of graduate distance education students

2007 23 8,820 N.A. 72 2008 25 8,649 N.A. 88 2009 26 8,437 N.A. 111 2010 26 8,429 3.0 151 2011 27 8,241 3.0 87

**Table 2.** Graduate Distance Education Statistics in Japan (2007-2011) (based on the data made available

Seventeen universities offer both undergraduate and graduate distance education programs; hence, a total of 54 universities offer distance education at an undergraduate or a graduate level. In addition, there are 11 institutions that offer distance education programs at an associate degree level. Out of all the 65 institutions that offer distance education programs in higher education, seven of them solely exist at a distance (meaning offering no on-campus

2007 40 240,076 8.5 458 2008 41 229,734 8.1 493 2009 42 226,384 8.0 644 2010 44 224,314 7.8 725 2011 44 217,236 7.5 602

**Table 1.** Undergraduate Distance Education Statistics in Japan (2007-2011) (based on the data made

The graduate distance education programs also show similar trends in the past five years (see Table 2). In 2011, 8,241 graduate students were seeking post-graduate degrees at a

2001 (see Table 1).

Year # of institutions

available by MEXT in 2012)

distance in 27 universities.

Year # of institutions

by MEXT in 2012)

with graduate distance education programs

programs) and are for-profit institutions.

with undergraduate distance education programs

As indicated above, the Japanese Ministry of Education created and maintained two separate accreditation systems or the University Establishments Standards: one for traditional on-campus institutions and the other for correspondence education. This legal separation still exists today and distance education programs are regulated under the standards different from on-campus programs in Japan.

The majority of distance education in Japan has been done by distributing print-based materials through postal mail. Though those distance education programs had been officially accredited to offer degrees, originally 30 credits out of the 124 credits required to obtain a bachelor's degree had to be earned through face-to-face classes (i.e., schooling), as mentioned previously. In March 1998, the requirement of earning the minimum of 30 credits through face-to-face classes was relaxed and the government enabled those 30 credits to be earned through synchronous mediated communication such as videoconferencing. Then in March 2001, those 30 credits were allowed to be earned through interactions on the Internet. This made it possible legally to earn degrees solely at a distance without ever visiting the campus or learning centers. In other words, currently there are four ways of teaching and learning that can be offered through distance education programs: (1) print material based, (2) broadcasting-based, (3) face-to-face schooling, and (4) media-based.

Also in 1998, graduate programs through distance education began to be recognized officially and four graduate distance education schools were established in 2002. In 2003, doctoral programs through distance education were started to be recognized. Originally distance education programs were considered secondary to the regular on-campus programs as discussed earlier. However, the notion has been slowly changing and it has been discussed that the regulatory distinction between campus-based schools and distance education schools may disappear in the near future.

#### **3.2. Current status of distance education in Japan**

As discussed earlier, in Japan distance education programs have been regulated differently from campus-based programs of higher education. In 2011, 217,236 undergraduate students were seeking degrees at a distance in 44 universities who provide undergraduate distance education programs, accounting for 7.5% of total higher education enrollees. The number of students enrolled in distance education programs and its percentage of total higher education enrollees has been decreasing in the past few years while the number of full-time faculty members who engage in distance education programs has been increasing except in 2001 (see Table 1).

186 Distance Education

face sessions that worth 30 credits per year.

standards different from on-campus programs in Japan.

(2) broadcasting-based, (3) face-to-face schooling, and (4) media-based.

education schools may disappear in the near future.

**3.2. Current status of distance education in Japan** 

In 1950, for the first time in its history, those correspondence schools or distance learning schools were officially recognized by the Ministry of Education, which enabled recognized schools to offer degrees to their students. According to the Higher Education Council in Japan, this is the beginning of distance education in higher education in Japan. Those distance education programs in Japan were mainly created to give access to higher education to those who otherwise did not have. Therefore, primarily the distance education programs were offered by existing on-campus universities and the credits earned through distance education programs were transferrable to the credits for on-campus programs (and vice versa). The distance education programs have to be open to anybody who wishes to study without any entrance selections unlike on-campus programs which mostly have some entry selection. The teachers of those distance education programs must be the ones who are full-time faculty of the institution. The distance programs were mandated to offer face-to-

As indicated above, the Japanese Ministry of Education created and maintained two separate accreditation systems or the University Establishments Standards: one for traditional on-campus institutions and the other for correspondence education. This legal separation still exists today and distance education programs are regulated under the

The majority of distance education in Japan has been done by distributing print-based materials through postal mail. Though those distance education programs had been officially accredited to offer degrees, originally 30 credits out of the 124 credits required to obtain a bachelor's degree had to be earned through face-to-face classes (i.e., schooling), as mentioned previously. In March 1998, the requirement of earning the minimum of 30 credits through face-to-face classes was relaxed and the government enabled those 30 credits to be earned through synchronous mediated communication such as videoconferencing. Then in March 2001, those 30 credits were allowed to be earned through interactions on the Internet. This made it possible legally to earn degrees solely at a distance without ever visiting the campus or learning centers. In other words, currently there are four ways of teaching and learning that can be offered through distance education programs: (1) print material based,

Also in 1998, graduate programs through distance education began to be recognized officially and four graduate distance education schools were established in 2002. In 2003, doctoral programs through distance education were started to be recognized. Originally distance education programs were considered secondary to the regular on-campus programs as discussed earlier. However, the notion has been slowly changing and it has been discussed that the regulatory distinction between campus-based schools and distance

As discussed earlier, in Japan distance education programs have been regulated differently from campus-based programs of higher education. In 2011, 217,236 undergraduate students



The graduate distance education programs also show similar trends in the past five years (see Table 2). In 2011, 8,241 graduate students were seeking post-graduate degrees at a distance in 27 universities.


**Table 2.** Graduate Distance Education Statistics in Japan (2007-2011) (based on the data made available by MEXT in 2012)

Seventeen universities offer both undergraduate and graduate distance education programs; hence, a total of 54 universities offer distance education at an undergraduate or a graduate level. In addition, there are 11 institutions that offer distance education programs at an associate degree level. Out of all the 65 institutions that offer distance education programs in higher education, seven of them solely exist at a distance (meaning offering no on-campus programs) and are for-profit institutions.

In terms of subject matters students are studying through those undergraduate distance education programs, excluding those categorized as "others," the most popular one is social sciences, and the next popular is education. (see Figure 1).

Generations of Distance Education

and Challenges of Distance Education Institutions in Japanese Higher Education 189

Many of the distance education programs deal with non-traditional professional subjects that are not unclassifiable in the traditional scheme of subject classification. As you see in

The age distribution of students in distance education programs is also quite different from that of on-campus programs where almost all the students are within traditional college age cohorts (i.e., the ages between 18 and 22 years old). The largest age group in undergraduate distance education programs is 30s and the second largest is 40s (see Figure 3) while the largest age group in graduate distance education programs is 40s and the second largest is

**Figure 3.** Age Distribution of the Undergraduate Distance Education Students(based on the data made

23-24 25-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60 and above

23-24 25-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60 and above

**Figure 4.** Age Distribution of the Graduate Distance Education Students(based on the data made

those figures, the subjects in hard sciences are rarely offered at a distance in Japan.

30s (see Figure 4).

available by MEXT in 2012)

18-22 years old

available by MEXT in 2012)

18-22 years old

**Figure 1.** Subject Matter Breakdown for Students Enrolled in Undergraduate Distance Education Programs (based on the data made available by MEXT in 2012)

As for graduate programs, a majority of them are unclassifiable as shown in Figure 2.

**Figure 2.** Subject Matter Breakdown for Students Enrolled in Graduate Distance Education Programs(based on the data made available by MEXT in 2012)

Many of the distance education programs deal with non-traditional professional subjects that are not unclassifiable in the traditional scheme of subject classification. As you see in those figures, the subjects in hard sciences are rarely offered at a distance in Japan.

188 Distance Education

In terms of subject matters students are studying through those undergraduate distance education programs, excluding those categorized as "others," the most popular one is social

Humianities 12%

> Health 3%

Humianities 12%

> Science 0%

Social Sciences 21%

Home Economics 1%

Science 0% Engineering 0%

> Social Sciences 8%

Engineering 0%

> Education 3% Art 2%

Home Economics 1%

Health 1%

**Figure 1.** Subject Matter Breakdown for Students Enrolled in Undergraduate Distance Education

Art 5% Education 15%

As for graduate programs, a majority of them are unclassifiable as shown in Figure 2.

**Figure 2.** Subject Matter Breakdown for Students Enrolled in Graduate Distance Education

Other 73%

sciences, and the next popular is education. (see Figure 1).

Other 43%

Programs (based on the data made available by MEXT in 2012)

Programs(based on the data made available by MEXT in 2012)

The age distribution of students in distance education programs is also quite different from that of on-campus programs where almost all the students are within traditional college age cohorts (i.e., the ages between 18 and 22 years old). The largest age group in undergraduate distance education programs is 30s and the second largest is 40s (see Figure 3) while the largest age group in graduate distance education programs is 40s and the second largest is 30s (see Figure 4).

**Figure 3.** Age Distribution of the Undergraduate Distance Education Students(based on the data made available by MEXT in 2012)

**Figure 4.** Age Distribution of the Graduate Distance Education Students(based on the data made available by MEXT in 2012)

The occupations of distance education students in Japan also show a difference from oncampus students who mostly study full-time. (See Figures 5 and 6.)

Generations of Distance Education

and Challenges of Distance Education Institutions in Japanese Higher Education 191

The number may have increased slightly since then, but not any drastic change has been

Though since 2001 the law has allowed any distance education program to exist totally at a distance without offering any face-to-face classes by offering media or the Internet interactions, all the institutions surveyed except one offered face-to-face schoolings, and only one institution offered schooling that allowed students to participate from home using web conferencing. Those institutions which offered face-to-face schoolings, only three of them said those schoolings were mandatory for students to earn degrees. Schooling still

Most distance education programs in Japan do not allow students to directly contact their teachers. About a half of the institutions surveyed said student inquiries would be first sent to the administrative office while only about a quarter of the institutions allowed students to directly ask questions to teachers. Only three institutions said tutors would respond to student inquires. In the same survey, the institutions were also asked about the ways in which student inquiries were received. The Figure 7 shows the percentage of institutions who said they would use the following media to receive student inquires respectively: postal mail, email, telephone, discussion board, face-to-face, and fax. The last item showed if the institution proactively inquired students for any possible questions they might have. More than 70% of the institutions mainly receive student inquiries via postal mail and only three institutions said that they actively sought student inquires. In this age of the Internet, it is surprising to know that still the main mode of communication between students and teachers is the old postal mail. This illustrates that the dominant pedagogy of distance education programs in Japan is the cognitive-behaviorist pedagogy, not allowing rich

**Figure 7.** The Methods of Receiving Student Inquiries (based on the data made available by MEXT in

0 20 40 60 80

remains a very strong component in distance education programs in Japan.

interaction between teachers and students or among students.

observed.

2012)

Actively inquire students

via discussion boards

via Fax

in person

via telephone

via postal mail

via email

**Figure 5.** Occupations of Undergraduate Distance Education Students in Japan (based on the data made available by MEXT in 2012)

**Figure 6.** Occupations of Graduate Distance Education Students in Japan (based on the data made available by MEXT in 2012)

#### **3.3. The use of ICT in distance education in Japan**

Though Japan has been widely known in the world for its technological prowess, the use of ICT in education, especially in distance education, is amazingly behind of any other developed countries. The survey of distance education programs conducted by the author in 2008 showed that only less than 30% of the institutions made learning materials available online, and only one-third utilized the Internet or Learning Management Systems (LMS). A few of them utilized social networking services for creating student communities in 2008. The number may have increased slightly since then, but not any drastic change has been observed.

190 Distance Education

available by MEXT in 2012)

available by MEXT in 2012)

The occupations of distance education students in Japan also show a difference from on-

Other 25%

Teachers 5%

Government Workers 6%

Self-employed 5%

> Teachers 21%

> > Government Workers 11%

Company Employees 30%

**Figure 5.** Occupations of Undergraduate Distance Education Students in Japan (based on the data made

Other 10%

**Figure 6.** Occupations of Graduate Distance Education Students in Japan (based on the data made

Company Employees 41%

Though Japan has been widely known in the world for its technological prowess, the use of ICT in education, especially in distance education, is amazingly behind of any other developed countries. The survey of distance education programs conducted by the author in 2008 showed that only less than 30% of the institutions made learning materials available online, and only one-third utilized the Internet or Learning Management Systems (LMS). A few of them utilized social networking services for creating student communities in 2008.

**3.3. The use of ICT in distance education in Japan** 

Self-employed 6%

Unemployed 11%

campus students who mostly study full-time. (See Figures 5 and 6.)

Unemployed 29%

Though since 2001 the law has allowed any distance education program to exist totally at a distance without offering any face-to-face classes by offering media or the Internet interactions, all the institutions surveyed except one offered face-to-face schoolings, and only one institution offered schooling that allowed students to participate from home using web conferencing. Those institutions which offered face-to-face schoolings, only three of them said those schoolings were mandatory for students to earn degrees. Schooling still remains a very strong component in distance education programs in Japan.

Most distance education programs in Japan do not allow students to directly contact their teachers. About a half of the institutions surveyed said student inquiries would be first sent to the administrative office while only about a quarter of the institutions allowed students to directly ask questions to teachers. Only three institutions said tutors would respond to student inquires. In the same survey, the institutions were also asked about the ways in which student inquiries were received. The Figure 7 shows the percentage of institutions who said they would use the following media to receive student inquires respectively: postal mail, email, telephone, discussion board, face-to-face, and fax. The last item showed if the institution proactively inquired students for any possible questions they might have. More than 70% of the institutions mainly receive student inquiries via postal mail and only three institutions said that they actively sought student inquires. In this age of the Internet, it is surprising to know that still the main mode of communication between students and teachers is the old postal mail. This illustrates that the dominant pedagogy of distance education programs in Japan is the cognitive-behaviorist pedagogy, not allowing rich interaction between teachers and students or among students.

**Figure 7.** The Methods of Receiving Student Inquiries (based on the data made available by MEXT in 2012)

The length of time it takes for an institution to receive an inquiry from a student and send the response back to the student was mostly a few days. Only three institutions said they would respond within 24 hours and four institutions said they would respond in real time.

Generations of Distance Education

and Challenges of Distance Education Institutions in Japanese Higher Education 193

instructors hired through the local study center. Each face-to-face class comprises one credit and is taught from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. on a weekend (Saturday and Sunday). The face-to-face classes offered at a local study center do not have any bearing to the broadcast courses and the topics of the classes are usually determined by the instructors hired to offer classes.

The local study centers are also used to give final exams. All the students belong to one of the local study centers nearby and they take final exams for the registered courses at the study center they belong to. Conducting final exams are a big operation at OUJ as final exams are the only ways to assess students' learning. The study centers also serve as the places where students can watch or listen to video/audio recordings of lectures so that students who have missed the broadcast of a lecture can come to the study center to view or listen to the recordings. Those recordings usually cannot be taken out of the study centers, and those who want to obtain those recordings have to pay a large sum. The university sells those recordings to other universities or offers them to those universities with mutual

agreements on credit transfer, which use them to supplement their course offerings.

6.5 years before graduating.

allowed to own and operate a broadcast station.

**4.2. Broadcast materials at OUJ** 

Currently OUJ has about 82,000 students in total (about 77,000 undergraduate students and 5,000 graduate students). Among them, 57% of the undergraduate students and 44% of the graduate students are female. In terms of their age groups, 49% of the undergraduate students are in their 30s and 40s and 37% of the students are over 50s. As for graduate students, 51% of them are in their 30s and 40s, and 43% are over 50s. About 52,500 out of 82,000 students are enrolled in degree programs full-time, and the average student spends

The university offers more than 350 broadcast courses each semester in addition to 2,900 face-to-face classes offered at the local study centers that can lead to undergraduate degrees in life and social welfare, psychology and education, society and industry, human and culture, and nature and environment or master's degrees in life health science, human development science, clinical psychology, social management science, cultural information, and natural environmental science. Like other distance education programs in Japan, OUJ does not require undergraduate applicants to take an entrance exam, but requires one for admission into its graduate programs. OUJ is largely supported by the government for its operational budget, but is classified as a private university as a public institution is not

Since its inception, OUJ has relied on broadcasting mediums as the main mode of instructional delivery as its Japanese name still indicates "broadcasting university." Though it has the mission "anytime, anywhere, anybody," the television broadcast of the lectures was limited to the Tokyo metropolitan area until the broadcast through the CS (commercial satellite) digital service was started in January 1998. The uniqueness of OUJ among all open universities in the world lies in the fact that OUJ owns and operates television and radio

stations which OUJ has to fill their airtime from 6 a.m. to midnight every day.

According to the same survey, the ICT tools most commonly used for teaching and learning at those distance education programs were: online discussion boards (43%), on-demand streaming video (42%), and LMS (41%). Even for the most commonly used ICT tool, online discussion boards, less than half of the institutions were using. As for the reasons why those tools were not used or not planned to be used in the near future, the most common reasons were "lack of budgets (47%)," "lack of support services (34%)," and "lack of human resources (34%)." It appears that the lack of a systematic institutional support in the use of ICT is the major problem in facilitating the use of ICT in distance higher education in Japan.

## **4. The Open University of Japan (OUJ)**

### **4.1. History and characteristics**

Among all the distance education institutions and programs in Japan, the Open University of Japan (OUJ) needs special attention in the history of distance education in Japan as it is the only distance education university in Japan that has been mandated by the government to use public airwaves to broadcast its instructional programs. OUJ was established as an independent four-year institution of higher education in 1981 and started its television and radio broadcast instruction in April 1985, modeled somewhat after the British Open University. The objectives and missions of OUJ were:


These missions still hold currently though wordings were slightly changed.

For the first five years of its existence, only students in the Tokyo metropolitan area could receive the broadcasts of the university lectures. The University began broadcasting nationwide via digital communications satellite in 1998 though only those who installed a special antenna and receiver could receive the signal. The main textbooks utilized as study materials for the courses offered by the university are still print-based.

In addition to those courses that were offered through print materials and broadcast programs, the face-to-face schoolings also play an important part in the educational system of OUJ. Those face-to-face classes are offered at 57 local study centers and support offices around the country; at least one in every prefecture. The university requires all students to take at least 20 credit hours of the classroom instruction that are mostly taught by adjunct instructors hired through the local study center. Each face-to-face class comprises one credit and is taught from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. on a weekend (Saturday and Sunday). The face-to-face classes offered at a local study center do not have any bearing to the broadcast courses and the topics of the classes are usually determined by the instructors hired to offer classes.

The local study centers are also used to give final exams. All the students belong to one of the local study centers nearby and they take final exams for the registered courses at the study center they belong to. Conducting final exams are a big operation at OUJ as final exams are the only ways to assess students' learning. The study centers also serve as the places where students can watch or listen to video/audio recordings of lectures so that students who have missed the broadcast of a lecture can come to the study center to view or listen to the recordings. Those recordings usually cannot be taken out of the study centers, and those who want to obtain those recordings have to pay a large sum. The university sells those recordings to other universities or offers them to those universities with mutual agreements on credit transfer, which use them to supplement their course offerings.

Currently OUJ has about 82,000 students in total (about 77,000 undergraduate students and 5,000 graduate students). Among them, 57% of the undergraduate students and 44% of the graduate students are female. In terms of their age groups, 49% of the undergraduate students are in their 30s and 40s and 37% of the students are over 50s. As for graduate students, 51% of them are in their 30s and 40s, and 43% are over 50s. About 52,500 out of 82,000 students are enrolled in degree programs full-time, and the average student spends 6.5 years before graduating.

The university offers more than 350 broadcast courses each semester in addition to 2,900 face-to-face classes offered at the local study centers that can lead to undergraduate degrees in life and social welfare, psychology and education, society and industry, human and culture, and nature and environment or master's degrees in life health science, human development science, clinical psychology, social management science, cultural information, and natural environmental science. Like other distance education programs in Japan, OUJ does not require undergraduate applicants to take an entrance exam, but requires one for admission into its graduate programs. OUJ is largely supported by the government for its operational budget, but is classified as a private university as a public institution is not allowed to own and operate a broadcast station.

#### **4.2. Broadcast materials at OUJ**

192 Distance Education

The length of time it takes for an institution to receive an inquiry from a student and send the response back to the student was mostly a few days. Only three institutions said they would respond within 24 hours and four institutions said they would respond in real time.

According to the same survey, the ICT tools most commonly used for teaching and learning at those distance education programs were: online discussion boards (43%), on-demand streaming video (42%), and LMS (41%). Even for the most commonly used ICT tool, online discussion boards, less than half of the institutions were using. As for the reasons why those tools were not used or not planned to be used in the near future, the most common reasons were "lack of budgets (47%)," "lack of support services (34%)," and "lack of human resources (34%)." It appears that the lack of a systematic institutional support in the use of ICT is the major problem in facilitating the use of ICT in distance higher education in Japan.

Among all the distance education institutions and programs in Japan, the Open University of Japan (OUJ) needs special attention in the history of distance education in Japan as it is the only distance education university in Japan that has been mandated by the government to use public airwaves to broadcast its instructional programs. OUJ was established as an independent four-year institution of higher education in 1981 and started its television and radio broadcast instruction in April 1985, modeled somewhat after the British Open

1. to provide working people and housewives with a chance of lifelong university level

2. to provide an innovative and flexible system of university level education open to high

3. to co-operate with existing universities and make full use of the latest scientific knowledge and new educational technology in order to offer a system of higher

For the first five years of its existence, only students in the Tokyo metropolitan area could receive the broadcasts of the university lectures. The University began broadcasting nationwide via digital communications satellite in 1998 though only those who installed a special antenna and receiver could receive the signal. The main textbooks utilized as study

In addition to those courses that were offered through print materials and broadcast programs, the face-to-face schoolings also play an important part in the educational system of OUJ. Those face-to-face classes are offered at 57 local study centers and support offices around the country; at least one in every prefecture. The university requires all students to take at least 20 credit hours of the classroom instruction that are mostly taught by adjunct

**4. The Open University of Japan (OUJ)** 

University. The objectives and missions of OUJ were:

education which matches contemporary needs.

These missions still hold currently though wordings were slightly changed.

materials for the courses offered by the university are still print-based.

**4.1. History and characteristics** 

education;

school graduates; and

Since its inception, OUJ has relied on broadcasting mediums as the main mode of instructional delivery as its Japanese name still indicates "broadcasting university." Though it has the mission "anytime, anywhere, anybody," the television broadcast of the lectures was limited to the Tokyo metropolitan area until the broadcast through the CS (commercial satellite) digital service was started in January 1998. The uniqueness of OUJ among all open universities in the world lies in the fact that OUJ owns and operates television and radio stations which OUJ has to fill their airtime from 6 a.m. to midnight every day.

As it has been always a dream of OUJ to have a nationwide coverage of their broadcast, OUJ applied for the license of analog BS (broadcast satellite) station not long after it started terrestrial television broadcasting in the Tokyo area to expand its coverage nationwide. However, as the launch of the satellite which was supposed to relay the BS signals got delayed and also the digital BS broadcasting started to be planned about the same time, OUJ gave up on doing the analog BS broadcasting altogether. The start of television and radio broadcast of OUJ lecture programs via CS made the potential coverage of OUJ nationwide for the first time since its inception. Though signals could be received anywhere in Japan with CS broadcasting, in order to watch programs delivered via CS, people had to purchase and install a special antenna and receiver. Once they installed the antenna and receiver, they could view OUJ programs freely. Some cable television companies carried OUJ's channels and subscribers of such cable television services could watch OUJ programs without any additional fee or equipment.

Generations of Distance Education

and Challenges of Distance Education Institutions in Japanese Higher Education 195

to those materials, the purchasers tend to be those municipal and school libraries and college teachers who want to use those materials in their classes. The price is quite high as a set of DVDs for one course, consisting of 15 45-minute lectures, is usually sold at about US\$3800. A significant percentage of television lecture programs are now made available online to those registered students through the student portal though the video clips are

As for the actual production of broadcast programs, in the early days of OUJ history NHK (the only public broadcast network in Japan) and TV Asahi (a commercial television network in Japan) were assisting the production. But, gradually TV Asahi withdrew and NHK had become the sole technical support provider. Because of this, the relationship between OUJ and NHK has always been rather strong, and many technical people for video production at OUJ come from NHK. In addition, NHK Educational, a subsidiary of NHK, assists production of television lecture programs at the television studios located in the campus of OUJ. Recently under the new leadership, this relationship was reexamined and other television production companies were encouraged to bid for new production contracts. As a result, a few new independent production companies have started to work for producing OUJ's lecture programs, but still a majority of the production contracts go to

OUJ started producing all the television programs in digital format in 2006 when it started digital terrestrial broadcasting. It also started production in the High Definition Television (HDTV) format and since then it has been expanding the number of programs produced in HDTV format. Some OUJ programs take advantage of the HDTV format and offer high quality visuals. In addition, digital broadcasting allows providing additional data information and OUJ is planning to provide supplemental information to facilitate the understanding of the television lecture program via such data channels. About 20 percent of

It usually takes three years from the submission of a course proposal to the actual offering (i.e., broadcasting) of the course. For example, proposals for courses that will start in April 2014 are submitted in spring of 2011. Then, the decision is made in summer, 2011. A detailed syllabus for the selected course has to be submitted by the end of November 2011 and by March 2012 course team members have to meet for the first time to discuss the general structure of the printed material as well as the broadcast programs. A course team at OUJ usually consists of at least a chief lecturer who is usually a full-time faculty member of OUJ, a producer who is responsible for overseeing the budget for the entire production process, and a director who is responsible for the actual production process of the program. Directors are usually those experienced in directing educational programs in NHK programs or OUJ programs in the past. Within the three years faculty members in charge have to work very hard as they have to write a textbook of about 250 pages for each course by 16 months prior to the start of the course, and then have to produce broadcast programs within the year prior to the start of the course. It means the faculty members in charge have to prepare for all the scripts and visuals (sometimes with a professional help) and have to

the programs were selected to carry subtitles for those who are hearing impaired.

perform in front of the camera to produce 15 45-minute broadcast programs.

only available as streaming video and not as downloadable video clips.

the NHK Educational.

In December 2006, OUJ started terrestrial digital broadcasting. Again, its coverage was limited to the Tokyo metropolitan area. Though OUJ's original application for obtaining BS analog license did not materialize, OUJ succeeded in obtaining BS digital license. In Japan, analogue television service was virtually terminated on July 24, 2011, except those areas where switching to digital services were delayed due to the unexpected disaster in March 2011. The number of households that can receive BS digital signals has increased dramatically recently as the newly manufactured digital television sets now have the builtin BS antenna. OUJ started its BS digital broadcasting service in October 2011, which made the OUJ signal more viewable by millions of households outside the Tokyo metropolitan area where the OUJ digital terrestrial service covers. It required a tremendous investment in switching the transmission facilities from the CS broadcasting to BS broadcasting, but OUJ hoped it would give a significant advantage in terms of its visibility.

With a superior compression technology, one regular digital television channel can carry one high definition program or up to three regular definition programs. With the demand for an increase in course offerings, OUJ is making a full utilization of these simultaneous broadcasting of multiple programs. However, with the tight allocation of budget that is foreseeable in the future, it'll become the trade-off between the quantity of programs and the (aesthetic) quality of each program. What is unique about OUJ among all the open universities in the world is that OUJ owns and operates its television and radio stations which OUJ has to fill their airtime by themselves. Other open universities that utilize or used to utilize television broadcasts as an instructional delivery, including UKOU, bought or leased the airtime from national broadcasters for their instructional programs. OUJ is the only open university in the world that has its own independent television and radio station. This, in my opinion, is increasingly becoming a bottleneck for innovation at OUJ as a major portion of its budget has to be set aside for production of broadcast programs, maintenance of the facilities, and operation of the stations.

In addition to the broadcast delivery of lecturers, OUJ also has sold videotapes and audiotapes (nowadays DVDs and CDs) of recorded lectures through its subsidiary, the Society for the Promotion of the University of the Air (SPUA). As students have free access to those materials, the purchasers tend to be those municipal and school libraries and college teachers who want to use those materials in their classes. The price is quite high as a set of DVDs for one course, consisting of 15 45-minute lectures, is usually sold at about US\$3800. A significant percentage of television lecture programs are now made available online to those registered students through the student portal though the video clips are only available as streaming video and not as downloadable video clips.

194 Distance Education

additional fee or equipment.

As it has been always a dream of OUJ to have a nationwide coverage of their broadcast, OUJ applied for the license of analog BS (broadcast satellite) station not long after it started terrestrial television broadcasting in the Tokyo area to expand its coverage nationwide. However, as the launch of the satellite which was supposed to relay the BS signals got delayed and also the digital BS broadcasting started to be planned about the same time, OUJ gave up on doing the analog BS broadcasting altogether. The start of television and radio broadcast of OUJ lecture programs via CS made the potential coverage of OUJ nationwide for the first time since its inception. Though signals could be received anywhere in Japan with CS broadcasting, in order to watch programs delivered via CS, people had to purchase and install a special antenna and receiver. Once they installed the antenna and receiver, they could view OUJ programs freely. Some cable television companies carried OUJ's channels and subscribers of such cable television services could watch OUJ programs without any

In December 2006, OUJ started terrestrial digital broadcasting. Again, its coverage was limited to the Tokyo metropolitan area. Though OUJ's original application for obtaining BS analog license did not materialize, OUJ succeeded in obtaining BS digital license. In Japan, analogue television service was virtually terminated on July 24, 2011, except those areas where switching to digital services were delayed due to the unexpected disaster in March 2011. The number of households that can receive BS digital signals has increased dramatically recently as the newly manufactured digital television sets now have the builtin BS antenna. OUJ started its BS digital broadcasting service in October 2011, which made the OUJ signal more viewable by millions of households outside the Tokyo metropolitan area where the OUJ digital terrestrial service covers. It required a tremendous investment in switching the transmission facilities from the CS broadcasting to BS broadcasting, but OUJ

With a superior compression technology, one regular digital television channel can carry one high definition program or up to three regular definition programs. With the demand for an increase in course offerings, OUJ is making a full utilization of these simultaneous broadcasting of multiple programs. However, with the tight allocation of budget that is foreseeable in the future, it'll become the trade-off between the quantity of programs and the (aesthetic) quality of each program. What is unique about OUJ among all the open universities in the world is that OUJ owns and operates its television and radio stations which OUJ has to fill their airtime by themselves. Other open universities that utilize or used to utilize television broadcasts as an instructional delivery, including UKOU, bought or leased the airtime from national broadcasters for their instructional programs. OUJ is the only open university in the world that has its own independent television and radio station. This, in my opinion, is increasingly becoming a bottleneck for innovation at OUJ as a major portion of its budget has to be set aside for production of broadcast programs, maintenance

In addition to the broadcast delivery of lecturers, OUJ also has sold videotapes and audiotapes (nowadays DVDs and CDs) of recorded lectures through its subsidiary, the Society for the Promotion of the University of the Air (SPUA). As students have free access

hoped it would give a significant advantage in terms of its visibility.

of the facilities, and operation of the stations.

