**Meet the editor**

Paul Birevu Muyinda is a Senior Lecturer and Head, Department of Open and Distance Learning, in the School of Distance and Lifelong Learning at Makerere University, Uganda. He holds a PhD in information systems specialising in mobile and electronic learning. In his PhD, Paul developed a Framework for Deploying and Utilising Learning Objects on Mobile Phones. This

Uganda Communications Commission award winning framework has culminated into the development of several mobile learning applications. His research interests lie in mLearning, ICT4E, ICT4D, distance education, OER, and social media for student support. Paul is currently pursuing a two year postdoctoral research that shall lead to the total integration of mobile learning in the distance education student support system of Makerere University.

Contents

**Preface IX** 

Ali Rıza Erdem

Idowu Biao

Mpine E. Makoe

Chapter 2 **Open and Distance Learning:** 

Chapter 1 **Strategic Decision of Non-Profit State Universities: Turning to Open and Distance Education 1** 

**in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 27** 

**Mobile Learning in Supporting Distance Learners 63** 

Ana Maria Josceanu, Raluca Daniela Isopescu, Paula Postelnicescu,

Ana Alice Vilas Boas, Thair Hamtini, Patricia Aparecida Ferreira

**Achievements and Challenges** 

Chapter 3 **Bridging the Distance: The Pedagogy of** 

Chapter 5 **E-Learning in Chemical Education 99** 

Chapter 6 **Virtual Reality Technology as an Didactical** 

**for Professional Training 141**  Elomar Christina Vieira Castilho Barilli

and Renata Pedretti Morais Furtado

**in Japanese Higher Education 181** 

Chapter 8 **Generations of Distance Education and** 

Kumiko Aoki

Chapter 4 **Virtual Reality Applied in Distance Education 81** 

Adriana Soares Pereira and Sandra Dutra Piovesan

Anca Madalina Dumitrescu and Razvan Onofrei

Chapter 7 **Quality Assurance in Distance Education in Brazil 157** 

**Challenges of Distance Education Institutions** 

**and Pedagogical Resource in Distance Education** 

## Contents

#### **Preface XI**


Chapter 2 **Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 27**  Idowu Biao


#### Chapter 10 **Study Mode Does Not Matter: MLearning Can Support Internal and Distance Learners 235**  Paul B. Muyinda, Jude T. Lubega, Kathy Lynch and Theo van der Weide

## Preface

Education has become the number one demanded commodity for social and economic transformation for both developing and developed economies. Thus the number of persons going and returning to school has become too big to be handled by existing brick and mortar learning institutions. Besides, the majority of lifelong learners do not have the time to become full-time students. Distance education is becoming the solution to the aforementioned challenges. Distance education has been defined as the mode of study where the learner is separated in time and space from the institution and tutors providing the tuition. In the early formation of distance education, the 'gap' between the distance learner and their institution was covered by self instructional paper based study materials. The emergence of information and communications technology (ICT) has changing the horizon of distance education. More and more of the distance learning programmes and courses are being ported onto online learning platforms. This is particularly so for distance learning programmes from developed countries where access to the Internet presents no particular challenges. In developing countries, blended distance education is still pervasive. In these nations, paper based self instructional materials still form the bulk of the distance learner support media. These materials are augmented with ICT support. The support ICTs used include: offline CDs, online learning management systems and mobile devices. The choice of support ICTs is occasioned by their accessibility to the learners. Mobile devises are increasing permeating the support sphere for distance learners in developing countries because, in most of these countries, mobile phone ownership amongst university students if averaging at over 99%. As distance learning massifies education, its critics are increasingly arguing that the quality of graduates from this mode is not as good as those from the conventional mode. This criticism has triggered a massive wave of research into frameworks for improving the quality of distance learning graduates. Therefore, distance learning. unlike other modes of delivery, boosts of a wealth of quality assurance frameworks which have increasingly boosted its quality. Besides, by its very nature, distance education, is learner centred. Learner cantered approaches breed a workforce with the badly needed 21st century skills. Further, anyone who has pursued studies through distance education will testify that it provides a rich learning experience as it permits an interplay of various learning experiences from different learning contexts. Thus, contrary to the 'belief' of the critics of the distance education mode of delivery, the employment world continues to absorb graduates from distance

#### XII Preface

education programmes and courses without a fuss. As more and more people get to know the potential of distance education, conventional universities will have no choice but to adapt most of their conventional programmes into distance education programmes.

> **Paul Birevu Muyinda**  Senior Lecturer and Head Department of Open and Distance Learning, School of Distance and Lifelong Learning Makerere University Uganda

**Chapter 1** 

## **Strategic Decision of Non-Profit State Universities: Turning to Open and Distance Education**

Ali Rıza Erdem

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/48081

## **1. Introduction**

"The King Philippoemenis, the king of Akhaia people who fought with Troyans, is one of the praises modern historians about that always, even in peace time, dealt with management techniques. While walking in the area, he frequently asked his friends about war "*If the army of the enemy were located on the hill over there and our army was located here, which of us would have more advantages? How could get near them without changing our war order? Or, what would we do to withdraw? How would we run after them if they attempted to withdraw?*" Namely, he frequently used to talk to his friends over such matters on the land, trying to know about their opinions and telling them about his opinions and the reasons for his own opinions. Undoubtedly, thanks to such reasoning efforts, he would almost never face to a solution-free problem to drive his army in wartimes. For me, that's the clever king! He never wastes his time during the peace time and makes every possible preparation in time to benefit when necessary."

Nicollo Machiavelli

Undoubtedly, the 21st century has been exposed to an incredible pace and changes could be realised in many ways ranging from econimics and politics to administration. However, such a fast change has brought ambiquity together which invariably leads to sudden variations for inner and outer layers of organizations. However, such a case is likely to mean both opportunities and threats.

Actually, not only Chance, the ambiquity evolving with the change but also opportunities and threats appearing with the ambiquity play a pivot role in maintenance of the organization. Thus, the earlier an organization figures out these opportunities and threats in

© 2012 Erdem, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

the changing process and develops a strategy and makes up a rigorous vision, the more likely it could develop its existence and role. Otherwise, maintenance of an organization will be at considerable risk.

Strategic Decision of Non-Profit State Universities: Turning to Open and Distance Education 3

another state of balance almos inevitable. In this respect, our age – the 21st century – will surely be a remarkable period in which we will be exposed to a great many of changes. In fact, within the new respect, for individuals and organization, "*the change*" has become a must now to remain rather than development or advancement (Şimşek, 1997; Ceyhan & Summak, 1999; Tabancal, 2000). Briefly, management of the innovation and even being the pioneer of this process (performance of new changes) seems crucial as a part this inevitable

"So it is said that if you know others and know yourself, you will not be imperiled in a hundred battles; if you do not know others, but do know yourself, you win one and lose one; if you do not know others and do not know yourself, you will be imperiled

According to Bursaloğlu (1991) "*making decision*" is the first major step is management, and so any organization is supposed to have the ability for decision to be more effective. Therefore, "*making decision*" starts with the perception of the state to reach a decision. It could also be expossed as a method or a process of an ability to make choise among two or more options by taking all possibilities into consideration. As a management concept which refers to making a choise, "*making decision"* is an indispensable part of the administrational process, so it is quite usual to see this process in any level or funtions of the administration. In addition, management is a function of making decisions. That's why, making decision in administration level is of a vital role to reach organizational aims in an efficient way because the decisions given by administrators are, at times, likely to affect the staff, the partners as well as related social groups even through these decision many indicate differences depending on their administration status (Koçel, 1995; Lucey, 1991; Aydeniz, 2002). According to Koçel (1995), "*Making decision is a process which has a starting point, it but differs after this point due to many different professions, activities and ideas and this process ends up with a choice*. *Therefore, it is impossible for an administration to give up "making decision" wherever he takes place in the organization, no matter what he deals with, whether he loves his profession or not. In that way, "making decision" is such a prior responsibility of the administrator that administration could now be explained as the profession of "making right decision" as the succes or failure of the organization is directly relevant to his decision; therefore, in modern organization "making decision" is regarded as the basic element of administration*". Namely, as "*making decision*" about what to do, who to do as well as when, where and what to do will take up

much of their time, they consider "*making decision*" their most inevitable mission.

Organizations may, at times, need to reach different decisions depending on the situation and such decisions could vary ranging from being strategic, routine or non-routine to being operational, sub-level or upper-level. Organizational decisions could vary ranging from

*Sun Tzu* 

process.

**1.1. Strategic decision** 

in every single battle."

For a system (an individual or an organization), change refers to transformation into another dimension, regardless that it is on purpose or not. Thus, change means an inevitable process of maintenance in which the major consideration is transformation into another state (Sağlam, 1979; Çelebioğlu, 1988; TDK 1992; Özdemir, 1996; Yeniçeri 2002). Therefore, organizations cannot remain without contacting to their environment and so they are expected to keep the pace of ever-changing conditions. In that way, the maintenance of organizations in such conditions plays a pivot role in seeing what they are supposed to offer rigorously.

According to Şimşek (1997) organizational change were explained through several theories. According to "*classical-functional perception",* the organization could only keep the pace of change step by step. However, "*new functional perception"* suggests that the organization should adopt itself to the changes in its environment by taking radical and methamorphic methods of change. On the other hand, according to *"system theories"* the organization is exposed to change as in the biological change process of an organism: the birth (inception), maturity (transformation) and death (deterioration or undermining). Ones suggesting *"organizational ecology"* judging from Darwin's theory that "*only the most flexible ones could remain*", claim that only the system adopting the environment at best could maintain whereas the others will disappear over time through "*natural selection*". According to *"organizational development approach"*, remaining could be realized only by controlling the 5 variables (strategy, consruction, technology, culture and administration) which play major role in the system. According to the *"commentator and symbolist"* approach, realist is not objective as objectivity is not available to bring a satisfying explanation for the individual nature of the human beings. To make conclusion, it seems probable that social systems are a collection of the meanings which are purposed by the human beings to contribute the reality. Thus, the change is to start by considering the individdl in the system and his point of view about the world. According to *"paradigmatic change",* change is an interconnected process of evaluational and revolutional changes and so prolonged evolutional processes are disrupted by revolutions at short intervals.

"*Change*" is not invariably a phenomenon which is merely native to our age, but the major source of power which makes "*change*" invariable is that the knowledge we have is exposed to constant change and its coverage area have continuously enlarged. Thus, the term "*change*" seems to have forced every society, institution, corporation and organization and everybody to take the warning of Prahalad seriously "*you'll die if you do not change".* As a result, the pace, power and effect of change has reached today to incredible levels. However, what the term "*change*" means to organizations as a whole could still be explained as "*risk*" while its opposite refers to "*stability*" which will essentially mean the least change possible in the organization (Gibson, 1997, Gates, 2000). Therefore, the most advisable trend between the systems are usually known as the "*balance*"and because the changes (in other systems) around every organization will necesssarity disrupt the current balance, the case will make another state of balance almos inevitable. In this respect, our age – the 21st century – will surely be a remarkable period in which we will be exposed to a great many of changes. In fact, within the new respect, for individuals and organization, "*the change*" has become a must now to remain rather than development or advancement (Şimşek, 1997; Ceyhan & Summak, 1999; Tabancal, 2000). Briefly, management of the innovation and even being the pioneer of this process (performance of new changes) seems crucial as a part this inevitable process.

#### **1.1. Strategic decision**

2 Distance Education

rigorously.

be at considerable risk.

are disrupted by revolutions at short intervals.

the changing process and develops a strategy and makes up a rigorous vision, the more likely it could develop its existence and role. Otherwise, maintenance of an organization will

For a system (an individual or an organization), change refers to transformation into another dimension, regardless that it is on purpose or not. Thus, change means an inevitable process of maintenance in which the major consideration is transformation into another state (Sağlam, 1979; Çelebioğlu, 1988; TDK 1992; Özdemir, 1996; Yeniçeri 2002). Therefore, organizations cannot remain without contacting to their environment and so they are expected to keep the pace of ever-changing conditions. In that way, the maintenance of organizations in such conditions plays a pivot role in seeing what they are supposed to offer

According to Şimşek (1997) organizational change were explained through several theories. According to "*classical-functional perception",* the organization could only keep the pace of change step by step. However, "*new functional perception"* suggests that the organization should adopt itself to the changes in its environment by taking radical and methamorphic methods of change. On the other hand, according to *"system theories"* the organization is exposed to change as in the biological change process of an organism: the birth (inception), maturity (transformation) and death (deterioration or undermining). Ones suggesting *"organizational ecology"* judging from Darwin's theory that "*only the most flexible ones could remain*", claim that only the system adopting the environment at best could maintain whereas the others will disappear over time through "*natural selection*". According to *"organizational development approach"*, remaining could be realized only by controlling the 5 variables (strategy, consruction, technology, culture and administration) which play major role in the system. According to the *"commentator and symbolist"* approach, realist is not objective as objectivity is not available to bring a satisfying explanation for the individual nature of the human beings. To make conclusion, it seems probable that social systems are a collection of the meanings which are purposed by the human beings to contribute the reality. Thus, the change is to start by considering the individdl in the system and his point of view about the world. According to *"paradigmatic change",* change is an interconnected process of evaluational and revolutional changes and so prolonged evolutional processes

"*Change*" is not invariably a phenomenon which is merely native to our age, but the major source of power which makes "*change*" invariable is that the knowledge we have is exposed to constant change and its coverage area have continuously enlarged. Thus, the term "*change*" seems to have forced every society, institution, corporation and organization and everybody to take the warning of Prahalad seriously "*you'll die if you do not change".* As a result, the pace, power and effect of change has reached today to incredible levels. However, what the term "*change*" means to organizations as a whole could still be explained as "*risk*" while its opposite refers to "*stability*" which will essentially mean the least change possible in the organization (Gibson, 1997, Gates, 2000). Therefore, the most advisable trend between the systems are usually known as the "*balance*"and because the changes (in other systems) around every organization will necesssarity disrupt the current balance, the case will make "So it is said that if you know others and know yourself, you will not be imperiled in a hundred battles; if you do not know others, but do know yourself, you win one and lose one; if you do not know others and do not know yourself, you will be imperiled in every single battle."

#### *Sun Tzu*

According to Bursaloğlu (1991) "*making decision*" is the first major step is management, and so any organization is supposed to have the ability for decision to be more effective. Therefore, "*making decision*" starts with the perception of the state to reach a decision. It could also be expossed as a method or a process of an ability to make choise among two or more options by taking all possibilities into consideration. As a management concept which refers to making a choise, "*making decision"* is an indispensable part of the administrational process, so it is quite usual to see this process in any level or funtions of the administration. In addition, management is a function of making decisions. That's why, making decision in administration level is of a vital role to reach organizational aims in an efficient way because the decisions given by administrators are, at times, likely to affect the staff, the partners as well as related social groups even through these decision many indicate differences depending on their administration status (Koçel, 1995; Lucey, 1991; Aydeniz, 2002). According to Koçel (1995), "*Making decision is a process which has a starting point, it but differs after this point due to many different professions, activities and ideas and this process ends up with a choice*. *Therefore, it is impossible for an administration to give up "making decision" wherever he takes place in the organization, no matter what he deals with, whether he loves his profession or not. In that way, "making decision" is such a prior responsibility of the administrator that administration could now be explained as the profession of "making right decision" as the succes or failure of the organization is directly relevant to his decision; therefore, in modern organization "making decision" is regarded as the basic element of administration*". Namely, as "*making decision*" about what to do, who to do as well as when, where and what to do will take up much of their time, they consider "*making decision*" their most inevitable mission.

Organizations may, at times, need to reach different decisions depending on the situation and such decisions could vary ranging from being strategic, routine or non-routine to being operational, sub-level or upper-level. Organizational decisions could vary ranging from

ones under certain conditions to uncertain situations. In that way, strategic decision is a large combination of upper-level decisions arranging the relations of the organization with its environment (Eren, 2008).

