**4.2. Main facilities and equipment of test room**

Tasting booth, referred to standard COI/T.20/Doc. No 6/Rev. 1 Guide for the installation of a test room or to ISO 8589:2007 General guidance for the design of test rooms;

Glasses, according to standard COI/T.20/Doc. No 5 *Glass for oil tasting*, covered with watchglasses;

Plastic or metal cocktail sticks, two-pronged forks, spoons or tongs;

Profile sheet on hard or soft copy. The line for each attribute must measure exactly 10 cm.

#### **4.3. Sample presentation and tasting session**

The sample of table olives for analysis shall be presented in standard tasting glasses (Figure 4). The glass shall contain as many olives as the bottom of the glass can hold when the olives are placed side by side in a single layer. When brined table olives are undergoing analysis, sufficient covering liquid shall be poured over the olives to cover them fully. When the olives are above the 91/100 size-grade, the volume of sample contained in the glass shall in no case be more than half the height of the glass (i.e. 30 mm). In the case of table olives belonging to a size-grade below 91/100, the sample for testing in the glass shall comprise no less than three olives. When brined table olives are undergoing analysis, the quantity of covering liquid in the glass shall come up to at least three-quarters of the height of the olives. The glass shall be covered with the attendant watch-glass.

#### Nutritional and Sensory Quality of Table Olives 361

360 Olive Germplasm – The Olive Cultivation, Table Olive and Olive Oil Industry in Italy

applying to table olives referenced COI/OT/NC No 1 (2004).

**4.2. Main facilities and equipment of test room** 

**4.3. Sample presentation and tasting session** 

**4.1. The panel** 

glasses;

*analysis of table olives.* On 25 November 2011 (Decision No DEC-18/99-V/2011) the International Olive Council adopted the revised version of the method (COI/OT/MO No 1/Rev. 2). The method establishes the necessary criteria and procedures for the sensory analysis of the odour, taste and texture of table olives and sets out the systematics for their commercial classification. It is applicable solely to the fruit of the cultivated olive tree (*Olea europaea* L.) which has been suitably treated or processed and which has been prepared for trade or for final consumption as table olives in accordance with the trade standard

The sensory evaluation of table olives is done by a group of 8-10 expert tasters selected on the basis of aptitude and led by a panel leader. This group constitutes the taste panel. The tasters are chosen by means of a selection process implemented in accordance with an international standard according to his/her sensitivity and discriminatory power with regard to the organoleptic characteristics of table olives, who becomes skilled after suitable training and whose performance is objectively evaluated on the basis of rules established beforehand by the leader of the panel to which the taster belongs. The panel leader is the person whose chief duties are to lead panel activities, including taster recruitment, selection, training, skill building and monitoring. He/she designs and leads the sensory tests and analyses and interprets the data and may be assisted by one or more panel technicians.

Tasting booth, referred to standard COI/T.20/Doc. No 6/Rev. 1 Guide for the installation of a

Glasses, according to standard COI/T.20/Doc. No 5 *Glass for oil tasting*, covered with watch-

Profile sheet on hard or soft copy. The line for each attribute must measure exactly 10 cm.

The sample of table olives for analysis shall be presented in standard tasting glasses (Figure 4). The glass shall contain as many olives as the bottom of the glass can hold when the olives are placed side by side in a single layer. When brined table olives are undergoing analysis, sufficient covering liquid shall be poured over the olives to cover them fully. When the olives are above the 91/100 size-grade, the volume of sample contained in the glass shall in no case be more than half the height of the glass (i.e. 30 mm). In the case of table olives belonging to a size-grade below 91/100, the sample for testing in the glass shall comprise no less than three olives. When brined table olives are undergoing analysis, the quantity of covering liquid in the glass shall come up to at least three-quarters of the height of the

test room or to ISO 8589:2007 General guidance for the design of test rooms;

Plastic or metal cocktail sticks, two-pronged forks, spoons or tongs;

olives. The glass shall be covered with the attendant watch-glass.

The samples of table olives intended for tasting shall be kept in the glasses at ambient temperature, between 20 and 25 °C, under white light (daylight). To avoid tasting fatigue and the appearance of bias or contrast effects, each tasting session should entail the sensory analysis of not more than three samples. Between each session the tasters should rinse out their mouth fully and take a break of at least fifteen minutes. No more than three tasting sessions should be conducted in any given day. It should be kept in mind that the morning, before lunch, is the period when olfactory-gustatory sharpness is optimal (between 10 a.m. and 12 noon).