As for the actual production of broadcast programs, in the early days of OUJ history NHK (the only public broadcast network in Japan) and TV Asahi (a commercial television network in Japan) were assisting the production. But, gradually TV Asahi withdrew and NHK had become the sole technical support provider. Because of this, the relationship between OUJ and NHK has always been rather strong, and many technical people for video production at OUJ come from NHK. In addition, NHK Educational, a subsidiary of NHK, assists production of television lecture programs at the television studios located in the campus of OUJ. Recently under the new leadership, this relationship was reexamined and other television production companies were encouraged to bid for new production contracts. As a result, a few new independent production companies have started to work for producing OUJ's lecture programs, but still a majority of the production contracts go to the NHK Educational.

OUJ started producing all the television programs in digital format in 2006 when it started digital terrestrial broadcasting. It also started production in the High Definition Television (HDTV) format and since then it has been expanding the number of programs produced in HDTV format. Some OUJ programs take advantage of the HDTV format and offer high quality visuals. In addition, digital broadcasting allows providing additional data information and OUJ is planning to provide supplemental information to facilitate the understanding of the television lecture program via such data channels. About 20 percent of the programs were selected to carry subtitles for those who are hearing impaired.

It usually takes three years from the submission of a course proposal to the actual offering (i.e., broadcasting) of the course. For example, proposals for courses that will start in April 2014 are submitted in spring of 2011. Then, the decision is made in summer, 2011. A detailed syllabus for the selected course has to be submitted by the end of November 2011 and by March 2012 course team members have to meet for the first time to discuss the general structure of the printed material as well as the broadcast programs. A course team at OUJ usually consists of at least a chief lecturer who is usually a full-time faculty member of OUJ, a producer who is responsible for overseeing the budget for the entire production process, and a director who is responsible for the actual production process of the program. Directors are usually those experienced in directing educational programs in NHK programs or OUJ programs in the past. Within the three years faculty members in charge have to work very hard as they have to write a textbook of about 250 pages for each course by 16 months prior to the start of the course, and then have to produce broadcast programs within the year prior to the start of the course. It means the faculty members in charge have to prepare for all the scripts and visuals (sometimes with a professional help) and have to perform in front of the camera to produce 15 45-minute broadcast programs.

Once a course starts 15 broadcast lecture programs are usually broadcast one program per week on the national BS channel. The 15-week course is broadcast twice a year in addition to those intensive study weeks in summer and in winter when the course programs are broadcast every day for 15 days. On the terrestrial digital channels that are limited to the Tokyo metropolitan area, the programs are also broadcast every day for 15 days for each course. In other words, the same program is usually broadcast at least four times a year nationwide and two more times additionally in the Tokyo metropolitan area. The lifespan of a course is usually four years though the current tendency is to make it longer to recoup the initial cost of production. In 2011, a total of 330 course programs (169 television programs and 161 radio course programs) were broadcast during the first semester (from April 1 to July 21) and 331 programs (170 television programs and 161 radio programs) were broadcast during the second semester (from October 1 to January 20). Out of the 331 programs which were broadcast during the second semester, 71(21.5%) of them (36 television programs and 35 radio programs) were newly introduced programs. On average, 18 million yen (roughly US\$220,000) is spent on producing one course of television programs (i.e., 15 x 45-minute programs).

Generations of Distance Education

and Challenges of Distance Education Institutions in Japanese Higher Education 197

being professionally created by graphic artists. The use of copyrighted materials is also strongly discouraged and Chroma key is used as the background instead of an elaborate

Due to the recent prevalence of the Internet, the student demand to make the broadcast lecture programs available online has been increasing. OUJ started putting streaming video of some of the television lecture programs online in 2008 and currently in 2012, 97 undergraduate television courses and 12 graduate television courses (more than a half of the total television courses) are also viewable online to registered students in the form of streaming video. In addition, those streaming videos will also become viewable on mobile phones soon. However, still all those online video programs are not available in a downloadable format due to copyright constraints, which make students difficult to access at any time they want as it requires a high-speed Internet connection to view the video. The efforts have been made to increase the number of video lectures available online; however,

Besides the use of the Internet for making broadcast programs more accessible to students, the Internet has not been used much in teaching and learning at OUJ, especially in facilitating communication between teachers and students or among students themselves. However, this has been changing slowly and for the first time in 2011, a very limited use of a Moodle-based learning management system (LMS) was started, which allowed students to ask questions online and to answer mid-term questions online that are mostly multiplechoice questions. Still the number of courses that allow students to do so is relatively small, but it is a good trend and so much better than filling the paper form of inquiry and send it via postal mail. It is still far from being an interactive course that is a characteristic of the third generation of distance education (technologically) or social constructivist pedagogy, but it is a step forward to the direction. A web conferencing system is also used in advising

The above indicates the official use of the Internet by the university. While the official use of the Internet is very limited still at OUJ, students are forming communities informally and utilizing Web 2.0 tools such as Facebook, Twitter, and blogs to express their opinions, to exchange information among students, and to ask questions, though the percentage of the students who are utilizing those tools is very small among the total number of students. Actually, the current president of the university is an avid user of those tools and students can reach to the president of the university easily using those tools. As every operation at OUJ is so centralized and systematized with little room for faculty members to be innovative in their teaching, it will require many more years for OUJ to embrace those tools in its

Another notable use of the Internet is the student administration system called System Wakaba. The System Wakaba, which was implemented in April 2009, enabled existing students to access to their grade records through a web browser and to register for courses

some materials borrowed make it very expensive to be made available online.

graduate students at a distance for their thesis writing.

system of teaching and learning.

physical set in the studio.

**4.3. Online offerings at OUJ** 

In the early days of OUJ, television programs were made by filming the actual scenes of classroom teaching, but the style has changed to focus on a teacher talking directly to the camera. It has been considered that in this way a learner who watches those programs may feel more like being directly talked to by the teacher instead of observing a classroom interaction as the third party. In addition to the talking head of the teacher, photographs, video clips, computer graphics, and tables and charts which are printed on a board are often used to supplement the lecture. Yet, those talking heads programs are considered boring by many students and they opt to study only with the textbooks. It has never been actually measured, but it can be said that the viewership of the OUJ programs consists mostly of those who are not enrolled in the programs, but become accidental viewers by flipping the channels of their television sets.

Most television programs are produced in one of the three studios located in the main campus of OUJ, but some programs are filmed at an appropriate location outside the studio. This method is usually used when the theme of the program requires filming of actual operations of something or interviewing of people who cannot be asked to come to the main studio such as those who reside outside the country. There is a budget set aside annually for oversea filming, and a few courses are allowed to have oversea filming up to 10 days in the maximum of two countries. With a decreasing budget of broadcast program production, professional filming of locations outside the studios is strongly discouraged nowadays and some faculty members have started to collect video clips when they make research trips to some locations.

Recently, a budget production method was also introduced for some courses. It is mainly due to the financial pressure to cut the cost of production of broadcast programs and the desire to keep the same number of television programs. In this newly introduced method, the number of cameramen is reduced to zero and the camera is remotely operated in the control room. In addition, the visuals are made mostly by the teachers themselves instead of being professionally created by graphic artists. The use of copyrighted materials is also strongly discouraged and Chroma key is used as the background instead of an elaborate physical set in the studio.

#### **4.3. Online offerings at OUJ**

196 Distance Education

programs).

channels of their television sets.

some locations.

Once a course starts 15 broadcast lecture programs are usually broadcast one program per week on the national BS channel. The 15-week course is broadcast twice a year in addition to those intensive study weeks in summer and in winter when the course programs are broadcast every day for 15 days. On the terrestrial digital channels that are limited to the Tokyo metropolitan area, the programs are also broadcast every day for 15 days for each course. In other words, the same program is usually broadcast at least four times a year nationwide and two more times additionally in the Tokyo metropolitan area. The lifespan of a course is usually four years though the current tendency is to make it longer to recoup the initial cost of production. In 2011, a total of 330 course programs (169 television programs and 161 radio course programs) were broadcast during the first semester (from April 1 to July 21) and 331 programs (170 television programs and 161 radio programs) were broadcast during the second semester (from October 1 to January 20). Out of the 331 programs which were broadcast during the second semester, 71(21.5%) of them (36 television programs and 35 radio programs) were newly introduced programs. On average, 18 million yen (roughly US\$220,000) is spent on producing one course of television programs (i.e., 15 x 45-minute

In the early days of OUJ, television programs were made by filming the actual scenes of classroom teaching, but the style has changed to focus on a teacher talking directly to the camera. It has been considered that in this way a learner who watches those programs may feel more like being directly talked to by the teacher instead of observing a classroom interaction as the third party. In addition to the talking head of the teacher, photographs, video clips, computer graphics, and tables and charts which are printed on a board are often used to supplement the lecture. Yet, those talking heads programs are considered boring by many students and they opt to study only with the textbooks. It has never been actually measured, but it can be said that the viewership of the OUJ programs consists mostly of those who are not enrolled in the programs, but become accidental viewers by flipping the

Most television programs are produced in one of the three studios located in the main campus of OUJ, but some programs are filmed at an appropriate location outside the studio. This method is usually used when the theme of the program requires filming of actual operations of something or interviewing of people who cannot be asked to come to the main studio such as those who reside outside the country. There is a budget set aside annually for oversea filming, and a few courses are allowed to have oversea filming up to 10 days in the maximum of two countries. With a decreasing budget of broadcast program production, professional filming of locations outside the studios is strongly discouraged nowadays and some faculty members have started to collect video clips when they make research trips to

Recently, a budget production method was also introduced for some courses. It is mainly due to the financial pressure to cut the cost of production of broadcast programs and the desire to keep the same number of television programs. In this newly introduced method, the number of cameramen is reduced to zero and the camera is remotely operated in the control room. In addition, the visuals are made mostly by the teachers themselves instead of Due to the recent prevalence of the Internet, the student demand to make the broadcast lecture programs available online has been increasing. OUJ started putting streaming video of some of the television lecture programs online in 2008 and currently in 2012, 97 undergraduate television courses and 12 graduate television courses (more than a half of the total television courses) are also viewable online to registered students in the form of streaming video. In addition, those streaming videos will also become viewable on mobile phones soon. However, still all those online video programs are not available in a downloadable format due to copyright constraints, which make students difficult to access at any time they want as it requires a high-speed Internet connection to view the video. The efforts have been made to increase the number of video lectures available online; however, some materials borrowed make it very expensive to be made available online.

Besides the use of the Internet for making broadcast programs more accessible to students, the Internet has not been used much in teaching and learning at OUJ, especially in facilitating communication between teachers and students or among students themselves. However, this has been changing slowly and for the first time in 2011, a very limited use of a Moodle-based learning management system (LMS) was started, which allowed students to ask questions online and to answer mid-term questions online that are mostly multiplechoice questions. Still the number of courses that allow students to do so is relatively small, but it is a good trend and so much better than filling the paper form of inquiry and send it via postal mail. It is still far from being an interactive course that is a characteristic of the third generation of distance education (technologically) or social constructivist pedagogy, but it is a step forward to the direction. A web conferencing system is also used in advising graduate students at a distance for their thesis writing.

The above indicates the official use of the Internet by the university. While the official use of the Internet is very limited still at OUJ, students are forming communities informally and utilizing Web 2.0 tools such as Facebook, Twitter, and blogs to express their opinions, to exchange information among students, and to ask questions, though the percentage of the students who are utilizing those tools is very small among the total number of students. Actually, the current president of the university is an avid user of those tools and students can reach to the president of the university easily using those tools. As every operation at OUJ is so centralized and systematized with little room for faculty members to be innovative in their teaching, it will require many more years for OUJ to embrace those tools in its system of teaching and learning.

Another notable use of the Internet is the student administration system called System Wakaba. The System Wakaba, which was implemented in April 2009, enabled existing students to access to their grade records through a web browser and to register for courses online. Through this system, teachers can access to student information or enter the course grade information directly anywhere through a web browser. As the single sign-on system was also implemented in the beginning of 2010, now a student or a faculty member needs to log in only once to use any Internet system offered through OUJ. In 2010, for the first time ever, OUJ students were also started to be given email accounts through Gmail.

Generations of Distance Education

and Challenges of Distance Education Institutions in Japanese Higher Education 199

Due to the primary use of the broadcast media, the pedagogy of OUJ's educational offerings is still cognitive-behavioristic as intensive interaction between teachers and students or among students, that is required of social-constructivistic or connectivistic pedagogies, is not available at OUJ. In order to provide such interaction, OUJ has to reorganize itself to allow a completely different educational model of teaching and learning that puts students at the center of learning. It means the organizational structure, which is primarily the industrial model of distance education at present, has to be changed to something which is more flexible and nimble in accommodating changes and responsive to diverse students'

Thus, the major obstacles for OUJ to transform into the distance education institution of a new generation are legal/structural in nature. Even with a strong leadership and innovative technologies, it is impossible for the university to change if it has to legally conform to the stipulations that require the university to operate in the broadcasting mode. OUJ was conceived 30 years ago when there was no Internet and broadcasting was considered as a noble way of reaching mass audience. The time has changed and the government has to relax its regulations over it if it wants OUJ to fulfill its missions in this dynamically changing

As discussed earlier, several scholars of distance education have argued the generations of distance education from the perspectives of technology, pedagogy, and, to some extent, organization. It is obvious that distance education has been evolving and changing in many different ways. The three factors: technology, pedagogy and organization, are so intertwined that it is actually very difficult to discuss each of the factors separately. Scholars should look at all of those factors in theorizing the evolution of distance education. In addition to those three factors, distance education is oftentimes also a matter of governmental regulation and the direction and strategy an institution will take can be

Though higher education institutions in many countries have started to seamlessly blend online and offline teaching and learning for better education that caters to differing students' needs, in Japan such practices are still rarely seen in regular classrooms as well as in distance education programs. Distance education programs in Japan are still mostly in the first or second generation of distance education in terms of its technological use, are cognitive-behavioristic in their pedagogy, and are industrial in their organizational structures. Though many distance education programs that are offered by on-campus institutions may have more flexibility in terms of innovating their practices of teaching and learning, few programs have a strong incentive to do so as distance education programs and on-campus programs are separately regulated by the government and distance education programs usually do not enjoy the status the on-campus counterparts have. In on-campus programs, still the classes in which teachers and students remotely or asynchronously

severely limited by the ways the government imposes regulations upon them.

participate are not officially recognized in Japan.

needs.

period.

**5. Conclusions** 

With the increasing use of the Internet tools, there is an issue of training students and teachers to use such tools effectively. Regular universities, where a majority of students are young people who have just graduated from high schools, may have fewer problems in training students to use such tools as they have been grown up in the digital age. However, at OUJ, a majority of the students are over 40 who are digital immigrants and not very familiar with such ICT tools and it's imperative to provide them with training opportunities so that they will obtain the skills to utilize ICT tools effectively for learning. For that purpose, face-to-face classes on computer literacy was started to be offered in October 2010 at more than a half of the regional study centers. Like other face-to-face classes offered at each of the regional study centers at OUJ, the computer literacy class consists of two day intensive meetings on a weekend. Instructors are dispatched from the OUJ headquarter to ensure the quality and consistency across different study centers, and classes are taught using the same textbook that has been developed by the task force consisting of seven faculty members.

According to the survey conducted in 2010 to grasp the media use by OUJ students (a sample size of 1,769), 87.6% of the respondents have said that they have at least one computer with the Internet access at home. This figure was actually much higher than the administration of the university expected as the lack of the Internet access had always been the excuse of not offering much online in terms of teaching and learning. Among those who have a computer with the Internet access at home, almost a half (48.7%) have access through the fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) and 26% of them through Asynchronous Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL). In other words, a majority of the students have access to the broadband Internet on a regular basis.

## **4.4. Obstacles for transforming OUJ into the distance education institution of a new generation**

As discussed above, technologically OUJ is still stuck with the second generation of distance education as its main educational mean is broadcasting. Currently it is very difficult for OUJ to move on to the Internet as the governmental funding is conditional to offering broadcast programs as the binding law requires the university to do so. The administration of the university is afraid that if broadcasting does not become the main mode of instruction at OUJ, the government will significantly reduce its funding or suspend its funding to the university. However, at the same time, the university cannot innovate in teaching and learning as long as it has to spend a significant portion of its governmental funding on producing, delivering and maintaining broadcast programs.

Due to the primary use of the broadcast media, the pedagogy of OUJ's educational offerings is still cognitive-behavioristic as intensive interaction between teachers and students or among students, that is required of social-constructivistic or connectivistic pedagogies, is not available at OUJ. In order to provide such interaction, OUJ has to reorganize itself to allow a completely different educational model of teaching and learning that puts students at the center of learning. It means the organizational structure, which is primarily the industrial model of distance education at present, has to be changed to something which is more flexible and nimble in accommodating changes and responsive to diverse students' needs.

Thus, the major obstacles for OUJ to transform into the distance education institution of a new generation are legal/structural in nature. Even with a strong leadership and innovative technologies, it is impossible for the university to change if it has to legally conform to the stipulations that require the university to operate in the broadcasting mode. OUJ was conceived 30 years ago when there was no Internet and broadcasting was considered as a noble way of reaching mass audience. The time has changed and the government has to relax its regulations over it if it wants OUJ to fulfill its missions in this dynamically changing period.

## **5. Conclusions**

198 Distance Education

faculty members.

Internet on a regular basis.

**new generation** 

online. Through this system, teachers can access to student information or enter the course grade information directly anywhere through a web browser. As the single sign-on system was also implemented in the beginning of 2010, now a student or a faculty member needs to log in only once to use any Internet system offered through OUJ. In 2010, for the first time

With the increasing use of the Internet tools, there is an issue of training students and teachers to use such tools effectively. Regular universities, where a majority of students are young people who have just graduated from high schools, may have fewer problems in training students to use such tools as they have been grown up in the digital age. However, at OUJ, a majority of the students are over 40 who are digital immigrants and not very familiar with such ICT tools and it's imperative to provide them with training opportunities so that they will obtain the skills to utilize ICT tools effectively for learning. For that purpose, face-to-face classes on computer literacy was started to be offered in October 2010 at more than a half of the regional study centers. Like other face-to-face classes offered at each of the regional study centers at OUJ, the computer literacy class consists of two day intensive meetings on a weekend. Instructors are dispatched from the OUJ headquarter to ensure the quality and consistency across different study centers, and classes are taught using the same textbook that has been developed by the task force consisting of seven

According to the survey conducted in 2010 to grasp the media use by OUJ students (a sample size of 1,769), 87.6% of the respondents have said that they have at least one computer with the Internet access at home. This figure was actually much higher than the administration of the university expected as the lack of the Internet access had always been the excuse of not offering much online in terms of teaching and learning. Among those who have a computer with the Internet access at home, almost a half (48.7%) have access through the fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) and 26% of them through Asynchronous Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL). In other words, a majority of the students have access to the broadband

**4.4. Obstacles for transforming OUJ into the distance education institution of a** 

As discussed above, technologically OUJ is still stuck with the second generation of distance education as its main educational mean is broadcasting. Currently it is very difficult for OUJ to move on to the Internet as the governmental funding is conditional to offering broadcast programs as the binding law requires the university to do so. The administration of the university is afraid that if broadcasting does not become the main mode of instruction at OUJ, the government will significantly reduce its funding or suspend its funding to the university. However, at the same time, the university cannot innovate in teaching and learning as long as it has to spend a significant portion of its governmental funding on

producing, delivering and maintaining broadcast programs.

ever, OUJ students were also started to be given email accounts through Gmail.

As discussed earlier, several scholars of distance education have argued the generations of distance education from the perspectives of technology, pedagogy, and, to some extent, organization. It is obvious that distance education has been evolving and changing in many different ways. The three factors: technology, pedagogy and organization, are so intertwined that it is actually very difficult to discuss each of the factors separately. Scholars should look at all of those factors in theorizing the evolution of distance education. In addition to those three factors, distance education is oftentimes also a matter of governmental regulation and the direction and strategy an institution will take can be severely limited by the ways the government imposes regulations upon them.

Though higher education institutions in many countries have started to seamlessly blend online and offline teaching and learning for better education that caters to differing students' needs, in Japan such practices are still rarely seen in regular classrooms as well as in distance education programs. Distance education programs in Japan are still mostly in the first or second generation of distance education in terms of its technological use, are cognitive-behavioristic in their pedagogy, and are industrial in their organizational structures. Though many distance education programs that are offered by on-campus institutions may have more flexibility in terms of innovating their practices of teaching and learning, few programs have a strong incentive to do so as distance education programs and on-campus programs are separately regulated by the government and distance education programs usually do not enjoy the status the on-campus counterparts have. In on-campus programs, still the classes in which teachers and students remotely or asynchronously participate are not officially recognized in Japan.

Education is the area where the governmental policy significantly influences. However, the governmental leaders who are in charge of setting those policies are rarely experts or practitioners in the field of education. In order for distance education to move on to a right direction and be competitive, scholars have to examine the issues of distance education from multiple perspectives and give proper advice to the policy makers.

**Chapter 9** 

© 2012 Oladokun, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

**Locational Dynamics Influencing the Information** 

The standard practice in any open and distance learning (ODL) progamme is the attraction of students from various locations – metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas, where they live or work. It is also not uncommon to have students drawn from across the border of the country where the distance institution is located. With only one public university operating limited distance education programmes, the space was wide open for the encroachment of a number of other trans-national or cross-border teaching institutions to operate their distance courses in Botswana. The operation of distance education in Botswana like any other country has ensured that learning cannot be restricted to any particular place or time, even as learners undertake their studies from various remote locations. While distance teaching institutions would expect the students to have access to some degree of information resources and services for the advancement of their programme, whether provision is adequately made for them is another matter. It then stands to reason the extent to which the home-based distance teaching institution in Botswana make provision for the library and information needs of its students. The issue may become compounded when cross-border education is involved. This study attempts to establish and provide a holistic understanding of the information environment where distance learners operate in Botswana. In other words, the study is undertaken to investigate the information environment under which distance learners and, or cross-

As distance learners go about their studies by distance mode in various scattered locations across the country, it is assumed that accessibility to appropriate information resources and services would reduce the effect of distance and isolation that can be experienced in this type of learning mode. This therefore brings about the idea of the information environment in which the distance learners operate. In this respect a number of questions can be raised:

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Environment of Distance Learners in Botswana** 

Olugbade Oladokun

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/48695

border students operate in Botswana.

**1. Introduction** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

#### **Author details**

Kumiko Aoki *The Open University of Japan, Chiba, Japan* 

#### **6. References**


## **Locational Dynamics Influencing the Information Environment of Distance Learners in Botswana**

Olugbade Oladokun

200 Distance Education

**Author details** 

*The Open University of Japan, Chiba, Japan* 

Technology (e-JIST). 2001;4(1):1-14.

Emerald Group Publishing; 2008.

learning. 1994:107-27.

1990;5(3):10-5.

London; 1989.

Kumiko Aoki

**6. References** 

Education is the area where the governmental policy significantly influences. However, the governmental leaders who are in charge of setting those policies are rarely experts or practitioners in the field of education. In order for distance education to move on to a right direction and be competitive, scholars have to examine the issues of distance education from

[1] Peters O. Distance education and industrial production: A comparative interpretation in outline (1973). Otto Peters on distance education: The industrialization of teaching and

[2] Moore M. Recent contributions to the theory of distance education. Open Learning.

[3] Garrison DR. Understanding distance education: A framework for the future: Routledge

[5] Taylor JC. Fifth generation distance education. e-Journal of Instructional Science and

[6] Anderson T, Dron J. Three generations of distance education pedagogy. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning. 2010;12(3):80-97. [7] Evans T, Haughey M, Murphy D. International handbook of distance education:

[4] Bates T. Technology, e-learning and distance education: RoutledgeFalmer; 2005.

multiple perspectives and give proper advice to the policy makers.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/48695

## **1. Introduction**

The standard practice in any open and distance learning (ODL) progamme is the attraction of students from various locations – metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas, where they live or work. It is also not uncommon to have students drawn from across the border of the country where the distance institution is located. With only one public university operating limited distance education programmes, the space was wide open for the encroachment of a number of other trans-national or cross-border teaching institutions to operate their distance courses in Botswana. The operation of distance education in Botswana like any other country has ensured that learning cannot be restricted to any particular place or time, even as learners undertake their studies from various remote locations. While distance teaching institutions would expect the students to have access to some degree of information resources and services for the advancement of their programme, whether provision is adequately made for them is another matter. It then stands to reason the extent to which the home-based distance teaching institution in Botswana make provision for the library and information needs of its students. The issue may become compounded when cross-border education is involved. This study attempts to establish and provide a holistic understanding of the information environment where distance learners operate in Botswana. In other words, the study is undertaken to investigate the information environment under which distance learners and, or crossborder students operate in Botswana.

As distance learners go about their studies by distance mode in various scattered locations across the country, it is assumed that accessibility to appropriate information resources and services would reduce the effect of distance and isolation that can be experienced in this type of learning mode. This therefore brings about the idea of the information environment in which the distance learners operate. In this respect a number of questions can be raised:

© 2012 Oladokun, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

what constitutes the information environment of distance learners in their remote locations? What are their information needs? What information resources and channels are available for them? How do they go about obtaining the required information and thus meeting their information needs even in their remote locations? How is their environment like in terms of available, accessible and reliable information services and infrastructures? While library may be a major source, it should be understood that information environment in this new age of information goes beyond the library. In any case a library may not be available everywhere the learners are located. What other sources of information are available and can be utilised in such locations? It is assumed there are other sources of information like the Internet, email, mass-media, etc. Indeed, there is a hybrid information environment capable of being utilised by distance learners irrespective of how far they may live from their institutions. While the (hybrid) information environment is considered, the issue of digital divide, which is capable of further marginalizing the "info-poor" particularly in Africa, cannot be overlooked.

Locational Dynamics Influencing the Information Environment of Distance Learners in Botswana 203

Library and information service has always been of great value in educational and research institutions as well as other environments where learning takes place. In a technological age, library and information service to distance learners cannot be limited to what is obtainable within the four walls of a physical library. Thus other sources and channels of information such as computer-mediated or electronic devices like the Internet and email, telephone, mass-media (radio and television), print materials and even friends or colleagues and lecturers are paramount to distance learners. In Botswana, apart from a sizeable number of government-owned libraries established all over the country including rural areas, the ICT policy of Government creates a conducive information environment for the people. Since 1998 when Botswana Government liberalized the telecommunications services in the country, a lot of development has been witnessed in communication industry. There has been the provision of mobile telephony service when licence was awarded to two private companies and later the third mobile telephony (license) issued to Botswana Telecommunication Corporation (BTC). An increasing growth to the sector was witnessed with the addition of other service providers such as the Internet service providers (ISPs), data service providers (DSPs) and private telecommunications networks (PTNs). Of course, there has also been the institution of Maitlamo National ICT policy in Botswana, which ensured that some giant steps were taken to implement the provision of ICTs across the country. The implementation of ICT policy is aiding the work of library, information service

This paper examines the information seeking behaviour of and information sources used by the distance learners of four tertiary level institutions in meeting their information needs in their various locations. It attempts to determine if the distance learners are well motivated in their various remote locations? Do the students receive adequate academic assistance to forestall high failure rates? Is the learning process of the cross-border distance teaching institutions appropriately developed to ensure the learning success of the ubiquitous learners in various locations in Botswana? How does the location of students affect meeting

The review of literature will revolve around the identified three main components of information environment with distance learning/learner as a denominator. The components include the information needs, information seeking behavior and information sources. Some attempts have been made to explain or substantiate on the information needs of distance learners. Taking a peep into the views of authors on the information needs of distance learners, in reference [3], the categorization of distance students information requirements comprises *Need for materials and facilities,* where distance learners need several kinds of materials such as reference books, texts books, journals, reports, self-instructional materials (SIMs) etc. They require various facilities, viz. library reading room as well as stack room space with proper display of documents. Second is *Need for information services*: such as bibliographic instruction for print and non-print materials; information about distance

and information dissemination in the country.

their information needs?

**2. Literature review** 

In reference [1] Joint Information Systems Committee of the United Kingdom observes that "the information environment of users should aim to allow discovery, access and use of resources for research and learning irrespective of a user's location". Information environment in this study is viewed as the type of environment which individuals interact with either for purposes of providing or obtaining information for use in day-today living or to perform a task. The task is seen as distance learning. Information environment can also refer to the context in which information is sourced, accessed, managed, utilised and generally made available for the use of people (distance learners) for various purposes. The components of the information environment include: the information needs, information seeking behaviour and information **sources**. How do distance learners being students in remote locations and far away distances from their institutions fair in relation to the above? Information support services are known to be part of higher education programmes that add to the value and quality of learning. Distance learners are known to suffer from failure, low pass rate and indeed, withdrawal from or discontinuance of participation in distance education. Part of the reasons for this is lack of adequate academic assistance. In a study cited in [2] some reasons are highlighted on students drop out at the United Kingdom Open University – a foremost distance teaching institution in the United Kingdom. It was established that two-thirds of those who had dropped out indicated lack of adequate academic assistance as one of the main reasons for dropping out. This paper believes that academic assistance can be found in making good information resources and library services available to distance learners, and that the absence of this vital academic assistance is envisaged as constituting part of the learners' dilemma. It is an established fact that there is a significant presence of a number of distance teaching institutions in Botswana offering variety of courses and programmes to people in the country. At variance with this is the seemingly perceived evidence of absence of quality information resources and services to enhance distance learners motivation, learning process and learning success in various locations that the students live.

Library and information service has always been of great value in educational and research institutions as well as other environments where learning takes place. In a technological age, library and information service to distance learners cannot be limited to what is obtainable within the four walls of a physical library. Thus other sources and channels of information such as computer-mediated or electronic devices like the Internet and email, telephone, mass-media (radio and television), print materials and even friends or colleagues and lecturers are paramount to distance learners. In Botswana, apart from a sizeable number of government-owned libraries established all over the country including rural areas, the ICT policy of Government creates a conducive information environment for the people. Since 1998 when Botswana Government liberalized the telecommunications services in the country, a lot of development has been witnessed in communication industry. There has been the provision of mobile telephony service when licence was awarded to two private companies and later the third mobile telephony (license) issued to Botswana Telecommunication Corporation (BTC). An increasing growth to the sector was witnessed with the addition of other service providers such as the Internet service providers (ISPs), data service providers (DSPs) and private telecommunications networks (PTNs). Of course, there has also been the institution of Maitlamo National ICT policy in Botswana, which ensured that some giant steps were taken to implement the provision of ICTs across the country. The implementation of ICT policy is aiding the work of library, information service and information dissemination in the country.

This paper examines the information seeking behaviour of and information sources used by the distance learners of four tertiary level institutions in meeting their information needs in their various locations. It attempts to determine if the distance learners are well motivated in their various remote locations? Do the students receive adequate academic assistance to forestall high failure rates? Is the learning process of the cross-border distance teaching institutions appropriately developed to ensure the learning success of the ubiquitous learners in various locations in Botswana? How does the location of students affect meeting their information needs?