In making strategic decisions, the most crucial step is the performance of "*SWOT Analysis*" referring to: *(S) Strengths* (Strength aspects of the organization), *(W) Weaknesses* (weak aspects of the organization), *(O) Opportunities* (the opportunities which the organization obtains), *(T) Threats* (the threats and dangers which the organization faces). SWOT analysis makes up an analysis as to inner and outer case because any organization must be aware of the developments in their environment. Therefore, obtaining remarkable success in today's world which is exposed to non-stop winds of change in economic, socio-cultural and technological respects, as well as newly appearing performance criteria, organizations are supposed to develop new strategies which will provide them the maximum advantage possible, taking their weak and powerful sides. Today, this point is undoubtedly of critical importance for many organizations which are in jeopardy. At this point, organizations should be familiar with into their own bodies so as to strategic vitality of "*SWOT Analysis*" and adopt it come up with new strategies in addition to using their sources and capacities at highest level possible by performing rigorous and systematic analysis. When seen in this respect, SWOT analysis could be considered a technique used to underline the weak or powerful sides of the condition as well as figuring out outside-inspired opportunities and threats to the organization. SWOT analysis, therefore, consists of a comprehensive study of positive and negative factors thriving in organizational and environmental factors. Initially, an "*inside-analysis*" is performed to put forward both weak and powerful sides. At this stage, the organization is exposed to "*self-cirticism*" in terms of sources (input), current strategy (the process) and so-far performance (output). As a result, such self-respect will allow the organization gets through a process of "*outer analysis*" so as comprehend the position of the organization compered with other organizations as well as imminent threats and oppurtunities in the future. It should be noted that organizations fail to percivbe in time such outer threats, developments and as a result because they couldn't make up required strategies in time, they mostly tens to close themselves to innovations, falling in a feeling of relief. Such a risk is notably much more serious even for many organizations which enjoyed great success in the past. As a result, for any organization, "*outer-analysis*" must refer to a comprehensive analysis of the recent developments in global and national politics, social, economic and technologic power conditions of outer-competition as well as judgement and perceptional changes native to the groups which are served. Undoubtedly, such an analysis aims at considering what should be seen as an opportunity or threat in outer environment (Ansoff & Declerck & Hayes, 1976; Mintzberg, 1994; Bryson, 1995; Steiner, 1997).

#### **1.2. Non-profit state universities**

"Being free of dependency by knowledge shouldn't mean the overall superiority in the world, but it should refer to be free of imaginative mistakes and mis-beliefs a along with allowing the mind to be free in order to criticize our own opinions."

*Karl. R. Popper*

Strategic Decision of Non-Profit State Universities: Turning to Open and Distance Education 5

In Latin language, the term "*university*" derives from "*universitas*" which refered to "*uniformity*" in the Medival Age. During the period, at "*church-centered university*" between 12th and 15th centuries, education was performed based on a certain programme including scientific, political and theological subjects. Initially, the original universities which are thought to have evolved in Paris and Bologna we under the pressure of both the Holy Rom Empir of the civil outhority and the Papal which meant the theologic outhority. Nevertheless, the theologic outhority of Papal was gradually replaced beginning in the 16th century, by the state's own outhority. The new programmes aimed rather at training administrators for the state's own instutions than the ecclesiastic population. Then, it was the 19th century that universities became an important means all walks of life, offering an advantage for individuals to reach higher status consistent with their own skills. Then, it was in the early 19th century that universities established the philosophic foundations of getting social status complying with the individual's own skills. Throughout the late 18th century and early 19th century, a greaty many of European universities were demolished by Napoleon and Frenh universities were turned out to be a state organ and the aim of them was re-defined as the training of elite staff consistent with the central government's own ideology. In that way, the higher education system of Europe experienced a re-established process as the national higher –education system of countries. In the early 19th century, the main function of the university was keeping the knowledge and transmitting it to prosperities, namely, it was called "*training & education*". However, over time, intellectual responses evolved in Prussia against Franch domaince. For that reason, Prussian King Frederick appointed William Vom Humboldt to reorganize the education system in the country Humboldt, who initially conducted the establishment project of Berlin University (then called as Humboldt University) come up with a system named for his name. According to the system: (1) Universities should be bodies in which the training & education is conducted as a whole in all scientific reals consistent with research activities. (2) Major functions of the university, apart from the vocational & technical higher schools; is its performance ability in education & training and research without addressing to a profession. Thus, the major aim is allowing individuals to build up a novel concept about them. In this respect, "*seminars*" provide a large spectrum of freedom to the education staff and the student in chosing any subject freely which they wish to teach and to learn. As a result, the aim of the study is "*science for science*". (3) The owner of the university not the state, but the nation itself and what the state is supposed to do is to meet the need for education staff, to pay wages and to provide ideal conditions requied for their study. In addition, the academic staff and students should be able to conduct their search and training without having any religious and politic pressure by which the concept of modern university evolved in Germany with effects of French Revolution and Napolean Wars and the new concept was based on accumulation of scientific knowledge within the principal of universal education for free of charge. By the second half of the 20th century, this new university system Humboldt form was reviewed and shaped compabitable with a modern concept. Then, as of the second half of the last century, ever-increasing universities in the USA have had two following major characteristics: (1) Inclusion of fundamental scientific and

its environment (Eren, 2008).

ones under certain conditions to uncertain situations. In that way, strategic decision is a large combination of upper-level decisions arranging the relations of the organization with

In making strategic decisions, the most crucial step is the performance of "*SWOT Analysis*" referring to: *(S) Strengths* (Strength aspects of the organization), *(W) Weaknesses* (weak aspects of the organization), *(O) Opportunities* (the opportunities which the organization obtains), *(T) Threats* (the threats and dangers which the organization faces). SWOT analysis makes up an analysis as to inner and outer case because any organization must be aware of the developments in their environment. Therefore, obtaining remarkable success in today's world which is exposed to non-stop winds of change in economic, socio-cultural and technological respects, as well as newly appearing performance criteria, organizations are supposed to develop new strategies which will provide them the maximum advantage possible, taking their weak and powerful sides. Today, this point is undoubtedly of critical importance for many organizations which are in jeopardy. At this point, organizations should be familiar with into their own bodies so as to strategic vitality of "*SWOT Analysis*" and adopt it come up with new strategies in addition to using their sources and capacities at highest level possible by performing rigorous and systematic analysis. When seen in this respect, SWOT analysis could be considered a technique used to underline the weak or powerful sides of the condition as well as figuring out outside-inspired opportunities and threats to the organization. SWOT analysis, therefore, consists of a comprehensive study of positive and negative factors thriving in organizational and environmental factors. Initially, an "*inside-analysis*" is performed to put forward both weak and powerful sides. At this stage, the organization is exposed to "*self-cirticism*" in terms of sources (input), current strategy (the process) and so-far performance (output). As a result, such self-respect will allow the organization gets through a process of "*outer analysis*" so as comprehend the position of the organization compered with other organizations as well as imminent threats and oppurtunities in the future. It should be noted that organizations fail to percivbe in time such outer threats, developments and as a result because they couldn't make up required strategies in time, they mostly tens to close themselves to innovations, falling in a feeling of relief. Such a risk is notably much more serious even for many organizations which enjoyed great success in the past. As a result, for any organization, "*outer-analysis*" must refer to a comprehensive analysis of the recent developments in global and national politics, social, economic and technologic power conditions of outer-competition as well as judgement and perceptional changes native to the groups which are served. Undoubtedly, such an analysis aims at considering what should be seen as an opportunity or threat in outer environment

(Ansoff & Declerck & Hayes, 1976; Mintzberg, 1994; Bryson, 1995; Steiner, 1997).

"Being free of dependency by knowledge shouldn't mean the overall superiority in the world, but it should refer to be free of imaginative mistakes and mis-beliefs a along with allowing the mind to be free in order to criticize our own opinions."

*Karl. R. Popper*

**1.2. Non-profit state universities** 

In Latin language, the term "*university*" derives from "*universitas*" which refered to "*uniformity*" in the Medival Age. During the period, at "*church-centered university*" between 12th and 15th centuries, education was performed based on a certain programme including scientific, political and theological subjects. Initially, the original universities which are thought to have evolved in Paris and Bologna we under the pressure of both the Holy Rom Empir of the civil outhority and the Papal which meant the theologic outhority. Nevertheless, the theologic outhority of Papal was gradually replaced beginning in the 16th century, by the state's own outhority. The new programmes aimed rather at training administrators for the state's own instutions than the ecclesiastic population. Then, it was the 19th century that universities became an important means all walks of life, offering an advantage for individuals to reach higher status consistent with their own skills. Then, it was in the early 19th century that universities established the philosophic foundations of getting social status complying with the individual's own skills. Throughout the late 18th century and early 19th century, a greaty many of European universities were demolished by Napoleon and Frenh universities were turned out to be a state organ and the aim of them was re-defined as the training of elite staff consistent with the central government's own ideology. In that way, the higher education system of Europe experienced a re-established process as the national higher –education system of countries. In the early 19th century, the main function of the university was keeping the knowledge and transmitting it to prosperities, namely, it was called "*training & education*". However, over time, intellectual responses evolved in Prussia against Franch domaince. For that reason, Prussian King Frederick appointed William Vom Humboldt to reorganize the education system in the country Humboldt, who initially conducted the establishment project of Berlin University (then called as Humboldt University) come up with a system named for his name. According to the system: (1) Universities should be bodies in which the training & education is conducted as a whole in all scientific reals consistent with research activities. (2) Major functions of the university, apart from the vocational & technical higher schools; is its performance ability in education & training and research without addressing to a profession. Thus, the major aim is allowing individuals to build up a novel concept about them. In this respect, "*seminars*" provide a large spectrum of freedom to the education staff and the student in chosing any subject freely which they wish to teach and to learn. As a result, the aim of the study is "*science for science*". (3) The owner of the university not the state, but the nation itself and what the state is supposed to do is to meet the need for education staff, to pay wages and to provide ideal conditions requied for their study. In addition, the academic staff and students should be able to conduct their search and training without having any religious and politic pressure by which the concept of modern university evolved in Germany with effects of French Revolution and Napolean Wars and the new concept was based on accumulation of scientific knowledge within the principal of universal education for free of charge. By the second half of the 20th century, this new university system Humboldt form was reviewed and shaped compabitable with a modern concept. Then, as of the second half of the last century, ever-increasing universities in the USA have had two following major characteristics: (1) Inclusion of fundamental scientific and practical studies with "*social services*" into major responsibilities of the university. (2) Enhancement of vocational training and ever increasing investments reserved by the public and private business in the maintenance of universities' functions. Moreover, granting the right of education to each individual within mass higher education mentality coincides in the same period. Beginning in this period, university pulpits have been increasingly replaced by more flexible departments (Güler, 1994; Gürüz ve diğerleri, 1994; Gürüz, 2001; Korkut, 2001; Arap, 2010).

Strategic Decision of Non-Profit State Universities: Turning to Open and Distance Education 7

*Heraklitus*

**2. Changing status of state universities in our globalizing world** 

continuallly."

"You cannot have a shower in the same river once more, because the water runs

It is a common claim that the modern world has entered into the globalisation era. While globalization discourses are increasing nowadays, the debates have centered on transformation and re-structuring of economy, culture and politics in global perspective. The process called "*globalization*" has nearly been an inevitable part of our routine. In other words, "*globalization*" includes with both its effects and comments of it, enlarged and more developed economic, social and political affairs of countries, increased capital activities, the end of all kinds of polarizations that are based idelogic discrimination, well-awareness of different social cultures and their beliefs and expectations as well as intensed relations of countries. Globalization theories are heavily placed in Giddens (1994, 2000), Harvey (1997) and Robertson's (1999) spectrums. Giddens (1994, 2000), defines the globalization as a process in which remote habitats could be related to each other, local phenomena could sometimes be affected by events occurring in remote places and intensified social relations. According to him, globalization is a conversion process which comes true in places over time. Therefore, social action should be taken out of local dimensions and reshaped within the place and time it occurs. Thus, globalization does not only or primarily refer to economic inter-depency of countries but also mean the conversion of the place and time in which we live. Whether they are financial or not, undoubtedly, the events occurring in remote locations affect us now more directly and instantly than the ones in the past. Therefore, it could be assumed that globalization is comprised of certain sophisticated processes evolving with the combination of political and economic effect as. Harvey (1997), defines globalization as gradually increasing discrepancy in terms of time and location while. Robertson (1999) expresses globalization by underlining the relevant process. In his view, the mutual effection between local and global factors is major factors and in global process, the local ones built up. Robertson, in addition, suggests that globalization is not a newly appearing term, but it is of gradually increasing phases beginning in as early as the 15th century. It seems possible to divide the approaches as to globalization into three groups: (1) Ones who are *golalized perspective* consider globalization to be a dynamic shaping the contemporary world and therefore they generously support the approach. To them, such approaches will inevitable know priority to economy whereas matters like politics and cultures are sub-variables depending on the economy. (2) *The sceptic perception* is of a negative point of view about globalization and therefore, it harshly ciriticizes the establishment of economic hegemonia, suggesting that globalization is a totally deceptive concept and so it is necessary to talk about making globalizaed instead of globalization (3) *The transmissive perception* sees globalization as a process which both consists of numerous opportunities and risks. As a result, almost all walks of life are essentially affected by the globalization process which mainly leads cultural, politics, economic and social affairs to undergo considerable changes. Today, unprecedented

According to Kwiek (2002), the concept of modern university is a combination of intellectual studies of German philosophers ranging from Kant and Fichte to Schiermacher and Wilhelm Von Humboldt. According to them: (1) The University was left by the German philosophers to the nation–state's initative. (2) University is traditionally, as a whole, a considerable consumer of public income. Gürüz (2001), suggests that because modern universities largely depend on public income, autonomy of seems impossible. Therefore, Gürüz argues conversion into "*enterprising university model*" which is largely based on the variation of activities and income sources. The major reason, according to Gürüz, for the inevitable conversion is that: "*Today's contemporaray, universities are bodies which shape their activities often considering social expectations and requirements as well as the sources allocated to themselves rather than personal judgemenets of their own academic staff. In other words, modern universities are heavily contemporary institutions which have been accepted by all sides of the society, open to social inspection onto how much they perform their ressibilites. They also allow their activities to be driven by the society itself along with creating additional financial sources by evaluating any equipment, facility, knowledge, experiment and human sources they have. Modern universities are, meanwhile, highly sophisticated bodies driven by modern administrational techniques*". According to Didou (2002), the USA and Canada, both of which have an upper level of higher education system, regard education as an item to market, and as a financial source marketing mentality. According to Scott (2002), the considerable increase in the number of business university should be seen a remarkable sign the commercialized university education. On the other hand, according to Slaughter & Lselie (1999), university has recently driven within marketing mentality like huge corporations, too. More, universities have gradually seen knowledge as a marketable item on the market. Thus, it is the market itself which will decide on what courses to be given, what kind of studies to be performed or which student profile to be served along with which registration policy to be follow. In that way, the mentality of strategic planning, total quality managemenet and ISO documents have increasingly been institutionalized in many universities, too. On the other hand, the number of part-time of temporary employed academic staff has incredibly boomed so as to enhance productivity and efficiency in universities. In addition, it is now an undeniable fact that the academic staff is exposed to great pressure to perform new attempts for an enhanced academic staff program spectrum (cited by Lee 2002). According to Kwiek (2002), such a trend refers that: "*universities making steps neoliberal mentality will, over time, invariably turn into business corporations as a whole and this case will never satisfy them. This could be, nevertheless, will mean the end of the university as a modern body*".

#### **2. Changing status of state universities in our globalizing world**

6 Distance Education

Gürüz, 2001; Korkut, 2001; Arap, 2010).

practical studies with "*social services*" into major responsibilities of the university. (2) Enhancement of vocational training and ever increasing investments reserved by the public and private business in the maintenance of universities' functions. Moreover, granting the right of education to each individual within mass higher education mentality coincides in the same period. Beginning in this period, university pulpits have been increasingly replaced by more flexible departments (Güler, 1994; Gürüz ve diğerleri, 1994;

According to Kwiek (2002), the concept of modern university is a combination of intellectual studies of German philosophers ranging from Kant and Fichte to Schiermacher and Wilhelm Von Humboldt. According to them: (1) The University was left by the German philosophers to the nation–state's initative. (2) University is traditionally, as a whole, a considerable consumer of public income. Gürüz (2001), suggests that because modern universities largely depend on public income, autonomy of seems impossible. Therefore, Gürüz argues conversion into "*enterprising university model*" which is largely based on the variation of activities and income sources. The major reason, according to Gürüz, for the inevitable conversion is that: "*Today's contemporaray, universities are bodies which shape their activities often considering social expectations and requirements as well as the sources allocated to themselves rather than personal judgemenets of their own academic staff. In other words, modern universities are heavily contemporary institutions which have been accepted by all sides of the society, open to social inspection onto how much they perform their ressibilites. They also allow their activities to be driven by the society itself along with creating additional financial sources by evaluating any equipment, facility, knowledge, experiment and human sources they have. Modern universities are, meanwhile, highly sophisticated bodies driven by modern administrational techniques*". According to Didou (2002), the USA and Canada, both of which have an upper level of higher education system, regard education as an item to market, and as a financial source marketing mentality. According to Scott (2002), the considerable increase in the number of business university should be seen a remarkable sign the commercialized university education. On the other hand, according to Slaughter & Lselie (1999), university has recently driven within marketing mentality like huge corporations, too. More, universities have gradually seen knowledge as a marketable item on the market. Thus, it is the market itself which will decide on what courses to be given, what kind of studies to be performed or which student profile to be served along with which registration policy to be follow. In that way, the mentality of strategic planning, total quality managemenet and ISO documents have increasingly been institutionalized in many universities, too. On the other hand, the number of part-time of temporary employed academic staff has incredibly boomed so as to enhance productivity and efficiency in universities. In addition, it is now an undeniable fact that the academic staff is exposed to great pressure to perform new attempts for an enhanced academic staff program spectrum (cited by Lee 2002). According to Kwiek (2002), such a trend refers that: "*universities making steps neoliberal mentality will, over time, invariably turn into business corporations as a whole and this case will never satisfy them. This* 

*could be, nevertheless, will mean the end of the university as a modern body*".