### **4.4. Tasting session and use of the profile sheet by tasters**

The tasters shall pick up the glass, keeping it covered with the watch-glass, and shall bend it gently to help the sample aromas to be released and blended. After doing so, they shall

remove the watch-glass and smell the sample, taking slow deep breaths to evaluate the direct olfactory sensations cited in the profile sheet. Smelling shall not last more than 20 seconds. If no conclusion has been reached during this time, the tasters shall take a short rest before trying again. The tasters shall then assess the other sensations cited in the profile sheet. To do so, they shall place one of the olives contained in the glass in their mouth; they shall chew the olive after removing the stone, making sure to spread the chewed olive throughout the whole of the mouth cavity. They shall concentrate on the order of appearance of the salty, bitter and acid stimuli, the retronasal olfactory sensations and the kinaesthetic sensations of hardness, crunchiness and fibrousness and shall assess the intensity of each of these sensations by making the corresponding mark on the intensity scale of the tasting sheet. Next they shall spit out the chewed olives, rinse out their mouth with water and recommence the assessment of the sensations produced by each of the olives contained in the glass. They shall enter the intensity with which they perceive each of the attributes in the scales of the profile sheet provided. Tasters may refrain from placing the olives in their mouth when they observe an extremely intense negative attribute. They shall record this exceptional circumstance in the profile sheet. They must, however, mark the intensity of the odorous attribute on the corresponding scale. They shall enter in the profile sheet the intensity of each of the sensations perceived when smelling and chewing the olives.

Nutritional and Sensory Quality of Table Olives 363

and hetero fermentative lactic acid bacteria. Both sensations may be more or less marked by inappropriate use of acids used as acidity correctors (e.g., acetic or citric acid), but may also be typical of some preparations involving the use of vinegar (e.g., Kalamata olives). *Soapy* is an olfactory-gustatory sensation reminiscent of soap. This taste is found primarily in olives treated with lye (Spanish and Castelvetrano systems) and not sufficiently rinsed with water or consumed shortly after debittering. *Metallic* is an olfactory-gustatory sensation reminiscent of metals. It is found primarily in olives darkened by oxidation with the addition of iron salts such as gluconate or ferrous lactate, used as stabilizers of the color (eg. Californian black olives), but can also be perceived of olives preserved in metal packs. *Earthy* is an olfactory-gustatory sensation reminiscent of soil or dust. It is found in olives that have been in contact with soil and dust for a long time, usually harvested after they fall

The gustatory sensations involve distinct areas of tongue: the region affected by the perception of salty taste is the lateral-anterior, the region affected by the perception of acid taste is the posterior and the region affected by the perception of bitter taste is the basis of tongue. The *salty* sensation is associated to the basic taste produced by aqueous solutions of substances such as sodium chloride and depends on the concentration of fermentation or conditioning brines. The *bitter* sensation is associated to the basic taste produced by dilute aqueous solutions of substances such as quinine or caffeine and depends on the presence of bitter substances, mainly polyphenols. It may therefore be more intense in preparations in which the debittering, incomplete, is due to the action of microrganisms (natural olives). The *acid* sensation is associated to the basic taste produced by dilute aqueous solutions of most acid substances, such as tartaric or citric acids. It defines the taste associated with acids naturally present in the olive flesh (e.g., tartaric acid, malic acid or citric acid) or produced during the lactic fermentation by homo and heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria (e.g., lactic acid or acetic acid), but may also depend on the inappropriate use of acids as correctives of acidity (e.g., citric acid). High level of acid sensation is also found in the olives whose preparation involves the addition of vinegar

With the term "kinaesthetic sensations" (from the greek = movement and = sense) are indicated the sensations deriving from the contact of the fruit with the mouth. We could translate it as "musculoskeletal overall perception, in the oral cavity, of the mechanical characteristics of the fruit". Texture is defined as the set of rheological (related to the flow and deformation of matter) and structural (geometrical and surface) properties of a product perceptible to the mechanical receptors, tactile receptors and in some cases the visual and auditory receptors. The following attributes are assessed in table olives: hardness,

from the tree.

(e.g., Kalamata olives).