## **2. Literature review**

202 Distance Education

cannot be overlooked.

locations that the students live.

what constitutes the information environment of distance learners in their remote locations? What are their information needs? What information resources and channels are available for them? How do they go about obtaining the required information and thus meeting their information needs even in their remote locations? How is their environment like in terms of available, accessible and reliable information services and infrastructures? While library may be a major source, it should be understood that information environment in this new age of information goes beyond the library. In any case a library may not be available everywhere the learners are located. What other sources of information are available and can be utilised in such locations? It is assumed there are other sources of information like the Internet, email, mass-media, etc. Indeed, there is a hybrid information environment capable of being utilised by distance learners irrespective of how far they may live from their institutions. While the (hybrid) information environment is considered, the issue of digital divide, which is capable of further marginalizing the "info-poor" particularly in Africa,

In reference [1] Joint Information Systems Committee of the United Kingdom observes that "the information environment of users should aim to allow discovery, access and use of resources for research and learning irrespective of a user's location". Information environment in this study is viewed as the type of environment which individuals interact with either for purposes of providing or obtaining information for use in day-today living or to perform a task. The task is seen as distance learning. Information environment can also refer to the context in which information is sourced, accessed, managed, utilised and generally made available for the use of people (distance learners) for various purposes. The components of the information environment include: the information needs, information seeking behaviour and information **sources**. How do distance learners being students in remote locations and far away distances from their institutions fair in relation to the above? Information support services are known to be part of higher education programmes that add to the value and quality of learning. Distance learners are known to suffer from failure, low pass rate and indeed, withdrawal from or discontinuance of participation in distance education. Part of the reasons for this is lack of adequate academic assistance. In a study cited in [2] some reasons are highlighted on students drop out at the United Kingdom Open University – a foremost distance teaching institution in the United Kingdom. It was established that two-thirds of those who had dropped out indicated lack of adequate academic assistance as one of the main reasons for dropping out. This paper believes that academic assistance can be found in making good information resources and library services available to distance learners, and that the absence of this vital academic assistance is envisaged as constituting part of the learners' dilemma. It is an established fact that there is a significant presence of a number of distance teaching institutions in Botswana offering variety of courses and programmes to people in the country. At variance with this is the seemingly perceived evidence of absence of quality information resources and services to enhance distance learners motivation, learning process and learning success in various

The review of literature will revolve around the identified three main components of information environment with distance learning/learner as a denominator. The components include the information needs, information seeking behavior and information sources. Some attempts have been made to explain or substantiate on the information needs of distance learners. Taking a peep into the views of authors on the information needs of distance learners, in reference [3], the categorization of distance students information requirements comprises *Need for materials and facilities,* where distance learners need several kinds of materials such as reference books, texts books, journals, reports, self-instructional materials (SIMs) etc. They require various facilities, viz. library reading room as well as stack room space with proper display of documents. Second is *Need for information services*: such as bibliographic instruction for print and non-print materials; information about distance learning agencies, and support services. Third has been defined as *Need for user services*: Distance learners also need professional guidance and support from the library staff about using library collection, using equipment and facilities available at the library. In another submission in [4], the following requirements are said to constitute the basic information needs of distance learners: access to adequate facilities; core collections; professional library staff; reserve reading collections; and supplementary materials. In another submission in reference [5], it was argued that distance learners generally need some of the following types of … information services, namely the loan of a specific book/reference book usually one referred to in their self instructional materials (SIMs); a photocopy of a specific journal article or single chapter of a book; a photocopy of previous examination papers for their course; information/ material on a particular subject; SIMs; viewing and listening to audiovisual materials; using the different type of library collection; and using equipment and facilities available. Also in [6] that details establishing and managing distance librarianship, the Commonwealth of Learning notes that the basic information services distance learners need are access to information resources, such as texts, supplementary reading and reference services; learning how to find the information they need from the information that is available and developing ways to apply the information gleaned and to make sound, information-based decisions.

Locational Dynamics Influencing the Information Environment of Distance Learners in Botswana 205

select a source for information when they do not have access to the main library of the sponsoring institution. In responding to the open-ended questions, there was evidence of huge reliance on the public library. It was noted that the frequency of selection of the public library probably reflects the fact that public libraries are more numerous and geographically accessible than academic libraries. Materials held at home are also very frequently used, indicating extensive home collections or the lack of time and/or library skills to search for materials. The inability of distance learners to have easy access to the main library of their institutions from various locations is seen as one of the major problems that gave rise to this study. Consequently, a number of research questions are drawn from this problem. These include: What information resources and services are available for the use of distance learners in their various remote locations in Botswana? What information sources/channels are (readily) available to distance learners in Botswana and how do they use the channels? Do they still have to travel long distances to have their library and information needs met?

The advent of the WWW/Internet, with its varied features, has universally added a new and profound dimension to the provision of open and distance learning (ODL) and information. It has demonstrated to be highly useful in bridging the distance between the school and its distance students and consequently altered the behaviour pattern of the students when seeking to meet their information needs. The key features of the WWW, which makes its application indispensable to the providers of open and distance education and information, are well articulated in [9]. These include: Information access, Interactive learning and Networked communication. Information access gives the description of materials that are used to deliver content. The key feature of the WWW documents that are primarily designed to carry information is that the materials and documents are usually electronic versions of existing paper-based information and courses. According to the author, the reasons for delivering such materials via the WWW appear to derive mainly from: Information accessibility, whereby teachers could post information that could be accessed by students across many locations; Reduced printing, which is possible when teachers provide electronic rather than printed documents for students; Information could be delivered in time, and teachers could post materials before lecture and workshop sessions for immediate access by students. The author notes that In an interactive learning environment it is possible to provide a series of documents rather than a page for students to read. This is done through the use of hyperlinks available on the WWW. Interactive learning is used in relation to WWW to describe application where feedback and responses are provided by technology in learning situations. Networked communication - The WWW, according to the author, supports and uses different forms of communication, which can be used in numerous ways in a student-centred learning environment. Some of these forms of communication are categorised as: E-mail enabling people to communicate directly with each other, and to send private or public messages to each other either in a one-to-one or one-to-many mode; Bulletin boards where information is posted for public viewing and their reactions or remarks invited; Chat sessions involving real-time text-based discussions between parties either privately and, or in public; Real-time online audio conferencing and

videoconferencing where two parties can see or hear each other during interaction.

Considering the information seeking behaviour element of the information environment of distance learners, it is perceived as the manner individuals articulate their information needs, search, recognize, retrieve and use information. It is the mode an individual goes about to search for the information he needs to perform a task at hand or meet his/her needs. In this process the information sources or channels are consulted. In this respect some empirical studies conducted on distance learners to establish their information seeking behaviour are considered. In a survey on information use among distance learners associated with Western Colorado Graduate Center in the US in reference [7], it was found that majority of the survey participants borrowed materials from local academic and local public libraries. The result also revealed that more than half of the students did not use the main campus (distance education provider) library. Response by 71 students revealed that 37% borrowed materials from distance education provider libraries, 69% used the local academic library, 73% used the local public library and 20% used other resources, such as a library consortia, professional library, or personal material and online resources. Reasons given for using what they used include: ease of use, location and resources, among others. In Botswana, public libraries are known to enjoy more widespread than academic libraries as they are sited in several villages, towns and cities. It is another issue if the public libraries stock useful and relevant tertiary level materials that could be used by the distance learners found in various locations across the country.

An investigation conducted in [8] attempted to establish the information seeking behaviour of students involved in distance education for San Jose State University in the US. The investigator advocates that if the information needs of distance education students are to be met, information practitioners/librarians must understand the way and manner students select a source for information when they do not have access to the main library of the sponsoring institution. In responding to the open-ended questions, there was evidence of huge reliance on the public library. It was noted that the frequency of selection of the public library probably reflects the fact that public libraries are more numerous and geographically accessible than academic libraries. Materials held at home are also very frequently used, indicating extensive home collections or the lack of time and/or library skills to search for materials. The inability of distance learners to have easy access to the main library of their institutions from various locations is seen as one of the major problems that gave rise to this study. Consequently, a number of research questions are drawn from this problem. These include: What information resources and services are available for the use of distance learners in their various remote locations in Botswana? What information sources/channels are (readily) available to distance learners in Botswana and how do they use the channels? Do they still have to travel long distances to have their library and information needs met?

204 Distance Education

information-based decisions.

found in various locations across the country.

learning agencies, and support services. Third has been defined as *Need for user services*: Distance learners also need professional guidance and support from the library staff about using library collection, using equipment and facilities available at the library. In another submission in [4], the following requirements are said to constitute the basic information needs of distance learners: access to adequate facilities; core collections; professional library staff; reserve reading collections; and supplementary materials. In another submission in reference [5], it was argued that distance learners generally need some of the following types of … information services, namely the loan of a specific book/reference book usually one referred to in their self instructional materials (SIMs); a photocopy of a specific journal article or single chapter of a book; a photocopy of previous examination papers for their course; information/ material on a particular subject; SIMs; viewing and listening to audiovisual materials; using the different type of library collection; and using equipment and facilities available. Also in [6] that details establishing and managing distance librarianship, the Commonwealth of Learning notes that the basic information services distance learners need are access to information resources, such as texts, supplementary reading and reference services; learning how to find the information they need from the information that is available and developing ways to apply the information gleaned and to make sound,

Considering the information seeking behaviour element of the information environment of distance learners, it is perceived as the manner individuals articulate their information needs, search, recognize, retrieve and use information. It is the mode an individual goes about to search for the information he needs to perform a task at hand or meet his/her needs. In this process the information sources or channels are consulted. In this respect some empirical studies conducted on distance learners to establish their information seeking behaviour are considered. In a survey on information use among distance learners associated with Western Colorado Graduate Center in the US in reference [7], it was found that majority of the survey participants borrowed materials from local academic and local public libraries. The result also revealed that more than half of the students did not use the main campus (distance education provider) library. Response by 71 students revealed that 37% borrowed materials from distance education provider libraries, 69% used the local academic library, 73% used the local public library and 20% used other resources, such as a library consortia, professional library, or personal material and online resources. Reasons given for using what they used include: ease of use, location and resources, among others. In Botswana, public libraries are known to enjoy more widespread than academic libraries as they are sited in several villages, towns and cities. It is another issue if the public libraries stock useful and relevant tertiary level materials that could be used by the distance learners

An investigation conducted in [8] attempted to establish the information seeking behaviour of students involved in distance education for San Jose State University in the US. The investigator advocates that if the information needs of distance education students are to be met, information practitioners/librarians must understand the way and manner students The advent of the WWW/Internet, with its varied features, has universally added a new and profound dimension to the provision of open and distance learning (ODL) and information. It has demonstrated to be highly useful in bridging the distance between the school and its distance students and consequently altered the behaviour pattern of the students when seeking to meet their information needs. The key features of the WWW, which makes its application indispensable to the providers of open and distance education and information, are well articulated in [9]. These include: Information access, Interactive learning and Networked communication. Information access gives the description of materials that are used to deliver content. The key feature of the WWW documents that are primarily designed to carry information is that the materials and documents are usually electronic versions of existing paper-based information and courses. According to the author, the reasons for delivering such materials via the WWW appear to derive mainly from: Information accessibility, whereby teachers could post information that could be accessed by students across many locations; Reduced printing, which is possible when teachers provide electronic rather than printed documents for students; Information could be delivered in time, and teachers could post materials before lecture and workshop sessions for immediate access by students. The author notes that In an interactive learning environment it is possible to provide a series of documents rather than a page for students to read. This is done through the use of hyperlinks available on the WWW. Interactive learning is used in relation to WWW to describe application where feedback and responses are provided by technology in learning situations. Networked communication - The WWW, according to the author, supports and uses different forms of communication, which can be used in numerous ways in a student-centred learning environment. Some of these forms of communication are categorised as: E-mail enabling people to communicate directly with each other, and to send private or public messages to each other either in a one-to-one or one-to-many mode; Bulletin boards where information is posted for public viewing and their reactions or remarks invited; Chat sessions involving real-time text-based discussions between parties either privately and, or in public; Real-time online audio conferencing and videoconferencing where two parties can see or hear each other during interaction.

It is noted from the above features that the WWW or the Internet is an asset and a valuable tool in an information environment. In the same manner as the Internet is useful in conveying education to its adherents in their various distance learning locations, so it is a veritable vehicle used to take library and information to the distance learners in their homes, offices and other locations they may be found. All the features of the WWW discussed, namely, information access, interactive learning and networked communication, are the needed characteristics that can effectively bridge the gap between the students and the information world. In reference [10] the belief was established that the "emerging technologies have opened more opportunities to vary medium and methods, leading to significant changes in the way distance learning can be accomplished". These changes are typical of what the application of the WWW or the Internet is out to accomplish. From developed to developing countries, literature is replete of the development of websites by various institutions, libraries, information and resource centres, where catalogues, full-text databases, e-books, e-journals etc. are made accessible to users from their remote locations.

Locational Dynamics Influencing the Information Environment of Distance Learners in Botswana 207

have physical access to original articles and journals. In deference to this, the distance service organises photocopies of all that is required subject to normal copyright regulations. A European perspective of library and information services to distance learners appears to have been added in [13]. In a paper on academic library services to non-traditional students in the UK, the author declares that enquiry services can be offered by post as is the practice at Northern College of Education in Aberdeen where students use "send me something on …". It was also noted that distance learners desire to have access to catalogues can be achieved by depositing a microform catalogues in local centres or by offering networked access via a modem. Performing an enquiry service for distance learners and sending results by post or by fax as obtained at Sheffield Hallam University library is another means. Promotion of library services to client groups through onsite visitations, correspondence, telephone access and library newsletter as obtained in many institutions in Europe (and America) is another method identified. Another means of providing access to materials in the distance students environment is by securing for them access to other academic libraries. The practice of sending book boxes to remote locations as practised in UK departments of continuing education is also recommended. The London Plus scheme and Dutch higher education system, which give all students the right to borrow from any academic library, are

In Africa the experience of library and information provision is probably a cause for concern. At the University of Nairobi, Kenya in reference [14] it is noted that the external (distance) degree students are entitled to the same facilities as other students. It is however noted with regret that this is only possible when the students are actually on campus during residential sessions. In order that they might use library facilities in their various locations, the students are to negotiate arrangements themselves to exploit all library resources located near them. A number of library facilities that the students could approach include the Kenya National Library Service, College libraries and British Council libraries. The reliance of the higher institution of learning on public library to provide support service to distance learners also manifests in the treatise. It is understood that the Kenya National Library Service is provided with a list of recommended reference books. Another researcher in [15] confirms the earlier report in his findings that the Faculty of Education of the University of Nairobi used part of the fees paid by the external students to buy essential books and distributed them to students. This procedure was soon discontinued as it proved unsustainable. The students are therefore encouraged to either buy their own books, borrow from public libraries, public university libraries or non-governmental institutions. At Kenyatta University, the study established that students had to visit the university library to access and borrow reading materials or make use of other relevant libraries in their locality. While some depressing picture is observed in the two institutions mentioned, a more encouraging scenario was found in the service to distance learners of African Virtual University (AVU). It was confirmed that AVU library has created a digital library consisting of e-journals, e-books and online archives to facilitate access to worldwide resources by students. Though the study confirms that all students obtain user identification, whether they are all able to access the facilities from their various locations as

good examples of this method.

and when required is another matter.

In a survey on distance learners at the University of Maryland University College (UMUC) in [11], the findings confirm other studies and observations suggesting that students prefer using online resources to physical library buildings and collections. In exploring some research questions about library and web usage, the investigators found that students ranked full-text library databases and off-campus access to the library catalog as the most useful library services provided. Respondents also indicated a preference for web-based delivery of library instruction over other methods of instruction, and found web-based information about library services more useful than other formats.

Possibly following the documented or oral guidelines at the University of Otago in reference [12], distance education in New Zealand was described as one of the most comprehensive, experienced and efficient systems in the world. It was revealed that the University Extension - distance education department, provides course materials required by the students, while the library remains a significant and extensive adjunct to students seeking further supportive literature or who have projects requiring in-depth bibliographies and referenced assignments. On the philosophy of the university on library service to distance learners, it was stated that the university takes the stance that students at a distance have full and equal right to access the more than 1.35 million volumes held in the various libraries located on the campus. The philosophy of maximizing library facilities to distance learners does not stop at books, but also includes access to journals – both abstracts and articles as well as recourse to a powerful national interlending network. The following challenges were noticed and dealt with at the University of Otago. First, *Time factors*: inequities are observed in loan periods as a result of handling and postal delays. In order to address this problem, the author says the library "automatically codes in an extended loan period to all students in a distance programme. Second, *Accessibility*: On-campus students have greater access to personal help and material within the framework of library operating hours. This disadvantage on the part of the distance learners was compensated for by being contactable via phone, fax, answering machine and mail. Third, *Photocopies*: off-campus students do not have physical access to original articles and journals. In deference to this, the distance service organises photocopies of all that is required subject to normal copyright regulations.

206 Distance Education

accessible to users from their remote locations.

information about library services more useful than other formats.

It is noted from the above features that the WWW or the Internet is an asset and a valuable tool in an information environment. In the same manner as the Internet is useful in conveying education to its adherents in their various distance learning locations, so it is a veritable vehicle used to take library and information to the distance learners in their homes, offices and other locations they may be found. All the features of the WWW discussed, namely, information access, interactive learning and networked communication, are the needed characteristics that can effectively bridge the gap between the students and the information world. In reference [10] the belief was established that the "emerging technologies have opened more opportunities to vary medium and methods, leading to significant changes in the way distance learning can be accomplished". These changes are typical of what the application of the WWW or the Internet is out to accomplish. From developed to developing countries, literature is replete of the development of websites by various institutions, libraries, information and resource centres, where catalogues, full-text databases, e-books, e-journals etc. are made

In a survey on distance learners at the University of Maryland University College (UMUC) in [11], the findings confirm other studies and observations suggesting that students prefer using online resources to physical library buildings and collections. In exploring some research questions about library and web usage, the investigators found that students ranked full-text library databases and off-campus access to the library catalog as the most useful library services provided. Respondents also indicated a preference for web-based delivery of library instruction over other methods of instruction, and found web-based

Possibly following the documented or oral guidelines at the University of Otago in reference [12], distance education in New Zealand was described as one of the most comprehensive, experienced and efficient systems in the world. It was revealed that the University Extension - distance education department, provides course materials required by the students, while the library remains a significant and extensive adjunct to students seeking further supportive literature or who have projects requiring in-depth bibliographies and referenced assignments. On the philosophy of the university on library service to distance learners, it was stated that the university takes the stance that students at a distance have full and equal right to access the more than 1.35 million volumes held in the various libraries located on the campus. The philosophy of maximizing library facilities to distance learners does not stop at books, but also includes access to journals – both abstracts and articles as well as recourse to a powerful national interlending network. The following challenges were noticed and dealt with at the University of Otago. First, *Time factors*: inequities are observed in loan periods as a result of handling and postal delays. In order to address this problem, the author says the library "automatically codes in an extended loan period to all students in a distance programme. Second, *Accessibility*: On-campus students have greater access to personal help and material within the framework of library operating hours. This disadvantage on the part of the distance learners was compensated for by being contactable via phone, fax, answering machine and mail. Third, *Photocopies*: off-campus students do not A European perspective of library and information services to distance learners appears to have been added in [13]. In a paper on academic library services to non-traditional students in the UK, the author declares that enquiry services can be offered by post as is the practice at Northern College of Education in Aberdeen where students use "send me something on …". It was also noted that distance learners desire to have access to catalogues can be achieved by depositing a microform catalogues in local centres or by offering networked access via a modem. Performing an enquiry service for distance learners and sending results by post or by fax as obtained at Sheffield Hallam University library is another means. Promotion of library services to client groups through onsite visitations, correspondence, telephone access and library newsletter as obtained in many institutions in Europe (and America) is another method identified. Another means of providing access to materials in the distance students environment is by securing for them access to other academic libraries. The practice of sending book boxes to remote locations as practised in UK departments of continuing education is also recommended. The London Plus scheme and Dutch higher education system, which give all students the right to borrow from any academic library, are good examples of this method.

In Africa the experience of library and information provision is probably a cause for concern. At the University of Nairobi, Kenya in reference [14] it is noted that the external (distance) degree students are entitled to the same facilities as other students. It is however noted with regret that this is only possible when the students are actually on campus during residential sessions. In order that they might use library facilities in their various locations, the students are to negotiate arrangements themselves to exploit all library resources located near them. A number of library facilities that the students could approach include the Kenya National Library Service, College libraries and British Council libraries. The reliance of the higher institution of learning on public library to provide support service to distance learners also manifests in the treatise. It is understood that the Kenya National Library Service is provided with a list of recommended reference books. Another researcher in [15] confirms the earlier report in his findings that the Faculty of Education of the University of Nairobi used part of the fees paid by the external students to buy essential books and distributed them to students. This procedure was soon discontinued as it proved unsustainable. The students are therefore encouraged to either buy their own books, borrow from public libraries, public university libraries or non-governmental institutions. At Kenyatta University, the study established that students had to visit the university library to access and borrow reading materials or make use of other relevant libraries in their locality. While some depressing picture is observed in the two institutions mentioned, a more encouraging scenario was found in the service to distance learners of African Virtual University (AVU). It was confirmed that AVU library has created a digital library consisting of e-journals, e-books and online archives to facilitate access to worldwide resources by students. Though the study confirms that all students obtain user identification, whether they are all able to access the facilities from their various locations as and when required is another matter.

Conversely, the care for the ODL students at Makere University, Uganda, leaves a lot to be desired. In a treatise in [16], student support was carefully outlined as referring to the culture of care accorded to students with the aim of ensuring that they accomplish their studies within the stipulated time. However, in what unquestionably can be regarded as a second rate service to a seemingly unwanted programme, the author asserts the consciousness of the authorities of Makerere University in not, among other support services, ensuring that all University service units provide all registered students on ODL programmes with access to libraries, computer laboratories, lecture rooms/theatres, laboratories and other learning resources. As if that position was not bad enough, the author reiterates that Makerere University does not also ensure that the University Library provides flexible policies and services unique to ODL learners at all ODL centres, for example longer borrowing periods.

Locational Dynamics Influencing the Information Environment of Distance Learners in Botswana 209

(72.5%) of respondents indicated that only some of their information needs were met. Only one respondent (1.3%) indicated that all his or her information needs were met, while another insignificant four respondents said that most of their information needs were met. Going by the established result, (χ2 = 103.500; *p* < 0.05), the considered view is that the library and information needs of the students in satellite campuses of the

Information sources or channels are the means used to transfer information to a target population or audience. These constitute one of the major components of information environment. In order to have access to the information needed or required, there are a number of possible channels, sources or resources that may be explored by distance learners. These channels/sources, among others, include the electronic databases and dial-in access to computer catalogues, remote or modem access to CD-ROM, emailing system, facsimile and telephone. Other information sources or channels that are generally open to distance learners include: radio and television, the Internet, the library, book store, lecturers

The problem of location is of paramount importance to the present study as it is assumed that those in urban areas might have greater opportunities to access ICTs and other information resource carriers than the rural dwellers. Thus far, the information and communication technologies (ICTs), for reasons of diversity of use, constitute one of the largest chunks of channels or sources through which distance learners may obtain their information needs. The ICTs have a central role to play because of their capacity to support teaching and learning process as well as assisting the dispensation of information services to

Research design for the study was both qualitative and quantitative and the method used was survey. The study was conducted on four distance teaching institutions that were firmly rooted in Botswana: one local (home-based), and three cross-border institutions. The local or home based institution was the University of Botswana (UB), the three crossborder institutions were the University of Derby (UD), the University of South Africa (UNISA), and the Management College of Southern Africa (MANCOSA). The empirical element of the study was conducted using the questionnaire as instrument. A 20% sample size was randomly selected from the University of Botswana and University of South Africa, the institutions with 500 or more students, while the census method was applied to the UD and MANCOSA, which had 100 or fewer students in Botswana. A total of 519 of 1,996 (total population) became the sample size. A total of 364 copies of the questionnaire were returned. This gave the response rate of 70.1%. Data abstracted were analysed using the *SPSS* programme. Cross-tabulations and chi-square, non-parametric statistical significance tests were developed to test the relationship of one variable to groupings of

University were not met. Hence, the hypothesis was accepted.

or tutors, peer group, friends or colleagues etc.

the distance learners in their virtual locations.

**3. Research methodology** 

others.

The information needs and information seeking behaviour of distance learners at the Institute of Extra-Mural Studies, Maseru in Lesotho was also reported in [17]. The researchers reported that living long distances from their institution, among others, has made distance learners depend on easily available sources of information such as colleagues, personal collections, co-workers and family members, which may not necessarily be the best sources of information to meet their needs. The case of the University of Botswana (UB) that operates a dual mode system was reported in [18]. Operating under the Customers and Extension service unit, the UB Library maintains a small collection of some recommended materials in some regional centres where the students meet for occasional residential sessions. The entire library collection is also accessible through an *opac* system. Whilst books, on request, can be posted to the students in their various locations, it is required of them (the learners) to pay for the return postage. Further, electronic databases provide references to periodical articles in a wide variety of subjects. It thus means that the students with access to the Internet can access some of these databases and indexes, to which the University of Botswana Library subscribes. Such databases include EbscoHost, Emerald and SA ePublications. Students are also taught information skills in the general education course (GEC) 121 and 122 to search electronic resources. In another study on UB reported in [19], it was revealed that significant numbers of distance learners did not have access to a telephone (38%), facsimile (78%), a computer (89%), email (92%), or the Internet (97%). While nine out of ten indicated a need for materials beyond course readings, almost half (48%) had not used a library, a quarter used the University Library, and a quarter visited a public library. It was recommended that the university library should go into collaborative partnership with branches of the public library spread all over the country, establish more branches of its own, and install computers with Internet access in the identified regional centres across the country. In another work [20], a hypothesis that the *library and information needs of the University of Botswana students in satellite (off) campuses are not significantly adequately met was tested.* Within the limit of the materials or resources available for their use, including public library facilities, the students were asked to indicate whether *all, most, some* or *none* of their information needs were met by the resources available. A significant majority (72.5%) of respondents indicated that only some of their information needs were met. Only one respondent (1.3%) indicated that all his or her information needs were met, while another insignificant four respondents said that most of their information needs were met. Going by the established result, (χ2 = 103.500; *p* < 0.05), the considered view is that the library and information needs of the students in satellite campuses of the University were not met. Hence, the hypothesis was accepted.

Information sources or channels are the means used to transfer information to a target population or audience. These constitute one of the major components of information environment. In order to have access to the information needed or required, there are a number of possible channels, sources or resources that may be explored by distance learners. These channels/sources, among others, include the electronic databases and dial-in access to computer catalogues, remote or modem access to CD-ROM, emailing system, facsimile and telephone. Other information sources or channels that are generally open to distance learners include: radio and television, the Internet, the library, book store, lecturers or tutors, peer group, friends or colleagues etc.

The problem of location is of paramount importance to the present study as it is assumed that those in urban areas might have greater opportunities to access ICTs and other information resource carriers than the rural dwellers. Thus far, the information and communication technologies (ICTs), for reasons of diversity of use, constitute one of the largest chunks of channels or sources through which distance learners may obtain their information needs. The ICTs have a central role to play because of their capacity to support teaching and learning process as well as assisting the dispensation of information services to the distance learners in their virtual locations.

## **3. Research methodology**

208 Distance Education

example longer borrowing periods.

Conversely, the care for the ODL students at Makere University, Uganda, leaves a lot to be desired. In a treatise in [16], student support was carefully outlined as referring to the culture of care accorded to students with the aim of ensuring that they accomplish their studies within the stipulated time. However, in what unquestionably can be regarded as a second rate service to a seemingly unwanted programme, the author asserts the consciousness of the authorities of Makerere University in not, among other support services, ensuring that all University service units provide all registered students on ODL programmes with access to libraries, computer laboratories, lecture rooms/theatres, laboratories and other learning resources. As if that position was not bad enough, the author reiterates that Makerere University does not also ensure that the University Library provides flexible policies and services unique to ODL learners at all ODL centres, for

The information needs and information seeking behaviour of distance learners at the Institute of Extra-Mural Studies, Maseru in Lesotho was also reported in [17]. The researchers reported that living long distances from their institution, among others, has made distance learners depend on easily available sources of information such as colleagues, personal collections, co-workers and family members, which may not necessarily be the best sources of information to meet their needs. The case of the University of Botswana (UB) that operates a dual mode system was reported in [18]. Operating under the Customers and Extension service unit, the UB Library maintains a small collection of some recommended materials in some regional centres where the students meet for occasional residential sessions. The entire library collection is also accessible through an *opac* system. Whilst books, on request, can be posted to the students in their various locations, it is required of them (the learners) to pay for the return postage. Further, electronic databases provide references to periodical articles in a wide variety of subjects. It thus means that the students with access to the Internet can access some of these databases and indexes, to which the University of Botswana Library subscribes. Such databases include EbscoHost, Emerald and SA ePublications. Students are also taught information skills in the general education course (GEC) 121 and 122 to search electronic resources. In another study on UB reported in [19], it was revealed that significant numbers of distance learners did not have access to a telephone (38%), facsimile (78%), a computer (89%), email (92%), or the Internet (97%). While nine out of ten indicated a need for materials beyond course readings, almost half (48%) had not used a library, a quarter used the University Library, and a quarter visited a public library. It was recommended that the university library should go into collaborative partnership with branches of the public library spread all over the country, establish more branches of its own, and install computers with Internet access in the identified regional centres across the country. In another work [20], a hypothesis that the *library and information needs of the University of Botswana students in satellite (off) campuses are not significantly adequately met was tested.* Within the limit of the materials or resources available for their use, including public library facilities, the students were asked to indicate whether *all, most, some* or *none* of their information needs were met by the resources available. A significant majority

Research design for the study was both qualitative and quantitative and the method used was survey. The study was conducted on four distance teaching institutions that were firmly rooted in Botswana: one local (home-based), and three cross-border institutions. The local or home based institution was the University of Botswana (UB), the three crossborder institutions were the University of Derby (UD), the University of South Africa (UNISA), and the Management College of Southern Africa (MANCOSA). The empirical element of the study was conducted using the questionnaire as instrument. A 20% sample size was randomly selected from the University of Botswana and University of South Africa, the institutions with 500 or more students, while the census method was applied to the UD and MANCOSA, which had 100 or fewer students in Botswana. A total of 519 of 1,996 (total population) became the sample size. A total of 364 copies of the questionnaire were returned. This gave the response rate of 70.1%. Data abstracted were analysed using the *SPSS* programme. Cross-tabulations and chi-square, non-parametric statistical significance tests were developed to test the relationship of one variable to groupings of others.

## **4. Findings**

## **4.1. Characteristics of respondents**

#### *4.1.1. Location*

The respondents significantly fall into different locations in terms of where they lived. Majority (225 or 61.8%) of the respondents lived in the city, 58 (15.9%) indicated they were living in towns and 81 (22.3%) respondents said they lived in villages. In other words, a total of 283 (225 and 58) or 77.7 percent respondents lived in metropolitan/urban areas which offer a much better and richer information environment and 81 (22.3%) of them lived in rural locations where information environment can be considered poor and cannot be favourably compared with those in urban areas. In crosstabulating gender with location, the result further shows that more females were also located in the city and town (considered as urban or metropolitan areas) as well as village (rural areas) than their male counterparts. Table 1 below gives further details.