"You cannot have a shower in the same river once more, because the water runs continuallly."

#### *Heraklitus*

It is a common claim that the modern world has entered into the globalisation era. While globalization discourses are increasing nowadays, the debates have centered on transformation and re-structuring of economy, culture and politics in global perspective. The process called "*globalization*" has nearly been an inevitable part of our routine. In other words, "*globalization*" includes with both its effects and comments of it, enlarged and more developed economic, social and political affairs of countries, increased capital activities, the end of all kinds of polarizations that are based idelogic discrimination, well-awareness of different social cultures and their beliefs and expectations as well as intensed relations of countries. Globalization theories are heavily placed in Giddens (1994, 2000), Harvey (1997) and Robertson's (1999) spectrums. Giddens (1994, 2000), defines the globalization as a process in which remote habitats could be related to each other, local phenomena could sometimes be affected by events occurring in remote places and intensified social relations. According to him, globalization is a conversion process which comes true in places over time. Therefore, social action should be taken out of local dimensions and reshaped within the place and time it occurs. Thus, globalization does not only or primarily refer to economic inter-depency of countries but also mean the conversion of the place and time in which we live. Whether they are financial or not, undoubtedly, the events occurring in remote locations affect us now more directly and instantly than the ones in the past. Therefore, it could be assumed that globalization is comprised of certain sophisticated processes evolving with the combination of political and economic effect as. Harvey (1997), defines globalization as gradually increasing discrepancy in terms of time and location while. Robertson (1999) expresses globalization by underlining the relevant process. In his view, the mutual effection between local and global factors is major factors and in global process, the local ones built up. Robertson, in addition, suggests that globalization is not a newly appearing term, but it is of gradually increasing phases beginning in as early as the 15th century. It seems possible to divide the approaches as to globalization into three groups: (1) Ones who are *golalized perspective* consider globalization to be a dynamic shaping the contemporary world and therefore they generously support the approach. To them, such approaches will inevitable know priority to economy whereas matters like politics and cultures are sub-variables depending on the economy. (2) *The sceptic perception* is of a negative point of view about globalization and therefore, it harshly ciriticizes the establishment of economic hegemonia, suggesting that globalization is a totally deceptive concept and so it is necessary to talk about making globalizaed instead of globalization (3) *The transmissive perception* sees globalization as a process which both consists of numerous opportunities and risks. As a result, almost all walks of life are essentially affected by the globalization process which mainly leads cultural, politics, economic and social affairs to undergo considerable changes. Today, unprecedented

changes in communication, transportation and computes technologies have raisen a new impedus in the globalization process. For this reason, circulation of the capital power has inevitably forced huge corporations to re-organize themselves, as well as demolishing rules, as it doesn't care much about local and national policies. In the meantime, changes in society and the population, economic, changes, family types and changing life styles are only some of the major changes caused by globalization. On the other hand, positive and negative effects of globalization process have also been traditionallty discussed. In this respect, the establishment of common values of human beings, the spreading of new concepts such as human rights, fredoom and justice, the understanding of the global need the qualified human source, the enhancement of opportunities for a healthy life, the chance for free-travel, the establishment of common education policies between countries are surely considered among major positive impacts of globalization. On the other hand, among positive effects are the undermining of such concepts as fredoom or national sovereignity considering national boundries non-existent acceleration of poverty and misery as well as distribution of wealth and prosperity, the dilemma for countries between being a part of globalization and the maintenance of national solidarity (Giddens, 1994; Harvey, 1997; Robertson, 1999; Giddens, 2000; DPT, 2000; Çoban, 2002; Balay, 2004; Çalk & Sezgin, 2005; Zengingönül, 2005; Dağl, 2007; Şen, 2008; Çeken & Ökten & Ateşoğlu, 2008; Erol, 2010).

Strategic Decision of Non-Profit State Universities: Turning to Open and Distance Education 9

could be assumed "*institutional mobility*". As a result, we could conclude that globalization is of great effects on higher education ranging from ever-lessening bufgets allocated to higher education service, I wish for benefiting from opportunities, training with technologic support, gradually increased volume of student market on global based and newly appearing challenges and dictations over ones who are in this field. Meanwhile, among major factors compelling the university to changes / innovations are financial challenges needs of the changing society as well as effects of the market. To obtain a considerable status, almost each new university has aspired new titles such as "*the university of the 21st century*" or "*multiversity*". In such a competitive process, it seems hardly inevitable for state universities, as non-profit bodies, to presume any opportunity and threat so as to develop promising strategies and vision, bing derminers at instable times (Erdem, 2002; Günay 2007; YÖK, 2007;

"…..planning, management and achieving success could never be more challenging than establishment of a new system. Ones who prefer the conventional system on

Undoubtedly, one of the most prominent winds of change in the 20th century is the globalized world which is, in fact, highly new term surging originally in the 1960s. Then, the use of the term "*globalization*" gradually increased until the 1980s. Even though, as a concept, "*globalization*" initially referred to the "*globalized village*" in the 1960s, beginning in the 1980s, scientists increasingly turned their attention to "*globalization*" to study it in a systematic way along with a theoretical respect based on the process itself. When it came to 1990s, "*globalization*" proved to be a key term for scientists. Today, too many people, "*globalization*" should refer to a phrase related to liberalism in terms of economy or universality of democratic concepts while some others regard "*globalization*" as universal human rights, ecological problems or everything that includes all above. One the other hand, one supporting ever-changing see "*globalization*" as a process containing both opportunities and risk. In this respect, it seems true that explanations concerning "*globalization"* do not match with the each other. Namely, on one hand, "*globalization*" may refer to the close affairs of nations in terms of politics, economics and communication and so which is getting smaller and smaller. On the other hand, "*globalization*" refers to a worldwide capitalism, the effort to create a global market as well as the way of capitalists to establish an absolute sovereignty all over the world (DPT, 1995; DPT, 2000; Erdem, 2002; Gündüz, 2002; Kzlçelik, 2002; Sönmez, 2002; Gürak, 2003; Tural, 2004; ILO, 2006; Milli, 2006; Çeken & Ökten & Ateşoğlu, 2008; Erol, 2010; Balkar & Özgan, 2010). Meanwhile, "*globalization*" is also claimed to be as the inevitable result of modern science and new technologies which is mainly based on economic power and has four major dimensions of politics, culture, technology and economics. All systems in the society are necessarily

*Nicollo Machiavelli*

will surely be against and defend themselves against revolutionists."

Çnar, 2009; Odabaş & Frat & İzmirli & Çankaya & Msrl, 2010).

**2.1. Globalization and its effects on state universities** 

Undoubtedly, today's world is exposed to fast changes and ever-changing conditions bring a great many of innovations together, as well. Such national and international changes and innovations have inevitably affected almost all individuals and institutions in the society. Political, social, economic and technologic changes which have notably gained impetus from the last quarter of the 20th century on have increasingly continued in the 21st century, too. In this process, it is certain that the lessening cost and spreading of information technologies have eliminated such concepts as distance and borders as of the very beginning of the 21st century, universities have undergone an unprecedented innovation process which cannot be considered as not only the simultaneous results of efforts to reach more functional system in global higher education compatible with the 21st century and the third millennium, but also the process based on pure technology which could afford to affect all walks of life. Such a case could probably be caused by the coincidence of technologic abilities leading to changes and the 21st century. In this process, higher education has also gradually been a lobal field, leaving its old traditional concepts native to countries. Thus, higher education system of developed nations has increasinly been exposed to a constant flux of students, due to everincreasing demand from developing countries. For instance, the numbers of foreign students at higher education instutions of OECD countries have reached 1.6 million, doubling in the last two decades. On the other hand, developments in information technologies have evolved a novel situation in global higher education which is completely free of student circulation. Thus, the most remarkable form of such a new case could be named as "*programme mobility*" by which students could register their name and get a university degree through virtuall programmes without needing to go or stay abroad for another country's education programmes. Another form which has recently evolved is that universities of developed nation's offer education service by establishing new campuses in other countries, which could be assumed "*institutional mobility*". As a result, we could conclude that globalization is of great effects on higher education ranging from ever-lessening bufgets allocated to higher education service, I wish for benefiting from opportunities, training with technologic support, gradually increased volume of student market on global based and newly appearing challenges and dictations over ones who are in this field. Meanwhile, among major factors compelling the university to changes / innovations are financial challenges needs of the changing society as well as effects of the market. To obtain a considerable status, almost each new university has aspired new titles such as "*the university of the 21st century*" or "*multiversity*". In such a competitive process, it seems hardly inevitable for state universities, as non-profit bodies, to presume any opportunity and threat so as to develop promising strategies and vision, bing derminers at instable times (Erdem, 2002; Günay 2007; YÖK, 2007; Çnar, 2009; Odabaş & Frat & İzmirli & Çankaya & Msrl, 2010).

#### **2.1. Globalization and its effects on state universities**

8 Distance Education

changes in communication, transportation and computes technologies have raisen a new impedus in the globalization process. For this reason, circulation of the capital power has inevitably forced huge corporations to re-organize themselves, as well as demolishing rules, as it doesn't care much about local and national policies. In the meantime, changes in society and the population, economic, changes, family types and changing life styles are only some of the major changes caused by globalization. On the other hand, positive and negative effects of globalization process have also been traditionallty discussed. In this respect, the establishment of common values of human beings, the spreading of new concepts such as human rights, fredoom and justice, the understanding of the global need the qualified human source, the enhancement of opportunities for a healthy life, the chance for free-travel, the establishment of common education policies between countries are surely considered among major positive impacts of globalization. On the other hand, among positive effects are the undermining of such concepts as fredoom or national sovereignity considering national boundries non-existent acceleration of poverty and misery as well as distribution of wealth and prosperity, the dilemma for countries between being a part of globalization and the maintenance of national solidarity (Giddens, 1994; Harvey, 1997; Robertson, 1999; Giddens, 2000; DPT, 2000; Çoban, 2002; Balay, 2004; Çalk & Sezgin, 2005; Zengingönül, 2005; Dağl,

Undoubtedly, today's world is exposed to fast changes and ever-changing conditions bring a great many of innovations together, as well. Such national and international changes and innovations have inevitably affected almost all individuals and institutions in the society. Political, social, economic and technologic changes which have notably gained impetus from the last quarter of the 20th century on have increasingly continued in the 21st century, too. In this process, it is certain that the lessening cost and spreading of information technologies have eliminated such concepts as distance and borders as of the very beginning of the 21st century, universities have undergone an unprecedented innovation process which cannot be considered as not only the simultaneous results of efforts to reach more functional system in global higher education compatible with the 21st century and the third millennium, but also the process based on pure technology which could afford to affect all walks of life. Such a case could probably be caused by the coincidence of technologic abilities leading to changes and the 21st century. In this process, higher education has also gradually been a lobal field, leaving its old traditional concepts native to countries. Thus, higher education system of developed nations has increasinly been exposed to a constant flux of students, due to everincreasing demand from developing countries. For instance, the numbers of foreign students at higher education instutions of OECD countries have reached 1.6 million, doubling in the last two decades. On the other hand, developments in information technologies have evolved a novel situation in global higher education which is completely free of student circulation. Thus, the most remarkable form of such a new case could be named as "*programme mobility*" by which students could register their name and get a university degree through virtuall programmes without needing to go or stay abroad for another country's education programmes. Another form which has recently evolved is that universities of developed nation's offer education service by establishing new campuses in other countries, which

2007; Şen, 2008; Çeken & Ökten & Ateşoğlu, 2008; Erol, 2010).

"…..planning, management and achieving success could never be more challenging than establishment of a new system. Ones who prefer the conventional system on will surely be against and defend themselves against revolutionists."

#### *Nicollo Machiavelli*

Undoubtedly, one of the most prominent winds of change in the 20th century is the globalized world which is, in fact, highly new term surging originally in the 1960s. Then, the use of the term "*globalization*" gradually increased until the 1980s. Even though, as a concept, "*globalization*" initially referred to the "*globalized village*" in the 1960s, beginning in the 1980s, scientists increasingly turned their attention to "*globalization*" to study it in a systematic way along with a theoretical respect based on the process itself. When it came to 1990s, "*globalization*" proved to be a key term for scientists. Today, too many people, "*globalization*" should refer to a phrase related to liberalism in terms of economy or universality of democratic concepts while some others regard "*globalization*" as universal human rights, ecological problems or everything that includes all above. One the other hand, one supporting ever-changing see "*globalization*" as a process containing both opportunities and risk. In this respect, it seems true that explanations concerning "*globalization"* do not match with the each other. Namely, on one hand, "*globalization*" may refer to the close affairs of nations in terms of politics, economics and communication and so which is getting smaller and smaller. On the other hand, "*globalization*" refers to a worldwide capitalism, the effort to create a global market as well as the way of capitalists to establish an absolute sovereignty all over the world (DPT, 1995; DPT, 2000; Erdem, 2002; Gündüz, 2002; Kzlçelik, 2002; Sönmez, 2002; Gürak, 2003; Tural, 2004; ILO, 2006; Milli, 2006; Çeken & Ökten & Ateşoğlu, 2008; Erol, 2010; Balkar & Özgan, 2010). Meanwhile, "*globalization*" is also claimed to be as the inevitable result of modern science and new technologies which is mainly based on economic power and has four major dimensions of politics, culture, technology and economics. All systems in the society are necessarily

affected by these four dimensions (Karlsen, 2002; McBurnie, 2002). With the globalization, it seems now indisputable that globalization has also accelerated regional collaborations and projects by which all social institutions have experienced changes and such collaborations and project have invariably caused all social institutions including economics to experience considerable changes, as well (DPT, 1995; DPT, 2000; Didou-Aupetit, 2002). Moreover, it could be concluded that such changes have also affected the traditional approach to democracy which makes up the society itself. Moreover, globalization will allow certain democratic movements and bodies to urge more commonly while regional collaborations and projects will contribute democracy to appear more frequently. However, it seems probable that certain movements against democracy will also become more often in the society and this also likely to limit the development and expansion of democracy.

Strategic Decision of Non-Profit State Universities: Turning to Open and Distance Education 11

Colleges and universities in the US have also considered ways so as to lessen their costs, close some departments, programs or institutions, as well as measuring of performance the teaching staff, loading extra responsibilities onto them and privatization of various institutions. According to cites by Halimi, public judgment as a "*result of globalization*" in France have expanded as parallel to demands of central and local authorities (Tural, 2002). On the other hand, globalization offers a number of opportunities. According to Aktay (2002), universities students and academicians are now likely to reach global opportunities via internet access. According to Kellner (2002), changes just at the beginning of the 21st century have also opened up new technologies such as computerization, communication and multimedia. However, according to Scott (2002), globalization is the greatest challenge to against universities and has brought many threats together. According to him, the university is exposed to three major challenges caused by globalization: (1) The discordant relation between globalization and traditional role of the university in national culture (2) A more homogenized education system, which is caused by the effect of communication and informatics technologies and the culture of global research, has inevitably weakened the "differences" which are usually expressed as "*national cultures*". (3) The gradual deterioration in social function of the state with globalization has also weakened financial aspect of public universities, declining their income levels. According to Apple (2002) and Aktay (2002), globalization has invariably brought about "*a gap opportunity*" in secondary and higher education between ones from lower class and middle class. According to Lee (2002), another threat lies under the declined shares and funds in many countries. According to Kellner (2002), there has recently appeared a "*digital gap*" also known "*digital division*" between ones, including in higher education, which do have knowledge and technology and ones who do not. "*Digital gap" (digital divide)*" draws on absolute frontier between the universities which could offer technology and knowledge and the ones which

could not. Therefore, this case should be regarded as a considerable obstacle.