*4.5.3. Kinaesthetic sensations (texture)* 

*4.5.2. Descriptive gustatory attributes* 

#### **4.5. Attributes to be perceived**

#### *4.5.1. Negative attributes*

Unpleasant sensations are caused by the production of substances responsible for offodours, which are not present in the fresh fruit or formed during well-performed processing treatments. The term "*abnormal fermentation*" includes all those olfactory sensations perceived directly or retronasally, reminiscent of the odour of decomposing organic matter, cheese, butter, rotten eggs, muddy sediment, sewer, rotten leather, caused by the development of contaminating microorganisms (butyric fermentation, putrid fermentation and zapateria). If the tasters perceive any negative attributes other than abnormal fermentations, they shall record them under the 'other defects' heading, using the following terms: musty, rancid, cooking effect, soapy, metallic, earthy and winey/vinegary. *Musty* sensation is an olfactory-gustatory sensation perceived directly or retronasally, characteristic of olives attacked by moulds. *Rancid* sensation is an olfactory sensation perceived directly or retronasally, characteristic of olives that have undergone a process of rancidity. *Cooking effect* is an olfactory sensation perceived directly or retronasally, characteristic of olives that have undergone excessive heating in terms of temperature and/or duration during pasteurisation or sterilisation. This taste may be typical of some cooked preparations as oven-dried black olives. *Winey-vinegary* is an olfactory–gustatory sensation reminiscent of wine or vinegar. Winey-vinegary taste should not be confused with the acid sensation. The defect wineyvinegary is due to alcoholic fermentation by yeasts, while the feeling of acid defines the taste associated with acids naturally present or produced during the lactic fermentation by homo and hetero fermentative lactic acid bacteria. Both sensations may be more or less marked by inappropriate use of acids used as acidity correctors (e.g., acetic or citric acid), but may also be typical of some preparations involving the use of vinegar (e.g., Kalamata olives). *Soapy* is an olfactory-gustatory sensation reminiscent of soap. This taste is found primarily in olives treated with lye (Spanish and Castelvetrano systems) and not sufficiently rinsed with water or consumed shortly after debittering. *Metallic* is an olfactory-gustatory sensation reminiscent of metals. It is found primarily in olives darkened by oxidation with the addition of iron salts such as gluconate or ferrous lactate, used as stabilizers of the color (eg. Californian black olives), but can also be perceived of olives preserved in metal packs. *Earthy* is an olfactory-gustatory sensation reminiscent of soil or dust. It is found in olives that have been in contact with soil and dust for a long time, usually harvested after they fall from the tree.

### *4.5.2. Descriptive gustatory attributes*

362 Olive Germplasm – The Olive Cultivation, Table Olive and Olive Oil Industry in Italy

olives.

**4.5. Attributes to be perceived** 

*4.5.1. Negative attributes* 

remove the watch-glass and smell the sample, taking slow deep breaths to evaluate the direct olfactory sensations cited in the profile sheet. Smelling shall not last more than 20 seconds. If no conclusion has been reached during this time, the tasters shall take a short rest before trying again. The tasters shall then assess the other sensations cited in the profile sheet. To do so, they shall place one of the olives contained in the glass in their mouth; they shall chew the olive after removing the stone, making sure to spread the chewed olive throughout the whole of the mouth cavity. They shall concentrate on the order of appearance of the salty, bitter and acid stimuli, the retronasal olfactory sensations and the kinaesthetic sensations of hardness, crunchiness and fibrousness and shall assess the intensity of each of these sensations by making the corresponding mark on the intensity scale of the tasting sheet. Next they shall spit out the chewed olives, rinse out their mouth with water and recommence the assessment of the sensations produced by each of the olives contained in the glass. They shall enter the intensity with which they perceive each of the attributes in the scales of the profile sheet provided. Tasters may refrain from placing the olives in their mouth when they observe an extremely intense negative attribute. They shall record this exceptional circumstance in the profile sheet. They must, however, mark the intensity of the odorous attribute on the corresponding scale. They shall enter in the profile sheet the intensity of each of the sensations perceived when smelling and chewing the