Locational Dynamics Influencing the Information Environment of Distance Learners in Botswana 211

Arising from the objectives designed, five research questions were raised to provide some guidance and driving force for this study. The research questions are treated in this section with necessary allusion made to the objectives as deemed appropriate. For reasons of convenience, the object of discussion relating to the objectives of study is applied as the

The first objective of the study was to identify the information needs of the distance learners. As such, the objective generated the research question which asked: "*What are the information needs of distance learners in Botswana".* In addressing the question, some options were made available in the questionnaire for the respondents to choose from. From the reaction of respondents, it is obvious but not surprising to note that 'subjects relating to their course of study' was topmost in the area of their information needs. The option attracted 273 (75%) respondents. The thirst to acquire greater skill in the use of information and communication technologies e.g. the Internet, was seen as the second priority area. A total of 218 (60%) respondents indicated this option as an information need area. The remaining information need areas indicated by about half of respondents include information on Tests, examinations and residential sessions/periods (51.6%) and the Development of information

In trying to further ascertain the information needs of the distance learners, another question to determine the reasons the respondents would require information was raised. With the options provided, 283 (77.7%) respondents indicated they would require information to write assignment, 80 of them (22.0%) said 'no'. To study and prepare for test and examination, 273 (75%) responded in the affirmative, 90 of them (24.7%) in the negative. For coursework-related information needs, 244 (67%) respondents indicated 'yes', while 119 (32.7%) said 'no'. Another 152 (41.8%) indicated 'yes' to the option of borrowing books, whilst 211 or 58% indicated 'no'.

Figure 2 gives the breakdown of the 'yes' and 'no' responses of the respondents.

**Figure 1.** Respondents' social roles

searching skills (50.8 percent).

basis to compartmentalize the findings.


**Table 1.** Gender and **Location** Distribution of Study Sample: Crosstabulation

#### *4.1.2. Social role*

Distance education learners are usually involved in other major social roles, which is often one of the reasons why such learners opt for distance education. Distance learners may have full- or part-time jobs, or could be community leaders, (single) parents, etc. The responsibilities and circumstances of such roles might affect their access to and use of information resources either positively or negatively. The study therefore investigated the nature of the major social roles played by the respondents. Figure 1 shows the percentages of the respondents engaged in social roles. A total of 280 or 77% respondents indicated they were working and 203 (55.8%) were parents, and 24 (6.6%) were community leaders. The social roles of distance learners are capable of impacting on the time at their disposal to access and use information resources and services. A traditional full time student, for instance, would have more time to access and use information resources and services in an information-rich environment than a distance learner who is not only a part time (distance education) student, but also a full-time worker and, or a community leader who hardly lives in an information-rich environment.

**Figure 1.** Respondents' social roles

**4. Findings** 

*4.1.1. Location* 

*4.1.2. Social role* 

**4.1. Characteristics of respondents** 

Table 1 below gives further details.

in an information-rich environment.

The respondents significantly fall into different locations in terms of where they lived. Majority (225 or 61.8%) of the respondents lived in the city, 58 (15.9%) indicated they were living in towns and 81 (22.3%) respondents said they lived in villages. In other words, a total of 283 (225 and 58) or 77.7 percent respondents lived in metropolitan/urban areas which offer a much better and richer information environment and 81 (22.3%) of them lived in rural locations where information environment can be considered poor and cannot be favourably compared with those in urban areas. In crosstabulating gender with location, the result further shows that more females were also located in the city and town (considered as urban or metropolitan areas) as well as village (rural areas) than their male counterparts.

Gender Male Count 90(24.7%) 27(7.4%) 38(10.4%) 155(42.6%)

**Table 1.** Gender and **Location** Distribution of Study Sample: Crosstabulation

**Location** 

Female Count 135(37.1%) 31(8.5%) 43(11.8%) 209(57.4%)

Total Count 225(61.8%) 58(15.9% 81(22.3%) 364(100.0%)

Distance education learners are usually involved in other major social roles, which is often one of the reasons why such learners opt for distance education. Distance learners may have full- or part-time jobs, or could be community leaders, (single) parents, etc. The responsibilities and circumstances of such roles might affect their access to and use of information resources either positively or negatively. The study therefore investigated the nature of the major social roles played by the respondents. Figure 1 shows the percentages of the respondents engaged in social roles. A total of 280 or 77% respondents indicated they were working and 203 (55.8%) were parents, and 24 (6.6%) were community leaders. The social roles of distance learners are capable of impacting on the time at their disposal to access and use information resources and services. A traditional full time student, for instance, would have more time to access and use information resources and services in an information-rich environment than a distance learner who is not only a part time (distance education) student, but also a full-time worker and, or a community leader who hardly lives

**City Town Village Total** 

Arising from the objectives designed, five research questions were raised to provide some guidance and driving force for this study. The research questions are treated in this section with necessary allusion made to the objectives as deemed appropriate. For reasons of convenience, the object of discussion relating to the objectives of study is applied as the basis to compartmentalize the findings.

The first objective of the study was to identify the information needs of the distance learners. As such, the objective generated the research question which asked: "*What are the information needs of distance learners in Botswana".* In addressing the question, some options were made available in the questionnaire for the respondents to choose from. From the reaction of respondents, it is obvious but not surprising to note that 'subjects relating to their course of study' was topmost in the area of their information needs. The option attracted 273 (75%) respondents. The thirst to acquire greater skill in the use of information and communication technologies e.g. the Internet, was seen as the second priority area. A total of 218 (60%) respondents indicated this option as an information need area. The remaining information need areas indicated by about half of respondents include information on Tests, examinations and residential sessions/periods (51.6%) and the Development of information searching skills (50.8 percent).

In trying to further ascertain the information needs of the distance learners, another question to determine the reasons the respondents would require information was raised. With the options provided, 283 (77.7%) respondents indicated they would require information to write assignment, 80 of them (22.0%) said 'no'. To study and prepare for test and examination, 273 (75%) responded in the affirmative, 90 of them (24.7%) in the negative. For coursework-related information needs, 244 (67%) respondents indicated 'yes', while 119 (32.7%) said 'no'. Another 152 (41.8%) indicated 'yes' to the option of borrowing books, whilst 211 or 58% indicated 'no'. Figure 2 gives the breakdown of the 'yes' and 'no' responses of the respondents.

Locational Dynamics Influencing the Information Environment of Distance Learners in Botswana 213

Information needs area - Tests, examinations and residential sessions/periods

Expected Count **116.2**(51.6%) **108.8**(48.4%) 225.0 61.8

Expected Count **30.0**(51.7%) **28.0**(48.3%) 58.0 15.9

Expected Count **41.8**(51.6%) **39.2**(48.4%) 81.0 22.3

Expected Count **188.0**(51.6%) **176.0**(48.4%) 364.0 100.0

Town Observed Count **27**(46.6%) **31**(53.4%) 58 15.9

Village Observed Count **55**(67.9%) **26**(32.1%) 81 22.3

Total Observed Count **188**(51.6%) **176**(48.4%) 364 100

**Table 3.** Relationship between location and information needs - Tests, examinations and residential

Location City Observed Count **106**(47.1%) **119**(52.9%) 225 61.8

Yes No Total % of

Total

Table 3 shows the observed and expected counts in the cross-tabulation of the location and the information need area of doing "Tests, examinations and residential sessions. Comparison of the observed with the expected counts shows that the observed values are significantly different from the expected values. More respondents from the village (rural area) than expected indicated 'Yes' information on tests, examinations and residential sessions was a need area for them; whereas less respondents from the metropolitan areas (city and town) than expected said 'no' to information on tests, examination and residential sessions as a need area. The finding seems to suggest that respondents in the village are somewhat disadvantaged about information on tests, examinations and residential sessions than respondents in urban areas who have better access to information on the need area. Similarly, a comparison of the observed and the expected counts (in Table 4) shows that the expected values are significantly different from the observed values. While more respondents than expected in urban areas would say 'yes' to information-based decisions, less respondents than expected in the village would say 'yes'. This seems to corroborate the theory of 'information-rich and information-poor' and that, more often than not, possibly because they have easy accessibility to information, those in urban centres take information based decisions than

those in rural locations.

sessions/periods

Can the respondents' locations affect their information needs? An attempt was made to establish the relationships by cross-tabulating the variables and performing chi-square tests. Table 2 indicates that location was significantly related to information needs in the areas of "writing tests, examinations and doing residential sessions" (X2 = 11.026, df = 2, p < .05) and "making information-based decisions" (X2 = 6.867, df = 2, p < .05). No significant difference was found between the locations (urban and rural areas) in the other information needs areas.


**Table 2.** Relationship between Location and Information needs

Table 3 shows the observed and expected counts in the cross-tabulation of the location and the information need area of doing "Tests, examinations and residential sessions. Comparison of the observed with the expected counts shows that the observed values are significantly different from the expected values. More respondents from the village (rural area) than expected indicated 'Yes' information on tests, examinations and residential sessions was a need area for them; whereas less respondents from the metropolitan areas (city and town) than expected said 'no' to information on tests, examination and residential sessions as a need area. The finding seems to suggest that respondents in the village are somewhat disadvantaged about information on tests, examinations and residential sessions than respondents in urban areas who have better access to information on the need area. Similarly, a comparison of the observed and the expected counts (in Table 4) shows that the expected values are significantly different from the observed values. While more respondents than expected in urban areas would say 'yes' to information-based decisions, less respondents than expected in the village would say 'yes'. This seems to corroborate the theory of 'information-rich and information-poor' and that, more often than not, possibly because they have easy accessibility to information, those in urban centres take information based decisions than those in rural locations.

212 Distance Education

**Figure 2.** Reasons to require information

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Subjects relating to their

Tests, examinations and

Development of information

Can the respondents' locations affect their information needs? An attempt was made to establish the relationships by cross-tabulating the variables and performing chi-square tests. Table 2 indicates that location was significantly related to information needs in the areas of "writing tests, examinations and doing residential sessions" (X2 = 11.026, df = 2, p < .05) and "making information-based decisions" (X2 = 6.867, df = 2, p < .05). No significant difference was found between the locations (urban and rural areas) in the other information needs areas.

work

course of study 2.315 2 .314 Not significant

search skills .727 2 .695 Not significant

Use of ICT 1.296 2 .523 Not significant Need for specialized info 4.986 2 .083 Not significant Access to a help line 1.261 2 .532 Not significant Making info based decisions 6.867 2 .032 Significant Others 4.650 4 .325 Not significant

residential sessions/periods 11.026 2 .004 Significant

**(2-sided)** 

Borrowing books

**Remark** 

Yes No

**Information Needs Areas Chi-square Df Asymp. Sig.** 

Assignment Test prep Course

**Table 2.** Relationship between Location and Information needs


**Table 3.** Relationship between location and information needs - Tests, examinations and residential sessions/periods


Locational Dynamics Influencing the Information Environment of Distance Learners in Botswana 215

How info is obtained - I use internet

Expected Count **147.1**(65.4%) **77.9**(34.6%) 225.0 61.8

Expected Count **37.9**(65.3%) **20.1**(34.7%) 58.0 15.9

Expected Count **53.0**(65.4%) **28.0**(34.6%) 81.0 22.3

Expected Count **238.0**(65.4%) **126.0**(34.6%) 364.0 100.0

Town Observed Count **40**(69%) **18**(31%) 58 15.9

Village Observed Count **41**(50.6%) **40**(49.4%) 81 22.3

Total Observed Count **238**(65.4%) **126**(34.6%) 364 100

The second objective of the study was to determine how the information needs of distance learners are met. Consequently, the second research question was formulated. *How do distance learners meet their information needs?* In addressing the question, some questions were raised.

In their response to how they obtained the information needed to prepare their assignment, test or examination etc, majority of them (341) constituting 93.7% indicated that they used their modules and study packages. The use of the Internet came a distant second with 238 respondents (65.4%). This was followed by "I discuss with colleagues" option with 229 respondents (62.9 percent) subscribing to it. Other options used to obtain information needed to prepare their assignment etc include: asking for assistance from expert or knowledgeable people 41.8% (n = 152); approaching the coordinator or agent of the institution 19.8% (n = 72); listening to radio/television 14.3% (n = 52); and speaking to or writing subject librarian 8.8% (n = 32). While Figure 3 provides at a glance details of the responses, it is important to note that 8 respondents specified 'Others' in their responses. Five of them indicated they would borrow books from the library or from past and present students, 2 said they would buy prescribed books and 1 respondent said he/she obtained

Yes No Total % of

Total

respondents than expected said 'yes' to using the Internet in the village (rural areas), whereas in the city/town (urban areas) more respondents than expected said 'yes'. It is therefore concluded that a significant relationship exists between location and use of the Internet as a means of obtaining information. The finding seems to confirm that urban

Location City Observed Count **157**(69.8%) **68**(30.2%) 225 61.8

dwellers use and have better access to the Internet than rural-based people.

**Table 6.** Location of distance l earners \* How info is obtained - I use internet

information needed "through email to and from the lecturer".


The study also attempted to check if the location of distance learners has any relationship with how the respondents obtained information using such sources like modules, colleagues, experts, internet, subject librarian, radio/television and coordinator. Respondents' locations and information sources were cross-tabulated and Chi-square tests were performed on the cross-tabulations. Table 5 shows that location was significantly related only to the use of the Internet as an information source (X2 = 10.052, df = 2, p <.05). No significant difference was found between the location and the remaining information sources.


**Table 5.** Relationship between Location and how information is obtained by respondents

Table 6 shows the expected and observed counts in the cross-tabulation of Location and the use of the Internet to obtain information. The expected counts in the cells of the table are based on the assumption that the row (Location) and the column (Information source: how I obtained information) variables do not depend on one another (i.e. have no relationships between them). Comparison of the observed with the expected counts indicates that the observed values are significantly different from the expected values, and that less respondents than expected said 'yes' to using the Internet in the village (rural areas), whereas in the city/town (urban areas) more respondents than expected said 'yes'. It is therefore concluded that a significant relationship exists between location and use of the Internet as a means of obtaining information. The finding seems to confirm that urban dwellers use and have better access to the Internet than rural-based people.

214 Distance Education

sources.

**How information is** 

I speaks/write subject

Information needs area - Making info based decisions

Expected Count **70.5**(31.3%) **154.5(**68.7%) 225.0 61.8

Expected Count **18.2**(31.4%) **39.8**(68.6%) 58.0 15.9

Expected Count **25.4**(31.4%) **55.6**(68.6%) 81.0 22.3

Expected Count **114.0**(31.3%) **250.0**(68.7%) 364.0 100.0

Town Observed Count **25**(43.1%) **33**(56.9%) 58 15.9

Village Observed Count **18**(22.2%) **63**(77.8%) 81 22.3

Total Observed Count **114**(31.3%) **250**(68.7%) 364 100

**Table 4.** Relationship between Location and Information needs: Making info based decisions

**obtained Chi-square Df Asymp.** 

The study also attempted to check if the location of distance learners has any relationship with how the respondents obtained information using such sources like modules, colleagues, experts, internet, subject librarian, radio/television and coordinator. Respondents' locations and information sources were cross-tabulated and Chi-square tests were performed on the cross-tabulations. Table 5 shows that location was significantly related only to the use of the Internet as an information source (X2 = 10.052, df = 2, p <.05). No significant difference was found between the location and the remaining information

I use my modules .784 2 .676 Not significant I discuss with colleagues 1.004 2 .605 Not significant Ask for assist from expert .127 2 .938 Not significant I use Internet 10.052 2 .007 Significant

librarian 3.312 2 .191 Not significant I listen to radio/television .444 2 .801 Not significant I approach coordinator .118 2 .943 Not Significant

Table 6 shows the expected and observed counts in the cross-tabulation of Location and the use of the Internet to obtain information. The expected counts in the cells of the table are based on the assumption that the row (Location) and the column (Information source: how I obtained information) variables do not depend on one another (i.e. have no relationships between them). Comparison of the observed with the expected counts indicates that the observed values are significantly different from the expected values, and that less

**Table 5.** Relationship between Location and how information is obtained by respondents

Location City Observed Count **71**(31.6%) **154**(68.4%) 225 61.8

Yes No Total % of

**Sig. (2-sided) Remark** 

Total


**Table 6.** Location of distance l earners \* How info is obtained - I use internet

The second objective of the study was to determine how the information needs of distance learners are met. Consequently, the second research question was formulated. *How do distance learners meet their information needs?* In addressing the question, some questions were raised.

In their response to how they obtained the information needed to prepare their assignment, test or examination etc, majority of them (341) constituting 93.7% indicated that they used their modules and study packages. The use of the Internet came a distant second with 238 respondents (65.4%). This was followed by "I discuss with colleagues" option with 229 respondents (62.9 percent) subscribing to it. Other options used to obtain information needed to prepare their assignment etc include: asking for assistance from expert or knowledgeable people 41.8% (n = 152); approaching the coordinator or agent of the institution 19.8% (n = 72); listening to radio/television 14.3% (n = 52); and speaking to or writing subject librarian 8.8% (n = 32). While Figure 3 provides at a glance details of the responses, it is important to note that 8 respondents specified 'Others' in their responses. Five of them indicated they would borrow books from the library or from past and present students, 2 said they would buy prescribed books and 1 respondent said he/she obtained information needed "through email to and from the lecturer".

Locational Dynamics Influencing the Information Environment of Distance Learners in Botswana 217

51.6

18.7

P e rc en ta g e

27.7

(2-sided) Remark

W ebCT U n iv L ib C o o rd

C o lle a g u e s

P u b lib O n lin e

In te rn e t R a d io /TV

E -m a il None

**Figure 4.** Satisfying Information Sources

57.4

16.8

31.9 6.1

Info sources satisfying needs - Chi-square Df Asymp. Sig.

27.5 37.1 28.8

 WebCT .171 2 .918 Not Significant Univ Library 10.778 2 .005 Significant Coordinator .296 2 .862 Not significant Colleagues 1.112 2 .573 Not Significant Public Library 5.826 6 .443 Not Significant Online databases/sources 4.359 2 .113 Not significant Internet 8.933 2 .011 Significant Radio/Television .764 2 .683 Not Significant Email 1.928 2 .381 Not significant **Table 7.** Relationship between Location and information sources satisfying needs of respondents

Tables 8 and 9 show the expected and observed counts in the cross-tabulation of Location and the use of the University Library and the Internet as sources of information that satisfy the information needs of distance learners in Botswana. The expected counts in the cells of the table are based on the assumption that the row (Location) and the column (Information sources that satisfy needs) variables do not depend on one another (i.e. are not associated with one another). Comparison of the observed with the expected counts indicates that the observed values are significantly different from the expected values, and that less respondents than expected in town and village said 'yes' to the University Library as an information source was satisfying to their information needs. By contrast, more respondents than expected in the city said 'yes'. The conclusion therefore is that there is a significant relationship between location and use of the University Library as a satisfying information source. The finding seems to be in tandem with the reality that the university library has

**Figure 3.** Meeting Information Needs

In yet another bid to determine how distance learners meet and satisfy their information needs, another question raised was to determine which of the information sources used satisfied their information needs. From the reaction of the respondents, the information source that satisfied majority of distance learners was the Internet (57.4%). This was followed by the University (of Botswana) Library (51.6%). Other information sources that satisfied them include Colleagues (37.1%); E-mail (31.9%); online databases/sources (28.8%); WebCT (27.7%); Public Library (27.5%); Coordinators (18.7%); Radio/TV (16.8%) and 'None' (those that indicated no information source satisfied their information needs) (6.1%). Other information sources which some respondents indicated satisfied their needs include books/modules/study guide (n = 3); tutors (n = 1) and past question papers (n = 1). Figure 4 gives further details.

It has been said that distance learners are ubiquitous students. They are found both in the rural as well as urban areas. The relationships between these locations where they live and each of the information sources that satisfied their needs were cross-tabulated and Chisquare tests performed on the cross-tabulations. Table 7 shows that location was significantly related only to the University Library (X2 = 10.778, df = 2, p <.05) and the Internet (X2 = 8.933, df = 2, p <.05) as satisfying sources of information.

**Figure 4.** Satisfying Information Sources

93.7

63

41.8

**Figure 3.** Meeting Information Needs

gives further details.

In yet another bid to determine how distance learners meet and satisfy their information needs, another question raised was to determine which of the information sources used satisfied their information needs. From the reaction of the respondents, the information source that satisfied majority of distance learners was the Internet (57.4%). This was followed by the University (of Botswana) Library (51.6%). Other information sources that satisfied them include Colleagues (37.1%); E-mail (31.9%); online databases/sources (28.8%); WebCT (27.7%); Public Library (27.5%); Coordinators (18.7%); Radio/TV (16.8%) and 'None' (those that indicated no information source satisfied their information needs) (6.1%). Other information sources which some respondents indicated satisfied their needs include books/modules/study guide (n = 3); tutors (n = 1) and past question papers (n = 1). Figure 4

Modules Colleagues Assistance Internet Coordinator Library Radio

65.4

Percentages

19.8

8.8

14.3

It has been said that distance learners are ubiquitous students. They are found both in the rural as well as urban areas. The relationships between these locations where they live and each of the information sources that satisfied their needs were cross-tabulated and Chisquare tests performed on the cross-tabulations. Table 7 shows that location was significantly related only to the University Library (X2 = 10.778, df = 2, p <.05) and the

Internet (X2 = 8.933, df = 2, p <.05) as satisfying sources of information.


**Table 7.** Relationship between Location and information sources satisfying needs of respondents

Tables 8 and 9 show the expected and observed counts in the cross-tabulation of Location and the use of the University Library and the Internet as sources of information that satisfy the information needs of distance learners in Botswana. The expected counts in the cells of the table are based on the assumption that the row (Location) and the column (Information sources that satisfy needs) variables do not depend on one another (i.e. are not associated with one another). Comparison of the observed with the expected counts indicates that the observed values are significantly different from the expected values, and that less respondents than expected in town and village said 'yes' to the University Library as an information source was satisfying to their information needs. By contrast, more respondents than expected in the city said 'yes'. The conclusion therefore is that there is a significant relationship between location and use of the University Library as a satisfying information source. The finding seems to be in tandem with the reality that the university library has presence and effect in the two cities in Botswana where it is located and that the towns and villages feel the impact of the absence of the university library. The same impact is observed in the city as well as in the towns and villages on the use of the Internet as a satisfying information source. It is noted in Table 9 that more respondents than expected in the city said 'yes' to the Internet as satisfying their information needs, while in town and village, less respondents than expected said yes. This serves to confirm that Internet facilities are more available and possibly cheaper and easily accessible in the city than in town and village in Botswana.

Locational Dynamics Influencing the Information Environment of Distance Learners in Botswana 219

**Most Preferred info format** Total Location

Visual X2 Sig.

In order to determine the extent to which the information needs of distance learners are met, a question was raised for them to indicate whether all, most, some or none of their information needs were met by the resources available to them. Unfortunately, only 17 respondents (4.7%) indicated that *all* their information needs were met. Only about one third of the respondents 121 representing 33.2% indicated that *most* of their information needs were met. Majority of them 59.1% (n = 215) said only *some* of their information needs were met, while 11 (3.0%) said *none* of their information needs were met. The result of a crosstabulation with location of respondents reveals X2 = 24.055: p < 0.05. With the established result, the position is that the information needs of the distance learners in Botswana are

The third objective of the study aimed at exploring the information resources and services available to distance learners in Botswana. Thus the third research question "W*hat information resources and services are available to distance learners in Botswana?"* was raised to address the objective. In order to elicit information and respond to the issue, some questions were put across to the respondents. First, they were asked their preferred information format from three options of *print*, *electronic* and *audio visual* that were presented to them. The result showed that majority of them 216 (59.3%) would prefer print format, 123 respondents (33.7%) preferred electronic and 24 (6.6%) audio-visual. The findings here would hopefully shed light on the information format the distance learners desired. Table 10 shows the significance level of X2 value was 0.021 which is less than 0.05. It then means that the distance learners in Botswana significantly have preferred information format from the

Print Electronic Audio

Town 27 26 5 58

Village 60 17 4 81

Total 216 123 24 363

**Table 10.** Location and Most Preferred information format

Location City 129 80 15 224 11.610 .021

Second, the respondents were asked to authenticate the available information resources in their location from the list made available to them. In the event that the list was not exhaustive, provision was made for them to add to the list. From all indications, the majority of the respondents (76%) indicated that the Internet was available in their locations. Apart from the Internet, only 3 other information resources were regrettably said to be available by half or more of the total respondents. These include email (60.9%), radio/television (59.6%);

59.7% 65.0% 62.5% 61.7%

12.5% 21.1% 20.8% 16.0%

27.8% 13.8% 16.7% 22.3%

three available choices (print, electronic and Audio-visual formats).

significantly unmet.

p < 0.05


**Table 8.** Relationship between Location of respondents and Info sources that satisfy their needs - Univ Library


**Table 9.** Relationship between Location of respondents and Info sources that satisfy their needs - Internet

In order to determine the extent to which the information needs of distance learners are met, a question was raised for them to indicate whether all, most, some or none of their information needs were met by the resources available to them. Unfortunately, only 17 respondents (4.7%) indicated that *all* their information needs were met. Only about one third of the respondents 121 representing 33.2% indicated that *most* of their information needs were met. Majority of them 59.1% (n = 215) said only *some* of their information needs were met, while 11 (3.0%) said *none* of their information needs were met. The result of a crosstabulation with location of respondents reveals X2 = 24.055: p < 0.05. With the established result, the position is that the information needs of the distance learners in Botswana are significantly unmet.

The third objective of the study aimed at exploring the information resources and services available to distance learners in Botswana. Thus the third research question "W*hat information resources and services are available to distance learners in Botswana?"* was raised to address the objective. In order to elicit information and respond to the issue, some questions were put across to the respondents. First, they were asked their preferred information format from three options of *print*, *electronic* and *audio visual* that were presented to them. The result showed that majority of them 216 (59.3%) would prefer print format, 123 respondents (33.7%) preferred electronic and 24 (6.6%) audio-visual. The findings here would hopefully shed light on the information format the distance learners desired. Table 10 shows the significance level of X2 value was 0.021 which is less than 0.05. It then means that the distance learners in Botswana significantly have preferred information format from the three available choices (print, electronic and Audio-visual formats).


p < 0.05

218 Distance Education

Botswana.

Library

Internet

presence and effect in the two cities in Botswana where it is located and that the towns and villages feel the impact of the absence of the university library. The same impact is observed in the city as well as in the towns and villages on the use of the Internet as a satisfying information source. It is noted in Table 9 that more respondents than expected in the city said 'yes' to the Internet as satisfying their information needs, while in town and village, less respondents than expected said yes. This serves to confirm that Internet facilities are more available and possibly cheaper and easily accessible in the city than in town and village in

Location City Observed Count **131**(58.2%) **94**(41.8%) 225 61.8

Info sources satisfying needs – Univ. Library

Expected Count **116.2**(51.6%) **108.8**(48.4%) 225.0 61.8

Expected Count **30.0**(51.7%) **28.0**(48.3%) 58.0 15.9

Expected Count **41.8**(51.6%) **39.2**(48.4%) 81.0 22.3

Expected Count **188.0**(51.6%) **176.0**(48.4%) 364.0 100.0

Info sources satisfying needs - Internet

Expected Count **129.2**(57.4%) **95.8**(42.6%) 225.0 61.8

Expected Count **33.3**(57.4%) **24.7**(42.6%) 58.0 15.9

Expected Count **46.5**(57.4%) **34.5**(42.6%) 81.0 22.3

Expected Count **209.0**(57.4%) **155.0**(42.6%) 364.0 100.0

Town Observed Count **31**(53.4%) **27**(43.4%) 58 15.9

Village Observed Count **36**(44.4%) **45**(55.6%) 81 22.3

Total Observed Count **209**(57.4%) **155**(42.6%) 364 100

**Table 9.** Relationship between Location of respondents and Info sources that satisfy their needs -

Town Observed Count **26**(44.8%) **32**(55.2%) 58 15.9

Village Observed Count **31**(38.3%) **50**(61.7%) 81 22.3

Total Observed Count **188**(51.6%) **176**(48.4%) 364 100

**Table 8.** Relationship between Location of respondents and Info sources that satisfy their needs - Univ

Location City Observed Count **142**(63.1%) **83**(36.9%) 225 61.8

Yes No Total % of

Yes No Total % of

Total

Total

**Table 10.** Location and Most Preferred information format

Second, the respondents were asked to authenticate the available information resources in their location from the list made available to them. In the event that the list was not exhaustive, provision was made for them to add to the list. From all indications, the majority of the respondents (76%) indicated that the Internet was available in their locations. Apart from the Internet, only 3 other information resources were regrettably said to be available by half or more of the total respondents. These include email (60.9%), radio/television (59.6%); telephone (59.2%); In a descending order, other resources said to be available to respondents in their locations include photocopying (47.4%); Library resources (47.1%); Web search materials (38.8%); catalogue (28.4%); Reference (27.8%) and Lecturer (26.4%). The remaining resources are as shown in Figure 5 below. In addition, 35 other respondents indicated 'other' resources available in their locations. Such resources comprise the libraries of some institutions ranging from BIAC, Bank of Botswana, British Council, and Company to Hospital Libraries. Other libraries that are said to be available include IDM, BNPC, IHS and UNDP Libraries, Maun and other Technical College libraries, MANCOSA online library, as well as 'office' and village libraries.

Locational Dynamics Influencing the Information Environment of Distance Learners in Botswana 221

**(2-sided) Remark** 

Total

**Information Resources Chi-square Df Asymp. Sig.** 

**Table 11.** Relationship between Location and available information resources

Table 12 to Table 18 below reveal the expected and observed counts in the cross-tabulation of location and the available information resources as lecturer, course coordinator, Government publications, Internet, email, web search materials and library resources.

Resources available - Lecturer

Yes No Total % of

Location City Observed Count **70**(31.1%) **155**(68.9%) 225 61.8 Expected Count **59.5**(26.4%) **165.5**(73.6%) 225.0 61.8 Town Observed Count **10**(17.2%) **48**(82.8%) 58 15.9 Expected Count **15.3**(26.4%) **42.7**(73.6%) 58.0 15.9

Total Observed Count **96**(26.4%) **267**(73.6%) 363 100 Expected Count **96.0**(26.4%) **267.0**(73.6%) 363.0 100.0

**Table 12.** Location and Resources available (Lecturer)

Village Observed Count **16**(20%) **64**(80%) 80 22.0

Expected Count **21.2**(26.5%) **58.8**(73.5%) 80.0 22.0

 Radio/Television .170 2 .919 Not significant Reference .858 2 .651 Not significant Lecturer 6.752 2 .034 Significant Course Coordinators 6.746 2 .034 Significant Online catalogue 8.812 6 .184 Not Significant Government publications 13.697 4 .008 Significant Microfiche/microfilm 2.956 2 .228 Not significant Internet 19.885 2 .000 Significant Email 14.718 2 .001 Significant Telephone 3.448 4 .486 Not significant Photocopying 3.068 2 .216 Not significant Check out (book) materials 3.069 2 .216 Not significant Web search materials 7.891 2 .019 Significant Library resources 15.512 2 .000 Significant

**Figure 5.** Available Resources at Locations

The relationships between location and each of the major information resources available to the respondents were cross-tabulated and Chi-square tests were performed on the crosstabulations. Table 11 shows that location was significantly related to a few of available information resources including the: lecturer (X2 = 6.752, df = 2, p <.05); Course Coordinator (X2 = 6.746, df = 2, p <.05); Government Publications (X2 = 13.697, df = 2, p <.05); Internet (X2 = 19.885, df = 2, p <.05); Email (X2 = 14.718, df = 2, p <.05) and Library resources (X2 = 15.512, df = 1, p <.05).