"Actually, yesterday is invariably gone, my friend! There are a lot of new things to

Changes which have speeded up since the last quarter of the twentieth century have directly affected and re-establish the paradigms related to state universities. Today changing state university paradigms with the effect of globalization could be categorized under seven headlines (Apple, 2002; Didou-Aupetit, 2002; Lee, 2002; McBurnie, 2002; Yang & Vidovich, 2002; Scott, 2002; Tural, 2002; Arslanoğlu, 2002; Ylmaz & Horzum, 2005; Rehber, 2007): (1) *Association of the affair between the state and universities with market economy*: Gradually increasing importance of market economy have naturally affected the mentality of public administration and applications. As a result, the state, which provides financial support to the university, has changed its point of view to the university. Thus, market mentality and certain market applications have irresistibly replaced the traditional point of view in public

*Mevlana*

**2.2. Paradigms of changing state university** 

mention today."

According to Kwiek (2002), here as three major factors contributing the transformation of higher education: (1) The collapse of the vital role of nation-state in social and economic development as well as the notion that higher education is a national fortune contributing the national awareness. (2) Re-establishment of the functions of the social-welfare referring to a new point of view concerning the public sector which will be financed by the state itself. (3) All over the world, the whole public sector has been occupied by private company mentality. As a result, higher education is not considered a public sector any more. More, problems related to higher education are not native to the Middle and Eastern Europe, but they are now global ones which are in need of solutions through global organizations such as IMF and OECD.

Undoubtedly, as regional collaborations have gained speed with the effect of globalization, they have opened up new changes in education, notably in higher education. According to Didou-Aupetit'e (2002), NAFTA (North America Free Trade Agreement), this was signed between the USA, Mexico and Canada and introduced on 1st of January 1994 has been a turning point in re-establishment of the Higher Education System in Mexico. Thanks to the programs conducted by NAFTA, model accreditation system, mutual recognition of academic diplomats and development of professional competition has been realized in the country. Globalization is also claimed to have affected higher education system in many ways. According to Yang ve Vidovich'e (2002), we could see the effects of globalization over higher education system at four points: economic benefits (close observations on universities due to their considerable economic contributions), decline in budget and financial pressure, and teaching with technological support and with the enlarged share of international student market, establishment of the rules over the ones who offer this service. However, it is also true that globalization has affected higher education systems in developed countries. According to Johnstone, there are two major headlines affecting the agenda of higher education institutions in the USA: (1) The reform over development of training, improving the standards, advancement of programs, recognition of the needs of ever-changing student population. (2) Decreased sources and increased costs in higher education. As a result, some quarters turn their attention to the business world in order to rebuild the higher education system (decreased costs, function and bureaucracy).

Colleges and universities in the US have also considered ways so as to lessen their costs, close some departments, programs or institutions, as well as measuring of performance the teaching staff, loading extra responsibilities onto them and privatization of various institutions. According to cites by Halimi, public judgment as a "*result of globalization*" in France have expanded as parallel to demands of central and local authorities (Tural, 2002). On the other hand, globalization offers a number of opportunities. According to Aktay (2002), universities students and academicians are now likely to reach global opportunities via internet access. According to Kellner (2002), changes just at the beginning of the 21st century have also opened up new technologies such as computerization, communication and multimedia. However, according to Scott (2002), globalization is the greatest challenge to against universities and has brought many threats together. According to him, the university is exposed to three major challenges caused by globalization: (1) The discordant relation between globalization and traditional role of the university in national culture (2) A more homogenized education system, which is caused by the effect of communication and informatics technologies and the culture of global research, has inevitably weakened the "differences" which are usually expressed as "*national cultures*". (3) The gradual deterioration in social function of the state with globalization has also weakened financial aspect of public universities, declining their income levels. According to Apple (2002) and Aktay (2002), globalization has invariably brought about "*a gap opportunity*" in secondary and higher education between ones from lower class and middle class. According to Lee (2002), another threat lies under the declined shares and funds in many countries. According to Kellner (2002), there has recently appeared a "*digital gap*" also known "*digital division*" between ones, including in higher education, which do have knowledge and technology and ones who do not. "*Digital gap" (digital divide)*" draws on absolute frontier between the universities which could offer technology and knowledge and the ones which could not. Therefore, this case should be regarded as a considerable obstacle.

#### **2.2. Paradigms of changing state university**

10 Distance Education

as IMF and OECD.

system (decreased costs, function and bureaucracy).

affected by these four dimensions (Karlsen, 2002; McBurnie, 2002). With the globalization, it seems now indisputable that globalization has also accelerated regional collaborations and projects by which all social institutions have experienced changes and such collaborations and project have invariably caused all social institutions including economics to experience considerable changes, as well (DPT, 1995; DPT, 2000; Didou-Aupetit, 2002). Moreover, it could be concluded that such changes have also affected the traditional approach to democracy which makes up the society itself. Moreover, globalization will allow certain democratic movements and bodies to urge more commonly while regional collaborations and projects will contribute democracy to appear more frequently. However, it seems probable that certain movements against democracy will also become more often in the

society and this also likely to limit the development and expansion of democracy.

According to Kwiek (2002), here as three major factors contributing the transformation of higher education: (1) The collapse of the vital role of nation-state in social and economic development as well as the notion that higher education is a national fortune contributing the national awareness. (2) Re-establishment of the functions of the social-welfare referring to a new point of view concerning the public sector which will be financed by the state itself. (3) All over the world, the whole public sector has been occupied by private company mentality. As a result, higher education is not considered a public sector any more. More, problems related to higher education are not native to the Middle and Eastern Europe, but they are now global ones which are in need of solutions through global organizations such

Undoubtedly, as regional collaborations have gained speed with the effect of globalization, they have opened up new changes in education, notably in higher education. According to Didou-Aupetit'e (2002), NAFTA (North America Free Trade Agreement), this was signed between the USA, Mexico and Canada and introduced on 1st of January 1994 has been a turning point in re-establishment of the Higher Education System in Mexico. Thanks to the programs conducted by NAFTA, model accreditation system, mutual recognition of academic diplomats and development of professional competition has been realized in the country. Globalization is also claimed to have affected higher education system in many ways. According to Yang ve Vidovich'e (2002), we could see the effects of globalization over higher education system at four points: economic benefits (close observations on universities due to their considerable economic contributions), decline in budget and financial pressure, and teaching with technological support and with the enlarged share of international student market, establishment of the rules over the ones who offer this service. However, it is also true that globalization has affected higher education systems in developed countries. According to Johnstone, there are two major headlines affecting the agenda of higher education institutions in the USA: (1) The reform over development of training, improving the standards, advancement of programs, recognition of the needs of ever-changing student population. (2) Decreased sources and increased costs in higher education. As a result, some quarters turn their attention to the business world in order to rebuild the higher education

"Actually, yesterday is invariably gone, my friend! There are a lot of new things to mention today."

#### *Mevlana*

Changes which have speeded up since the last quarter of the twentieth century have directly affected and re-establish the paradigms related to state universities. Today changing state university paradigms with the effect of globalization could be categorized under seven headlines (Apple, 2002; Didou-Aupetit, 2002; Lee, 2002; McBurnie, 2002; Yang & Vidovich, 2002; Scott, 2002; Tural, 2002; Arslanoğlu, 2002; Ylmaz & Horzum, 2005; Rehber, 2007): (1) *Association of the affair between the state and universities with market economy*: Gradually increasing importance of market economy have naturally affected the mentality of public administration and applications. As a result, the state, which provides financial support to the university, has changed its point of view to the university. Thus, market mentality and certain market applications have irresistibly replaced the traditional point of view in public

administration. For instance, Baker who was the Education Secretary of Teacher's Government warned universities to care more about the training of individuals whom the state needed in terms of qualifications and quantities. (2) *That the university autonomy has gradually replaced the requirement for "judgment before the public"*: The society, which offers universities, many financial opportunities, is now able to use the right for inspection through public mind. Now, universities feel themselves obviously responsible to the all steps of the society which give universities vast financial sources. However, this mentality contradicts with the academic freedom in a way. (3) *Effective use of science and technology in researches, training & education service and cyber education*: Information technology have now been used highly efficiently in maintenance of formal, distance and virtual higher education programmes. As a result, the higher education service could be available to more students in different places in a more efficient way. (4) *More internationalist mentality in universities*: Today, universities in developed countries welcome in their bodies not only national learners and researches but also international ones. Moreover, they are in fierce competition to attract more students and researchers from all over the world. (5) *Regarding universities as a society of knowledge, a financial source, and a complex body rather than just a society of teachers and students*: While training qualified individuals who are needed by the society, they do not take the employment rates into consideration to a large extent. In this respect, it is certain that they usually focus on fields coherent with the market itself. According to Currie (1998) the mentality of "*the market trends know the best of all*" has inevitably affected the university itself, as well (cited from Kwiek, 2002) (6) *Tendency to a pragmatic university*: In pragmatic university suggested by Valimaa (1999), being on academician should mean multi-dimensioned effort because in changing conditions, academicians feel obliged to market their speciality at the markets in and out the university. Such a case, according to him, puts of marketing and consultancy role on them as well as their traditional role on education and research. (7) *Competition among the state universities and multiplying of them*: They are private national institutions, private foreign institutions, certificate centers with national and foreign partners, national and foreign cyber education serves, and ones which offer mixed education services. It is also clear that the number of such competitors have increased day by day.

In addition, concerning the effect of latest changes in the world on higher education, we could also conclude the following realities (Erdem, 2006): (1) *Commercialization of universities*: Universities have gradually become customer centered companies which are driven more bureaucratic way and this case has urged public universities to become more competitive. (2) *Considering knowledge as a bought-sold material within market mentality*: Undoubtedly, this case has already led to a university mentality focusing on market-centered ideas and opinions.

### **3. Turning of non-profit state universities to open & distance education**

"Firstly, we shape our own characteristics, and then our characteristics do us."

*W. Churchill*

Strategic Decision of Non-Profit State Universities: Turning to Open and Distance Education 13

From the last quarter of the 20th century on, the world has inevitably got trough a period of information society and information economy. Undoubtedly, in this period, information society has stimulated different economic and social paradigmas from onsw in the Industrial Revulation Age. In information society, training indvidals who are sensitive to modern sciences and point of view is of great importance. In this respect, the steam boiler refers to man power and the industrial society while means such as the computer and brain power represent the information society. Therefore, in the information society, highly qualified human sources in intellectual respect are supposed to effectively contribute to economy as well as its gradual participation in productivity. As a result, a new global trend called information economy has inevitably evolved in which economic ability of individuals, intellectual levels of them as well as competition power of countries and human and social backgounds could be measured. During the establishement of information and economy society, here are the increasing expectations of different groups from universities: (1) Being ale to address to more studentsa and a larger age group (*massification*), (2) Enlarged programmes including whole of newly obtained knowledge and fields of knowledge (*academic expansion*), (3) Concentration on job opportunities for graduates in education and orientation to practise in search as well as knowledge (*relevance*), (4) Being able to make considerable contribution to regional and national development by building up rigorous affairs with society, (5) Being able to develop new transparent model in administration which feel responsible themselves to society (*accountability*), (6) Being able to to handle all there expectations with respectively lessening

Today, higher education has largely been considered so far to be a public service whose expenditures are met thoroughly by public sources, apart from a handful of countries including the US. However, due to the gradually increasing demand in higher education in recent and following years, the maintenance of higher education service only through public sources have been seriously argued. In that way, new attempts have been almost inevitable (1) to meet expenses of higher education service through other sources as well as public sources, (2) to vary income sources of higher education institutions, (3) more efficient and even distribution and use of public sources. Meanwhile, we could see a variety of reforms such as freedom and privatization, mainly based on maintenance and financing of higher education. As a consequence, students' financial support in education expenses and industrial support for research expenses have been initial agenda (collaboration between the university and industry) and budgets for education and research have gradually separated from each other. Therefore, education expenses which accounts for the most important rate (70-80 %) of higher education budgets due to additional fees for individuals who gets this service and considerable social income of such a service, the society has gradually held the opnion that education expenses which accounts for the most important rate (70-80 %) of higher education budgets should be financed by the state's support which all the society is supposed to pay. As in education field, universities have been gradually exposed to get financial sources out of public ones. In other words, instead of obtaining knowledge for public benefit with public support, they are supposed to conduct search and development projects with private institutions' support heavily for these institutions. For instance, of 32

financial public sources (YÖK, 2007; Şentürk, 2008).

From the last quarter of the 20th century on, the world has inevitably got trough a period of information society and information economy. Undoubtedly, in this period, information society has stimulated different economic and social paradigmas from onsw in the Industrial Revulation Age. In information society, training indvidals who are sensitive to modern sciences and point of view is of great importance. In this respect, the steam boiler refers to man power and the industrial society while means such as the computer and brain power represent the information society. Therefore, in the information society, highly qualified human sources in intellectual respect are supposed to effectively contribute to economy as well as its gradual participation in productivity. As a result, a new global trend called information economy has inevitably evolved in which economic ability of individuals, intellectual levels of them as well as competition power of countries and human and social backgounds could be measured. During the establishement of information and economy society, here are the increasing expectations of different groups from universities: (1) Being ale to address to more studentsa and a larger age group (*massification*), (2) Enlarged programmes including whole of newly obtained knowledge and fields of knowledge (*academic expansion*), (3) Concentration on job opportunities for graduates in education and orientation to practise in search as well as knowledge (*relevance*), (4) Being able to make considerable contribution to regional and national development by building up rigorous affairs with society, (5) Being able to develop new transparent model in administration which feel responsible themselves to society (*accountability*), (6) Being able to to handle all there expectations with respectively lessening financial public sources (YÖK, 2007; Şentürk, 2008).

12 Distance Education

opinions.

administration. For instance, Baker who was the Education Secretary of Teacher's Government warned universities to care more about the training of individuals whom the state needed in terms of qualifications and quantities. (2) *That the university autonomy has gradually replaced the requirement for "judgment before the public"*: The society, which offers universities, many financial opportunities, is now able to use the right for inspection through public mind. Now, universities feel themselves obviously responsible to the all steps of the society which give universities vast financial sources. However, this mentality contradicts with the academic freedom in a way. (3) *Effective use of science and technology in researches, training & education service and cyber education*: Information technology have now been used highly efficiently in maintenance of formal, distance and virtual higher education programmes. As a result, the higher education service could be available to more students in different places in a more efficient way. (4) *More internationalist mentality in universities*: Today, universities in developed countries welcome in their bodies not only national learners and researches but also international ones. Moreover, they are in fierce competition to attract more students and researchers from all over the world. (5) *Regarding universities as a society of knowledge, a financial source, and a complex body rather than just a society of teachers and students*: While training qualified individuals who are needed by the society, they do not take the employment rates into consideration to a large extent. In this respect, it is certain that they usually focus on fields coherent with the market itself. According to Currie (1998) the mentality of "*the market trends know the best of all*" has inevitably affected the university itself, as well (cited from Kwiek, 2002) (6) *Tendency to a pragmatic university*: In pragmatic university suggested by Valimaa (1999), being on academician should mean multi-dimensioned effort because in changing conditions, academicians feel obliged to market their speciality at the markets in and out the university. Such a case, according to him, puts of marketing and consultancy role on them as well as their traditional role on education and research. (7) *Competition among the state universities and multiplying of them*: They are private national institutions, private foreign institutions, certificate centers with national and foreign partners, national and foreign cyber education serves, and ones which offer mixed education services.

It is also clear that the number of such competitors have increased day by day.

In addition, concerning the effect of latest changes in the world on higher education, we could also conclude the following realities (Erdem, 2006): (1) *Commercialization of universities*: Universities have gradually become customer centered companies which are driven more bureaucratic way and this case has urged public universities to become more competitive. (2) *Considering knowledge as a bought-sold material within market mentality*: Undoubtedly, this case has already led to a university mentality focusing on market-centered ideas and

**3. Turning of non-profit state universities to open & distance education** 

"Firstly, we shape our own characteristics, and then our characteristics do us."