Unpleasant sensations are caused by the production of substances responsible for offodours, which are not present in the fresh fruit or formed during well-performed processing treatments. The term "*abnormal fermentation*" includes all those olfactory sensations perceived directly or retronasally, reminiscent of the odour of decomposing organic matter, cheese, butter, rotten eggs, muddy sediment, sewer, rotten leather, caused by the development of contaminating microorganisms (butyric fermentation, putrid fermentation and zapateria). If the tasters perceive any negative attributes other than abnormal fermentations, they shall record them under the 'other defects' heading, using the following terms: musty, rancid, cooking effect, soapy, metallic, earthy and winey/vinegary. *Musty* sensation is an olfactory-gustatory sensation perceived directly or retronasally, characteristic of olives attacked by moulds. *Rancid* sensation is an olfactory sensation perceived directly or retronasally, characteristic of olives that have undergone a process of rancidity. *Cooking effect* is an olfactory sensation perceived directly or retronasally, characteristic of olives that have undergone excessive heating in terms of temperature and/or duration during pasteurisation or sterilisation. This taste may be typical of some cooked preparations as oven-dried black olives. *Winey-vinegary* is an olfactory–gustatory sensation reminiscent of wine or vinegar. Winey-vinegary taste should not be confused with the acid sensation. The defect wineyvinegary is due to alcoholic fermentation by yeasts, while the feeling of acid defines the taste associated with acids naturally present or produced during the lactic fermentation by homo The gustatory sensations involve distinct areas of tongue: the region affected by the perception of salty taste is the lateral-anterior, the region affected by the perception of acid taste is the posterior and the region affected by the perception of bitter taste is the basis of tongue. The *salty* sensation is associated to the basic taste produced by aqueous solutions of substances such as sodium chloride and depends on the concentration of fermentation or conditioning brines. The *bitter* sensation is associated to the basic taste produced by dilute aqueous solutions of substances such as quinine or caffeine and depends on the presence of bitter substances, mainly polyphenols. It may therefore be more intense in preparations in which the debittering, incomplete, is due to the action of microrganisms (natural olives). The *acid* sensation is associated to the basic taste produced by dilute aqueous solutions of most acid substances, such as tartaric or citric acids. It defines the taste associated with acids naturally present in the olive flesh (e.g., tartaric acid, malic acid or citric acid) or produced during the lactic fermentation by homo and heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria (e.g., lactic acid or acetic acid), but may also depend on the inappropriate use of acids as correctives of acidity (e.g., citric acid). High level of acid sensation is also found in the olives whose preparation involves the addition of vinegar (e.g., Kalamata olives).

#### *4.5.3. Kinaesthetic sensations (texture)*

With the term "kinaesthetic sensations" (from the greek = movement and = sense) are indicated the sensations deriving from the contact of the fruit with the mouth. We could translate it as "musculoskeletal overall perception, in the oral cavity, of the mechanical characteristics of the fruit". Texture is defined as the set of rheological (related to the flow and deformation of matter) and structural (geometrical and surface) properties of a product perceptible to the mechanical receptors, tactile receptors and in some cases the visual and auditory receptors. The following attributes are assessed in table olives: hardness,

crunchiness and fibrousness. *Hardness* is defined as the mechanical properties of consistency related to the force required to obtain the deformation or penetration of a product. It is perceived through the compression of the product between the teeth (solid products) or between the tongue and palate (semi-solid products); as regards the solid products such as table olives, the force required to compress the product is evaluated first between the incisors (Hardness 1), then between the molars (Hardness 2) and finally during mastication (Hardness 3) (Kim *et al*., 2012). *Crunchiness* is the property related to the noise produced by friction or fracture between two surfaces. In our case, it is related to the force required to fracture a product with the teeth and is determined by compressing the fruit between the molars. *Fibrousness* is a geometric textural attribute relating to the perception of the shape and the orientation of particles in a product. Fibrousness refers to the elongated conformation of the particles, oriented in the same direction. It is evaluated by perceiving the fibres between the tongue and palate when chewing the olive. Hardness, crunchiness and fibrousness may also be assessed by instrumental puncture, compression, stretching and acoustic tests using Texture Analyzer. The texture of edible fruits and vegetables is strongly influenced by the chemical, physical and structural properties of the plant cell walls which surround every cell and, through adhesion to the adjacent ones, provide mechanical strength and protection (Brett & Waldron, 1996). Such properties will be affected by the stage of ripening (Mafra *et al*., 2001) and processing technologies (Lanza & Marsilio, 2001; Tassou *et al.*, 2007). Tissues in which cell-to-cell adhesion is very strong may only be disrupted by breakage of the cell walls: such tissues are usually crunchy in texture. Tissues in which cell-to-cell adhesion is very weak may be disrupted through cleavage along the plane of the middle lamella: such tissues are usually soft in texture. The examination of the fracture surface can indicate whether tissue failure occurs as a result of cell rupture or cellto-cell debonding. A simple olive fracturing method is described in Lanza *et al.* (2010a). In a recent research (Lanza & Di Serio, 2011), information provided by sensory and other instrumental measurements of tissue hardness were compared with that provided by scanning electron microscopy. The different levels of hardness applied to olives by sensory analysis are as follows: soft (low level), firm (moderate level) and hard (high level). Fractured epicarp and mesocarp olive fruits in longitudinal view, corresponding to the three levels of hardness, were examined by SEM (Figure 5). In *hard olives*, the thin-walled parenchyma cells were uniform and tightly packed. Tissue fracture involved cell walls breaking, both in epicarp and mesocarp and cell separation at the middle lamella level was not observed. The fracture surface of *firm olives* consisted of two regions: (a) one with 400– 500 m containing broken cell walls and some separated cells and (b) a second one containing intact cell walls. The region with broken cell walls extended from the olive epidermis as far as the eighth-ninth layer of mesocarp. In *soft olives*, the region of broken cell walls was smaller (100–200 m) and involved only the epicarp and the first layers of the mesocarp (hypodermis and, sometimes, the following first layer). The other cells showed rounded outlines and were divided along the middle lamella, showing cell separation. Summarizing, in hard fruits, tissue fracture involves cell walls breaking and the thin-walled Nutritional and Sensory Quality of Table Olives 365