**Table 11.** Relationship between Location and available information resources

220 Distance Education

well as 'office' and village libraries.

**Figure 5.** Available Resources at Locations

59.2

38.8

47.4

26.2

= 1, p <.05).

telephone (59.2%); In a descending order, other resources said to be available to respondents in their locations include photocopying (47.4%); Library resources (47.1%); Web search materials (38.8%); catalogue (28.4%); Reference (27.8%) and Lecturer (26.4%). The remaining resources are as shown in Figure 5 below. In addition, 35 other respondents indicated 'other' resources available in their locations. Such resources comprise the libraries of some institutions ranging from BIAC, Bank of Botswana, British Council, and Company to Hospital Libraries. Other libraries that are said to be available include IDM, BNPC, IHS and UNDP Libraries, Maun and other Technical College libraries, MANCOSA online library, as

P e rc e n ta g e

59.6

60.9 7 6

47.1

27.8

26.4

23.1

R a d io /TV

R e fe re n c e

C o o rd in a to r

C a ta lo g u e

G o vt. p u b l

M ic ro film

In te rn e t

E -m a il

B ooks

Te le p h o n e

P h o to c o p y in g

W e b s e a rc h m a te ria ls L ib re s o u rc e s

L e c tu re r

28.4

23.1

18.2

The relationships between location and each of the major information resources available to the respondents were cross-tabulated and Chi-square tests were performed on the crosstabulations. Table 11 shows that location was significantly related to a few of available information resources including the: lecturer (X2 = 6.752, df = 2, p <.05); Course Coordinator (X2 = 6.746, df = 2, p <.05); Government Publications (X2 = 13.697, df = 2, p <.05); Internet (X2 = 19.885, df = 2, p <.05); Email (X2 = 14.718, df = 2, p <.05) and Library resources (X2 = 15.512, df Table 12 to Table 18 below reveal the expected and observed counts in the cross-tabulation of location and the available information resources as lecturer, course coordinator, Government publications, Internet, email, web search materials and library resources.


**Table 12.** Location and Resources available (Lecturer)


Locational Dynamics Influencing the Information Environment of Distance Learners in Botswana 223

Location City Observed Count **150**(66.7%) **75**(33.3%) 225 61.8

Resources available – E-mail

Expected Count **137.0**(60.9%) **88.0**(39.1%) 225.0 61.8

Expected Count **35.3**(60.9%) **22.7**(39.1%) 58.0 15.9

Expected Count **48.7**(60.9%) **31.3**(39.1%) 80.0 22.0

Expected Count **221.0**(60.9%) **142.0**(39.1%) 363.0 100.0

Resources available - Web search materials

Expected Count **87.4**(38.8%) **137.6**(61.2%) 225.0 61.8

Expected Count **22.5**(38.8%) **35.5**(61.2%) 58.0 15.9

Expected Count **31.1**(38.9%) **48.9**(61.1%) 80.0 22.0

Expected Count **141.0(**38.8%) **222.0**(61.2%) 363.0 100.0

Resources available - Library resources

Expected Count **106.0**(47.1%) **119.0**(52.9%) 225.0 61.8

Expected Count **27.3**(47.1%) **30.7**(52.9%) 58.0 15.9

Expected Count **37.7**(47.1%) **42.3**(52.9%) 80.0 22.0

Expected Count **171.0**(47.1%) **192.0**(52.9%) 363.0 100.0

Town Observed Count **26**(44.8%) **32**(55.2%) 58 15.9

Village Observed Count **23**(28.8%) **57**(71.2%) 80 22

Total Observed Count **171**(47.1%) **192**(52.9%) 363 100

Town Count **18**(31%) **40**(69%) 58 15.9

Village Count **23**(28.8%) **57**(71.2%) 80 22

Total Count **141(**38.8%) **222**(61.2%) 363 100

Location City Observed Count **122**(54.2%) **103**(45.8%) 225 61.8

Town Observed Count **37**(63.8%) **21**(36.2%) 58 15.9

Village Observed Count **34**(42.5%) **46**(57.5%) 80 22

Total Observed Count **221**(60.9%) **142**(39.1%) 363 100

Location City Count **100**(44.4%) **125**(55.6%) 225 61.8

**Table 16.** Location and Resources available (E-mail)

**Table 17.** Location and Resources available (Web search materials)

**Table 18.** Location and Resources available (Library resources)

Yes No Total % of

Yes No Total % of

Yes No Total % of

Total

Total

Total

**Table 13.** Location and Resources available (Course coordinator)


**Table 14.** Location and Resources available (Government publications)


**Table 15.** Location and Resources available (Internet)


**Table 16.** Location and Resources available (E-mail)

222 Distance Education

**Table 13.** Location and Resources available (Course coordinator)

**Table 14.** Location and Resources available (Government publications)

**Table 15.** Location and Resources available (Internet)

Resources available - Course coordinator

> % of Total

> Total

Total

Yes No Total

Location City Observed Count **62**(27.6%) **163**(72.4%) 225 61.8 Expected Count **52.1**(23.2%) **172.9**(76.8%) 225.0 61.8 Town Observed Count **8**(13.8%) **50**(86.2%) 58 15.9 Expected Count **13.4**(23.1%) **44.6**(76.9%) 58.0 15.9

Total Observed Count **84**(23.1%) **279**(76.9%) 363 100 Expected Count **84.0**(23.1%) **279.0**(76.9%) 363.0 100.0

Location City Observed Count **61**(27.1%) **164**(72.9%) 225 61.8

Village Observed Count **14**(17.5%) **66**(82.5%) 80 22.0

Expected Count **18.5**(23.1%) **61.5**(76.9%) 80.0 22.0

Resources available - Government publications

Expected Count **52.1**(23.4%) **172.3**(76.6%) 225.0 61.8

Expected Count **13.4**(23.1%) **44.4**(76.9%) 58.0 15.9

Expected Count **18.5**(23.1%) **61.3**(76.9%) 80.0 22.0

Expected Count **84.0**(23.1%) **278.0**(76.9%) 363.0 100.0

Resources available - Internet

Expected Count **171.1**(76%) **53.9**(24%) 225.0 61.8

Expected Count **44.1**(76%) **13.9**(24%) 58.0 15.9

Expected Count **60.8**(76%) **19.2**(24%) 80.0 22.0

Expected Count **276.0**(76%) **87**.0(24%) 363.0 100.0

Town Observed Count **45**(77.6%) **13**(22.4%) 58 15.9

Village Observed Count **46**(57.5%) **34**(42.5%) 80 22

Total Observed Count **276**(76%) **87**(24%) 363 100

Town Observed Count **14**(24.1%) **43**(75.9%) 58 15.9

Village Observed Count **9**(11.3%) **71**(88.8%) 80 22

Total Observed Count **84**(23.1%) **278**(76.9%) 363 100

Location City Observed Count **185**(83.1%) **40**(16.9%) 225 61.8

Yes No Total % of

Yes No Total % of


**Table 17.** Location and Resources available (Web search materials)


**Table 18.** Location and Resources available (Library resources)

The expected counts in the cells of the Tables are based on the assumption that the row (Location) and the column (Resources available) variables are independent of one another (i.e. there is no relationships between them). Comparison of the observed with the expected counts shows that the observed values are significantly different from the expected values, and that in virtually all of them more respondents than expected said 'yes' they had the resources in the city; while in virtually all of them too, less respondents than expected said 'yes' in the village. In the town less respondents than expected also said 'yes' in four of the seven variables. The conclusion, therefore, is that there is a significant relationship between location and available information resources. The finding seems to corroborate the fact that more information resources are available in the city than in the town or village and that the more rural a location is the less the chances of having adequate information resources in Botswana.

Locational Dynamics Influencing the Information Environment of Distance Learners in Botswana 225

Location City Observed Count **187**(83.1%) **38**(16.9%) 225 61.8

Access to computer with internet facilities

Expected Count **177.4**(78.8%) **47.6**(21.2%) 225.0 61.8

Expected Count **45.7**(79.8%) **12.3**(21.2%) 58.0 15.9

Expected Count **63.9**(78.9%) **17.1**(21.1%) 81.0 22.3

Expected Count **287.0**(78.8%) **77.0**(21.2%) 364.0 100.0

Town Observed Count **51**(87.9%) **7**(12.1%) 58 15.9

Village Observed Count **49**(60.5%) **32**(39.5%) 81 22.3

Total Observed Count **287**(78.8%) **77**(21.2%) 364 100

Another objective of the study, which was the fifth, aimed at identifying the challenges faced by distance learners in Botswana. In examining the question, a number of probing issues were raised with the respondents. These include the distance they had to travel before getting to the nearest University Library or Information Centre, the source of light used where they lived, their fears and the barriers that affect their use of information sources,

With respect to the distance they had to travel before getting to the nearest University Library or Information Centre to meet their information needs, 62.9% of them indicated they travelled between 1-10 kms, 12.9% lived in a distance of 11-30 kms, 4.1% would need to cover a distance that ranged from 301 to 500 kms and another 3.8% travelled a distance of 501 kilometres and above to get to the nearest university library and information centres to meet their information needs. Since distance education is a self-directed learning and not face-to-face of the conventional system, it was considered necessary to probe into the source of light used by respondents in their homes and invariably to study as they self-direct their studies. The type of light used might have some impact on their accessibility to and use of information resources and services for their studies. The findings to this query indicate that majority of them (97.5%) used permanent electricity supply; only 3.6% claimed they used cylinder gas; 2.2% used battery power and 1.9% specified using candles and/or paraffin lamps. Only 1 respondent ticked 'other' as source of light without clearly specifying it. The relationships between location and each of the sources of light used (electricity, battery power, cylinder gas and candles/paraffin lamps) were cross-tabulated and Chi-square tests performed. Table 19 shows that location was significantly related to electricity (X2 = 10.862, df = 2, p <.05) as respondents source of light; and battery power (X2 = 13.324, df = 2, p <.05) as a source of light. No significant difference was found between location and other two

Tables 20 and 21 show the expected and observed counts in the cross-tabulation of location and the electricity and battery power as sources of light. Comparison of the observed with

**Table 19.** Location and Access to computer with Internet facilities

among others.

sources of light.

Yes No Total % of

Total

According to the literature, one of the ways the distance learners can access information resources and services is through information and communication technology. In order to address the fourth objective of the study a research question "*To what extent do distance learners use ICTs in meeting their information needs in Botswana?"* was raised*.* This also culminated in a series of questions addressed to the respondents. First, they were asked if they had access to computer with Internet facilities. A total of 287 (78.8 percent) respondents indicated that they had access to computer with Internet facilities, whilst the remaining 77 respondents (21.2 percent) indicated they had no access to the Internet facilities. The relationships between location of respondents and access to computer with Internet facilities were cross-tabulated and Chi-square tests performed on the cross-tabulations. The test shows that location was significantly related to Access to computer with Internet facilities (X2 = 21.681, df = 2, p <.05).

Table 18 shows the expected and observed counts in the cross-tabulation of location and the Internet accessibility by distance learners. Comparison of the observed with the expected counts shows that the observed values are significantly different from the expected values, and that more respondents in the city and town than expected said 'yes' to having access to the computer with Internet facilities, while less respondents than expected said 'yes' in the village. Therefore the conclusion is that there is a significant relationship between location and access to the Internet. A number of subsequent tests also confirmed the prevalence of the Internet facilities accessibility in the city and town as against what obtains in the village. The findings obviously substantiate the fact that the village is shortchanged when the use and accessibility of information and communication technology in Botswana is considered. This consequently affects the learners located in the rural areas. It therefore implies that adequate arrangement has to be made on the provision of ICT facilities like the Internet in some strategic locations including the villages if distance learners working or living in such locations are to maximally benefit from ICTs.

A follow up question attempted to establish where respondents would have access to the Internet if the response was in the affirmative. Those that indicated they had access to the Internet at work and on their own computer made up to 45.6%, on their own machine at home (22.5%); at work on shared machine (20.9%); and at home on shared machine (6.3%). In addition to the above, 28 other respondents specified other Internet access points they used. These include: Internet café (6.0%); Friend's office (0.3%) and Other Libraries (1.6%).


**Table 19.** Location and Access to computer with Internet facilities

224 Distance Education

The expected counts in the cells of the Tables are based on the assumption that the row (Location) and the column (Resources available) variables are independent of one another (i.e. there is no relationships between them). Comparison of the observed with the expected counts shows that the observed values are significantly different from the expected values, and that in virtually all of them more respondents than expected said 'yes' they had the resources in the city; while in virtually all of them too, less respondents than expected said 'yes' in the village. In the town less respondents than expected also said 'yes' in four of the seven variables. The conclusion, therefore, is that there is a significant relationship between location and available information resources. The finding seems to corroborate the fact that more information resources are available in the city than in the town or village and that the more rural a location

According to the literature, one of the ways the distance learners can access information resources and services is through information and communication technology. In order to address the fourth objective of the study a research question "*To what extent do distance learners use ICTs in meeting their information needs in Botswana?"* was raised*.* This also culminated in a series of questions addressed to the respondents. First, they were asked if they had access to computer with Internet facilities. A total of 287 (78.8 percent) respondents indicated that they had access to computer with Internet facilities, whilst the remaining 77 respondents (21.2 percent) indicated they had no access to the Internet facilities. The relationships between location of respondents and access to computer with Internet facilities were cross-tabulated and Chi-square tests performed on the cross-tabulations. The test shows that location was significantly related to Access to computer with Internet facilities (X2 = 21.681, df = 2, p <.05).

Table 18 shows the expected and observed counts in the cross-tabulation of location and the Internet accessibility by distance learners. Comparison of the observed with the expected counts shows that the observed values are significantly different from the expected values, and that more respondents in the city and town than expected said 'yes' to having access to the computer with Internet facilities, while less respondents than expected said 'yes' in the village. Therefore the conclusion is that there is a significant relationship between location and access to the Internet. A number of subsequent tests also confirmed the prevalence of the Internet facilities accessibility in the city and town as against what obtains in the village. The findings obviously substantiate the fact that the village is shortchanged when the use and accessibility of information and communication technology in Botswana is considered. This consequently affects the learners located in the rural areas. It therefore implies that adequate arrangement has to be made on the provision of ICT facilities like the Internet in some strategic locations including the villages if distance learners working or living in such

A follow up question attempted to establish where respondents would have access to the Internet if the response was in the affirmative. Those that indicated they had access to the Internet at work and on their own computer made up to 45.6%, on their own machine at home (22.5%); at work on shared machine (20.9%); and at home on shared machine (6.3%). In addition to the above, 28 other respondents specified other Internet access points they used. These include: Internet café (6.0%); Friend's office (0.3%) and Other Libraries (1.6%).

is the less the chances of having adequate information resources in Botswana.

locations are to maximally benefit from ICTs.

Another objective of the study, which was the fifth, aimed at identifying the challenges faced by distance learners in Botswana. In examining the question, a number of probing issues were raised with the respondents. These include the distance they had to travel before getting to the nearest University Library or Information Centre, the source of light used where they lived, their fears and the barriers that affect their use of information sources, among others.

With respect to the distance they had to travel before getting to the nearest University Library or Information Centre to meet their information needs, 62.9% of them indicated they travelled between 1-10 kms, 12.9% lived in a distance of 11-30 kms, 4.1% would need to cover a distance that ranged from 301 to 500 kms and another 3.8% travelled a distance of 501 kilometres and above to get to the nearest university library and information centres to meet their information needs. Since distance education is a self-directed learning and not face-to-face of the conventional system, it was considered necessary to probe into the source of light used by respondents in their homes and invariably to study as they self-direct their studies. The type of light used might have some impact on their accessibility to and use of information resources and services for their studies. The findings to this query indicate that majority of them (97.5%) used permanent electricity supply; only 3.6% claimed they used cylinder gas; 2.2% used battery power and 1.9% specified using candles and/or paraffin lamps. Only 1 respondent ticked 'other' as source of light without clearly specifying it. The relationships between location and each of the sources of light used (electricity, battery power, cylinder gas and candles/paraffin lamps) were cross-tabulated and Chi-square tests performed. Table 19 shows that location was significantly related to electricity (X2 = 10.862, df = 2, p <.05) as respondents source of light; and battery power (X2 = 13.324, df = 2, p <.05) as a source of light. No significant difference was found between location and other two sources of light.

Tables 20 and 21 show the expected and observed counts in the cross-tabulation of location and the electricity and battery power as sources of light. Comparison of the observed with

the expected counts shows that the observed values are significantly different from the expected values. Table 20 shows that in the city and town more respondents than expected said 'yes' to using electricity as a source of light in their homes, whereas in the village, less respondents than expected said 'yes'. The conclusion, therefore, is that there is a significant relationship between location and the use of electricity as a source of light. The finding clearly establishes the fact that people in the city and town enjoy the electricity utility than people in the village.

Locational Dynamics Influencing the Information Environment of Distance Learners in Botswana 227

Yes No Total

**Table 22.** Location and Source of light (Battery power)

Location City Observed Count **2**(0.9%) **223**(99.1%) 225 61.8 Expected Count **4.9**(2.2%) **220.1**(97.8%) 225.0 61.8 Town Observed Count **0**(0.0%) **58**(100%) 58 15.9 Expected Count **1.3**(2.2%) **56.7**(97.8%) 58.0 15.9

Total Observed Count **8**(2.2%) **356**(97.8%) 364 100 Expected Count **8.0**(2.2%) **356.0**(97.8%) 364.0 100.0

Attention was also shifted to what could be the fears of distance learners with regard to their distance education programme. A number of likely options were considered as possible challenges. These include: how to get materials to write their assignments, read for test and examinations, how to get time to study, how best to plan their time and how to get suitable/conducive place to study, among others. How to get *time* to study constituted the greatest challenge or fear of distance learners as 185 (50.8%) of them indicated. How to get *materials* to write their assignments, read for test and examinations was another fear indicated by 184 (50.5%) respondents. Other factors include how best to plan their time (*planning*) with 176 (48.4%) respondents; how to cope with *exam*inations 107 (29.4%); and

The relationships between location and each of the major areas of fear of the respondents were cross-tabulated and Chi-square tests were performed on the cross-tabulations. Table 22 shows that location was significantly related only to the fear of how they would get materials to write their assignments, read for test and examinations (X2 = 12.697, df = 2, p <.05). No significant

how to get a suitable/conducive place to study - 81 (22.3%) respondents.

difference was found between the location and other possible areas of fear.

**Possible areas of fear Chi-square Df Assym. Sig.** 

Getting materials 12.697 2 .002 Significant Getting time to study .549 2 .760 Not significant Planning their time .490 2 .783 Not significant Getting suitable study place 3.632 2 .163 Not significant Coping with Examinations .425 2 .809 Not significant **Table 23.** Relationship between Location and different possible areas of fear of distance learners

Village Observed Count **6**(7.4%) **75**(92.6%) 81 22.3

Expected Count **1.8**(2.2%) **79.2**(97.8%) 81.0 22.3

**(2-sided)** 

**Remark** 

Source of light - Battery power

> % of Total





Table 21 also shows that in the city and town less respondents than expected said 'yes' to using Battery power as a source of light in their homes, whereas in the village, more respondents than expected said 'yes'. The conclusion, therefore, is that there is a significant relationship between location and the use of battery power as a source of light. The finding clearly gives the confirmation that people in the village are more likely to use battery power as a source of light than those in the city and town.


**Table 22.** Location and Source of light (Battery power)

226 Distance Education

people in the village.

**Sources of Light Chi-**

the expected counts shows that the observed values are significantly different from the expected values. Table 20 shows that in the city and town more respondents than expected said 'yes' to using electricity as a source of light in their homes, whereas in the village, less respondents than expected said 'yes'. The conclusion, therefore, is that there is a significant relationship between location and the use of electricity as a source of light. The finding clearly establishes the fact that people in the city and town enjoy the electricity utility than

**Df Assym. Sig. (2-**

Source of light - Permanent electricity supply

Expected Count **219.4**(97.5%) **5.6**(2.5%) 225.0 61.8

Expected Count **56.6**(97.6%) **1.4**(2.4%) 58.0 15.9

Expected Count **79.0**(97.5%) **2.0**(2.5%) 81.0 22.3

Expected Count **355.0**(97.5%) **9.0**(2.5%) 364.0 100.0

Town Count **58**(100%) **0**(0.0%) 58 15.9

Village Count **75**(92.6%) **6**(7.4%) 81 22.3

Total Count **355**(97.5%) **9**(2.5%) 364 100

Table 21 also shows that in the city and town less respondents than expected said 'yes' to using Battery power as a source of light in their homes, whereas in the village, more respondents than expected said 'yes'. The conclusion, therefore, is that there is a significant relationship between location and the use of battery power as a source of light. The finding clearly gives the confirmation that people in the village are more likely to use battery power

**Table 21.** Location and Source of light (Permanent electricity supply)

as a source of light than those in the city and town.

Yes No Total % of

**sided)** 

**Remark** 

Total

**square** 

Permanent electricity 10.862 2 .004 Significant

Battery Power 13.324 2 .001 Significant

**Table 20.** Relationship between Location and different sources of light used by respondents

Cylinder Gas 2.305 2 .316 Not significant

Candle/paraffin lamps 2.524 2 .283 Not significant

Location City Count **222**(98.7%) **3**(1.3%) 225 61.8

Attention was also shifted to what could be the fears of distance learners with regard to their distance education programme. A number of likely options were considered as possible challenges. These include: how to get materials to write their assignments, read for test and examinations, how to get time to study, how best to plan their time and how to get suitable/conducive place to study, among others. How to get *time* to study constituted the greatest challenge or fear of distance learners as 185 (50.8%) of them indicated. How to get *materials* to write their assignments, read for test and examinations was another fear indicated by 184 (50.5%) respondents. Other factors include how best to plan their time (*planning*) with 176 (48.4%) respondents; how to cope with *exam*inations 107 (29.4%); and how to get a suitable/conducive place to study - 81 (22.3%) respondents.

The relationships between location and each of the major areas of fear of the respondents were cross-tabulated and Chi-square tests were performed on the cross-tabulations. Table 22 shows that location was significantly related only to the fear of how they would get materials to write their assignments, read for test and examinations (X2 = 12.697, df = 2, p <.05). No significant difference was found between the location and other possible areas of fear.


**Table 23.** Relationship between Location and different possible areas of fear of distance learners

Table 23 shows the expected and observed counts in the cross-tabulation of location and the fear of getting materials to write assignments, read for tests and examination. Comparison of the observed with the expected counts shows that the observed values are significantly different from the expected values, and that in the city and town less respondents than expected said 'yes' to having fear of getting materials to write their assignments, read for test and exams, whereas in the village more respondents than expected said 'yes'. The conclusion, therefore, is that there is a significant relationship between location and the fear of getting material. The finding seems to confirm the dearth of information resources and services in the village as compared to what obtains in the city and town.

Locational Dynamics Influencing the Information Environment of Distance Learners in Botswana 229

services. This is further confirmed in respect of more respondents in urban areas affirming 'yes' to information-based decisions and less respondents than expected in the village would say 'yes'. This corroborates the locational factor of easy accessibility to information by the students in urban centres and the reason they can take information based decisions

With respect to the information seeking behavior of the learners, the results revealed some variation with what obtained in the literature reviewed, especially in Western Colorado and San Jose State Universities. In these two institutions, there was evidence of reliance of distance learners on public libraries. Majority of the survey participants borrowed materials from local public libraries. Just like in the US, it can be said that in Botswana, public libraries are also more numerous and geographically accessible than academic libraries. The major area of departure is that the public libraries in Botswana hardly keep stock of tertiary level materials. Hence majority (341) of distance learners constituting 93.7% showed that they used their modules and study packages. The use of the Internet came a distant second with 238 respondents (65.4%). Just a little over a quarter (27.5%) of respondents indicated public libraries satisfied them when further asked how they meet and satisfy their information needs. The result revealed in Colorado that more than half of the students did not use the main campus (distance education provider) library. In Botswana, the results showed that a little above half (51.6%) of the respondents indicated they used the main campus library. In another study at the University of Botswana cited in reference [19] only about a quarter of respondents used the University Library. The literature confirmed that majority of distance learners at the University of Maryland University College (UMUC) prefer using online resources to physical library buildings and collections, only (28.8%) found online databases/sources satisfying in Botswana. This is probably due to lack of adequate orientation on how to use the facilities. On the contrary, it was confirmed in the literature that the African Virtual University (AVU) Library created a digital library consisting of ejournals, e-books and online archives to facilitate access to worldwide resources by the students. Whilst the study found that with 57.4% of respondents, Internet was the information source that satisfied majority of distance learners, it is regrettable to note that 'colleagues 'are found as a satisfying information source by as high as 37.1 percent respondents. This is similar to the findings at the Institute of Extra-Mural Studies, Maseru in Lesotho - another African institution, where some researchers in [17] reported that living long distances from their institution, among others, has made distance learners depend on easily available sources of information such as colleagues, personal collections, co-workers and family members, which may not necessarily be the best sources of information to meet their needs. The results also revealed a significant relationship between location and use of the University Library (X2 = 10.778, df = 2, p <.05) and the Internet (X2 = 8.933, df = 2, p <.05)

In exploring the information resources and services available to distance learners in Botswana, the result showed that majority of them 216 (59.3%) would prefer print format, as against (33.7%) who preferred electronic and 6.6% who preferred audio-visual. The adducible reason for the preference could be that distance learners had been using print

than those in rural locations

as satisfying information sources.


**Table 24.** Location \* What are your fears? (Getting materials)

## **5. Discussion**

The results have shown that the information needs of distance learners in Botswana are specifically in tandem with the information needs espoused by the Commonwealth of Learning in reference [6] as against the ideas discussed in reference[3], [4], and [5] of the literature reviewed. It is observed that with 75 percent, distance learners will first go for 'subjects relating to the students course of study'. Acquisition of greater skill in the use of information and communication technologies e.g. the Internet, was the second choice with 60 percent. The results show that distance learners would not give high premium to the need for specialized information or even access to a help line in as much as they could have materials in subjects/courses of study and how to use the ICT. The influence of location however seemed conspicuous when it was established that location was significantly related to information needs in the areas of "writing tests, examinations and doing residential sessions" (X2 = 11.026, df = 2, p < .05) and "making information-based decisions" (X2 = 6.867, df = 2, p < .05). The result seems to suggest that respondents in the rural areas are somewhat disadvantaged about information on tests, examinations and residential sessions than respondents in urban areas who have better access to information on the need area**.** This also seems to confirm the existence of information inadequacy in the rural areas as against what obtains in the urban areas where there is preponderance of information resources and services. This is further confirmed in respect of more respondents in urban areas affirming 'yes' to information-based decisions and less respondents than expected in the village would say 'yes'. This corroborates the locational factor of easy accessibility to information by the students in urban centres and the reason they can take information based decisions than those in rural locations

228 Distance Education

**5. Discussion** 

Table 23 shows the expected and observed counts in the cross-tabulation of location and the fear of getting materials to write assignments, read for tests and examination. Comparison of the observed with the expected counts shows that the observed values are significantly different from the expected values, and that in the city and town less respondents than expected said 'yes' to having fear of getting materials to write their assignments, read for test and exams, whereas in the village more respondents than expected said 'yes'. The conclusion, therefore, is that there is a significant relationship between location and the fear of getting material. The finding seems to confirm the dearth of information resources and

Location City Observed Count **108**(48%) **117**(52%) 225 61.8

What are your fears? - Getting materials

Expected Count **113.7**(50.5%) **111.3**(49.5%) 225.0 61.8

Expected Count **29.3**(50.5%) **28.7**(49.5%) 58.0 15.9

Expected Count **40.9**(50.5%) **40.1**(49.5%) 81.0 22.3

Expected Count **184.0**(50.5%) **180.0**(49.5%) 364.0 100.0

Town Observed Count **22**(37.9%) **36**(62.1%) 58 15.9

Village Observed Count **54**(66.7%) **27**(33.3%) 81 22.3

Total Observed Count **184**(50.5%) **180**(49.5%) 364 100

The results have shown that the information needs of distance learners in Botswana are specifically in tandem with the information needs espoused by the Commonwealth of Learning in reference [6] as against the ideas discussed in reference[3], [4], and [5] of the literature reviewed. It is observed that with 75 percent, distance learners will first go for 'subjects relating to the students course of study'. Acquisition of greater skill in the use of information and communication technologies e.g. the Internet, was the second choice with 60 percent. The results show that distance learners would not give high premium to the need for specialized information or even access to a help line in as much as they could have materials in subjects/courses of study and how to use the ICT. The influence of location however seemed conspicuous when it was established that location was significantly related to information needs in the areas of "writing tests, examinations and doing residential sessions" (X2 = 11.026, df = 2, p < .05) and "making information-based decisions" (X2 = 6.867, df = 2, p < .05). The result seems to suggest that respondents in the rural areas are somewhat disadvantaged about information on tests, examinations and residential sessions than respondents in urban areas who have better access to information on the need area**.** This also seems to confirm the existence of information inadequacy in the rural areas as against what obtains in the urban areas where there is preponderance of information resources and

Yes No Total % of

Total

services in the village as compared to what obtains in the city and town.

**Table 24.** Location \* What are your fears? (Getting materials)

With respect to the information seeking behavior of the learners, the results revealed some variation with what obtained in the literature reviewed, especially in Western Colorado and San Jose State Universities. In these two institutions, there was evidence of reliance of distance learners on public libraries. Majority of the survey participants borrowed materials from local public libraries. Just like in the US, it can be said that in Botswana, public libraries are also more numerous and geographically accessible than academic libraries. The major area of departure is that the public libraries in Botswana hardly keep stock of tertiary level materials. Hence majority (341) of distance learners constituting 93.7% showed that they used their modules and study packages. The use of the Internet came a distant second with 238 respondents (65.4%). Just a little over a quarter (27.5%) of respondents indicated public libraries satisfied them when further asked how they meet and satisfy their information needs. The result revealed in Colorado that more than half of the students did not use the main campus (distance education provider) library. In Botswana, the results showed that a little above half (51.6%) of the respondents indicated they used the main campus library. In another study at the University of Botswana cited in reference [19] only about a quarter of respondents used the University Library. The literature confirmed that majority of distance learners at the University of Maryland University College (UMUC) prefer using online resources to physical library buildings and collections, only (28.8%) found online databases/sources satisfying in Botswana. This is probably due to lack of adequate orientation on how to use the facilities. On the contrary, it was confirmed in the literature that the African Virtual University (AVU) Library created a digital library consisting of ejournals, e-books and online archives to facilitate access to worldwide resources by the students. Whilst the study found that with 57.4% of respondents, Internet was the information source that satisfied majority of distance learners, it is regrettable to note that 'colleagues 'are found as a satisfying information source by as high as 37.1 percent respondents. This is similar to the findings at the Institute of Extra-Mural Studies, Maseru in Lesotho - another African institution, where some researchers in [17] reported that living long distances from their institution, among others, has made distance learners depend on easily available sources of information such as colleagues, personal collections, co-workers and family members, which may not necessarily be the best sources of information to meet their needs. The results also revealed a significant relationship between location and use of the University Library (X2 = 10.778, df = 2, p <.05) and the Internet (X2 = 8.933, df = 2, p <.05) as satisfying information sources.