*W. Churchill*

Today, higher education has largely been considered so far to be a public service whose expenditures are met thoroughly by public sources, apart from a handful of countries including the US. However, due to the gradually increasing demand in higher education in recent and following years, the maintenance of higher education service only through public sources have been seriously argued. In that way, new attempts have been almost inevitable (1) to meet expenses of higher education service through other sources as well as public sources, (2) to vary income sources of higher education institutions, (3) more efficient and even distribution and use of public sources. Meanwhile, we could see a variety of reforms such as freedom and privatization, mainly based on maintenance and financing of higher education. As a consequence, students' financial support in education expenses and industrial support for research expenses have been initial agenda (collaboration between the university and industry) and budgets for education and research have gradually separated from each other. Therefore, education expenses which accounts for the most important rate (70-80 %) of higher education budgets due to additional fees for individuals who gets this service and considerable social income of such a service, the society has gradually held the opnion that education expenses which accounts for the most important rate (70-80 %) of higher education budgets should be financed by the state's support which all the society is supposed to pay. As in education field, universities have been gradually exposed to get financial sources out of public ones. In other words, instead of obtaining knowledge for public benefit with public support, they are supposed to conduct search and development projects with private institutions' support heavily for these institutions. For instance, of 32 state universities of the US, the funds allocated for such projects more than doubled between 1990 and 2001 (YÖK, 2007; Odabaş & Frat & İzmirli & Çankaya & Msrl, 2010).

Today, education system in general sense and higher education system in private is exposed to considerable pressure from frequent criticism due to its disability in meeting the requirements of economies based on pure knowledge. In this process, demands of the market economy have changed at a remarkable rate along with the institutions established to meet regional and national demands. As a result, students who are afraid of being unemployed prefer to graduate from vocational schools or departments which will make obtaining job easier and so such departments have been exposed to gradually increasing pressure of capacity. Moreover, economic difficulties and students' additional fee which universities charge along with the stress of having to live another city and high cost of metropolitan life are likely to mean extra burden on students' budgets. Meanwhile, crowded classrooms, inefficient and routine courses, gradually increasing costs and insufficient number of education staff have forced authorities to find out new alternatives so as to meet the ever-increasing demand. Throughout history, universities in different countries have always tried new alternatives, some of which are open training, distant training (by letters), distant education, e-learning, online learning, learning on web database, distributed learning, simultaneous learning, tele-learning and flexible learning. However, in recent years, new tendencies in higher education have dragged universities to make use of electronic facilities and this makes almost inevitable to offer their students in-line services. In this course, thanks to interactive conditions and the availability for reaching limitless knowledge, a new unprecedented age has begun notably for universities. Therefore, while drawing their roles in the 21st century, felt themselves obliged to establish virtual campuses in addition to their traditional campuses (Güven, 2002; Balyer & Gündüz, 2010; Bayram & İbili & Hakkari, Kantar & Doğan, 20.11.2011; Ersoy & Acartürk, 12.01.2012).

As examples to the universities offering open and distand education service are Illinois virtual campus in America (IVC), Canadian Virtual University (CVU), UK Open University, Finnish Virtual University, The Italian Distance University (NETTUNO), Open Education Faculty of Anadolu University in Turkey, The National Institute of Information Technology in India (NIIT), University Tun Abdul Razak in Malaysia (UNITAR), African Kenyatta AVU Virtual University, Chinese Open University, Japanese Open University, Avustralian USQOnline.

#### **3.1. Applications in open & distance education process at state universities**

"No one could be as much blinder as one who doesn't wish to see."

*İbn-i Sina* 

Strategic Decision of Non-Profit State Universities: Turning to Open and Distance Education 15

*university age, to be in the army for compulsory service, to be physically disabled or to be imprisoned*", all of which prevent them from attending normal universities. Apart from them, housewives who wish to complete university education and ones who have their own occupations but wish to study at a second field as well as ones living abroad. As ones who study at open education are usually deprived of the change to attend formal education, the most commonly preferred education way "*distant teaching*" which makes use of technology in maintenance of interaction and material transmission of different student and teaching staff profiles within different geographical conditions. In a system whose origin date back to centuries ago based on such teachings applications as letter or newspaper training, we could see some other novel technologies such as phone, radio or even cinema. Admittedly, open education has caught up its popularity thanks to TV training. Benefitting from experiments of Brisitsh Open University which was introduced in the 1960s, a great many of education institutions in different countries which offer TV-based education have unprecedentedly flourished in the 1980. In this respect, we could estimate that the major training materials are the coursebooks which are particularly designed consistent with distant education methods, for self-learning process. In addition to the course-books parallel TV programmes to the units of aim the courses aim at promoting and comprehending the self-learning activities and so the number these techniquies and technologies of distance condition has multiples over time. "*The open education*" which originaly evolved in the forms of letter –training has been practise for centuries in Canada, Avustralia, New Zeland, The USA, England and China has arousen more interest as a result of newly developing and expanding internet technologies. Further, newly evolving electronic facilities such as video-conference systems, computer and internet technologies offer considerable opportunities to instructors and learners. In the case of the US, as a counter way to ever increasing cost in universities, we could see a great many of open-education universities, the most important ones of of which are Pennsylvania ve South Carolina Universities. As for Europe, the European Council has conducted educational publishing in five different languages with the support of open education universities in Europe. Meanwhile "*Hagen University*" in Germany is another considerable example for open education service as well as "*Tubingen University*" which offer constant vocational training for teachers. In this course, England is the first country to have established the "*Open University*". On the other hand, Japan has also an important status due to establishing a university so as to offer open higher education service in which almost a half million Japanese study based on a system founded by modeling on "*British Open University*" system (Hakan, 1998; Ulukan & Baraz, 2001; Sağlk & Öztürk, 2001; Çukadar & Çelik, 2003; Çetin & Çakroğlu & Baylmş & Ekiz, 204; Mutlu & Öztürk &

*"Distance education"* has proved to be a contemporary model of free of time and space which offers free and individual education service through leading communication technologies such as internet. Distance education program is a dimension of contemporary and new education technologies. Concepts and applications in this field are the results of a series of educational demands and developments in various communication and education technologies. Distance education applications have some conceptual bases. These are creating new education opportunities, realizing work-education unity, getting democratic in

Özöğüt & Ylmaz & Çetinöz, 11.09.2006).

When thought in its general respect, the term "*open education*" refers to an educational approach aiming to serve education in any required level to human societies which traditional education institutions do not regard as "priority". Among major reasons for why individuals who open education are "*to be employed as well as studying, to be older than* 

state universities of the US, the funds allocated for such projects more than doubled between

Today, education system in general sense and higher education system in private is exposed to considerable pressure from frequent criticism due to its disability in meeting the requirements of economies based on pure knowledge. In this process, demands of the market economy have changed at a remarkable rate along with the institutions established to meet regional and national demands. As a result, students who are afraid of being unemployed prefer to graduate from vocational schools or departments which will make obtaining job easier and so such departments have been exposed to gradually increasing pressure of capacity. Moreover, economic difficulties and students' additional fee which universities charge along with the stress of having to live another city and high cost of metropolitan life are likely to mean extra burden on students' budgets. Meanwhile, crowded classrooms, inefficient and routine courses, gradually increasing costs and insufficient number of education staff have forced authorities to find out new alternatives so as to meet the ever-increasing demand. Throughout history, universities in different countries have always tried new alternatives, some of which are open training, distant training (by letters), distant education, e-learning, online learning, learning on web database, distributed learning, simultaneous learning, tele-learning and flexible learning. However, in recent years, new tendencies in higher education have dragged universities to make use of electronic facilities and this makes almost inevitable to offer their students in-line services. In this course, thanks to interactive conditions and the availability for reaching limitless knowledge, a new unprecedented age has begun notably for universities. Therefore, while drawing their roles in the 21st century, felt themselves obliged to establish virtual campuses in addition to their traditional campuses (Güven, 2002; Balyer & Gündüz, 2010; Bayram &

1990 and 2001 (YÖK, 2007; Odabaş & Frat & İzmirli & Çankaya & Msrl, 2010).

İbili & Hakkari, Kantar & Doğan, 20.11.2011; Ersoy & Acartürk, 12.01.2012).

As examples to the universities offering open and distand education service are Illinois virtual campus in America (IVC), Canadian Virtual University (CVU), UK Open University, Finnish Virtual University, The Italian Distance University (NETTUNO), Open Education Faculty of Anadolu University in Turkey, The National Institute of Information Technology in India (NIIT), University Tun Abdul Razak in Malaysia (UNITAR), African Kenyatta AVU Virtual University, Chinese Open University, Japanese Open University, Avustralian USQOnline.

**3.1. Applications in open & distance education process at state universities** 

When thought in its general respect, the term "*open education*" refers to an educational approach aiming to serve education in any required level to human societies which traditional education institutions do not regard as "priority". Among major reasons for why individuals who open education are "*to be employed as well as studying, to be older than* 

"No one could be as much blinder as one who doesn't wish to see."

*İbn-i Sina* 

*university age, to be in the army for compulsory service, to be physically disabled or to be imprisoned*", all of which prevent them from attending normal universities. Apart from them, housewives who wish to complete university education and ones who have their own occupations but wish to study at a second field as well as ones living abroad. As ones who study at open education are usually deprived of the change to attend formal education, the most commonly preferred education way "*distant teaching*" which makes use of technology in maintenance of interaction and material transmission of different student and teaching staff profiles within different geographical conditions. In a system whose origin date back to centuries ago based on such teachings applications as letter or newspaper training, we could see some other novel technologies such as phone, radio or even cinema. Admittedly, open education has caught up its popularity thanks to TV training. Benefitting from experiments of Brisitsh Open University which was introduced in the 1960s, a great many of education institutions in different countries which offer TV-based education have unprecedentedly flourished in the 1980. In this respect, we could estimate that the major training materials are the coursebooks which are particularly designed consistent with distant education methods, for self-learning process. In addition to the course-books parallel TV programmes to the units of aim the courses aim at promoting and comprehending the self-learning activities and so the number these techniquies and technologies of distance condition has multiples over time. "*The open education*" which originaly evolved in the forms of letter –training has been practise for centuries in Canada, Avustralia, New Zeland, The USA, England and China has arousen more interest as a result of newly developing and expanding internet technologies. Further, newly evolving electronic facilities such as video-conference systems, computer and internet technologies offer considerable opportunities to instructors and learners. In the case of the US, as a counter way to ever increasing cost in universities, we could see a great many of open-education universities, the most important ones of of which are Pennsylvania ve South Carolina Universities. As for Europe, the European Council has conducted educational publishing in five different languages with the support of open education universities in Europe. Meanwhile "*Hagen University*" in Germany is another considerable example for open education service as well as "*Tubingen University*" which offer constant vocational training for teachers. In this course, England is the first country to have established the "*Open University*". On the other hand, Japan has also an important status due to establishing a university so as to offer open higher education service in which almost a half million Japanese study based on a system founded by modeling on "*British Open University*" system (Hakan, 1998; Ulukan & Baraz, 2001; Sağlk & Öztürk, 2001; Çukadar & Çelik, 2003; Çetin & Çakroğlu & Baylmş & Ekiz, 204; Mutlu & Öztürk & Özöğüt & Ylmaz & Çetinöz, 11.09.2006).

*"Distance education"* has proved to be a contemporary model of free of time and space which offers free and individual education service through leading communication technologies such as internet. Distance education program is a dimension of contemporary and new education technologies. Concepts and applications in this field are the results of a series of educational demands and developments in various communication and education technologies. Distance education applications have some conceptual bases. These are creating new education opportunities, realizing work-education unity, getting democratic in education, lifelong education, tendency to individual matters, effective use of institutions, integration of technology and education, tendency to individual and social needs, taking three dimensional integration as the main principle (publishing, printed materials and face to face education), reaching maximum mass, individual and mass education integrity and education demand and financial matters balance. Actually, the origin of "*distance education*" dates back to the 1800s and by the end of the 19th century, certain institutions in both the USA and the UK had already established the infrastructure of the education service based on mutual correspondence. As for the hapining of the 20th century, many other universities all around Australia including Queensland University and New England University introduced the distance education service. When it came to the 1960s, with the onset of Brtisih Open University project, distance education rapidly flourished all around the world, on institutional scale, ranging from European countries and North America to Australia. Today, distance education service undoubtedly has made it available to individuals to benefit from formal education service in their own locations by attending the courses of formal education out of the borders of distance education. In this process, the spreading of internet for affordable costs and its enlarged capacity have made great contributions to the onset of "*Distance Education based on Internet*" by which internet technology has rapidly proved to be an ideal platform for "*Distance Education*" service. In 1985, the first application of "*Distance Education by Internet*" was initiated in Phoenix University and today it offers so varied opportunities to internet users as a remarkable base of distance education. We could consider, among these opportunities, the electronic mail, World Wide Web (www), new groups, discussion groups, ftp gopher, chatting programs, telnet, URL and search motors. In addition to such opportunities, we could also count electronic data bases, books, journals and papers, website applications and basic use of intermediate applications that make it available to students and educators to readily reach the classroom activities. Thanks to such encouraging applications, it is now assumed that internet, by its nature, has made considerable global contributions to distance education service. In that way, it could be considered that distance education applications through internet technologies could be classified in three groups as follows: (1) *Synchronised and nonsynchronised applications of distance education*. Non-synchronised applications refers to a process in which the student determines his/her own improvement pace by accessing learning activities in times he/she wishes and by initially drawing his/her own resolution for the problems he/she faces to and if no solutions, by letting his/her consultant for a rigorous resolution. However, the synchronized application, the student and the instructer take part in this process of learning while the latter plays the consultant role and the students' acts as an active participant in student-centered learning process. (2) *In-line and out-line applications in distance education process*. In educational respect, such an application could be thought to be directly relecent to discrimination and content in classification, varied activities and applications in addition to the maintenance of these steps on the Internet (in-line) or downloading then onto personal computers so as to attend them individually (out-line). (3) *Distance education applications based on the technologies involved and their specifications*. In fact, we could also divide this term into three groups: web-based education, internet-based education and e-learning. In their context, web-based education is related to transmission of varied learning materials in a Strategic Decision of Non-Profit State Universities: Turning to Open and Distance Education 17

web-scanner including materials, CD-ROM or its additional package on other media tools. However, internet-based education is related to the content which is ready for access on a computer. As for e-learning, it is rather related to the computer and the net with synchronized action. Therefore, the computer doesn't need to be the center of the provision of learning and varied activities. However, it is supposed that the computer and nets should have overt relation with learning activities. On the other hand, it shouldn't notice that the Distance Education supported by Internet Technologies play active role; (1) In maintenance of consistent relations between the occupation and the education. (2) In offering education opportunities, all of which are supposed to apply to students' interests and expectations in different places and times. (3) In provision of individual and free opportunities for learning to students. (4) In offering education opportunities for larger masses. (5) In wiping out inequality in education. Seen in this respect, it is certain that distance education applications on internet have rapidly penetrated into higher education. That's way; many universities have turned today to distance education education service in order to meet ever-changing needs of students. In 2000's, various e-learning services such as e-Book, e-Practice, e-Television, e-Exam, e-Audio Book, e-Facilitation, e-Support and e-Course were designed and put into practice. It is anticipated that Distance Education will serve even greater numbers of students in the near future. In this service, the systems used for distance education on the internet is called "*Learning Management Systems*" while the users working through this system is called through different roles such as "*student, educator, lesson opener or system manager*" all od whom invariably benefit from courses' contents, home assigments, evaluation, alive view, chat rooms and message boards in order to achieve the interaction on the internet between student –material and teacher. On the other hand, distance education applications are the most developed forms of today's distance education applications. With the development of web technologies, lecture contents are diversified, flexible education independent of time and place is achieved. Perhaps, that's way; knowledge of students in internet-based distance education process mostly tends to be permanent. When considered that technologic innovations reign today at such a high pace, we would readily estimate that durther innovations are on the way in near future (Özer, 1990; Güven, 2002; Önder, 2003; Ylmaz & Horzum, 2005; Aslan, 2006; Önür, 20.11.2006; Karataş, 2006; Aydn & Biroğul, 2008; Işk & Işk & Güler, 2008; Erturgut, 2008; Karaağaçl & Erden, 2008; Baturay & Bay,

**3.2. Strategic results of the applications in open & distance education process at** 

focusing on achieving the right answers then right questions."

