartz *et al*., 2008).


Ibuprofene-like activity (Beauchamp *et al*., 2005).

Fernández *et al*., 1997).

periods of harvesting and maturation.

conditions (Schwartz *et al*., 2008).

(at least 30 different phenolic compounds) in amounts ranging between 100 and 350 mg/100g of e.p. (the same quantity of 1kg of extra virgin olive oil!). It was demonstrated that the variability of those main phenolic compounds can be related to a combination of agronomic and/or technological processes. The polyphenol content and composition depends on several factors such as cultivar, stage of ripening, location and processing (Blekas *et al.*, 2002; Bianchi, 2003; Romero *et al.*, 2004). Recent research has focused on a phenolic compound of nutraceutical value, oleocanthal (dialdehydic form of deacetoxyligstroside aglycon) as NSAI-like drugs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs), with

Organic acids (oxalic, succinic, malic, citric and lactic) are present in rather low percentage, such as to give the olive pulp a total acidity between 4-10g/kg (expressed as citric acid) and a pH between 3.8 and 5.0. The content of oxalic and malic acids decreases in the course of maturation and the content of citric acid increases, while succinic acid seems to remain constant. In addition, the ratio of citric and malic acids decreases in the course of maturation to reach, at the moment of maximum oil accumulation (inolition), values close to 1 (Garrido

Crude fat content was determined by extraction in a Soxhlet apparatus, according to the procedures described previously for olives (Lanza *et al*., 2010a). The olive product with the lowest fat content was that of *Bella di Cerignola* processed with the Sevillan method (15.5 g), while the highest was that of *Majatica* oven-drying by Ferrandina-style (46.9 g). It is noticeable the difference between the fat content of *Itrana* processed as "Oliva Bianca di Itri" and "Oliva Nera di Gaeta" (17.7 and 21.7 g, respectively) is certainly due to the different

To analyze the fat composition, the olive fruits were pitted and triturated with a grinder. The olive paste was warmed up in a water bath at 28±2 °C for 30 min and the oil was extracted by centrifugation at 5000 rpm for 30 min. The resulting surnatant oil, preleased with a Pasteur pipette, was filtered in the presence of Na-sulphate anhydrous and stored at 4 °C in aluminum foil wrapped falcon tubes until analyses. This procedure simulates the extraction of olive oil in olive mill (crushing, mixing and centrifugation) and was used to

Table 5 shows the detailed fatty acid composition (relative percentage within the lipid fraction) of oil extracted from for different table olives. Oleic acid is the predominant one (63.4-80.7 %), palmitic acid was the second most abundant fatty acid (9.8-19.6 %), followed by linoleic acid (4.7-13.6 %) and stearic acid (1.6-3.0 %), a pattern common to most reported data (Lanza *et al*., 2010a; Sousa *et al*., 2011; Sakouhi *et al*., 2008; Borzillo *et al*., 2000; López *et al.*, 2006; López-López *et al*., 2010a; Ünal & Nergiz, 2003; Issaoui *et al*., 2011). Recent research showed that intestinal mucosal cells utilize dietary oleic acid as a substrate to produce the lipid messenger oleoylethanolamide (OEA) that plays an important role in the regulation of animal food intake and body weight in human physiological and pathophysiological

prevent changes in the oil quality as much as possible (Lanza *et al*., 2012).

**Table 5.** Fatty acid composition percentage of some Italian table olives. n.d. = not detected; tr = traces.

Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) were the major group (66.8-82.1 %), saturated fatty acids (SFA) represented less than 22.4 % and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) range 4.9- 14.2 %. The trans fatty acids had a very limited occurrence (less than 0.02%). The intake of linolenic acid (C18:3 3), precursor for the synthesis of long chain 3 fatty acids, is appreciable but the ratio 6:3 is still too far towards 6 and depends on the cultivar (6.7- 23.5; Table 5). Several sources of information suggest that human beings evolved on a diet with a ratio of 6 to 3 essential fatty acids of approximately 1 whereas in Western diets the ratio is 15-16.7. Western diets are deficient in omega-3 fatty acids, and have excessive amounts of omega-6 fatty acids compared with the diet on which human beings evolved and their genetic patterns were established (Simopoulos, 2008). The ratio of oleic to palmitic acid in dietary fats has a regulatory influence on certain thrombogenic and fibrinolytic markers during the postprandial state in healthy subjects (Pacheco *et al*., 2006). It has a recommended ratio of at least 5. Also the polyunsaturated/saturated fatty acid (PUFA/SFA) ratio is used to assess the nutritional quality of the lipid fraction in foods. Consumption of saturated fatty acids has been associated with coronary heart disease (Serrano *et al*., 2005). Consequently, nutritional guidelines have recommended that the PUFA/SFA ratio should be above 0.4–0.5 (Wood *et al*., 2008). The mean values of the indexes (*cis* PUFA/SFA + TFA) and (*cis* MUFA + *cis* PUFA/SFA + TFA), which were most commonly used to express nutritional value of edible fats (Alonso *et al*. 2002; Anwar *et al*., 2006; Garrido-Fernandez, 2008), presented very high values due to the absence of trans fatty acids. These results are in

accordance, but even higher, with those found for "alcaparra" olives (0.3 and 5.0, respectively; Sousa *et al*., 2011). Only for *Cellina di Nardò* olives these indexes are lower for "alcaparra" olives (Table 6).