In exploring the information resources and services available to distance learners in Botswana, the result showed that majority of them 216 (59.3%) would prefer print format, as against (33.7%) who preferred electronic and 6.6% who preferred audio-visual. The adducible reason for the preference could be that distance learners had been using print format all their lives. Besides, the application of the other two formats (electronic and audiovisual) involves the use of electricity which may not be significantly available in the homes of some of the students, particularly as some of them live in villages and settlements where electricity supply is not reliable. While authenticating the available information resources in their location majority of the respondents (76%) indicated that the Internet was available in their locations. Apart from the Internet, only 3 other information resources were regrettably said to be available by half or more of the total respondents. These include email (60.9%), radio/television (59.6%); telephone (59.2%). The use of the Internet and email seems to confirm the statement of the author in reference [9] that WWW or the Internet is an asset and a valuable tool in an information environment. It also tallies with a survey on distance learners at the University of Maryland University College (UMUC) in [11], that students prefer using online resources. The test on the relationships between location of respondents and access to computer with Internet facilities conducted shows that location was significantly related to Access to computer with Internet facilities (X2 = 21.681, df = 2, p <.05). It is confirmed that more respondents in the city and town than expected said 'yes' to having access to the computer with Internet facilities, while less respondents than expected said 'yes' in the village.

Locational Dynamics Influencing the Information Environment of Distance Learners in Botswana 231

The reality of the disadvantage suffered by the rural-based, as well as the opportunities and, or advantages available to the urban-based distance learners have been demonstrated in the study. The existence of the information-rich and information-poor, technology-rich and technology-poor environments in which distance learners live and may define the types of decision the distance learners make and information resources and services they use. In other words, the locational characteristics of distance learners tend to affect the type of information resources available, with metropolitan-based learners being more advantaged than the rural-located learners. While almost all the required information resources and services were available and with some effort, accessible to the urban-based learners, the semi-urban or rural-based learners were not

Among others, the study findings indicate that: more urban-based distance learners and less rural based (village) respondents than expected affirmed that they make informationbased decisions; the modules/study package, the Internet, and colleagues were the three major information sources used by distance learners to prepare their assignment, test or examination; location was significantly related to the use of the Internet as an information source - more urban-based and less rural-dwelling respondents than expected used the Internet; the information needs of the distance learners in Botswana are significantly unmet; there was a significant relationship between location and available information resources; there was no evidence to suggest that ICTs such as toll-free telephone line, cellphone, help desk, facsimile, telephone answering machine etc were available for use of distance learners; distance learners would like to use fast resources like the Internet but their location had some significant impact on their accessibility to the facility – hence, the traditional library types of services are predominantly still being used in Botswana; two major issues i.e. how to get time to study and how to get materials to write their assignments, read for test and examinations, constituted the greatest fear and challenge to distance learners in Botswana; more than one third of distance learners lived outside the cities and in scattered distances that ranged from 11 – 500+ kilometers; there was dearth of information resources and services in the village as compared to what obtains in the city and town; location was significantly related to isolation and lack of well equipped library as barriers to using information sources with more respondents in the village and less in the city and town than expected indicated the above two variables were barriers to them.

In the light of the above, the following recommendations are offered:

relevant journals, and computers with Internet connection.

 Distance teaching institutions should take into cognizance the spread of their students in the country and create opportunities for them to access information resources and/or

 Establishing study centres in a number of strategic places across the country and equipping the centres/offices with appropriate information materials and other necessary facilities including books (such as reference and recommended materials),

found within the cutting edge.

services

#### **6. Conclusion**

The operation of open and distance education has ensured that learning can no longer be restricted to any particular place or time. As such, learners undertake their studies with institutions from various remote locations all over the world to the extent that geographical barriers between and among countries seem to have no relevance in the system. This manifests not only in the established institutions of higher learning diversifying to accommodate distance programes, but also in cross-border education where students register for courses or programmes produced and maintained in a different country from where they live. But then it has also been accentuated that library and information service is of great value in educational and research institutions as well as other environments where learning takes place. The palpability of this is found in the pride of place given to information resources and services in institutions of higher learning. Unfortunately, for reasons of their remote locations from their institutions, distance learners hardly enjoy the information resources and services located in their institutions. This study has established that distance learners, like their conventional faceto-face counterparts, have information needs and that they exploit various means to meet their needs. The learners' information need areas are seen to be varied, with information on subjects relating to their courses of study and the use of information and communication technologies, emerging as their greatest need areas. But then, there are other notable information needs areas such as: the development of information searching skills and information on tests, examinations and residential sessions/periods. It is needless to say that the distance learners' quest for information on the use and application of ICTs and the development of information searching skills is an admission of the existence of skills gap that could enable them to function effectively and efficiently. In other words, with the acquisitions of the skills, they are better able to function and bridge the existing gap between them and their institutions, in relation to their studies.

The reality of the disadvantage suffered by the rural-based, as well as the opportunities and, or advantages available to the urban-based distance learners have been demonstrated in the study. The existence of the information-rich and information-poor, technology-rich and technology-poor environments in which distance learners live and may define the types of decision the distance learners make and information resources and services they use. In other words, the locational characteristics of distance learners tend to affect the type of information resources available, with metropolitan-based learners being more advantaged than the rural-located learners. While almost all the required information resources and services were available and with some effort, accessible to the urban-based learners, the semi-urban or rural-based learners were not found within the cutting edge.

230 Distance Education

said 'yes' in the village.

**6. Conclusion** 

format all their lives. Besides, the application of the other two formats (electronic and audiovisual) involves the use of electricity which may not be significantly available in the homes of some of the students, particularly as some of them live in villages and settlements where electricity supply is not reliable. While authenticating the available information resources in their location majority of the respondents (76%) indicated that the Internet was available in their locations. Apart from the Internet, only 3 other information resources were regrettably said to be available by half or more of the total respondents. These include email (60.9%), radio/television (59.6%); telephone (59.2%). The use of the Internet and email seems to confirm the statement of the author in reference [9] that WWW or the Internet is an asset and a valuable tool in an information environment. It also tallies with a survey on distance learners at the University of Maryland University College (UMUC) in [11], that students prefer using online resources. The test on the relationships between location of respondents and access to computer with Internet facilities conducted shows that location was significantly related to Access to computer with Internet facilities (X2 = 21.681, df = 2, p <.05). It is confirmed that more respondents in the city and town than expected said 'yes' to having access to the computer with Internet facilities, while less respondents than expected

The operation of open and distance education has ensured that learning can no longer be restricted to any particular place or time. As such, learners undertake their studies with institutions from various remote locations all over the world to the extent that geographical barriers between and among countries seem to have no relevance in the system. This manifests not only in the established institutions of higher learning diversifying to accommodate distance programes, but also in cross-border education where students register for courses or programmes produced and maintained in a different country from where they live. But then it has also been accentuated that library and information service is of great value in educational and research institutions as well as other environments where learning takes place. The palpability of this is found in the pride of place given to information resources and services in institutions of higher learning. Unfortunately, for reasons of their remote locations from their institutions, distance learners hardly enjoy the information resources and services located in their institutions. This study has established that distance learners, like their conventional faceto-face counterparts, have information needs and that they exploit various means to meet their needs. The learners' information need areas are seen to be varied, with information on subjects relating to their courses of study and the use of information and communication technologies, emerging as their greatest need areas. But then, there are other notable information needs areas such as: the development of information searching skills and information on tests, examinations and residential sessions/periods. It is needless to say that the distance learners' quest for information on the use and application of ICTs and the development of information searching skills is an admission of the existence of skills gap that could enable them to function effectively and efficiently. In other words, with the acquisitions of the skills, they are better able to function and bridge the existing gap between them and their institutions, in relation to their studies.

Among others, the study findings indicate that: more urban-based distance learners and less rural based (village) respondents than expected affirmed that they make informationbased decisions; the modules/study package, the Internet, and colleagues were the three major information sources used by distance learners to prepare their assignment, test or examination; location was significantly related to the use of the Internet as an information source - more urban-based and less rural-dwelling respondents than expected used the Internet; the information needs of the distance learners in Botswana are significantly unmet; there was a significant relationship between location and available information resources; there was no evidence to suggest that ICTs such as toll-free telephone line, cellphone, help desk, facsimile, telephone answering machine etc were available for use of distance learners; distance learners would like to use fast resources like the Internet but their location had some significant impact on their accessibility to the facility – hence, the traditional library types of services are predominantly still being used in Botswana; two major issues i.e. how to get time to study and how to get materials to write their assignments, read for test and examinations, constituted the greatest fear and challenge to distance learners in Botswana; more than one third of distance learners lived outside the cities and in scattered distances that ranged from 11 – 500+ kilometers; there was dearth of information resources and services in the village as compared to what obtains in the city and town; location was significantly related to isolation and lack of well equipped library as barriers to using information sources with more respondents in the village and less in the city and town than expected indicated the above two variables were barriers to them.

In the light of the above, the following recommendations are offered:


 Collaborative partnership could be worked out between and among institutions running distance degree programmes, in such a way that resources could be pooled together to make the information environment of their learners rich or richer.

Locational Dynamics Influencing the Information Environment of Distance Learners in Botswana 233

http://www.du.edu/lisa/capstone/Capstone\_Projects/j\_sutherland.pdf Accessed 2012

[8] Stasch, M. (1994) A survey of information sources used by students involved in distance education. Master's Thesis. Paper 954. San Jose State University

[9] Oliver, R. and Omari, A. (1997) Using the WWW to support distance education and open learning. In: Osborne, J., Roberts, D. and Walker, J. (Eds.) Open, flexible and distance learning: education and training in the 21st Century. 13th Biennial Forum of Open and Distance learning Association of Australia held from 29 September – 3 October 1997.

[10] Berge, Z. L. (1996) Where interaction intersects time. The journal of academic media

http://wings.buffalo.edu/publication/mcjrnl/v4n1/berge.html Accessed 2010 March 10 [11] Kelley, K. B. and Orr, G. J. (2003) Trends in Distant Student Use of Electronic Resources:

[12] Solomon, H. (1997) Library services to students at a distance: a case study of the University of Otago Library, Dunedin, New Zealand. In Watson, E.F. & Jagannathan, N. (eds.) Library services in the Commonwealth: a reader. Vancouver: The Commonwealth

[13] Heery, M. (1996) Academic library services to non-traditional students. Library

[14] Kamau, J.W. (1997) Providing support services for the external B.Ed. distance learners programme at the University of Nairobi. In Watson, E.F. & Jagannathan, N. (eds.) *Library services in the Commonwealth: a reader*. Vancouver: The Commonwealth of

[15] Kavulya, J. M. (2004) Challenges in the provision of library services for distance education: a case study of selected universities in Kenya. African Journal of Library,

[16] Muyinda, P.B. (2012). Open and Distance Learning in Dual Mode Universities: A Treasure Unexploited. In Joi L. Moore and Angela D. Benson (Eds.), International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education. Available: http://www.intechopen.com/books/international-perspectives-of-distance-learningin-higher-education/open-and-distance-learning-in-dual-mode-universities-a-treasure-

[17] Boadi, B.Y. & Letsolo, P. (2004) Information needs and information seeking behaviour of distance learners at the Institute of Extra-Mural Studies in Lesotho. Information

http://idv.sagepub.com/content/20/3/189.full.pdf+html Accessed 2012 March 28. [18] Oladokun, O.S. (2002) The practice of distance librarianship in Africa. Library Review,

Archives and Information Science, 14 (1) Apr 2004, pp.15-28

Development*,* Vol. 20, No. 3, 189-199. Available on

http://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/etd\_theses/954. Accessed 2012 February 21

a survey. College & Research Libraries 64, no. 3 (May 2003): pp. 176-191.

February 4, 2012.

Launceston: University of Tasmania.

of Learning, pp.213-220

Learning, pp.165-174

unexploited

Vol. 51 No. 6 pp. 293-300.

Management, Vol.17 No. 5, pp.3-13.

librarianship, Vol. 4 No. 1, summer 1996. Available:


## **Author details**

Olugbade Oladokun *University of Botswana, Botswana* 

## **7. References**

[1] Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) (2009) Information Environment Programme 2009-11. Available:

http://www.jisc.ac.uk/whatwedo/programmes/inf11.aspx/ Accessed 2012 February 12


http://cemca.org/disted/Singh\_BK\_\_0231.pdf Accessed 2012 January 20.


http://www.du.edu/lisa/capstone/Capstone\_Projects/j\_sutherland.pdf Accessed 2012 February 4, 2012.

[8] Stasch, M. (1994) A survey of information sources used by students involved in distance education. Master's Thesis. Paper 954. San Jose State University http://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/etd\_theses/954. Accessed 2012 February 21

232 Distance Education

learners.

**Author details** 

**7. References** 

2009 October 4.

2009 August 5

Publications. pp. 139-140

College and Research Libraries 49, (1) 29 - 37.

Services for Distance Learners. Available:

presented to University of Denver. Available:

Olugbade Oladokun

*University of Botswana, Botswana* 

Programme 2009-11. Available:

 Collaborative partnership could be worked out between and among institutions running distance degree programmes, in such a way that resources could be pooled

Computing and information literacy skills training should be given priority to distance

 Use of ICT gadgets like cellular phone and its functionalities; Instant Messaging (IM) and Live Chat with a Librarian; Emailing system; Electronic Alerts and Electronic

[1] Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) (2009) Information Environment

http://www.jisc.ac.uk/whatwedo/programmes/inf11.aspx/ Accessed 2012 February 12 [2] Cookson, P. (1990) Persistence in Distance Education. In M. G. Moore and others, editors. Contemporary Issues in American Distance Education. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Available: http://www1.worldbank.org/disted/Teaching/Design/kn-01.html Accessed

[3] Jagannathan, N. (1998) Libraries in distance teaching University. In: Jain, M.K. et al. editors. 50 Years Library and Information Services in India, Delhi: Shipra

[4] Kascus M. and. Aguilar W. (1988) Providing library support to off-campus programmes.

[5] Singh, B. K. (2004). Library Services to Distance Learners: A Study of Kota Open University. Paper presented at the AAOU Pre-Conference Seminar on Outreach Library

[6] Commonwealth of Learning (COL) (2003). Developing library and information services for distance education. Available at http://www.col.org/colweb/site/pid/3131 Accessed

[7] Sutherland, J. (2000) Distance education: Library use among adult distance learners: its implications for local public and academic libraries. A Capstone project. MLIS Thesis

http://cemca.org/disted/Singh\_BK\_\_0231.pdf Accessed 2012 January 20.

together to make the information environment of their learners rich or richer. Collaborative partnership can also be worked out by distance teaching institutions with some institutions like public libraries, secondary schools, Technical Colleges and

Education Centres, etc. across the country.

Bulletin; e-counseling and mentoring should be encouraged


http://wings.buffalo.edu/publication/mcjrnl/v4n1/berge.html Accessed 2010 March 10


[19] Oladokun, O.S. (2002) Distance education and the role of the library: a case study at the University of Botswana. MIS dissertation: University of Pretoria. Available: http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/submitted/etd-10202005- 160127/unrestricted/00front.pdf

**Chapter 10** 

© 2012 Muyinda et al., licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

**Study Mode Does Not Matter: MLearning Can** 

Paul B. Muyinda, Jude T. Lubega, Kathy Lynch and Theo van der Weide

It is no longer news that the permeation statistics for mobile phones in developing countries of Africa has surpassed industry analysts' predictions. Also research is increasingly showing that mobile devices can be used to provide learning support services. The use of mobile devices for accomplishing learning activities has been termed mobile learning (mLearning). Since owners of mobile devices move with them wherever they go, mLearning offers anytime anywhere learning. Mobile devices, among others may include: mobile phones, smart phones, PDAs (personal digital assistants), BlackBerries, GPS (global positioning system) receivers, clickers, tablet PCs, as well as iPods and MP3 players (Kukulska-Hulme & Traxler, 2005).

Anytime anywhere learning has been associated with a study mode referred to as distance learning (Commonwealth of Learning, 2004). The phrase 'study mode' conjures several meanings. In this paper, the phrase is used to connote two different ways of delivering

In the campus-based study mode, also known as the conventional study mode, learners are required to attend a fulltime education at their main campuses. Campus-based learners here in this paper referred to as 'internal' learners, are obliged to adhere to an orchestrated timetable of study in the classrooms and partake of the same learning activities at the same time. In majority of instances, internal learners are faced with similar learning conditions, can meet and interact with their lecturers and fellow learners in a face to face fashion and

On the other hand, in the distance-based study mode, learners are separated by time and space from their lecturers and campuses (Aguti, 2009, Commonwealth of Learning, 2004). The communication and interaction between the learners themselves and the learners and their lecturers is bridged using print or electronic media (Commonwealth of Learning, 2004). Mobile devices can form part of the electronic media to be used in bridging the gap

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

tuition to learners, namely: campus-based and distance-based study modes.

have limited roles and responsibilities outside schooling.

**Support Internal and Distance Learners** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50091

**1. Introduction** 

[20] Oladokun, O. (2010) Information Seeking Behavior of the Off-Campus Students at the University of Botswana: A Case of Two Satellite Centers. Journal of Library Administration, Vol. 50, (7-8), pp. 883-898

## **Study Mode Does Not Matter: MLearning Can Support Internal and Distance Learners**

Paul B. Muyinda, Jude T. Lubega, Kathy Lynch and Theo van der Weide

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50091

## **1. Introduction**

234 Distance Education

[19] Oladokun, O.S. (2002) Distance education and the role of the library: a case study at the University of Botswana. MIS dissertation: University of Pretoria. Available:

[20] Oladokun, O. (2010) Information Seeking Behavior of the Off-Campus Students at the University of Botswana: A Case of Two Satellite Centers. Journal of Library

http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/submitted/etd-10202005-

160127/unrestricted/00front.pdf

Administration, Vol. 50, (7-8), pp. 883-898

It is no longer news that the permeation statistics for mobile phones in developing countries of Africa has surpassed industry analysts' predictions. Also research is increasingly showing that mobile devices can be used to provide learning support services. The use of mobile devices for accomplishing learning activities has been termed mobile learning (mLearning). Since owners of mobile devices move with them wherever they go, mLearning offers anytime anywhere learning. Mobile devices, among others may include: mobile phones, smart phones, PDAs (personal digital assistants), BlackBerries, GPS (global positioning system) receivers, clickers, tablet PCs, as well as iPods and MP3 players (Kukulska-Hulme & Traxler, 2005).

Anytime anywhere learning has been associated with a study mode referred to as distance learning (Commonwealth of Learning, 2004). The phrase 'study mode' conjures several meanings. In this paper, the phrase is used to connote two different ways of delivering tuition to learners, namely: campus-based and distance-based study modes.

In the campus-based study mode, also known as the conventional study mode, learners are required to attend a fulltime education at their main campuses. Campus-based learners here in this paper referred to as 'internal' learners, are obliged to adhere to an orchestrated timetable of study in the classrooms and partake of the same learning activities at the same time. In majority of instances, internal learners are faced with similar learning conditions, can meet and interact with their lecturers and fellow learners in a face to face fashion and have limited roles and responsibilities outside schooling.

On the other hand, in the distance-based study mode, learners are separated by time and space from their lecturers and campuses (Aguti, 2009, Commonwealth of Learning, 2004). The communication and interaction between the learners themselves and the learners and their lecturers is bridged using print or electronic media (Commonwealth of Learning, 2004). Mobile devices can form part of the electronic media to be used in bridging the gap

(Traxler, 2007). People choose to study at a distance because they can not afford to attend a fulltime education at campus due to the multiple roles and responsibilities they hold in society. The multiple roles and responsibilities dictate the need to move from one place to another so as to accomplish societal demands. Consequently, distance learners are inherently 'mobile'.

For the reason that distance learners are 'mobile', some authors have tended to draw a conclusion to the effect that mLearning is only suited for distance learners or learning that occurs outside class (Sharples, Taylor & Vavoula, 2005). In support of this conclusion, Brown (2005) conceptualized that mLearning is subset of electronic learning (eLearning) which in-turn is a subset of distance learning. Electronic learning is learning using an "educational environment which utilizes any electronic media tool as a part of the instruction" (Caudill, 2007, p.3). Thus mLearning is part and parcel of eLearning.

As a learning model, mLearning is still in its infancy and not many educational institutions in developing countries of Africa have integrated it in their learning management systems. Consequently, there is a vacuum in research to show that mLearning is not suitable for inthe-classroom activities for internal learners. In this paper, evidence is adduced to show that distance and internal learners in Uganda are faced with similar learning conditions that favor or constrain the uptake of mLearning and that both categories of learners have equally partaken or not partaken of mLearning. This evidence is inline with the prediction made at the end of 2009 that in 2010, the classroom would not escape the phenomenon of mLearning.

 … smart phones would [permeate] the classroom… Most would agree that trying to keep mobile technology out of the classroom is impossible, so the best approach is that of constructing channels to direct mobile technology usage in constructive directions.

#### (Brown & Diaz, 2010, p.3).

Study Mode Does Not Matter: MLearning Can Support Internal and Distance Learners 237

Ho: Internal and distance learners operate in conditions of similar tethered Internet

Ho: Internal and distance learners operate in conditions of similar electric power

Ho: Both internal and distance learners have learning activities that can be ported onto

This paper is organized in six sections. The first section introduces the paper. The second section provides a review of related literature. The third section provides the methodology we employed. Results of the study are presented and discussed in fourth and fifth sections of the paper respectively. Our concluding remarks and areas for future research are given in

To provide a clear understanding of the study modes focused on in this article, we briefly

Distance learning is a study mode where learning takes place away from one's mother institution using print-based and electronic learning materials (Aguti, 2009; Commonwealth of Learning, 2004). Distance learners are separated by time and space from their lecturers and mother institutions. Sometimes, distance learners may or may not have any face-face contact with their fellow learners and lecturers (ibid). Distance learners have multiple roles and responsibilities and thus learning forms just part of their daily activity cocktail (Commonwealth of Learning, 2004). Because of the multiple roles and responsibilities, they are usually not confined in one place. They move from one learning context to another. Distance learning can be partaken of in a synchronous or asynchronous form (Keegan, 1990). The major problem in distance learning is learner isolation (ibid). With introduction of strong support services entailing use of virtual interaction and collaboration, learner isolation can be overcome (Commonwealth of Learning, 2004). At Makerere University in Uganda, distance learning is sometimes referred to as external learning with the opposite

Internal learning can variously be expressed. Phrases such as classroom-based learning, campus-based learning, conventional learning, intra-mural learning, traditional learning, and so on, can all be used to refer to internal learning (Aguti, 2009). Internal learners have large segments of time to dedicate to their studies while distance learners distribute their time in multiple social, economic, political and academic obligations. Internal learners are not as varied as those of distance learners (Traxler, 2007). Just like in distance learning mode, technology supported learning has also found its way in internal learning (Aguti & Fraser, 2007). Indeed, soon or later the boundary separating internal and distance learning in

tethered Internet connectivity for mLearning is concerned.

power supply for mLearning is concerned.

review the concepts of distance and internal learning.

being internal learning (Aguti, 2009).

mobile devices.

the sixth section.

**2. Related literature** 

**2.1. Study modes** 

connectivity and hence none of them has leverage over the other in as far as

supply and hence none of them has leverage over the other in as far as electric

This means that mLearning will creatively be used to support both distance and internal learners. These two learner categories operate from different learning contexts whose significance on mLearning uptake is little understood. The goal of this paper is to establish the association between study mode with different learning contexts including: the type of the learner's location (urban, semi-urban or rural), noise levels of the learner's usual learning environment and availability of mobile and Internet connectivity and power supply with a view of determining their significance on uptake of mLearning by the two categories of learners in Uganda. To achieve our goal we hypothesized as follows:


This paper is organized in six sections. The first section introduces the paper. The second section provides a review of related literature. The third section provides the methodology we employed. Results of the study are presented and discussed in fourth and fifth sections of the paper respectively. Our concluding remarks and areas for future research are given in the sixth section.

## **2. Related literature**

#### **2.1. Study modes**

236 Distance Education

inherently 'mobile'.

mLearning.

(Traxler, 2007). People choose to study at a distance because they can not afford to attend a fulltime education at campus due to the multiple roles and responsibilities they hold in society. The multiple roles and responsibilities dictate the need to move from one place to another so as to accomplish societal demands. Consequently, distance learners are

For the reason that distance learners are 'mobile', some authors have tended to draw a conclusion to the effect that mLearning is only suited for distance learners or learning that occurs outside class (Sharples, Taylor & Vavoula, 2005). In support of this conclusion, Brown (2005) conceptualized that mLearning is subset of electronic learning (eLearning) which in-turn is a subset of distance learning. Electronic learning is learning using an "educational environment which utilizes any electronic media tool as a part of the

As a learning model, mLearning is still in its infancy and not many educational institutions in developing countries of Africa have integrated it in their learning management systems. Consequently, there is a vacuum in research to show that mLearning is not suitable for inthe-classroom activities for internal learners. In this paper, evidence is adduced to show that distance and internal learners in Uganda are faced with similar learning conditions that favor or constrain the uptake of mLearning and that both categories of learners have equally partaken or not partaken of mLearning. This evidence is inline with the prediction made at the end of 2009 that in 2010, the classroom would not escape the phenomenon of mLearning.

 … smart phones would [permeate] the classroom… Most would agree that trying to keep mobile technology out of the classroom is impossible, so the best approach is that of constructing channels to direct mobile technology usage in constructive directions.

This means that mLearning will creatively be used to support both distance and internal learners. These two learner categories operate from different learning contexts whose significance on mLearning uptake is little understood. The goal of this paper is to establish the association between study mode with different learning contexts including: the type of the learner's location (urban, semi-urban or rural), noise levels of the learner's usual learning environment and availability of mobile and Internet connectivity and power supply with a view of determining their significance on uptake of mLearning by the two

Ho: Unlike internal learners, distance learners are majorly located in rural and semiurban areas where the main communication device is the mobile phone. Ho: Internal learners live in noisier urban environments than distance learners who live

Ho: Internal and distance learners operate in conditions of similar mobile network

in less noisier rural or semi-urban locations that are conducive for audio

connectivity and hence none of them has leverage over the other in as far as mobile

categories of learners in Uganda. To achieve our goal we hypothesized as follows:

network connectivity for mLearning is concerned.

(Brown & Diaz, 2010, p.3).

instruction" (Caudill, 2007, p.3). Thus mLearning is part and parcel of eLearning.

To provide a clear understanding of the study modes focused on in this article, we briefly review the concepts of distance and internal learning.

Distance learning is a study mode where learning takes place away from one's mother institution using print-based and electronic learning materials (Aguti, 2009; Commonwealth of Learning, 2004). Distance learners are separated by time and space from their lecturers and mother institutions. Sometimes, distance learners may or may not have any face-face contact with their fellow learners and lecturers (ibid). Distance learners have multiple roles and responsibilities and thus learning forms just part of their daily activity cocktail (Commonwealth of Learning, 2004). Because of the multiple roles and responsibilities, they are usually not confined in one place. They move from one learning context to another. Distance learning can be partaken of in a synchronous or asynchronous form (Keegan, 1990). The major problem in distance learning is learner isolation (ibid). With introduction of strong support services entailing use of virtual interaction and collaboration, learner isolation can be overcome (Commonwealth of Learning, 2004). At Makerere University in Uganda, distance learning is sometimes referred to as external learning with the opposite being internal learning (Aguti, 2009).

Internal learning can variously be expressed. Phrases such as classroom-based learning, campus-based learning, conventional learning, intra-mural learning, traditional learning, and so on, can all be used to refer to internal learning (Aguti, 2009). Internal learners have large segments of time to dedicate to their studies while distance learners distribute their time in multiple social, economic, political and academic obligations. Internal learners are not as varied as those of distance learners (Traxler, 2007). Just like in distance learning mode, technology supported learning has also found its way in internal learning (Aguti & Fraser, 2007). Indeed, soon or later the boundary separating internal and distance learning in terms of technology supported learning will blur. Dual mode universities in developing countries of Africa have installed learning management systems to be used by both internal and distance learners. Likewise, mLearning apps are being developed for distance and internal learners. Both distance and internal learners can partake of mLearning though using different blends of mobile technologies (Brown & Diaz, 2010). Distance learners are likely to have a mobile phones and a desktop computer in their offices. Internal learners on the other hand are likely to have a mobile phone and a laptop computer (ibid). This technology blend makes mLearning possible in either group.

Study Mode Does Not Matter: MLearning Can Support Internal and Distance Learners 239

have tiny keyboards, limited screen sizes, inadequate storage capacities and are multi-varied in terms of their models and operating systems (Grant *et al*. 2007). Research from the pedagogical and technical angles is going on to mitigate many of these challenges (Brown &

Learning occurs in different contexts. Context is information which describes the situation of a learner in a given location (Uden, 2007). It "… is typically the location, identities of nearby people, objects and changes to objects" (Zhang, 2003. p.7). When students fully understand their learning contexts, they are likely to achieve more learning experiences than if they did not (Prosser & Trigwell, 1999). They will be able to learn from their own experience of action in the real world, reflect on those experiences to achieve abstract conceptualization of

Learning context can further be theorized around the situated (Lave & Wenger, 1991) and constructivist (Bruner, 1966) learning theories. The situated learning theory provides a framework for understanding how learning occurs in different learning environments. It posits that "learning is not merely the acquisition of knowledge by individuals, but instead a process of social participation" (Naismith *et al*., 2006, p.13) and interaction with ones existing environment. The learning process is thus influenced by the learner's environs, learning resources and tools at their disposal and communities of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991).

The situated learning theory concurs with the socio-cultural theory which permits learners to work collaboratively in groups so as to share learning experiences in their communities of practice (Nie, 2007). It is also inline with the constructivist learning theory (Bruner, 1966) which permits learners to actively build new knowledge by incorporating into their existing knowledge-base concepts derived from their educational experience. However, critiques of the constructivist learning theory such as Prawat and Floden (1994) have advocated for social constructivist learning theory (Vygotsky, 1978) because it recognizes that learning occurs in communities of practice. Prawat and Floden (1994) posit that knowledge creation is shared rather than an individual experience. This implies that knowledge is a social product generated through interplay of several minds. Tools and raw materials for creating this social product can arise from technologies that encourage interaction and collaboration. Mobile devices are good examples of such technologies. With mobile devices such as smart phones, learners can construct their own knowledge and share it freely with peers at anytime in anyplace. This, in mLearning, is referred to as "participatory simulations" (Naismith *et al*., 2006, p.2). Participatory simulation encourages learners to actively

Collaborative assignments completed by distance learners located in different contexts tend to be rich in content because they are built based on information collected from different contexts. Collaborative engagements enable learners to co-create new knowledge (Doos *et al*., 2005). Just pushing content onto learners' mobile devices without ensuring interactive and collaborative engagement, would be similar to putting old wine in new bottles because

**4. Theorizing about learning and learning context** 

concepts and later experiment with the concepts derived (Kolb, 1984).

participate in the learning process.