"The most commonly seen point in the decisions taken by the management is

We could define positive strategic results, in five points, resulting from open and distance education applications in state universities (Ylmaz & Horzum, 2005; Erdem, 2006; Elmas &

*Peter Drucker*

2009; Demiray & Curabay, 2010; Akdemir, 2011).

**state universities** 

education, lifelong education, tendency to individual matters, effective use of institutions, integration of technology and education, tendency to individual and social needs, taking three dimensional integration as the main principle (publishing, printed materials and face to face education), reaching maximum mass, individual and mass education integrity and education demand and financial matters balance. Actually, the origin of "*distance education*" dates back to the 1800s and by the end of the 19th century, certain institutions in both the USA and the UK had already established the infrastructure of the education service based on mutual correspondence. As for the hapining of the 20th century, many other universities all around Australia including Queensland University and New England University introduced the distance education service. When it came to the 1960s, with the onset of Brtisih Open University project, distance education rapidly flourished all around the world, on institutional scale, ranging from European countries and North America to Australia. Today, distance education service undoubtedly has made it available to individuals to benefit from formal education service in their own locations by attending the courses of formal education out of the borders of distance education. In this process, the spreading of internet for affordable costs and its enlarged capacity have made great contributions to the onset of "*Distance Education based on Internet*" by which internet technology has rapidly proved to be an ideal platform for "*Distance Education*" service. In 1985, the first application of "*Distance Education by Internet*" was initiated in Phoenix University and today it offers so varied opportunities to internet users as a remarkable base of distance education. We could consider, among these opportunities, the electronic mail, World Wide Web (www), new groups, discussion groups, ftp gopher, chatting programs, telnet, URL and search motors. In addition to such opportunities, we could also count electronic data bases, books, journals and papers, website applications and basic use of intermediate applications that make it available to students and educators to readily reach the classroom activities. Thanks to such encouraging applications, it is now assumed that internet, by its nature, has made considerable global contributions to distance education service. In that way, it could be considered that distance education applications through internet technologies could be classified in three groups as follows: (1) *Synchronised and nonsynchronised applications of distance education*. Non-synchronised applications refers to a process in which the student determines his/her own improvement pace by accessing learning activities in times he/she wishes and by initially drawing his/her own resolution for the problems he/she faces to and if no solutions, by letting his/her consultant for a rigorous resolution. However, the synchronized application, the student and the instructer take part in this process of learning while the latter plays the consultant role and the students' acts as an active participant in student-centered learning process. (2) *In-line and out-line applications in distance education process*. In educational respect, such an application could be thought to be directly relecent to discrimination and content in classification, varied activities and applications in addition to the maintenance of these steps on the Internet (in-line) or downloading then onto personal computers so as to attend them individually (out-line). (3) *Distance education applications based on the technologies involved and their specifications*. In fact, we could also divide this term into three groups: web-based education, internet-based education and e-learning. In their context, web-based education is related to transmission of varied learning materials in a web-scanner including materials, CD-ROM or its additional package on other media tools. However, internet-based education is related to the content which is ready for access on a computer. As for e-learning, it is rather related to the computer and the net with synchronized action. Therefore, the computer doesn't need to be the center of the provision of learning and varied activities. However, it is supposed that the computer and nets should have overt relation with learning activities. On the other hand, it shouldn't notice that the Distance Education supported by Internet Technologies play active role; (1) In maintenance of consistent relations between the occupation and the education. (2) In offering education opportunities, all of which are supposed to apply to students' interests and expectations in different places and times. (3) In provision of individual and free opportunities for learning to students. (4) In offering education opportunities for larger masses. (5) In wiping out inequality in education. Seen in this respect, it is certain that distance education applications on internet have rapidly penetrated into higher education. That's way; many universities have turned today to distance education education service in order to meet ever-changing needs of students. In 2000's, various e-learning services such as e-Book, e-Practice, e-Television, e-Exam, e-Audio Book, e-Facilitation, e-Support and e-Course were designed and put into practice. It is anticipated that Distance Education will serve even greater numbers of students in the near future. In this service, the systems used for distance education on the internet is called "*Learning Management Systems*" while the users working through this system is called through different roles such as "*student, educator, lesson opener or system manager*" all od whom invariably benefit from courses' contents, home assigments, evaluation, alive view, chat rooms and message boards in order to achieve the interaction on the internet between student –material and teacher. On the other hand, distance education applications are the most developed forms of today's distance education applications. With the development of web technologies, lecture contents are diversified, flexible education independent of time and place is achieved. Perhaps, that's way; knowledge of students in internet-based distance education process mostly tends to be permanent. When considered that technologic innovations reign today at such a high pace, we would readily estimate that durther innovations are on the way in near future (Özer, 1990; Güven, 2002; Önder, 2003; Ylmaz & Horzum, 2005; Aslan, 2006; Önür, 20.11.2006; Karataş, 2006; Aydn & Biroğul, 2008; Işk & Işk & Güler, 2008; Erturgut, 2008; Karaağaçl & Erden, 2008; Baturay & Bay, 2009; Demiray & Curabay, 2010; Akdemir, 2011).

#### **3.2. Strategic results of the applications in open & distance education process at state universities**

"The most commonly seen point in the decisions taken by the management is focusing on achieving the right answers then right questions."

*Peter Drucker*

We could define positive strategic results, in five points, resulting from open and distance education applications in state universities (Ylmaz & Horzum, 2005; Erdem, 2006; Elmas &

Doğan, Biroğul & Koç, 2008; Çnar, 2009; Balyer & Gündüz, 2010): (1) *Universities have gradually turned out to be virtual institutions*. Virtual universities, on one hand, benefit from a great many applications in higher education period. They, on the other hand, use varied new concepts such as blended education, unsynchronized distance education, in-line learning, whole–life learning, web–based distance education, mobil learning and virtual classrooms. Thanks to new concept known as "*Non-wall University*" in state universities, the major aim is now to establish a large net in global sense of potential students, teaching elements, employers and graduates. (2) *Distance education by using internet based technologies is available to large masses*. Therefore, distance education has gradually been run on new technologies based on internet. Considered in this respect, it could be assumed that the major aim in distance education is, by using different methods from traditional teaching methods, to meet the ever-increasing global demand for higher education. (3) *In-line training has now been available*. Students could now efficiently benefit from in-line training facilities by which e-learning and distance education service opportunities has inevitably resulted in globalization of education by using virtual universities without needing to leave a city or a country. (4) *The student profile has gradually been internationalized*. Today, thanks to great contributions of open and distance education applications, the student profile in state universities have also gradually been away from nationaland more and more srudent from different countries register their names on-line for training. (5) *Costs are gradually declining*. Because all the services for students are available faster, more efficient and at lower cost, distance education is the cheapest one of all other education systems on condition that there is enough number of students, apart from formal to support the financial investment.

Strategic Decision of Non-Profit State Universities: Turning to Open and Distance Education 19

*staff and students could be regarded as only a material in the process*. Academic staff is today regarded as a commercial material to attract more students to the university while the students are considered to be an object that could access learening materials through user names or codes, without using interactive methods and social environment which are heavily based on. Considering today's universities exclusive function for society, it could be concluded that academic staff and students are both and element. (5) *Universities have steadily lost their autonomy given as a right*. The university could be observed closely and strictly in academic, financial and administrational terms, even including censor as a means

"Things will change over time. Then, you'll either be the one who changes them or

Undoubtedly, we are experiencing a period of rapid changes, increased interaction, developing technologies and advanced scientific knowledge. In other words, the period we experience today is heavily composed of computer technologies, brain power and qualified man power all of which are inevitably related to global-based speed economy; also know as "*society of knowledge*". The developed society of today is identified as society of knowledge. Therefore, the key words of "*change*" has now turned out "*globalization*" that refers to some concepts such as the spread and development of economic, social and politic affairs among countries, increased activity of capital movement, as well as taking encouragigng steps against ideologic discrimination based on extreme ends, better awareness of different social, cultures, beliefs and expectations and more intensified affairs between countries. On the other hand, according to ones who are of positive opinions of it, globalization inevitably refers to increased cross-border trade, remarkable development in efforts for establishment of democracy and human rights as well as considerable contribution to enhancement of social affluence. However, ones who are opposed to globalization maintains that globalization is a global market in which cross-borders corporotions are closely kept under control and therefore globalization and developments in information technologies as an accelerator of globalization invariably affect almost any field of life and so as to closely observe and benefit from such developments, a form of qualified individual with new attitudes and values are needed. Globalization is the greatest challenge against universities. By this challenge, the developments that mostly affected universities can be said as the technological developments. To speak objectively, recent developments in information technologies also affect intensively a large number of traditional values in universities as in many other fields of education. In this respect, today's higher education institutions are experience a painstaking period of many changes including obting transmission and spread of knowledge. As aresult, universities have gradually become institutions that provide professional knowledge and documents to allow a number of occupation categories. The changes

*Sergio Zyman*

someone will invariably change them for you."

of strict control.

**4. Conclusion** 

On the other hand, there have undoubtedly several negative points in higher education resulting from state universities' turning to open and distance education (Güven, 2002; Erdem, 2006; Balyer & Gündüz, 2010): (1) *Universities are gradually likely to became a center for certificate*. Upon the increasing importance of university degree and certificates, a fierce competition has nearly become inevitable between universities and the institutions which deliver these certificates, and as a result certain institutions have nearly regarded such certificates of private bodies as sufficient to gain professional career, which has made these private agents considerable competitors of universities. In the meantime, seeking themselves as a commercial body, universities have also taken a counter-action by opening a number of programmes in order to obtain financial resource. Nevertheless, over time, such a trend is likely to create "*universities to be drained*". (2) *Universities could also turn into be instutions that merely deal with "education & training" process*. One of the considerable functions of universities is "education & training", yet they also have some other critical responsibilities such as "*research*" and "*social service*". (3) *The mentality of a university based on "client-market" could turn to be ermanent*. Sub-units of universities or faculties are awarded for their contributions thanks to projects and etc., and so universities are gradually turning into an attraction center as a "*profiting body*". However, they are supposed to be inevitably "*nonprofit institutions*". In this respect, they are expected to work for new technologies and knowledge, making contribution to national and universal culture, as well as taking some respects and point of views into consideration such as leading in the society. (4) *Academic*  *staff and students could be regarded as only a material in the process*. Academic staff is today regarded as a commercial material to attract more students to the university while the students are considered to be an object that could access learening materials through user names or codes, without using interactive methods and social environment which are heavily based on. Considering today's universities exclusive function for society, it could be concluded that academic staff and students are both and element. (5) *Universities have steadily lost their autonomy given as a right*. The university could be observed closely and strictly in academic, financial and administrational terms, even including censor as a means of strict control.

#### **4. Conclusion**

18 Distance Education

Doğan, Biroğul & Koç, 2008; Çnar, 2009; Balyer & Gündüz, 2010): (1) *Universities have gradually turned out to be virtual institutions*. Virtual universities, on one hand, benefit from a great many applications in higher education period. They, on the other hand, use varied new concepts such as blended education, unsynchronized distance education, in-line learning, whole–life learning, web–based distance education, mobil learning and virtual classrooms. Thanks to new concept known as "*Non-wall University*" in state universities, the major aim is now to establish a large net in global sense of potential students, teaching elements, employers and graduates. (2) *Distance education by using internet based technologies is available to large masses*. Therefore, distance education has gradually been run on new technologies based on internet. Considered in this respect, it could be assumed that the major aim in distance education is, by using different methods from traditional teaching methods, to meet the ever-increasing global demand for higher education. (3) *In-line training has now been available*. Students could now efficiently benefit from in-line training facilities by which e-learning and distance education service opportunities has inevitably resulted in globalization of education by using virtual universities without needing to leave a city or a country. (4) *The student profile has gradually been internationalized*. Today, thanks to great contributions of open and distance education applications, the student profile in state universities have also gradually been away from nationaland more and more srudent from different countries register their names on-line for training. (5) *Costs are gradually declining*. Because all the services for students are available faster, more efficient and at lower cost, distance education is the cheapest one of all other education systems on condition that there is enough number of students, apart from formal to support the financial investment.

On the other hand, there have undoubtedly several negative points in higher education resulting from state universities' turning to open and distance education (Güven, 2002; Erdem, 2006; Balyer & Gündüz, 2010): (1) *Universities are gradually likely to became a center for certificate*. Upon the increasing importance of university degree and certificates, a fierce competition has nearly become inevitable between universities and the institutions which deliver these certificates, and as a result certain institutions have nearly regarded such certificates of private bodies as sufficient to gain professional career, which has made these private agents considerable competitors of universities. In the meantime, seeking themselves as a commercial body, universities have also taken a counter-action by opening a number of programmes in order to obtain financial resource. Nevertheless, over time, such a trend is likely to create "*universities to be drained*". (2) *Universities could also turn into be instutions that merely deal with "education & training" process*. One of the considerable functions of universities is "education & training", yet they also have some other critical responsibilities such as "*research*" and "*social service*". (3) *The mentality of a university based on "client-market" could turn to be ermanent*. Sub-units of universities or faculties are awarded for their contributions thanks to projects and etc., and so universities are gradually turning into an attraction center as a "*profiting body*". However, they are supposed to be inevitably "*nonprofit institutions*". In this respect, they are expected to work for new technologies and knowledge, making contribution to national and universal culture, as well as taking some respects and point of views into consideration such as leading in the society. (4) *Academic*  "Things will change over time. Then, you'll either be the one who changes them or someone will invariably change them for you."

#### *Sergio Zyman*

Undoubtedly, we are experiencing a period of rapid changes, increased interaction, developing technologies and advanced scientific knowledge. In other words, the period we experience today is heavily composed of computer technologies, brain power and qualified man power all of which are inevitably related to global-based speed economy; also know as "*society of knowledge*". The developed society of today is identified as society of knowledge. Therefore, the key words of "*change*" has now turned out "*globalization*" that refers to some concepts such as the spread and development of economic, social and politic affairs among countries, increased activity of capital movement, as well as taking encouragigng steps against ideologic discrimination based on extreme ends, better awareness of different social, cultures, beliefs and expectations and more intensified affairs between countries. On the other hand, according to ones who are of positive opinions of it, globalization inevitably refers to increased cross-border trade, remarkable development in efforts for establishment of democracy and human rights as well as considerable contribution to enhancement of social affluence. However, ones who are opposed to globalization maintains that globalization is a global market in which cross-borders corporotions are closely kept under control and therefore globalization and developments in information technologies as an accelerator of globalization invariably affect almost any field of life and so as to closely observe and benefit from such developments, a form of qualified individual with new attitudes and values are needed. Globalization is the greatest challenge against universities. By this challenge, the developments that mostly affected universities can be said as the technological developments. To speak objectively, recent developments in information technologies also affect intensively a large number of traditional values in universities as in many other fields of education. In this respect, today's higher education institutions are experience a painstaking period of many changes including obting transmission and spread of knowledge. As aresult, universities have gradually become institutions that provide professional knowledge and documents to allow a number of occupation categories. The changes occurred in last quarter caused change in the structure and function of higher education in the world. Neo-liberalism and international educational exchanges are some examples for these changes. Rapid developments in computational technology have created opportunities for new implementations in both face to face education and on-line learning as one from of distance education. For this purpose, developments in knowledge and communication technologies have increasingly gained ground in modern universities "*open*" and "*distane*" education service, both of which are based on the internet. "*Distance education applications*" through the internet make up for a new economic learning dynamic based on rigorous education & training by which it is available to students to benefit virtually from higher education programmes in any other country without needing to live abroad, which is called "*programme mobility*". However, it also seems likely that spreading technologies in universities to a large extend could also resultin neglecting their social functions and studies or regarding such social responsibilities as inferior anyway. Furthermore , due to marketinspired reforms, higher education service is not only offered by state universities, but it is also available in profit foundation universities or corporation universities (Güven, 2002; Balay, 2004; Ylmaz & Horzum, 2005; Aktan, 2007; Dağl, 2007; Şentürk, 2008; Odabaş & Frat & İzmirli & Çankaya & Msrl, 2010; Çetiner & Türkmen & Bolat, 20.11.2011)

Strategic Decision of Non-Profit State Universities: Turning to Open and Distance Education 21

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State America

Undoubtedly, globalization has tended to turn state universities into customer-centered companies that are driven in a bureaucratic way whereby these universities are gradually forced to take more enterprising steps in any field. In other words, it seems now inevitable that state universities as higher education institutions should keep pace with the innovations in national and international educations as well as social, politic and technologic changes. Of all such innovations, universities are particularly supposed to manage and lead the innovation process in education & training, science and technology fields. In this sense, universities are required to drive "*open*" and "*distance*" education programmes, and more importantly, to be a "*pioneer*" in such applications. For state universities to drive changes in "*open*" and "*distance*" education programmes and to introduce the strides they are supposed to, universities must, by seeing the future from today, take precautions, make a number of realistic plans and then put them into practice in a short while. Otherwise, it seems inevitable that state universities will become an "*ordinary body*" in education service.