parenchyma cells olives are uniform and tightly packed (cell rupture). In soft olives the cells show rounded outlines and are divided along the middle lamella (cell separation). This is due to an increase in cell separation which consists mainly in the dissolution of middle

The panel leaders shall collect the profile sheets completed by each of the tasters and shall review the intensities recorded for each of the descriptors. If they find any anomaly, they shall invite the taster concerned to revise the profile sheet and, if necessary, to repeat the test. The panel leaders shall determine the intensities of the attributes listed in the profile sheet by using a ruler to measure the segment running from the origin of the scale to the mark made by the taster. When this mark lies between two notches on the ruler, they shall assign the value lying closest to one of the notches. The segment shall be expressed to one decimal place. The scale shall measure 10 cm long and the intensity shall range from 1 to 11. The panel leaders shall apply the method for calculating the median and the confidence intervals according to the method contained in Annex 1 (COI/OT/MO/n°1/Rev.2 Annex 1 *Method for calculating the median and the confidence intervals*) and shall only take into account

lamella pectic polysaccharides.

**Figure 5.** The different levels of hardness (H). Bar = 300 μm.

**4.6. Elaboration of sensory data** 

parenchyma cells olives are uniform and tightly packed (cell rupture). In soft olives the cells show rounded outlines and are divided along the middle lamella (cell separation). This is due to an increase in cell separation which consists mainly in the dissolution of middle lamella pectic polysaccharides.

364 Olive Germplasm – The Olive Cultivation, Table Olive and Olive Oil Industry in Italy

crunchiness and fibrousness. *Hardness* is defined as the mechanical properties of consistency related to the force required to obtain the deformation or penetration of a product. It is perceived through the compression of the product between the teeth (solid products) or between the tongue and palate (semi-solid products); as regards the solid products such as table olives, the force required to compress the product is evaluated first between the incisors (Hardness 1), then between the molars (Hardness 2) and finally during mastication (Hardness 3) (Kim *et al*., 2012). *Crunchiness* is the property related to the noise produced by friction or fracture between two surfaces. In our case, it is related to the force required to fracture a product with the teeth and is determined by compressing the fruit between the molars. *Fibrousness* is a geometric textural attribute relating to the perception of the shape and the orientation of particles in a product. Fibrousness refers to the elongated conformation of the particles, oriented in the same direction. It is evaluated by perceiving the fibres between the tongue and palate when chewing the olive. Hardness, crunchiness and fibrousness may also be assessed by instrumental puncture, compression, stretching and acoustic tests using Texture Analyzer. The texture of edible fruits and vegetables is strongly influenced by the chemical, physical and structural properties of the plant cell walls which surround every cell and, through adhesion to the adjacent ones, provide mechanical strength and protection (Brett & Waldron, 1996). Such properties will be affected by the stage of ripening (Mafra *et al*., 2001) and processing technologies (Lanza & Marsilio, 2001; Tassou *et al.*, 2007). Tissues in which cell-to-cell adhesion is very strong may only be disrupted by breakage of the cell walls: such tissues are usually crunchy in texture. Tissues in which cell-to-cell adhesion is very weak may be disrupted through cleavage along the plane of the middle lamella: such tissues are usually soft in texture. The examination of the fracture surface can indicate whether tissue failure occurs as a result of cell rupture or cellto-cell debonding. A simple olive fracturing method is described in Lanza *et al.* (2010a). In a recent research (Lanza & Di Serio, 2011), information provided by sensory and other instrumental measurements of tissue hardness were compared with that provided by scanning electron microscopy. The different levels of hardness applied to olives by sensory analysis are as follows: soft (low level), firm (moderate level) and hard (high level). Fractured epicarp and mesocarp olive fruits in longitudinal view, corresponding to the three levels of hardness, were examined by SEM (Figure 5). In *hard olives*, the thin-walled parenchyma cells were uniform and tightly packed. Tissue fracture involved cell walls breaking, both in epicarp and mesocarp and cell separation at the middle lamella level was not observed. The fracture surface of *firm olives* consisted of two regions: (a) one with 400– 500 m containing broken cell walls and some separated cells and (b) a second one containing intact cell walls. The region with broken cell walls extended from the olive epidermis as far as the eighth-ninth layer of mesocarp. In *soft olives*, the region of broken cell walls was smaller (100–200 m) and involved only the epicarp and the first layers of the mesocarp (hypodermis and, sometimes, the following first layer). The other cells showed rounded outlines and were divided along the middle lamella, showing cell separation. Summarizing, in hard fruits, tissue fracture involves cell walls breaking and the thin-walled