Diaz, 2010).

## **3. MLearning and study mode**

MLearning is a form of eLearning that has usually been associated with supporting on-thego learners (Brown, 2005; Sharples, Taylor & Vavoula, 2005). However, this view point is becoming null and void "given the great interest in using mobile devices to improve learning within all learning settings, including the classroom, in the field and in informal adult learning settings" (Dyson *et al*., 2009, p.251). Even if this is the case, the magnitude of use of mLearning by learners other than distance learners in their authentic contexts is not well studied. MLearning is majorly being implemented through projects supporting out-ofclass learning activities with little mainstreaming of those projects into the conventional educational practice (Traxler, 2007). Conventional educational practices are influenced by prevailing environmental contexts (Uden, 2007). Similarly, mLearning supporting conventional educational practices is likely to be influenced by different environmental contexts.

MLearning among internal learners can be used in the provision of summaries of classroom discussions, reminders/alerts to various learning events and requirements, information about lectures and examinations venues, motivational messages, reference lists and hints on approach to questions, requirements for attending a given lecture, self evaluation via sequenced multiple choice quizzes and reflective learning using simulated classroom/laboratory activities recorded as MP3 files or video clips (Naismith *et al*. 2006). These same services can be enjoyed by distance learners on their mobile phones.

In Dyson *et al*. (2009), four case studies for embedding mLearning into conventional educational practices, namely: 1) mobile supported fieldwork, 2) interactive mLearning in large lectures, 3) using mobile technology to learn about mobile technology and 4) Podcasts of lecture summaries have been reported. These and other similar projects face several challenges. According to Dyson *et al*. (2009, p.251), a key challenge is the "feasibility of mLearning from the lecturer's viewpoint in terms of the effort required to introduce and then maintain the activity". Another challenge is the cost of mLearning. According to Traxler (2007), many mLearning projects have failed to live beyond the lifespan of their initial funding. Other challenges include: invasion of faculty's privacy at will and at anytime, changing the mindsets of education stakeholders to believe in mLearning and increased workload to the faculty (Brown & Diaz, 2010). Mobile devices still have technological limitations that may constrain their use in mLearning. Highly mobile devices have tiny keyboards, limited screen sizes, inadequate storage capacities and are multi-varied in terms of their models and operating systems (Grant *et al*. 2007). Research from the pedagogical and technical angles is going on to mitigate many of these challenges (Brown & Diaz, 2010).

## **4. Theorizing about learning and learning context**

238 Distance Education

contexts.

makes mLearning possible in either group.

**3. MLearning and study mode** 

terms of technology supported learning will blur. Dual mode universities in developing countries of Africa have installed learning management systems to be used by both internal and distance learners. Likewise, mLearning apps are being developed for distance and internal learners. Both distance and internal learners can partake of mLearning though using different blends of mobile technologies (Brown & Diaz, 2010). Distance learners are likely to have a mobile phones and a desktop computer in their offices. Internal learners on the other hand are likely to have a mobile phone and a laptop computer (ibid). This technology blend

MLearning is a form of eLearning that has usually been associated with supporting on-thego learners (Brown, 2005; Sharples, Taylor & Vavoula, 2005). However, this view point is becoming null and void "given the great interest in using mobile devices to improve learning within all learning settings, including the classroom, in the field and in informal adult learning settings" (Dyson *et al*., 2009, p.251). Even if this is the case, the magnitude of use of mLearning by learners other than distance learners in their authentic contexts is not well studied. MLearning is majorly being implemented through projects supporting out-ofclass learning activities with little mainstreaming of those projects into the conventional educational practice (Traxler, 2007). Conventional educational practices are influenced by prevailing environmental contexts (Uden, 2007). Similarly, mLearning supporting conventional educational practices is likely to be influenced by different environmental

MLearning among internal learners can be used in the provision of summaries of classroom discussions, reminders/alerts to various learning events and requirements, information about lectures and examinations venues, motivational messages, reference lists and hints on approach to questions, requirements for attending a given lecture, self evaluation via sequenced multiple choice quizzes and reflective learning using simulated classroom/laboratory activities recorded as MP3 files or video clips (Naismith *et al*. 2006).

In Dyson *et al*. (2009), four case studies for embedding mLearning into conventional educational practices, namely: 1) mobile supported fieldwork, 2) interactive mLearning in large lectures, 3) using mobile technology to learn about mobile technology and 4) Podcasts of lecture summaries have been reported. These and other similar projects face several challenges. According to Dyson *et al*. (2009, p.251), a key challenge is the "feasibility of mLearning from the lecturer's viewpoint in terms of the effort required to introduce and then maintain the activity". Another challenge is the cost of mLearning. According to Traxler (2007), many mLearning projects have failed to live beyond the lifespan of their initial funding. Other challenges include: invasion of faculty's privacy at will and at anytime, changing the mindsets of education stakeholders to believe in mLearning and increased workload to the faculty (Brown & Diaz, 2010). Mobile devices still have technological limitations that may constrain their use in mLearning. Highly mobile devices

These same services can be enjoyed by distance learners on their mobile phones.

Learning occurs in different contexts. Context is information which describes the situation of a learner in a given location (Uden, 2007). It "… is typically the location, identities of nearby people, objects and changes to objects" (Zhang, 2003. p.7). When students fully understand their learning contexts, they are likely to achieve more learning experiences than if they did not (Prosser & Trigwell, 1999). They will be able to learn from their own experience of action in the real world, reflect on those experiences to achieve abstract conceptualization of concepts and later experiment with the concepts derived (Kolb, 1984).

Learning context can further be theorized around the situated (Lave & Wenger, 1991) and constructivist (Bruner, 1966) learning theories. The situated learning theory provides a framework for understanding how learning occurs in different learning environments. It posits that "learning is not merely the acquisition of knowledge by individuals, but instead a process of social participation" (Naismith *et al*., 2006, p.13) and interaction with ones existing environment. The learning process is thus influenced by the learner's environs, learning resources and tools at their disposal and communities of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991).

The situated learning theory concurs with the socio-cultural theory which permits learners to work collaboratively in groups so as to share learning experiences in their communities of practice (Nie, 2007). It is also inline with the constructivist learning theory (Bruner, 1966) which permits learners to actively build new knowledge by incorporating into their existing knowledge-base concepts derived from their educational experience. However, critiques of the constructivist learning theory such as Prawat and Floden (1994) have advocated for social constructivist learning theory (Vygotsky, 1978) because it recognizes that learning occurs in communities of practice. Prawat and Floden (1994) posit that knowledge creation is shared rather than an individual experience. This implies that knowledge is a social product generated through interplay of several minds. Tools and raw materials for creating this social product can arise from technologies that encourage interaction and collaboration. Mobile devices are good examples of such technologies. With mobile devices such as smart phones, learners can construct their own knowledge and share it freely with peers at anytime in anyplace. This, in mLearning, is referred to as "participatory simulations" (Naismith *et al*., 2006, p.2). Participatory simulation encourages learners to actively participate in the learning process.

Collaborative assignments completed by distance learners located in different contexts tend to be rich in content because they are built based on information collected from different contexts. Collaborative engagements enable learners to co-create new knowledge (Doos *et al*., 2005). Just pushing content onto learners' mobile devices without ensuring interactive and collaborative engagement, would be similar to putting old wine in new bottles because it would entrench the transmission model of education (Brown & Diaz, 2010). The learner's authentic context determines the level of interaction and collaboration (Lehsten *et al*., 2010).

Study Mode Does Not Matter: MLearning Can Support Internal and Distance Learners 241

precision of 0.5, a minimum sample size of 246 was determined. Due to the high rate (80.0 Percent) of non-response in surveys (Burgess, 2001) the minimum sample size was multiplied by five (5) so as to cater for the 80.0 Percent non-response. The survey was therefore distributed to 1,230 respondents who were selected using multi-stage sampling method involving cluster sampling at stage one and stratified random sampling at stage two. The population was clustered along the study mode characteristic. Distance learners formed cluster one while internal learners formed cluster two. After the survey, 446 responses were returned representing a response rate of 36.3 Percent. Hence the total number of responses (N)

Using comparative analysis approach, the hypotheses in the study were tested through variable cross-tabulation in which the Pearson Chi-Square was run to generate the phi-value (p-value) for determining level of association. When p > 0.05, the null hypothesis was accepted, meaning that there was no significant association between the variables being compared. When p<0.05, the null hypothesis was rejected, meaning that there was a

The study was scoped within five location-based learning context variables/conditions, namely: type of learner's usual learning locations, the noise levels of learner's usual learning location, availability of mobile network connectivity, availability of tethered Internet connectivity and presence of electric power supply. We describe the five aforementioned learning context variables before associating each of them with the study mode variable so as to determine which mode would best be suited for mLearning under the location context

Type of Learners' Usual Learning Locations: The learner's usual learning location connoted a place where a learner resided and undertook their usual learning activities. The study showed that 78.0 Percent of the learners resided and undertook their usual learning activities in urban areas. Semi-urban and rural areas, hosted 11.4 Percent and 10.5 Percent

Noise Levels of Learners' Usual Learning Locations: Noise pollution is said to have a negative effect on audio-based mLearning. The study showed that a big proportion of learners (59.4 Percent) were located in areas that were sometimes noisy. A few learners (2.2 Percent) lived and undertook their learning activities in contexts that where always noisy

Mobile Network Connectivity: MLearning mainly hinges on the mobile network connectivity. When asked to indicate their views on the statement, 'mobile network connectivity is present to you at all times', 28.4 Percent and 42.7 Percent of the learners strongly agreed and agreed respectively to it. Only 18.7 Percent and 10.2 Percent

was 446. In instances where there was non-response, N was less than 446.

**7. Describing the location-based learning context variables** 

while a moderate number (38.3 Percent) enjoyed very quiet contexts.

significant association between the variables cross-tabulated.

**6. Results** 

in question.

respectively of the learners.

In developing countries, the role of authentic context or location related context such as the type of learner's usual learning locations, the noise levels of learner's usual learning location, availability of mobile network connectivity, availability of tethered Internet connectivity and presence of electric power supply need to be studied to ascertain their role in uptake of mLearning amongst distance and internal learners. Location aware learning can be used to characterize the situation of different learners (Lehsten *et al*., 2010). Characterization of distance and internal learners for mLearning based on the location context is studied in this paper.

## **5. Methodology**

This paper is drawn from part of the data collected by the corresponding author for his PhD research titled '*Deploying and Utilising Learning Objects on Mobile Phones'*. In this PhD, guidelines for developing and evaluating mLearning environments are espoused. Since Design Research (Wang & Hannafin, 2005) was the main methodology used in undertaking the PhD research, the data used in this paper was collected to provide an initial understanding of the problem in the *Awareness of the Problem* process step. Design researchers follow five iterative process steps when developing or evaluating artefacts, including: *Awareness of the Problem, Suggestion, Development, Evaluation* and *Conclusion* (Wang & Hannafin, 2005). Design research is; "… a systematic but flexible methodology aimed [at improving] educational practices through iterative analysis, design, development, and implementation, based on collaboration among researchers and practitioners in realworld settings, and leading to contextually-sensitive design principles and theories" (Wang & Hannafin, 2005, p.6). Design Research combines research, design and practice (ibid).

The research part of the Design Research methodology underpinned the *Awareness of the Problem* process step which in-turn underpinned the data collection for this paper. Data was collected through a survey. A survey approach was preferred because the target population could not be found in a single location. The study population was undergraduate distance and internal learners of Makerere University in Uganda. Makerere University delivers its programmes through internal and distance learning modes; hence it is a dual mode University (Aguti, 2009).

The sample size (n) was determined using Calder's (1998) sample size determination formula.

> 2 2 2 ( ) \* ( tan ) ( ) *desired confidence level s dard deviation <sup>n</sup> desired level of precision*

At a confidence level of 95 Percent (p<0.05) or a value of 1.96 in normally distributed data, standard deviation of 4 (derived from an earlier study on the same population with regard to the standard deviation of the time used to complete a research report) and a level of precision of 0.5, a minimum sample size of 246 was determined. Due to the high rate (80.0 Percent) of non-response in surveys (Burgess, 2001) the minimum sample size was multiplied by five (5) so as to cater for the 80.0 Percent non-response. The survey was therefore distributed to 1,230 respondents who were selected using multi-stage sampling method involving cluster sampling at stage one and stratified random sampling at stage two. The population was clustered along the study mode characteristic. Distance learners formed cluster one while internal learners formed cluster two. After the survey, 446 responses were returned representing a response rate of 36.3 Percent. Hence the total number of responses (N) was 446. In instances where there was non-response, N was less than 446.

Using comparative analysis approach, the hypotheses in the study were tested through variable cross-tabulation in which the Pearson Chi-Square was run to generate the phi-value (p-value) for determining level of association. When p > 0.05, the null hypothesis was accepted, meaning that there was no significant association between the variables being compared. When p<0.05, the null hypothesis was rejected, meaning that there was a significant association between the variables cross-tabulated.

## **6. Results**

240 Distance Education

context is studied in this paper.

**5. Methodology** 

University (Aguti, 2009).

formula.

it would entrench the transmission model of education (Brown & Diaz, 2010). The learner's authentic context determines the level of interaction and collaboration (Lehsten *et al*., 2010). In developing countries, the role of authentic context or location related context such as the type of learner's usual learning locations, the noise levels of learner's usual learning location, availability of mobile network connectivity, availability of tethered Internet connectivity and presence of electric power supply need to be studied to ascertain their role in uptake of mLearning amongst distance and internal learners. Location aware learning can be used to characterize the situation of different learners (Lehsten *et al*., 2010). Characterization of distance and internal learners for mLearning based on the location

This paper is drawn from part of the data collected by the corresponding author for his PhD research titled '*Deploying and Utilising Learning Objects on Mobile Phones'*. In this PhD, guidelines for developing and evaluating mLearning environments are espoused. Since Design Research (Wang & Hannafin, 2005) was the main methodology used in undertaking the PhD research, the data used in this paper was collected to provide an initial understanding of the problem in the *Awareness of the Problem* process step. Design researchers follow five iterative process steps when developing or evaluating artefacts, including: *Awareness of the Problem, Suggestion, Development, Evaluation* and *Conclusion* (Wang & Hannafin, 2005). Design research is; "… a systematic but flexible methodology aimed [at improving] educational practices through iterative analysis, design, development, and implementation, based on collaboration among researchers and practitioners in realworld settings, and leading to contextually-sensitive design principles and theories" (Wang & Hannafin, 2005, p.6). Design Research combines research, design and practice (ibid).

The research part of the Design Research methodology underpinned the *Awareness of the Problem* process step which in-turn underpinned the data collection for this paper. Data was collected through a survey. A survey approach was preferred because the target population could not be found in a single location. The study population was undergraduate distance and internal learners of Makerere University in Uganda. Makerere University delivers its programmes through internal and distance learning modes; hence it is a dual mode

The sample size (n) was determined using Calder's (1998) sample size determination

( ) \* ( tan ) ( ) *desired confidence level s dard deviation <sup>n</sup> desired level of precision*

At a confidence level of 95 Percent (p<0.05) or a value of 1.96 in normally distributed data, standard deviation of 4 (derived from an earlier study on the same population with regard to the standard deviation of the time used to complete a research report) and a level of

2 2 2

The study was scoped within five location-based learning context variables/conditions, namely: type of learner's usual learning locations, the noise levels of learner's usual learning location, availability of mobile network connectivity, availability of tethered Internet connectivity and presence of electric power supply. We describe the five aforementioned learning context variables before associating each of them with the study mode variable so as to determine which mode would best be suited for mLearning under the location context in question.

## **7. Describing the location-based learning context variables**

Type of Learners' Usual Learning Locations: The learner's usual learning location connoted a place where a learner resided and undertook their usual learning activities. The study showed that 78.0 Percent of the learners resided and undertook their usual learning activities in urban areas. Semi-urban and rural areas, hosted 11.4 Percent and 10.5 Percent respectively of the learners.

Noise Levels of Learners' Usual Learning Locations: Noise pollution is said to have a negative effect on audio-based mLearning. The study showed that a big proportion of learners (59.4 Percent) were located in areas that were sometimes noisy. A few learners (2.2 Percent) lived and undertook their learning activities in contexts that where always noisy while a moderate number (38.3 Percent) enjoyed very quiet contexts.

Mobile Network Connectivity: MLearning mainly hinges on the mobile network connectivity. When asked to indicate their views on the statement, 'mobile network connectivity is present to you at all times', 28.4 Percent and 42.7 Percent of the learners strongly agreed and agreed respectively to it. Only 18.7 Percent and 10.2 Percent respectively disagreed and strongly disagreed to the statement. This implies that 71.1 Percent of the respondents did not experience any intermittence in mobile network connectivity as opposed to 28.9 Percent who did.

Study Mode Does Not Matter: MLearning Can Support Internal and Distance Learners 243

distance learners (55.5 Percent) were based in urban settings and only 21.1 Percent were based in rural areas. Semi-urban areas such as trading centers were a base for 23.4 Percent of the distance learners. The study having been conducted in an urban setting of Makerere University, which is located in the city of Kampala, Uganda, explains the large proportion of internal learners (75.0 Percent) who were based in urban settings. The 20.6 Percent and 4.4 Percent of internal learners who reported as having been in semi-urban and rural environments respectively are a case of students who commuted to Makerere University on a daily basis from surrounding districts and suburbs of Kampala. A p-value of 0.532 shown in *Table 1* above indicates that there was no significant association between study mode and the type of learners' usual learning environment. We therefore reject the null hypothesis and conclude that distance learners in Uganda are not necessarily located in rural and semiurban areas where the main communication device is the mobile phone. They are also to be found in urban areas where other ICTs other than the mobile phone are commonly found. This shows that Uganda is not meeting the goal of distance learning which is to extend learning to learners in their homes and workplaces. It is apparent that as soon as students are admitted to the distance education programme, they relocate from their different areas of aboard to Kampala. For instance, one of the distance learners said, "I do not have a job, so

**Ho: Internal learners live in noisier urban environments than distance learners who** 

A cross-tabulation of study mode and noise levels of learners' usual learning environment generated the p-value for testing this hypothesis. As has already been established, about 61.6 Percent of the learners experiences some form of noise pollution in their usual learning environments. The magnitude of this noise pollution among distance and internal learners

*Noise levels of learners' usual learning environment* 

Learning concentration often requires quiet learning environments. Moreover, voice communication via mobile phones is greatly hindered in contexts with high noise levels. In *Table 2* above, a p-value of 0.029 was generated in a cross-tabulation of study mode with noise levels of the learners' usual learning environment. This p-value (0.029) indicates that the study mode is significantly associated with the noise levels in the learners' usual learning environment. It is evident from *Table 2* above that there were slightly more internal students (62.2 Percent) in sometimes noisy or always noisy locations than distance learners

Distance 39.0 (n=85) 59.2 (n=129) 1.8 (n=4) n=218 Internal 37.7 (n=86) 59.6 (n=136) 2.6 (n=6) n=228 Total 38.3 (n=171) 59.4 (n=265) 2.2 (n=10) N=446

**Table 2.** Study Mode and Noise Levels of the Learners' Usual Learning Environments

**live in less noisier rural or semi-urban locations that are conducive for audio** 

**Is always quiet Is sometimes noisy Is always noisy** *Total* 

I relocated to Kampala to concentrate on my studies".

has been determined in *Tables 2 , 3* and *4* below.

Percentages are calculated row wise and p=0.029

**mLearning.** 

*Study mode* 

Tethered Internet Connectivity: Inadequacies presented by lack of tethered Internet connectivity can be bridged by mobile Internet. Indeed, tethered Internet was scarce amongst respondents. About 42.4 Percent and 34.5 Percent of the respondents disagreed and strongly disagreed respectively to the statement that 'tethered Internet is available to you at all times'. Only 17.2 Percent and 6.9 Percent agreed and strongly agreed respectively to the latter statement. Even if mobile Internet comes in handy as a solution for bridging the digital divide created by lack of or limited tethered Internet connectivity, only 7.8 Percent of the learners used their mobile phones to access the Internet.

Electric Power Supply: Electric power supply is needed to power communication infrastructure such as transmission masts and computers and charging mobile device batteries. Whereas about 97.0 Percent of the learners owned mobile phones, not all of them had national electric power supply in their usual learning environments. A good proportion of learners (62.8 Percent) contended that power supply was not available to them at all times. Only 37.2 Percent of the learners had constant power supply.

## **8. Study mode, learning contexts and mLearning**

In another paper, we have studied the significance of the learning environment (context) on mLearning (Muyinda *et al., in press*). In the present paper, we have extended that study by establishing the significance of learning environment (context) on study mode with a view of determining the interplay of the two variables on mLearning uptake. This is done by testing the six hypotheses stated in this study.

#### **Ho: Unlike internal learners, distance learners are majorly located in rural and semiurban areas where the main communication device is the mobile phone.**

This hypothesis was tested by cross-tabulating study mode variable with the type of learner's usual learning environment and generating the Pearson Chi-Square statistic (phi = p-value) from the association. The results are shown in *Table 1* below.


Percentages are calculated row wise and p=0.532

**Table 1.** Study mode and Location of Learners' Usual Learning Environment

Whereas it has always been the general belief that most distance learners in Uganda are based in rural areas, findings in *Table 1* above have proved otherwise. The majority of distance learners (55.5 Percent) were based in urban settings and only 21.1 Percent were based in rural areas. Semi-urban areas such as trading centers were a base for 23.4 Percent of the distance learners. The study having been conducted in an urban setting of Makerere University, which is located in the city of Kampala, Uganda, explains the large proportion of internal learners (75.0 Percent) who were based in urban settings. The 20.6 Percent and 4.4 Percent of internal learners who reported as having been in semi-urban and rural environments respectively are a case of students who commuted to Makerere University on a daily basis from surrounding districts and suburbs of Kampala. A p-value of 0.532 shown in *Table 1* above indicates that there was no significant association between study mode and the type of learners' usual learning environment. We therefore reject the null hypothesis and conclude that distance learners in Uganda are not necessarily located in rural and semiurban areas where the main communication device is the mobile phone. They are also to be found in urban areas where other ICTs other than the mobile phone are commonly found. This shows that Uganda is not meeting the goal of distance learning which is to extend learning to learners in their homes and workplaces. It is apparent that as soon as students are admitted to the distance education programme, they relocate from their different areas of aboard to Kampala. For instance, one of the distance learners said, "I do not have a job, so I relocated to Kampala to concentrate on my studies".

#### **Ho: Internal learners live in noisier urban environments than distance learners who live in less noisier rural or semi-urban locations that are conducive for audio mLearning.**

A cross-tabulation of study mode and noise levels of learners' usual learning environment generated the p-value for testing this hypothesis. As has already been established, about 61.6 Percent of the learners experiences some form of noise pollution in their usual learning environments. The magnitude of this noise pollution among distance and internal learners has been determined in *Tables 2 , 3* and *4* below.


Percentages are calculated row wise and p=0.029

242 Distance Education

connectivity as opposed to 28.9 Percent who did.

learners used their mobile phones to access the Internet.

times. Only 37.2 Percent of the learners had constant power supply.

p-value) from the association. The results are shown in *Table 1* below.

**Table 1.** Study mode and Location of Learners' Usual Learning Environment

*Type of Usual Learning Environment* 

**8. Study mode, learning contexts and mLearning** 

testing the six hypotheses stated in this study.

Percentages are calculated row wise and p=0.532

*Study Mode* 

respectively disagreed and strongly disagreed to the statement. This implies that 71.1 Percent of the respondents did not experience any intermittence in mobile network

Tethered Internet Connectivity: Inadequacies presented by lack of tethered Internet connectivity can be bridged by mobile Internet. Indeed, tethered Internet was scarce amongst respondents. About 42.4 Percent and 34.5 Percent of the respondents disagreed and strongly disagreed respectively to the statement that 'tethered Internet is available to you at all times'. Only 17.2 Percent and 6.9 Percent agreed and strongly agreed respectively to the latter statement. Even if mobile Internet comes in handy as a solution for bridging the digital divide created by lack of or limited tethered Internet connectivity, only 7.8 Percent of the

Electric Power Supply: Electric power supply is needed to power communication infrastructure such as transmission masts and computers and charging mobile device batteries. Whereas about 97.0 Percent of the learners owned mobile phones, not all of them had national electric power supply in their usual learning environments. A good proportion of learners (62.8 Percent) contended that power supply was not available to them at all

In another paper, we have studied the significance of the learning environment (context) on mLearning (Muyinda *et al., in press*). In the present paper, we have extended that study by establishing the significance of learning environment (context) on study mode with a view of determining the interplay of the two variables on mLearning uptake. This is done by

**Ho: Unlike internal learners, distance learners are majorly located in rural and semiurban areas where the main communication device is the mobile phone.**  This hypothesis was tested by cross-tabulating study mode variable with the type of learner's usual learning environment and generating the Pearson Chi-Square statistic (phi =

Distance 21.1% (n=46) 55.5% (n=121) 23.4% (n=51) n=218 Internal 4.4% (n=10) 75.0% (n=171) 20.6% (n=47) n=228 Total 12.6% (n=56) 65.5% (n=292) 22.0% (n=98) N=446

Whereas it has always been the general belief that most distance learners in Uganda are based in rural areas, findings in *Table 1* above have proved otherwise. The majority of

**Rural Urban Semi-urban** *Total* 

**Table 2.** Study Mode and Noise Levels of the Learners' Usual Learning Environments

Learning concentration often requires quiet learning environments. Moreover, voice communication via mobile phones is greatly hindered in contexts with high noise levels. In *Table 2* above, a p-value of 0.029 was generated in a cross-tabulation of study mode with noise levels of the learners' usual learning environment. This p-value (0.029) indicates that the study mode is significantly associated with the noise levels in the learners' usual learning environment. It is evident from *Table 2* above that there were slightly more internal students (62.2 Percent) in sometimes noisy or always noisy locations than distance learners (61.0 Percent). This was because the majority (95.6 Percent) of internal learners were based in urban or semi-urban areas (*See Table 1*) that tend to be noisier than rural areas as is depicted in *Table 3* below.

Study Mode Does Not Matter: MLearning Can Support Internal and Distance Learners 245

**Ho: Internal and distance learners operate in conditions of similar mobile network** 

MLearning thrives best in environments with mobile network connectivity conditions. Whether internal or distance learners lived and operated in areas with or without mobile network connectivity conditions formed a research question that is answered in *Tables 5* and

**mobile network connectivity for mLearning is concerned.** 

*Mobile network connectivity is present at all times* 

Distance 9.8% (n=21) 20.5% (n=44) 43.7% (n=94) 26.0% (n=56) n=215 Internal 10.5% (n=24) 17.1% (n=39) 41.7% (n=95) 30.7% (n=70) n=228 Total 10.2% (n=45) 18.7% (n=83) 42.7% (n=189) 28.4% (n=126) N=443

From *Table 5* above, 69.7 Percent and 71.4 Percent of distance and internal learners respectively agreed or strongly agreed that mobile network connectivity was present at all times in their usual areas of aboard. It means that distance and internal learners are almost equally served with mobile network connectivity. This is also evidenced by a p-value of 0.062 in *Table 5* above which indicates that learners' study mode did not have significant association with availability of mobile network connectivity. This means that both internal

The permeation of mobile network connectivity in rural, semi-urban and urban settings was also studied. Whereas the urban-based learners reported slightly higher availability of mobile network connectivity, *Table 6* below indicates that there was an almost equal level of agreement among rural (41.3 Percent) and urban (42.8 Percent) based learners to the question that mobile network connectivity was available at all times in their areas of

*Mobile network connectivity is present at all times* 

Rural 15.2%(n= 7) 23.9% (n=11) 41.3% (n=19) 19.6% (n=9) n=46 Urban 9.5% (n=33) 16.8% (n=58) 42.8% (n=148) 30.9% (n=107) n=346 Semi-urban 9.8% (n=5) 27.5% (n=14) 43.1% (n=22) 19.6% (n=10) n=51 Total 10.2% (n=45) 18.7% (n=83) 42.7% (n=189) 28.4% (n=126) N=443

**Table 6.** Learners' Usual Learning Environment and Mobile Network Connectivity

**Strongly** *Total* 

**Disagree Agree Strongly Agree** 

*6* below.

*Study mode* 

aboard.

*Location of learners' usual learning environment* 

**disagree** 

Percentages are calculated row-wise and Chi-Square p=0.062

**Disagree** 

Percentages are calculated row-wise and Chi-Square p=0.136

**Table 5.** Study Mode and Availability of Mobile Network Connectivity

and distance learning students can equally be reached through mLearning.

**connectivity and hence none of them has leverage over the other in as far as** 

**Strongly** *Total* 

**Disagree Agree Strongly agree** 


Percentages are calculated row-wise

**Table 3.** Location of Learners' Usual Learning Environments and Noise Levels

From *Table 3* above, the truism that urban or semi-urban settings are noisier than rural areas is echoed. No respondent from a rural setting reported having a usual learning environment which was always noisy. There was an almost equal distribution of respondents from rural areas who reported having an environment which was always quiet (48.9 Percent) or sometimes noisy (51.1 Percent). The majority of learners (60.9 Percent) from urban settings reported that their environment was sometimes noise (58.0 Percent) and always noisy (2.9 Percent). Similarly the majority (76.5 Percent) of learners who hailed from semi-urban settings sometimes experienced noisy learning environments. Urban or semi-urban settings are nosier than rural settings. This conclusion is justified by the Pearson Chi-Square test results obtained from a cross-tabulation of the location of learners' usual learning environments and noise levels in those environments as is seen in *Table 4* below.


a 2 cells (22.2 Percent) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 1.05.

**Table 4.** Location of Learners' Usual Learning Environment and Noise Levels

A p-value of 0.035 at 4 degrees of freedom in *Table 4* above indicates that noise levels are significantly associated with the location of the learners' usual learning environments. This finding is collaborated with findings in *Table 3* above which also indicate that urban settings are noisier than rural ones. This could be attributed to the more traffic, people and economic activities found in urban settings than rural settings.

The findings in *Tables 2, 3* and *4 above* justify acceptance of the null hypothesis that internal learners live in noisier environments than distance learners. This implies that distance learners are well suited to partake of mLearning based on audio-based learning objects than their counterparts the internal learners because audio-based learning objects are suitable for quiet contexts.

#### **Ho: Internal and distance learners operate in conditions of similar mobile network connectivity and hence none of them has leverage over the other in as far as mobile network connectivity for mLearning is concerned.**

MLearning thrives best in environments with mobile network connectivity conditions. Whether internal or distance learners lived and operated in areas with or without mobile network connectivity conditions formed a research question that is answered in *Tables 5* and *6* below.


Percentages are calculated row-wise and Chi-Square p=0.062

244 Distance Education

depicted in *Table 3* below.

Percentages are calculated row-wise

N of Valid Cases 446

quiet contexts.