## **Author details**

Ali Rza Erdem *Pamukkale University, Education Faculty, Knkl Campus, Denizli, Turkey* 

## **5. References**

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**Author details** 

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**Chapter 2** 

© 2012 Biao, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Open and Distance Learning:** 

**Achievements and Challenges** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Idowu Biao

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/48080

**1. Introduction** 

development.

members of society.

**in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa** 

Africa became independent during the first decade of the second half of the 20thcentury as most countries making it up established their own governments and opened diplomatic missions in foreign lands for the first time, in the 1960s. With independence arose fundamental preoccupations and primary concerns; these preoccupations and concerns were those addressing issues of the development of the newly independent nations and the search for appropriate instruments that were to be used in bringing about this

Aside the UNESCO generated series of workshops of the early 1960s, encouraging investment in education (Thompson, 1981), a number of pertinent literatures made public in the 1960s did much to reinforce the belief in the reliability and efficiency of education as potential instrument for the quick development of Africa; these literatures include the writings of Blaug (1966) and Anderson (1966) which threw up the acquisition of literacy as a process to be embarked on, by all that seek development and literacy skill as a veritable tool for social development and societal advancement; specifically, these literatures submitted that any human society that may attain at least 40% literacy rate, would have succeeded in raising the productivity of new literates living within the society; they also posited that, in addition to raising the productivity of new literates, this feat would have equally raised the productivity of those working in association with the new literates as a consequence of the spillover benefits of literacy; additionally, the acquisition of 40% literacy rate by a society has been said to be capable of bringing about the expediting of the flow of general knowledge (relating to best practices in health, nutrition and information seeking) among


## **Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa**

Idowu Biao

26 Distance Education

ISBN: 978-975-7912-32-3, Ankara, Turkey

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Zengingönül, O. (2005) What is globalization? Can we escape? Can we use?, *Journal of Siyasa*,

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/48080

## **1. Introduction**

Africa became independent during the first decade of the second half of the 20thcentury as most countries making it up established their own governments and opened diplomatic missions in foreign lands for the first time, in the 1960s. With independence arose fundamental preoccupations and primary concerns; these preoccupations and concerns were those addressing issues of the development of the newly independent nations and the search for appropriate instruments that were to be used in bringing about this development.

Aside the UNESCO generated series of workshops of the early 1960s, encouraging investment in education (Thompson, 1981), a number of pertinent literatures made public in the 1960s did much to reinforce the belief in the reliability and efficiency of education as potential instrument for the quick development of Africa; these literatures include the writings of Blaug (1966) and Anderson (1966) which threw up the acquisition of literacy as a process to be embarked on, by all that seek development and literacy skill as a veritable tool for social development and societal advancement; specifically, these literatures submitted that any human society that may attain at least 40% literacy rate, would have succeeded in raising the productivity of new literates living within the society; they also posited that, in addition to raising the productivity of new literates, this feat would have equally raised the productivity of those working in association with the new literates as a consequence of the spillover benefits of literacy; additionally, the acquisition of 40% literacy rate by a society has been said to be capable of bringing about the expediting of the flow of general knowledge (relating to best practices in health, nutrition and information seeking) among members of society.

© 2012 Biao, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

As a result of these factors, the new nations of Africa opted to expand both the educational structures and personnel inherited from colonisation with the view to ushering in, development similar to that enjoyed by their respective metropoles. Consequently, between 1960 and 1983, the number of primary schools quadrupled and the number of primary school pupils quintupled; the number of secondary schools tripled and the number of secondary school teachers rose two folds; teacher training schools multiplied four folds and the number of teachers teaching in them rose three folds; the number of universities doubled itself and the number of lecturers equally rose significantly in Sub-Saharan Africa (World Bank, 1988:12).

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 29

In addition to increasing the national literacy rate, Nigeria's Universal Primary Education that was launched in 1975 did much to reconcile two perceptions concerning literacy and development that prevailed prior to this period in the country; for many years, the view was held in Northern Nigeria that the promotion of adult education programmes with minimal promotion of formal youth schooling was adequate for any social development. On the other hand, much of Southern Nigeria expended much effort in advancing youth formal

While the Federal Government of Nigeria deployed enormous human, material and financial resources towards the establishment of thousands of formal primary schools, recruitment of teachers and distribution of learning resources, it also encouraged its constituent parts (the States) to advance the cause of adult education within their areas of jurisdiction. This strategy culminated into the establishment of the first Agency for Mass Education in Kano State in 1985 and in the establishment of the National Commission for Literacy, Adult and Mass Education in 1991 (NMEC, 2004; FGN, 1974) . The pursuit of literacy education having been prosecuted from many fronts, impressive results were

As it is to be expected, all these initiatives have produced over time, huge populations of

As mentioned earlier, teacher education enrolment equally grew exponentially and so did enrolment in secondary and tertiary levels of education (World Bank, 1988). However, an analysis of the rates of expansion across levels of education, suggests that the higher the

This chapter discusses the impact of a pattern of educational expansion such as this, on the development of open and distance learning in Sub-Saharan Africa. Additionally, the chapter discusses the findings relating to the performance of a novel and high profile open and distance learning programme currently running in Africa with the view to drawing valuable

In addition to the historical performance of formal education, a number of other social and economic factors account for the growth of open and distance learning in Africa. A clarification of the concept "Open and Distance Learning" shall here precede the discussion of those numerous factors that fuel the growth of this budding sub-educational system.

Open and distance learning was first known as "Distance Learning" before it became "Open and Distance Learning"; indeed, the concept "Distance Learning" emerged from the idea of

*rose from 36 per cent to 75 per cent over this period (World Bank, 1988:12).* 

level of education, the lower was the rate of expansion recorded during this period.

*Primary school enrollments increased the most in absolute terms, growing from approximately 11.9 million pupils in 1960 to 51.3 million pupils in 1983. The gross primary school enrollment ratio* 

schooling to the detriment of adult education for a long time.

yielded as illiteracy was seriously dented after a while.

lessons for the future of ODL on the continent.

**3. Conceptual issues in open and distance learning** 

**2. Review of the literature** 

literate and schooled persons; in the words of World Bank,

In addition to these major and ground breaking preparations for development, additional initiatives aimed at increasing literacy, numeracy and livelihood activities in Africa were initiated throughout the continent during the 1960s through to the 1980s; for example, Tanzania embraced the concept of "Ujamaa" in 1961, the details of which were contained in a document released in 1967 that has come to be known as the "Arusha Declaration"; among other policies, the Ujamaa advanced the implementation of free and compulsory education, one objective of which was the raising of the national average of literacy rate; consequently, primary school enrolment was raised from 25% (with 16% females) in 1960 to 72% (with 85% females) in 1985; additionally, the adult literacy rose from 17% in 1960 to 63% by 1975 (Wikipedia, 2011).

In 1972, Benin introduced the concept of "Ecole Nouvelle" (New School) and in 1974, it established the "Direction de l'Alphabetisation du Benin" (Directorate of Literacy Education of Benin); one of the many objectives of these two institutions was the raising of literacy rate in both national and French languages; as a result of this policy, literacy rate in the country rose from about 50 per cent in 1960 to about 85 per cent in 2008 (Nardulli, Peyton and Bajjalieh, 2010; Biao, 1995; Direction Nationale de Statistique, 1992); all these efforts came to add to the fact that Benin has since 1960, been posting the highest yearly school enrolment in Francophone Africa (Hough, 1989) and to the fact that Benin has traditionally supplied Francophone Africa with not only teachers and lecturers, but also high caliber international functionaries (Biao, 1995).

Senegal also introduced in 1980 its own concept of "Ecole Nouvelle" whereby primary school education is linked to the needs of the community while at the same time, serving as instrument for the amelioration of literacy rate across the community (Adick, 1998) .

In 1974, the Government of Lesotho established the Lesotho Distance Teaching Centre (LDTC) with the view to equipping adults and youths with literacy, numeracy and income generation skills; by 2007, more than 200,000 learners have benefitted from the programmes offered by the centre (Garg and Lephoto, 2009). In addition, a free education scheme was introduced in the country by 2000 ( Avenstrup, 2004); this scheme has now produced about a quarter of a million primary school graduates.

Kenya, Uganda and Malawi equally launched their Free Primary Education projects in 2003, 1997 and 1994 respectively with resounding success and with the view to increasing national literacy rate averages and reducing poverty (Avenstrup, 2004).

In addition to increasing the national literacy rate, Nigeria's Universal Primary Education that was launched in 1975 did much to reconcile two perceptions concerning literacy and development that prevailed prior to this period in the country; for many years, the view was held in Northern Nigeria that the promotion of adult education programmes with minimal promotion of formal youth schooling was adequate for any social development. On the other hand, much of Southern Nigeria expended much effort in advancing youth formal schooling to the detriment of adult education for a long time.

While the Federal Government of Nigeria deployed enormous human, material and financial resources towards the establishment of thousands of formal primary schools, recruitment of teachers and distribution of learning resources, it also encouraged its constituent parts (the States) to advance the cause of adult education within their areas of jurisdiction. This strategy culminated into the establishment of the first Agency for Mass Education in Kano State in 1985 and in the establishment of the National Commission for Literacy, Adult and Mass Education in 1991 (NMEC, 2004; FGN, 1974) . The pursuit of literacy education having been prosecuted from many fronts, impressive results were yielded as illiteracy was seriously dented after a while.

As it is to be expected, all these initiatives have produced over time, huge populations of literate and schooled persons; in the words of World Bank,

*Primary school enrollments increased the most in absolute terms, growing from approximately 11.9 million pupils in 1960 to 51.3 million pupils in 1983. The gross primary school enrollment ratio rose from 36 per cent to 75 per cent over this period (World Bank, 1988:12).* 

As mentioned earlier, teacher education enrolment equally grew exponentially and so did enrolment in secondary and tertiary levels of education (World Bank, 1988). However, an analysis of the rates of expansion across levels of education, suggests that the higher the level of education, the lower was the rate of expansion recorded during this period.

This chapter discusses the impact of a pattern of educational expansion such as this, on the development of open and distance learning in Sub-Saharan Africa. Additionally, the chapter discusses the findings relating to the performance of a novel and high profile open and distance learning programme currently running in Africa with the view to drawing valuable lessons for the future of ODL on the continent.

## **2. Review of the literature**

28 Distance Education

(World Bank, 1988:12).

(Wikipedia, 2011).

functionaries (Biao, 1995).

a quarter of a million primary school graduates.

literacy rate averages and reducing poverty (Avenstrup, 2004).

As a result of these factors, the new nations of Africa opted to expand both the educational structures and personnel inherited from colonisation with the view to ushering in, development similar to that enjoyed by their respective metropoles. Consequently, between 1960 and 1983, the number of primary schools quadrupled and the number of primary school pupils quintupled; the number of secondary schools tripled and the number of secondary school teachers rose two folds; teacher training schools multiplied four folds and the number of teachers teaching in them rose three folds; the number of universities doubled itself and the number of lecturers equally rose significantly in Sub-Saharan Africa

In addition to these major and ground breaking preparations for development, additional initiatives aimed at increasing literacy, numeracy and livelihood activities in Africa were initiated throughout the continent during the 1960s through to the 1980s; for example, Tanzania embraced the concept of "Ujamaa" in 1961, the details of which were contained in a document released in 1967 that has come to be known as the "Arusha Declaration"; among other policies, the Ujamaa advanced the implementation of free and compulsory education, one objective of which was the raising of the national average of literacy rate; consequently, primary school enrolment was raised from 25% (with 16% females) in 1960 to 72% (with 85% females) in 1985; additionally, the adult literacy rose from 17% in 1960 to 63% by 1975

In 1972, Benin introduced the concept of "Ecole Nouvelle" (New School) and in 1974, it established the "Direction de l'Alphabetisation du Benin" (Directorate of Literacy Education of Benin); one of the many objectives of these two institutions was the raising of literacy rate in both national and French languages; as a result of this policy, literacy rate in the country rose from about 50 per cent in 1960 to about 85 per cent in 2008 (Nardulli, Peyton and Bajjalieh, 2010; Biao, 1995; Direction Nationale de Statistique, 1992); all these efforts came to add to the fact that Benin has since 1960, been posting the highest yearly school enrolment in Francophone Africa (Hough, 1989) and to the fact that Benin has traditionally supplied Francophone Africa with not only teachers and lecturers, but also high caliber international

Senegal also introduced in 1980 its own concept of "Ecole Nouvelle" whereby primary school education is linked to the needs of the community while at the same time, serving as

In 1974, the Government of Lesotho established the Lesotho Distance Teaching Centre (LDTC) with the view to equipping adults and youths with literacy, numeracy and income generation skills; by 2007, more than 200,000 learners have benefitted from the programmes offered by the centre (Garg and Lephoto, 2009). In addition, a free education scheme was introduced in the country by 2000 ( Avenstrup, 2004); this scheme has now produced about

Kenya, Uganda and Malawi equally launched their Free Primary Education projects in 2003, 1997 and 1994 respectively with resounding success and with the view to increasing national

instrument for the amelioration of literacy rate across the community (Adick, 1998) .

In addition to the historical performance of formal education, a number of other social and economic factors account for the growth of open and distance learning in Africa. A clarification of the concept "Open and Distance Learning" shall here precede the discussion of those numerous factors that fuel the growth of this budding sub-educational system.

### **3. Conceptual issues in open and distance learning**

Open and distance learning was first known as "Distance Learning" before it became "Open and Distance Learning"; indeed, the concept "Distance Learning" emerged from the idea of "Distance Education" which came from "Correspondence Education" which itself arose from "Non-formal Education".

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 31

*whereas correspondence education relies on paper and the written or print materials and it employs the post or surface transportation as its means of communication, distance education, its successor, employs in addition to print and surface transportation, many more diverse and* 

Distance education is a process whereby an individual or institution packages information in a learnable way with the view to helping another individual or group of individuals to learn at a distance. In line with the general aim of education, distance education employs all available media, methods and techniques to enable learners access needed information at a distance; distance education equally assists the learner to apply whatever may have been

One major characteristic of distance education is that it employs a variety of media (print,

Distance Education is "a process to create and provide access to learning when the source of information and the learners are separated by time and distance, or both" (Honeyman and

Distance learning on the other hand, is a process of education which emphasises learning; it is an educational enterprise during which, a facilitator of learning who is usually separated from the learner by spatial or mental distance, gathers, collates and presents information in a learnable form to one or a group of learners who have accepted the responsibility to learn.

While in distance education, the facilitator does the most that it could to help learners learn, distance learning assumes that the responsibility to learn is the learner's; and this responsibility includes the choice and decision to enroll on a programme, the choice of media through which to learn and most importantly what to learn and how to learn it.

While most psychologists would submit that learning means acquisition of information and knowledge that lead to change in behaviour (and this is the aim of education and the objective of distance education), distance learning leaves room for the learner to impute to the information and material presented, his own understanding that may be different from the understanding the facilitator had intended; additionally, the learner is at liberty to use his understanding and the information presented in any constructive way which suits his own will, circumstances and environment without recourse to the facilitator or institution

electronic and virtual) in its quest to help the learner learn as much as possible.

*modern means of communication (Morris 2011; Jeffries 2011).* 

Correspondence education is a paper and written document based process of passing information between a facilitator and a learner or group of learners with the view to

facilitating learning.

**3.3. Distance education** 

learnt.

Miller, 1993:68)

**3.4. Distance learning** 

that originated the learning material.

Tracing our steps back to the basics therefore, we recollect that the emergence of open and distance learning was motivated by inability of numerous qualified candidates to access tertiary education in regular or formal tertiary education institutions; the search for educational opportunities by those candidates locked out of formal education institutions was eventually met with a positive response within the non-formal education environment.