Nutritional and Sensory Quality of Table Olives 359

Natural green olives *Itrana* 

Natural black olives *Cellina N.*

Natural black olives *Itrana* 

**Table 7.** Sterolic composition (%) of some Italian table olives. n.d. = not detected.

Percentages above 20% are considered significant, below 5% modest.

**4. The IOC Method for the sensory analysis of table olives** 

Since 21 November 2008 the procedure for the classification of table olives based on parameters of quality has become official: *COI/OT/MO/Doc. No 1*. *Method for the sensory* 

A separate discussion is made about nutritional labelling which, while optional until 13 December 2016, could add value to our product. What information do we expect to find on a nutrition label of a jar of olives? Currently the provision of a nutrition label is regulated by the Regulation (EU) 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council on nutrition labelling for foodstuffs as regards recommended daily allowances, energy conversion factors and definitions. The information written on the label should be referred to 100 g of product: in the case of whole olives reference should be made to 100 g of drained product (therefore considering the stone even if not edible) or 100 g of edible portion (in this case only the pulp of olives). For pitted olives and olive paste this problem does not arise. The nutritional information may also be referred to as a portion or "serving size", based on the amount of food consumed by a person. For table olives, a serving size could be formed by about 10 medium-sized olives and expressed in grams (taking into account the weight of the stone). It is also useful to relate the content of each nutrient with a daily reference value for a diet of 2000 kcal of an average weight adult performing limited physical activity.

**3.1. The nutritional label** 

Sterol

Sevillan green olives *Bella di Cerignola*

Castelvetrano green olives *Nocellara B.* 

Ferrandina black olives *Majatica* 

Cholesterol 0.8 1.4 0.4 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.6 Brassicasterol 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1 n.d. n.d. 0.1 n.d. 24-methylen cholesterol n.d. 0.2 0.5 n.d. 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 Campesterol 3.1 4.2 1.8 2.1 2.0 2.6 2.4 3.1 Campestanol n.d. 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 n.d. n.d. 0.2 Stigmasterol 1.2 1.8 0.5 1.0 0.7 0.4 0.7 0.9 7-campesterol 0.7 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.8 0.6 0.3 5,23-stigmastadienol n.d. n.d. 0.1 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.1 Chlerosterol 1.5 1.4 1.0 1.5 1.2 1.0 1,0 1.0 -sytosterol 89.6 84.5 59.1 80.2 77.4 87.8 88.7 85.4 Sitostanol 1.3 0.6 0.4 2.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 2.3 5-avenasterol 1.5 4.7 34.3 8.5 15.9 5.6 4.3 5.3 5,24-stigmastadienol 0.1 0.6 1.2 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.7 7-stigmastenol 0.3 n.d. 0.3 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.1 7-avenasterol 0.3 n.d. 0.1 0.8 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1

Natural black olives *Moresca* 

Natural black olives *Peranzana* 


**Table 6.** Fatty acid indexes.

As regard to sterol, fatty and triterpenic alcohol composition, there are some studies relating to the changes during processing (López- López *et al.,* 2008, 2009). The main phytosterols and phytostanols found in Ferrandina table olives (Table 7) are -sitosterol (59.1-89.6 %) and 5-avenasterol (1.5-34.3%), followed by campesterol (1.8-4.2%), 5,24-stigmastadienol (0.4- 1.2%) and chlerosterol (1.0-1.5 %). The low content of -sitosterol and high content of 5 avenasterol in *Majatica* olives is typical for this cultivar (Rotundo & Marone, 2002), but sitosterol (including 5,23-stigmastadienol, clerosterol, -sitosterol, sitostanol, 5 avenasterol and 5,24-stigmastadienol) is higher than 93%, the limit fixed for extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) by the Commission Regulation (EEC) 2568/91 and its subsequent modifications. Epidemiologic and experimental studies suggest that dietary phytosterols, and in particular -sitosterol, may offer protection from the most common cancers in Western societies, such as colon, breast and prostate cancer and contribute to lower the cardiovascular disease risk. (Awad & Fink, 2000; Woyengo *et al*., 2009).

Finally, table olives could be utilized as a vehicle for incorporating probiotic bacteria and transporting bacterial cells into the human gastrointestinal tract. Food industries are now focusing on new foods which are part of a normal diet and can contribute to a regular assumption of probiotics (functional foods). The incorporation of health-promoting bacteria into table olives would add functional features to their current nutritional properties.

The consumption of table olives, in combination with the consumption of olive oil, which are basic components of the Mediterranean diet, provide a large amount of natural compounds of nutraceutical value (polyphenols, phytosterols and fatty acids) with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory or hormone-like properties.


**Table 7.** Sterolic composition (%) of some Italian table olives. n.d. = not detected.