*Location of learners' usual learning environment* 

(61.0 Percent). This was because the majority (95.6 Percent) of internal learners were based in urban or semi-urban areas (*See Table 1*) that tend to be noisier than rural areas as is

*Noise levels of learners' usual learning environment* 

Rural 48.9% (n=23) 51.1% (n=24) 0.0% (n=0) n=47 Urban 39.1% (n=136) 58.0% (n=202) 2.9% (n=10) n=348 Semi-Urban 23.5% (n=12) 76.5% (n=39) 0.0% (n=0) n=51 Total 38.3% (n=171) 59.4% (n=265) 2.2% (n=10) N=446

From *Table 3* above, the truism that urban or semi-urban settings are noisier than rural areas is echoed. No respondent from a rural setting reported having a usual learning environment which was always noisy. There was an almost equal distribution of respondents from rural areas who reported having an environment which was always quiet (48.9 Percent) or sometimes noisy (51.1 Percent). The majority of learners (60.9 Percent) from urban settings reported that their environment was sometimes noise (58.0 Percent) and always noisy (2.9 Percent). Similarly the majority (76.5 Percent) of learners who hailed from semi-urban settings sometimes experienced noisy learning environments. Urban or semi-urban settings are nosier than rural settings. This conclusion is justified by the Pearson Chi-Square test results obtained from a cross-tabulation of the location of learners' usual learning

**Table 3.** Location of Learners' Usual Learning Environments and Noise Levels

environments and noise levels in those environments as is seen in *Table 4* below.

Pearson Chi-Square 10.318a 4 0.035 Likelihood Ratio 12.643 4 0.013

activities found in urban settings than rural settings.

a 2 cells (22.2 Percent) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 1.05. **Table 4.** Location of Learners' Usual Learning Environment and Noise Levels

**Test Statistic Value Degrees of Freedom Asymptotic Significance (2-sided)** 

A p-value of 0.035 at 4 degrees of freedom in *Table 4* above indicates that noise levels are significantly associated with the location of the learners' usual learning environments. This finding is collaborated with findings in *Table 3* above which also indicate that urban settings are noisier than rural ones. This could be attributed to the more traffic, people and economic

The findings in *Tables 2, 3* and *4 above* justify acceptance of the null hypothesis that internal learners live in noisier environments than distance learners. This implies that distance learners are well suited to partake of mLearning based on audio-based learning objects than their counterparts the internal learners because audio-based learning objects are suitable for

**Is always quiet Is sometimes noisy Is always noisy** *Total* 

**Table 5.** Study Mode and Availability of Mobile Network Connectivity

From *Table 5* above, 69.7 Percent and 71.4 Percent of distance and internal learners respectively agreed or strongly agreed that mobile network connectivity was present at all times in their usual areas of aboard. It means that distance and internal learners are almost equally served with mobile network connectivity. This is also evidenced by a p-value of 0.062 in *Table 5* above which indicates that learners' study mode did not have significant association with availability of mobile network connectivity. This means that both internal and distance learning students can equally be reached through mLearning.

The permeation of mobile network connectivity in rural, semi-urban and urban settings was also studied. Whereas the urban-based learners reported slightly higher availability of mobile network connectivity, *Table 6* below indicates that there was an almost equal level of agreement among rural (41.3 Percent) and urban (42.8 Percent) based learners to the question that mobile network connectivity was available at all times in their areas of aboard.


Percentages are calculated row-wise and Chi-Square p=0.136

**Table 6.** Learners' Usual Learning Environment and Mobile Network Connectivity

A p-value of 0.136 in *Table 6* above indicates that there was no significant association between location of the learners' usual learning environment and availability of mobile network connectivity. We can conclude then that mobile network connectivity has permeated almost equally in urban, semi-urban and rural areas of Uganda. Thus we accept the null hypothesis that internal and distance learners experience similar mobile network connectivity conditions which have a significant influence on mLearning uptake.

Study Mode Does Not Matter: MLearning Can Support Internal and Distance Learners 247

connectivity so as to determine the type of location where tethered Internet connectivity is

Rural 76.1% (n=35) 10.9% (n=5) 10.9% (n=5) 2.2% (n=1) n=46 Urban 28.0% (n=97) 47.4% (n=164) 17.3% (n=60) 7.2% (n=25) n=346 Semi-urban 41.2% (n=21) 37.3% (n=19) 21.6% (n=11) 0.0% (n=0) n=51 Total 34.5% (n=153) 42.4% (n=188) 17.2% (n=76) 5.9% (n=26) N=443

**Table 8.** Learners' Usual Learning Environments and Availability of Internet Connectivity

Contrary to the common belief that urban based learners have readily available Internet connectivity, the statistics in *Table 8* have indicated otherwise. A p-value of 0.329 in *Table 8* above indicates no significant association between location of learners' usual learning environment and availability of tethered Internet connectivity. Thus rural, semi-urban and urban based learners experienced similar availability or non-availability of Internet connectivity. We accept the null hypothesis that internal and distance learners experience similar tethered Internet connectivity conditions which have a significant influence on

About 78.0 percent of the learners either strongly disagreed (34.5 Percent) or disagreed (42.4 Percent) to the statement that Internet connectivity was available to them at all times. For those who had Internet connectivity, it was skewed more towards urban and semi-urban settings, that is to say, areas with electricity. This is explained by the strong association (p = 0.000) between electric power supply and Internet connectivity as seen in *Table 9* below.

**Ho: Internal and distance learners operate in conditions of similar electric power** 

Electric power is necessary for powering the telecommunication infrastructure and charging mobile device batteries. As can be seen in *Table 9* below, electric power supply was

**power supply for mLearning is concerned.** 

significantly associated with tethered Internet connectivity (p = 0.000).

a 1 cells (6.3 Percent) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.71.

Pearson Chi-Square 119.913a 9 0.000 Likelihood Ratio 96.788 9 0.000

N of Valid Cases 442

**Table 9.** Power Supply and Internet Connectivity

*Test Statistic Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* 

**supply and hence none of them has leverage over the other in as far as electric** 

*Tethered Internet connectivity is present at all times Total* 

**Disagree Agree Strongly** 

**Agree** 

most prevalent. The results are presented in *Table 8* below.

**Strongly Disagree** 

Percentages are calculated row-wise and Chi-Square p=0.329

*Learners' usual learning environment* 

mLearning uptake.

#### **Ho: Internal and distance learners operate in conditions of similar tethered Internet connectivity and hence none of them has leverage over the other in as far as tethered Internet connectivity for mLearning is concerned.**

MLearning can be integrated into online learning management systems which are usually deployed through tethered Internet backbones. Availability of tethered Internet connectivity can thus be a necessary condition for the installation of mLearning. Do internal and distance learning students experience similar tethered Internet connectivity conditions? *Tables 7, 8*  and *9* below provide an answer to this question and hence test the hypothesis above.


Percentages are calculated row-wise and Chi-Square p=0.329

**Table 7.** Study Mode and Availability of Tethered Internet Connectivity

From *Table 7* above, it is evident that Internet connectivity was present at all times to just a few learners. Only 14.0 Percent and 4.2 Percent of distance learners agreed and strongly agreed respectively to the statement that tethered Internet connectivity was present to them at all times. Similarly, a small proportion of 20.2 Percent and 7.5 Percent of internal learners agreed and strongly agreed respectively to the statement that tethered Internet connectivity was present to them at all times. Generally speaking, Internet connectivity was always available to only 23.1 Percent of the learners. When this is compared with mobile network connectivity in *Table 6* above, it can be concluded that mobile network connectivity was more readily available to learners than tethered Internet connectivity. However, neither distance nor internal learners were advantaged over the other in terms of access to tethered Internet. This is evidenced by the p-value of 0.329 in *Table 7* above which indicates that there was no significant association between study mode and availability of tethered Internet connectivity. Since mobile network connectivity is more pervasive than tethered Internet connectivity, mLearning applications are more likely to permeate to many learners in Uganda than those based on online learning based learning management systems which heavily depend on tethered Internet for connectivity.

Just like in the case of mobile network connectivity, it was important to compare the location of the learners' usual learning environment with availability of tethered Internet


connectivity so as to determine the type of location where tethered Internet connectivity is most prevalent. The results are presented in *Table 8* below.

Percentages are calculated row-wise and Chi-Square p=0.329

246 Distance Education

Study mode

A p-value of 0.136 in *Table 6* above indicates that there was no significant association between location of the learners' usual learning environment and availability of mobile network connectivity. We can conclude then that mobile network connectivity has permeated almost equally in urban, semi-urban and rural areas of Uganda. Thus we accept the null hypothesis that internal and distance learners experience similar mobile network

**Ho: Internal and distance learners operate in conditions of similar tethered Internet** 

MLearning can be integrated into online learning management systems which are usually deployed through tethered Internet backbones. Availability of tethered Internet connectivity can thus be a necessary condition for the installation of mLearning. Do internal and distance learning students experience similar tethered Internet connectivity conditions? *Tables 7, 8* 

and *9* below provide an answer to this question and hence test the hypothesis above.

Distance 43.3% (n=93) 38.6% (n=83) 14.0% (n=30) 4.2% (n=9) n=215 Internal 26.3% (n=60) 46.1% (n=105) 20.2% (n=46) 7.5% (n=17) n=228 Total 34.5 %(n=153) 42.4% (n=188) 17.2% (n=76) 5.9% (n=26) N=443

From *Table 7* above, it is evident that Internet connectivity was present at all times to just a few learners. Only 14.0 Percent and 4.2 Percent of distance learners agreed and strongly agreed respectively to the statement that tethered Internet connectivity was present to them at all times. Similarly, a small proportion of 20.2 Percent and 7.5 Percent of internal learners agreed and strongly agreed respectively to the statement that tethered Internet connectivity was present to them at all times. Generally speaking, Internet connectivity was always available to only 23.1 Percent of the learners. When this is compared with mobile network connectivity in *Table 6* above, it can be concluded that mobile network connectivity was more readily available to learners than tethered Internet connectivity. However, neither distance nor internal learners were advantaged over the other in terms of access to tethered Internet. This is evidenced by the p-value of 0.329 in *Table 7* above which indicates that there was no significant association between study mode and availability of tethered Internet connectivity. Since mobile network connectivity is more pervasive than tethered Internet connectivity, mLearning applications are more likely to permeate to many learners in Uganda than those based on online learning based learning management systems which

Just like in the case of mobile network connectivity, it was important to compare the location of the learners' usual learning environment with availability of tethered Internet

Tethered Internet connectivity is present at all times

Percentages are calculated row-wise and Chi-Square p=0.329

heavily depend on tethered Internet for connectivity.

**Table 7.** Study Mode and Availability of Tethered Internet Connectivity

**connectivity and hence none of them has leverage over the other in as far as** 

Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree Total

connectivity conditions which have a significant influence on mLearning uptake.

**tethered Internet connectivity for mLearning is concerned.** 

**Table 8.** Learners' Usual Learning Environments and Availability of Internet Connectivity

Contrary to the common belief that urban based learners have readily available Internet connectivity, the statistics in *Table 8* have indicated otherwise. A p-value of 0.329 in *Table 8* above indicates no significant association between location of learners' usual learning environment and availability of tethered Internet connectivity. Thus rural, semi-urban and urban based learners experienced similar availability or non-availability of Internet connectivity. We accept the null hypothesis that internal and distance learners experience similar tethered Internet connectivity conditions which have a significant influence on mLearning uptake.

About 78.0 percent of the learners either strongly disagreed (34.5 Percent) or disagreed (42.4 Percent) to the statement that Internet connectivity was available to them at all times. For those who had Internet connectivity, it was skewed more towards urban and semi-urban settings, that is to say, areas with electricity. This is explained by the strong association (p = 0.000) between electric power supply and Internet connectivity as seen in *Table 9* below.

#### **Ho: Internal and distance learners operate in conditions of similar electric power supply and hence none of them has leverage over the other in as far as electric power supply for mLearning is concerned.**

Electric power is necessary for powering the telecommunication infrastructure and charging mobile device batteries. As can be seen in *Table 9* below, electric power supply was significantly associated with tethered Internet connectivity (p = 0.000).


a 1 cells (6.3 Percent) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.71.

**Table 9.** Power Supply and Internet Connectivity

Interestingly, when a Chi-Square test was undertaken between availability of electric power supply and mobile network connectivity, a non-significant result (p=0.301) was returned. This result concurs with results in our earlier study in which we found that mLearning could overcome the constraints that lack of electricity imposes on eLearning (Muyinda *et al*., 2010). This is because telecommunication companies have setup transmission masts in rural areas that are powered by diesel generators and mobile device users in areas with no electricity can charge them using solar power, car chargers, batteries and generators. But which of the different modes of study is more privileged than the other in terms of electric power supply? This question is answered in *Table 10* below.

Study Mode Does Not Matter: MLearning Can Support Internal and Distance Learners 249

supply was more available in urban (39.6 Percent) and semi-urban (31.4 Percent) settings than rural (26.1 Percent) areas. However, even where power supply was available, its supply was intermittent as 62.8 Percent of the learners surveyed either strongly disagreed (22.8 Percent) or disagreed (40.0 Percent) to the statement that power supply was available

From findings in *Tables 9, 10* and *11,* both distance and internal learners experienced similar electric power supply connectivity conditions which effectively affirm the hypothesis that internal and distance learners operate in conditions of similar electric power supply and hence none of them has leverage over the other in as far as electric power supply for

**Ho: Both internal and distance learners have learning activities that can be ported** 

There exists a host of possible mLearning activities that can be ported onto mLearning. According study revealed that the number one candidate mLearning activities were those that learners accomplished while they were outside the classroom. These activities were either direct learning activities or activities meant to plan and support direct learning

While outside the classroom, both internal and distance learners participated in collaborative and interactive learning (41.0%), co-curricular/extra-curricula activities (20.0%) and independent research (16.0%). They also completed theoretical, practical and field course works and assignments (8.0%) and watched/listening to educative and entertaining music, news and movies (6.0%). Some learners engaged in work related activities (4%), consulted their lecturers (7.0%), acquainted themselves with the university environment (1.0%) and took computer lessons (1.0%). All these activities can be variously supported

Other learning activities suggested in the study for possible porting in mLearning were: provision of summaries of classroom discussions, reminders/alerts to various learning events and requirements, information about lectures and examinations venues, motivational messages, reference lists and hints on approach to questions, requirements for attending a given lecture, self evaluation via sequenced multiple choice quizzes and reflective learning using simulated classroom/laboratory activities recorded as MP3 files or video clips. Other classroom-based mLearning examples include: sharing of files using Bluetooth, anonymous

The purpose for which the distance learning programmes were started in Uganda was "… to provide access to a cross-section of clients, including adults working and living in the countryside" (Aguti, 2009, p.219). This study has established that only 21.1 percent of the

voting and playing short demonstrations of experiments.

to them at all times.

mLearning is concerned.

activities.

through mLearning.

**9. Discussion** 

**9.1. Distance learning in Uganda** 

**onto mobile devices.** 


Percentages are calculated row-wise and p=0.199

**Table 10.** Study Mode and Availability of Electric Power Supply

From *Table 4.10* above, there was no significant association (p=0.199) between study mode and availability of electric power supply. This means that both internal and distance learners faced similar conditions in as far as electric power supply was concerned. Power load shedding in Uganda was a common phenomenon. Rosters of power load shedding were published daily in local newspapers. However, intermittence or complete lack of electric power supply was more common in rural or semi-urban areas than urban ones. This is evidenced by the significant association between location of learners' usual learning environment and availability of power supply in *Table 11* below.


Percentages are calculated row-wise and p=0.000

**Table 11.** Location of Learners' Usual Learning Environments and Availability of Power Supply

From *Table 11* above, a p-value of 0.000 was generated in a cross-tabulation of location of learners' usual learning environment with availability of electric power supply. This p-value (0.000) indicates that the location of the learners' usual learning environment is strongly significantly associated with availability of power supply. The results show that power supply was more available in urban (39.6 Percent) and semi-urban (31.4 Percent) settings than rural (26.1 Percent) areas. However, even where power supply was available, its supply was intermittent as 62.8 Percent of the learners surveyed either strongly disagreed (22.8 Percent) or disagreed (40.0 Percent) to the statement that power supply was available to them at all times.

From findings in *Tables 9, 10* and *11,* both distance and internal learners experienced similar electric power supply connectivity conditions which effectively affirm the hypothesis that internal and distance learners operate in conditions of similar electric power supply and hence none of them has leverage over the other in as far as electric power supply for mLearning is concerned.

#### **Ho: Both internal and distance learners have learning activities that can be ported onto mobile devices.**

There exists a host of possible mLearning activities that can be ported onto mLearning. According study revealed that the number one candidate mLearning activities were those that learners accomplished while they were outside the classroom. These activities were either direct learning activities or activities meant to plan and support direct learning activities.

While outside the classroom, both internal and distance learners participated in collaborative and interactive learning (41.0%), co-curricular/extra-curricula activities (20.0%) and independent research (16.0%). They also completed theoretical, practical and field course works and assignments (8.0%) and watched/listening to educative and entertaining music, news and movies (6.0%). Some learners engaged in work related activities (4%), consulted their lecturers (7.0%), acquainted themselves with the university environment (1.0%) and took computer lessons (1.0%). All these activities can be variously supported through mLearning.

Other learning activities suggested in the study for possible porting in mLearning were: provision of summaries of classroom discussions, reminders/alerts to various learning events and requirements, information about lectures and examinations venues, motivational messages, reference lists and hints on approach to questions, requirements for attending a given lecture, self evaluation via sequenced multiple choice quizzes and reflective learning using simulated classroom/laboratory activities recorded as MP3 files or video clips. Other classroom-based mLearning examples include: sharing of files using Bluetooth, anonymous voting and playing short demonstrations of experiments.

### **9. Discussion**

248 Distance Education

Study mode

*Location of learners' usual learning environment* 

Interestingly, when a Chi-Square test was undertaken between availability of electric power supply and mobile network connectivity, a non-significant result (p=0.301) was returned. This result concurs with results in our earlier study in which we found that mLearning could overcome the constraints that lack of electricity imposes on eLearning (Muyinda *et al*., 2010). This is because telecommunication companies have setup transmission masts in rural areas that are powered by diesel generators and mobile device users in areas with no electricity can charge them using solar power, car chargers, batteries and generators. But which of the different modes of study is more privileged than the other in terms of electric

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree Total

Distance 30.2 % (n=65) 40.5 % (n=87) 20.5 % (n=44) 8.8 % (n=19) n=215 Internal 15.8 % (n=36) 39.5 % (n=90) 32.9 % (n=75) 11.8 % (n=27) n=228 Total 22.8 % (n=101) 40.0 % (n=177) 26.9 % (n=119) 10.4 % (n=46) N=443

From *Table 4.10* above, there was no significant association (p=0.199) between study mode and availability of electric power supply. This means that both internal and distance learners faced similar conditions in as far as electric power supply was concerned. Power load shedding in Uganda was a common phenomenon. Rosters of power load shedding were published daily in local newspapers. However, intermittence or complete lack of electric power supply was more common in rural or semi-urban areas than urban ones. This is evidenced by the significant association between location of learners' usual learning

*Electric power supply is availability all the time* 

Rural 58.7% (n=27) 15.2% (n=07) 15.2% (n=07) 10.9% (n=05) n=46 Urban 17.6% (n=61) 42.8% (n=148) 28.3% (n=98) 11.3% (n=39) n=346 Semi-urban 25.5% (n=13) 43.1% (n=22) 27.5% (n=14) 3.9% (n=02) n=51 Total 22.8% (n=101) 40.0% (n=177) 26.9% (n=119) 10.4% (n=46) N=443

**Table 11.** Location of Learners' Usual Learning Environments and Availability of Power Supply

From *Table 11* above, a p-value of 0.000 was generated in a cross-tabulation of location of learners' usual learning environment with availability of electric power supply. This p-value (0.000) indicates that the location of the learners' usual learning environment is strongly significantly associated with availability of power supply. The results show that power

**Strongly** *Total* 

**Disagree Agree Strongly** 

**Agree** 

power supply? This question is answered in *Table 10* below.

Power supply is availability all the time

**Table 10.** Study Mode and Availability of Electric Power Supply

environment and availability of power supply in *Table 11* below.

Percentages are calculated row-wise and p=0.199

**Disagree** 

Percentages are calculated row-wise and p=0.000

#### **9.1. Distance learning in Uganda**

The purpose for which the distance learning programmes were started in Uganda was "… to provide access to a cross-section of clients, including adults working and living in the countryside" (Aguti, 2009, p.219). This study has established that only 21.1 percent of the distance learners where resident in the countryside (rural areas). The majority 55.5% lived in the capital city of Kampala while 23.4 Percent lived in semi-urban areas. Distance learners preferred to live in Kampala because, "this is where I will get easy access to reading materials and my professors at Makerere University", said one of the distance learners. This shows that the distance learning student support system in Uganda is not decentralized. This forces the students to relocate to Kampala hence turning distance learning programmes into 'on-campus-based' distance learning programmes. The recommendations here would be to put in place systems that permit decentralization of student support systems. MLearning is one such support systems.

Study Mode Does Not Matter: MLearning Can Support Internal and Distance Learners 251

Internal and distance learners can all be supported through mLearning. Both internal and distance learners interact and collaborate with each. mLearning abets interactive and collaborative learning. When learners collaborate and interact with each other, they create new knowledge (Fisher & Baird, 2007; Uden, 2007; Vygotsky, 1978). In Doos *et al*. (2005), workers collaboratively engaged each other to co-create new knowledge for new product development. Likewise, in this study, it was established that learners collaboratively accomplished group assignments, which indicates that there was collaborative and

The study further revealed that several learning support activities could be ported onto mLearning for distance and internal learners. These include: provision of summaries of classroom discussions, reminders/alerts to various learning events and requirements, information about lectures and examinations venues, motivational messages, reference lists and hints on approach to questions, requirements for attending a given lecture, self evaluation via sequenced multiple choice quizzes and reflective learning using simulated classroom/laboratory activities recorded as MP3 files or video clips. Studies such those in Brown & Diaz (2010), Dyson *et al*. (2009), Lehsten *et al*. (2010), Traxler (2007) and others give these and many more as possible mLearning activities. The common thread in many of the mLearning activities is that they are mainly teaching and learning support activities. For that reason, mLearning is also underpinned by the learning and teaching support theory (Naismith *et al*., 2006). The learning and teaching support theory (Naismith *et al*., 2006), posits that learning is not only about providing learners with content but is coupled with a great deal of learner and learning resources coordination. This necessitates support systems in learning and teaching not only for distance learners but also for internal learners. Just like any other technology use in the classroom, for example use of laptop in the classroom, negotiated use mLearning devices in the classroom by internal learners need to be negotiated (Brown & Diaz, 2010). This will dispel fears accruing from disruption caused by

Generally speaking, mLearning activities tend to be of short durations (Brown & Diaz, 2010). This augurs well with on-the-go learners who do not have enough time for sustained long duration checks on their mobile devices. The short duration of mLearning dictates the need to devise appropriate "pedagogies and learning opportunities that are unique to this type of technology rather than attempting to translate what is currently done with laptops

Although there has been a claim that mLearning is mainly suited for distance learners, this study has disputed this claim. MLearning is capable of supporting both distance and internal learners. All that matters is a consideration for the different contexts that each of these two categories of learners experience before appropriate mLearning pedagogies can be designed for each of them. We disclaim however, that not all context variables have been

**9.3. MLearning activities** 

interactive learning.

the devices to classroom learning.

onto the mobile device" (Brown & Diaz, 2010, p.9).

**10. Conclusion and future work** 

#### **9.2. Study mode and MLearning**

Since both internal and distance learners live and operate mainly from urban based environments, they experience noise pollution associated with urban environments. From this study, it was established that noise pollution has a significant effect on mLearning based on audio-based learning objects. This presents the need to design multiple learning objects for mLearning so as to cater for different noise levels in different study environment. Since a good proportion of internal (75.0 Percent) and distance (55.5 Percent) learners live in urban areas which tend to be noisier than rural or semi-urban areas, mLearning based on audio learning objects would not be suitable for them. MLearning based on text or video learning objects will be appropriate. Our reasoning is inline with the requirements of location-based learning as is espoused in Lehsten *et al*. (2010). According to Lehsten *et al*. (2010, p.269), "the approach for the place limit [would be] to integrate the location into the learning process". Location aware mLearning systems come in handy.

Wherever they were located, distance and internal learners were almost equally served with mobile network connectivity because it had permeated almost equally in urban, semi-urban and rural areas of Uganda. Mobile network connectivity was more readily available to both internal and distance learners than tethered Internet connectivity. Since mobile network connectivity is a necessary condition for mLearning, both distance and internal learners can equally be supported through mLearning. Similarly, since tethered Internet connectivity is not readily available to both internal and distance learners, applications based on tethered Internet connectivity are not readily accessible by both internal and distance learners. For example, mLearning applications which are integrated within online learning management systems (whose connectivity backbone is mainly tethered Internet) can not easily be partaken of by both internal and distance learners.

The study has revealed that both internal and distance learners experience similar electric power supply connectivity conditions. They both experience intermittence in power supply or complete lack of it. Whereas electric power supply based on the national grid is very critical to conventional eLearning, this study and others (Muyinda *et al*. 2010) have established that it is not very critical to mLearning. Mobile phone batteries can easily be charged using alternative power sources.

#### **9.3. MLearning activities**

250 Distance Education

MLearning is one such support systems.

**9.2. Study mode and MLearning** 

distance learners where resident in the countryside (rural areas). The majority 55.5% lived in the capital city of Kampala while 23.4 Percent lived in semi-urban areas. Distance learners preferred to live in Kampala because, "this is where I will get easy access to reading materials and my professors at Makerere University", said one of the distance learners. This shows that the distance learning student support system in Uganda is not decentralized. This forces the students to relocate to Kampala hence turning distance learning programmes into 'on-campus-based' distance learning programmes. The recommendations here would be to put in place systems that permit decentralization of student support systems.

Since both internal and distance learners live and operate mainly from urban based environments, they experience noise pollution associated with urban environments. From this study, it was established that noise pollution has a significant effect on mLearning based on audio-based learning objects. This presents the need to design multiple learning objects for mLearning so as to cater for different noise levels in different study environment. Since a good proportion of internal (75.0 Percent) and distance (55.5 Percent) learners live in urban areas which tend to be noisier than rural or semi-urban areas, mLearning based on audio learning objects would not be suitable for them. MLearning based on text or video learning objects will be appropriate. Our reasoning is inline with the requirements of location-based learning as is espoused in Lehsten *et al*. (2010). According to Lehsten *et al*. (2010, p.269), "the approach for the place limit [would be] to integrate the location into the

Wherever they were located, distance and internal learners were almost equally served with mobile network connectivity because it had permeated almost equally in urban, semi-urban and rural areas of Uganda. Mobile network connectivity was more readily available to both internal and distance learners than tethered Internet connectivity. Since mobile network connectivity is a necessary condition for mLearning, both distance and internal learners can equally be supported through mLearning. Similarly, since tethered Internet connectivity is not readily available to both internal and distance learners, applications based on tethered Internet connectivity are not readily accessible by both internal and distance learners. For example, mLearning applications which are integrated within online learning management systems (whose connectivity backbone is mainly tethered Internet) can not easily be

The study has revealed that both internal and distance learners experience similar electric power supply connectivity conditions. They both experience intermittence in power supply or complete lack of it. Whereas electric power supply based on the national grid is very critical to conventional eLearning, this study and others (Muyinda *et al*. 2010) have established that it is not very critical to mLearning. Mobile phone batteries can easily be

learning process". Location aware mLearning systems come in handy.

partaken of by both internal and distance learners.

charged using alternative power sources.

Internal and distance learners can all be supported through mLearning. Both internal and distance learners interact and collaborate with each. mLearning abets interactive and collaborative learning. When learners collaborate and interact with each other, they create new knowledge (Fisher & Baird, 2007; Uden, 2007; Vygotsky, 1978). In Doos *et al*. (2005), workers collaboratively engaged each other to co-create new knowledge for new product development. Likewise, in this study, it was established that learners collaboratively accomplished group assignments, which indicates that there was collaborative and interactive learning.

The study further revealed that several learning support activities could be ported onto mLearning for distance and internal learners. These include: provision of summaries of classroom discussions, reminders/alerts to various learning events and requirements, information about lectures and examinations venues, motivational messages, reference lists and hints on approach to questions, requirements for attending a given lecture, self evaluation via sequenced multiple choice quizzes and reflective learning using simulated classroom/laboratory activities recorded as MP3 files or video clips. Studies such those in Brown & Diaz (2010), Dyson *et al*. (2009), Lehsten *et al*. (2010), Traxler (2007) and others give these and many more as possible mLearning activities. The common thread in many of the mLearning activities is that they are mainly teaching and learning support activities. For that reason, mLearning is also underpinned by the learning and teaching support theory (Naismith *et al*., 2006). The learning and teaching support theory (Naismith *et al*., 2006), posits that learning is not only about providing learners with content but is coupled with a great deal of learner and learning resources coordination. This necessitates support systems in learning and teaching not only for distance learners but also for internal learners. Just like any other technology use in the classroom, for example use of laptop in the classroom, negotiated use mLearning devices in the classroom by internal learners need to be negotiated (Brown & Diaz, 2010). This will dispel fears accruing from disruption caused by the devices to classroom learning.

Generally speaking, mLearning activities tend to be of short durations (Brown & Diaz, 2010). This augurs well with on-the-go learners who do not have enough time for sustained long duration checks on their mobile devices. The short duration of mLearning dictates the need to devise appropriate "pedagogies and learning opportunities that are unique to this type of technology rather than attempting to translate what is currently done with laptops onto the mobile device" (Brown & Diaz, 2010, p.9).

#### **10. Conclusion and future work**

Although there has been a claim that mLearning is mainly suited for distance learners, this study has disputed this claim. MLearning is capable of supporting both distance and internal learners. All that matters is a consideration for the different contexts that each of these two categories of learners experience before appropriate mLearning pedagogies can be designed for each of them. We disclaim however, that not all context variables have been

considered in this study. There exist other context variables such as government and institutional policy on mLearning, public and learners' opinions towards mLearning, cost, available resources, societal ethics, age, etc. that could influence uptake of mLearning by internal and distance learners. Futures studies should explore these.

Study Mode Does Not Matter: MLearning Can Support Internal and Distance Learners 253

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## **Author details**

Paul B. Muyinda\* and Jude T. Lubega *Department of Open and Distance Learning, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda* 

Kathy Lynch *University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Queensland, Australia* 

Theo van der Weide

*Information Retrieval and Information Systems, Digital Security, Institute for Computing and Information Sciences, Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands* 

### **Acknowledgement**

The research was undertaken with financial support from SIDA/SAREC, NUFFIC and Makerere University. We are thus very grateful for that support.

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## *Edited by Paul Birevu Muyinda*

Education has become the number one demanded commodity for social and economic transformation for both developing and developed economies. Thus the number of persons going and returning to school has become too big to be handled by existing brick and mortar learning institutions. Besides, the majority of lifelong learners do not have the time to become full-time students. Distance education is becoming the solution to the aforementioned challenges. It has been defined as the mode of study where the learner is separated in time and space from the institution and tutors providing the tuition.

Distance Education

Distance Education

*Edited by Paul Birevu Muyinda*

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