**Figure 5.** The different levels of hardness (H). Bar = 300 μm.

### **4.6. Elaboration of sensory data**

The panel leaders shall collect the profile sheets completed by each of the tasters and shall review the intensities recorded for each of the descriptors. If they find any anomaly, they shall invite the taster concerned to revise the profile sheet and, if necessary, to repeat the test. The panel leaders shall determine the intensities of the attributes listed in the profile sheet by using a ruler to measure the segment running from the origin of the scale to the mark made by the taster. When this mark lies between two notches on the ruler, they shall assign the value lying closest to one of the notches. The segment shall be expressed to one decimal place. The scale shall measure 10 cm long and the intensity shall range from 1 to 11. The panel leaders shall apply the method for calculating the median and the confidence intervals according to the method contained in Annex 1 (COI/OT/MO/n°1/Rev.2 Annex 1 *Method for calculating the median and the confidence intervals*) and shall only take into account those attributes with a robust coefficient of variation of 20% or less. The computer program for carrying out the calculations is presented in Annex 3 (COI/OT/MO/n°1/Rev.2 Annex 3 *Sensory analysis of table olives computer program*). When a defect is entered under the 'Other defects' heading by at least 50 percent of the panel tasters, the panel leaders shall carry out the statistical calculation of this defect and shall arrive at the corresponding classification if the coefficient of variation is 20% or less.

Nutritional and Sensory Quality of Table Olives 367

**Figure 7.** Sensory profiles of undefected (a) and defected (b) olives from "Oliva bianca di Itri".

*Agricultural Research Council - Olive Growing and Oil Industry Research Centre, Città* 

Financial support for this study was provided by Italian Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Forestry through the project GERMOLI "Salvaguardia e valorizzazione del GERMoplasma

Alonso, L., Fraga, M.J., Juarez, M. & Carmona, P. (2002). Fatty acid composition of Spanish shortening with special emphasis on *trans* unsaturated content as determination by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and gas chromatography, *Journal of American* 

Alves, M., Gonçalves, T. & Quintas, C. (2012). Microbial quality and yeast population dynamics in cracked green table olives fermentations, *Food Control* 23: 363-368. Anwar, F., Bhanger, M.I., Iqbal, S. & Sultana, B. (2006). Fatty acid composition of different margarines and butters from Pakistan with special emphasis on trans unsaturated

Arroyo López, F.N., Querol, A., Bautista Gallego, J. & Garrido Fernández, A. (2008). Role of yeasts in table olive production, *International Journal of Food Microbiology* 128: 189-96. Awad, A.B. & Fink, C.S. (2000). Phytosterols as anticancer dietary components: evidence and

**Acknowledgement** 

**Author details** 

*Sant'Angelo (PE), Italy* 

Barbara Lanza

**5. References** 

OLIvicolo delle collezioni del CRA-OLI".

*Oil Chemistry Society* 79: 1-6.

contents, *Journal of Food Quality,* 29: 87-96.

mechanism of action, *Journal of Nutrition* 130: 2127-2130.