### **3.1. Non-formal education**

Non-formal education is a planned educational activity that takes place outside the formal school system; while its outcome may lead to results and products similar to those produced by the formal school system, the environment within which it takes place and its processes are different from those obtained within the formal school system. It is a system of education within which the rigid safeguards (teacher or institution-controlled time-tabling, student discipline, teacher-controlled curriculum, etc.) of formal education are either made flexible or eliminated.

For example, learning meeting periods are jointly arrived at through discussions involving learners and facilitators; also the motivation techniques (giving of gifts, promises of future rewards, etc.) that would usually work among formal education students would not ordinarily be effective within non-formal education environment as each non-formal education learner is driven by his own peculiar intrinsic motivation.

Having reviewed the submissions of a number of authors, including Merriam and Caffarella (1999), Merriam and Brokett (1997), Watkins and Wright (1991) and Combs (1972), Gibson (2008) concludes that non-formal education is planned education that takes place outside the formal school and which may or may not lead to credit earning.

Although, not all non-formal education programmes, do qualify as distance learning programme, yet, it was within an environment such as the one afore described, that the first distance education programme was conceived; that first distance education programme was known as "Correspondence Education".

#### **3.2. Correspondence education**

The humble beginning of correspondence education must be traced back to 1840 when Isaac Pitman began to teach shorthand by post (Morris, 2011; Rowntree, 1992). This was the first ever recorded successful national attempt at providing education at a distance anywhere in the world; for many years, Pitman used the post to reach his many learners who equally got back to him through the same medium.

After this initial experience the practice of correspondence education spread like wild fire throughout the world and very soon, all kinds of subjects and topics were taught through correspondence education.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 31

Correspondence education is a paper and written document based process of passing information between a facilitator and a learner or group of learners with the view to facilitating learning.

*whereas correspondence education relies on paper and the written or print materials and it employs the post or surface transportation as its means of communication, distance education, its successor, employs in addition to print and surface transportation, many more diverse and modern means of communication (Morris 2011; Jeffries 2011).* 

## **3.3. Distance education**

30 Distance Education

from "Non-formal Education".

**3.1. Non-formal education** 

flexible or eliminated.

"Distance Education" which came from "Correspondence Education" which itself arose

Tracing our steps back to the basics therefore, we recollect that the emergence of open and distance learning was motivated by inability of numerous qualified candidates to access tertiary education in regular or formal tertiary education institutions; the search for educational opportunities by those candidates locked out of formal education institutions was eventually met with a positive response within the non-formal education environment.

Non-formal education is a planned educational activity that takes place outside the formal school system; while its outcome may lead to results and products similar to those produced by the formal school system, the environment within which it takes place and its processes are different from those obtained within the formal school system. It is a system of education within which the rigid safeguards (teacher or institution-controlled time-tabling, student discipline, teacher-controlled curriculum, etc.) of formal education are either made

For example, learning meeting periods are jointly arrived at through discussions involving learners and facilitators; also the motivation techniques (giving of gifts, promises of future rewards, etc.) that would usually work among formal education students would not ordinarily be effective within non-formal education environment as each non-formal

Having reviewed the submissions of a number of authors, including Merriam and Caffarella (1999), Merriam and Brokett (1997), Watkins and Wright (1991) and Combs (1972), Gibson (2008) concludes that non-formal education is planned education that takes place outside the

Although, not all non-formal education programmes, do qualify as distance learning programme, yet, it was within an environment such as the one afore described, that the first distance education programme was conceived; that first distance education programme was

The humble beginning of correspondence education must be traced back to 1840 when Isaac Pitman began to teach shorthand by post (Morris, 2011; Rowntree, 1992). This was the first ever recorded successful national attempt at providing education at a distance anywhere in the world; for many years, Pitman used the post to reach his many learners who equally got

After this initial experience the practice of correspondence education spread like wild fire throughout the world and very soon, all kinds of subjects and topics were taught through

education learner is driven by his own peculiar intrinsic motivation.

formal school and which may or may not lead to credit earning.

known as "Correspondence Education".

back to him through the same medium.

correspondence education.

**3.2. Correspondence education** 

Distance education is a process whereby an individual or institution packages information in a learnable way with the view to helping another individual or group of individuals to learn at a distance. In line with the general aim of education, distance education employs all available media, methods and techniques to enable learners access needed information at a distance; distance education equally assists the learner to apply whatever may have been learnt.

One major characteristic of distance education is that it employs a variety of media (print, electronic and virtual) in its quest to help the learner learn as much as possible.

Distance Education is "a process to create and provide access to learning when the source of information and the learners are separated by time and distance, or both" (Honeyman and Miller, 1993:68)

#### **3.4. Distance learning**

Distance learning on the other hand, is a process of education which emphasises learning; it is an educational enterprise during which, a facilitator of learning who is usually separated from the learner by spatial or mental distance, gathers, collates and presents information in a learnable form to one or a group of learners who have accepted the responsibility to learn.

While in distance education, the facilitator does the most that it could to help learners learn, distance learning assumes that the responsibility to learn is the learner's; and this responsibility includes the choice and decision to enroll on a programme, the choice of media through which to learn and most importantly what to learn and how to learn it.

While most psychologists would submit that learning means acquisition of information and knowledge that lead to change in behaviour (and this is the aim of education and the objective of distance education), distance learning leaves room for the learner to impute to the information and material presented, his own understanding that may be different from the understanding the facilitator had intended; additionally, the learner is at liberty to use his understanding and the information presented in any constructive way which suits his own will, circumstances and environment without recourse to the facilitator or institution that originated the learning material.

In this regard, distance learning operates within the strictest principles of distance education but with the largest tolerance for interpretations and application of learning outcomes; this is transformative learning; distance learning therefore more than distance education promotes transformative learning.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 33

*..arrangements to enable people to learn at the time, place and space which satisfy their circumstances and requirements. The emphasis is on opening up opportunities by overcoming barriers that result from geographical isolation, personal work commitments or conventional course structures which have often prevented people from gaining access to the training they* 

*..a wide range of learning opportunities that both aim to assist learners in gaining access to knowledge and skills they would otherwise be denied and to give learners the optimum degree of* 

**3.6. Hiccups in the development of formal education and the growth of Open** 

In historical terms, we must start off with the view that the concept and philosophy of distance education are not alien to the African. As suggested by Kabwasa and Kaunda (1973), the talking drum has always represented both the medium and African consciousness of distance education; through vast plains, across a great many rivers and lagoons and across many hills and mountains, the talking drum has been used to convey messages and information of both simple and immeasurable value; the literate in the language of the talking drum has usually learnt his or her lesson and has become wiser for

Kabwasa and Kaunda (1973) confirmed this submission when they asked their pointed

However, if this introduction were accepted as an appropriate historical interjection, it is to be recollected at this juncture, that the focus of the current write-up is modern correspondence and distance education and not ancient concepts of distance education.

Consequently, the story of African open and distance learning must be discussed here, with two eras in mind, namely, the pre-independence era and the post-independence era. The pre-independence era refers to the colonial period and it is here situated between 1884, when Europe began its meetings that eventually culminated in the partitioning and sharing

*Is long-distance transmission of knowledge a new phenomenon in Africa? Certainly not. For long before radio or television were introduced in the continent during the colonial era, the 'homo Africanus' relied on his instrument par excellence-the drum- in order to communicate through distant space with his fellow man……. In a way, therefore, the 'talking drum' was a precursor of the modern correspondence education in so far as it linked the distant learner to his* 

geographical location. The concept of open learning then entered the educational diction and the prefix "Open" was added to "Distance Learning" to signify that apart from being learning managed from a distance, it is equally "Open Learning" wherein "Open Learning"

is understood to be,

And to be:

it.

*need (Rowntree, 1992).* 

**and Distance Learning in Africa** 

question and answered same thus:

*teacher or knowledge-holder (Kabwasa and Kaunda, 1973:3)* 

*control over their own learning (Dixon, 1987)* 

Arseneault in her 1998 study cited in Cranton (2000:190) suggests that an individual may embark on transformative learning through a process of "disorientation, self-examination, critical assessment, exploration of options, engaging in discourse and planning a course of action". In her own postulation, Gibson (2008:270) proposes "problem-posing education, critical reflection, dialogue, contextualisation and politicising of experiences and the taking of action" as the path to transformative learning. She then concludes that transformative learning may be stimulated at a distance through,

*educational materials regardless of medium of delivery, be it print, radio, audiocassettes, videotapes or television, [that] embrace Holmberg's guided didactic conversation and through this "conversation" pose questions, guide critical reflection, in the true sense of the word. Furthermore, the learner can be also guided toward reflections on and in the context in which she/he lives and works--the context that may be oppressive, stifling individual and social growth (Gibson, 2008: 271).* 

#### **3.5. Open and distance learning**

Distance learning needs not be open at all (Rowntree, 1992:30). This suggests that there exists a difference between "Open Learning" and "Distance Learning"; for many decades, the term "Distance Learning" has been used to describe learning organised, dispensed and acquired from a distance; the prefix "Open" became attached to Distance Learning towards the end of the 20th century as a result of three significant developments, namely, criticisms against the formal school system, GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) and Globalisation.

A number of criticisms have been leveled against the formal school system; first it is remarked that, apart from being costly to erect and maintain, the formal school system is not elastic and pliant enough to accommodate as many as would need education; additionally, it records a lot of wastage through a high percentage of failure of its products at private and public examinations (Garg and Lepotho, 2009; Biao, 1992; Combs, 1985); second, although the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was established in 1947, to regulate international interaction as it concerns specific issues and items, it was in 1994 that it was agreed that education should become an international saleable commodity; this agreement had profound positive effect on the development of Open and Distance Learning (Preece and Biao, 2011); third, the phenomenon of globalisation which suddenly turned the world into a global village, did much to encourage educational interaction among societies that hitherto would not have dreamt of educational collaboration as a result of the great geographical distance separating them.

As a result of these major social developments therefore, learning opportunities opened up to many inhabitants of the earth like it never did before and irrespective of their Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 33

geographical location. The concept of open learning then entered the educational diction and the prefix "Open" was added to "Distance Learning" to signify that apart from being learning managed from a distance, it is equally "Open Learning" wherein "Open Learning" is understood to be,

*..arrangements to enable people to learn at the time, place and space which satisfy their circumstances and requirements. The emphasis is on opening up opportunities by overcoming barriers that result from geographical isolation, personal work commitments or conventional course structures which have often prevented people from gaining access to the training they need (Rowntree, 1992).* 

And to be:

32 Distance Education

promotes transformative learning.

*(Gibson, 2008: 271).* 

**3.5. Open and distance learning** 

geographical distance separating them.

learning may be stimulated at a distance through,

In this regard, distance learning operates within the strictest principles of distance education but with the largest tolerance for interpretations and application of learning outcomes; this is transformative learning; distance learning therefore more than distance education

Arseneault in her 1998 study cited in Cranton (2000:190) suggests that an individual may embark on transformative learning through a process of "disorientation, self-examination, critical assessment, exploration of options, engaging in discourse and planning a course of action". In her own postulation, Gibson (2008:270) proposes "problem-posing education, critical reflection, dialogue, contextualisation and politicising of experiences and the taking of action" as the path to transformative learning. She then concludes that transformative

*educational materials regardless of medium of delivery, be it print, radio, audiocassettes, videotapes or television, [that] embrace Holmberg's guided didactic conversation and through this "conversation" pose questions, guide critical reflection, in the true sense of the word. Furthermore, the learner can be also guided toward reflections on and in the context in which she/he lives and works--the context that may be oppressive, stifling individual and social growth* 

Distance learning needs not be open at all (Rowntree, 1992:30). This suggests that there exists a difference between "Open Learning" and "Distance Learning"; for many decades, the term "Distance Learning" has been used to describe learning organised, dispensed and acquired from a distance; the prefix "Open" became attached to Distance Learning towards the end of the 20th century as a result of three significant developments, namely, criticisms against the formal school system, GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) and Globalisation.

A number of criticisms have been leveled against the formal school system; first it is remarked that, apart from being costly to erect and maintain, the formal school system is not elastic and pliant enough to accommodate as many as would need education; additionally, it records a lot of wastage through a high percentage of failure of its products at private and public examinations (Garg and Lepotho, 2009; Biao, 1992; Combs, 1985); second, although the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was established in 1947, to regulate international interaction as it concerns specific issues and items, it was in 1994 that it was agreed that education should become an international saleable commodity; this agreement had profound positive effect on the development of Open and Distance Learning (Preece and Biao, 2011); third, the phenomenon of globalisation which suddenly turned the world into a global village, did much to encourage educational interaction among societies that hitherto would not have dreamt of educational collaboration as a result of the great

As a result of these major social developments therefore, learning opportunities opened up to many inhabitants of the earth like it never did before and irrespective of their *..a wide range of learning opportunities that both aim to assist learners in gaining access to knowledge and skills they would otherwise be denied and to give learners the optimum degree of control over their own learning (Dixon, 1987)* 

## **3.6. Hiccups in the development of formal education and the growth of Open and Distance Learning in Africa**

In historical terms, we must start off with the view that the concept and philosophy of distance education are not alien to the African. As suggested by Kabwasa and Kaunda (1973), the talking drum has always represented both the medium and African consciousness of distance education; through vast plains, across a great many rivers and lagoons and across many hills and mountains, the talking drum has been used to convey messages and information of both simple and immeasurable value; the literate in the language of the talking drum has usually learnt his or her lesson and has become wiser for it.

Kabwasa and Kaunda (1973) confirmed this submission when they asked their pointed question and answered same thus:

*Is long-distance transmission of knowledge a new phenomenon in Africa? Certainly not. For long before radio or television were introduced in the continent during the colonial era, the 'homo Africanus' relied on his instrument par excellence-the drum- in order to communicate through distant space with his fellow man……. In a way, therefore, the 'talking drum' was a precursor of the modern correspondence education in so far as it linked the distant learner to his teacher or knowledge-holder (Kabwasa and Kaunda, 1973:3)* 

However, if this introduction were accepted as an appropriate historical interjection, it is to be recollected at this juncture, that the focus of the current write-up is modern correspondence and distance education and not ancient concepts of distance education.

Consequently, the story of African open and distance learning must be discussed here, with two eras in mind, namely, the pre-independence era and the post-independence era. The pre-independence era refers to the colonial period and it is here situated between 1884, when Europe began its meetings that eventually culminated in the partitioning and sharing

of Africa (Robiquet, 1897; Halsall, 1998) as a cake would have been shared, and 1960, the beginning of massive decolonisation of Africa.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 35

the university enjoy international recognition and the university runs an open learning programme in addition to distance education as students who do not possess a university entrance matric can register for the University of South Africa's access programme. By July 2011, University of South Africa was ranked 9th out of 100 African universities and 1221st out

Clearly, the University of South Africa rules over the African open and distance learning space. However, while South Africa remains to date the unequalled leader in the field of open and distance learning in Africa, the regions in the east, west and centre of Sub-Saharan

A stroke of economic meltdown hit the world in the 1980s which scuttled at least temporarily, the ambitious project of developing enviable formal school systems in various African countries (World Bank, 1988). As a result of the slowing down in impetus of formal education growth, a system of adult remedial education began to develop in major cities of African nations at about the same time (Mpofu and Amin, 2004; Biao, 1992); this system of education is made up of learning meetings organised in the evenings and weekends that aim at helping learners acquire knowledge, skills, certificates and diplomas which they were not able to obtain through the formal school system; apart from being cheaper to maintain than formal schools, the services of these remedial education centres came at relatively low cost to learners. Most of the adult remedial education classes ran high school (secondary school) level learning programmes and are by that token institutions that prepared

Over the years, the products of these adult remedial education centres, joined the regular high school graduates to queue for admission into African universities; these universities have consistently not been able to provide space for most of the qualified candidates as a result of the availability of only limited placements within their premises. Tilak (2009) submits that only between 6 and 7% of those qualified to obtain tertiary education do get

As a result of this shortage of places in African universities, many qualified candidates turned their search for tertiary educational opportunities towards other educational structures including open and distance learning institutions. This then, marked the

One most significant early achievement recorded in the realm of open and distance learning after independence, was the establishment in 1962 of the "Centre d'Enseignement Superieur" in Brazzaville, Congo. This was a Correspondence College with its peculiarities. First, it was a college designed to serve a French speaking audience; secondly, the qualifications it granted were specifically tailored towards up-grading basic skills and preparing recipients for job; thirdly, in addition to serving candidates in search of tertiary institution qualifications, its main target audience is made up of rural populace and

beginning of the demand for distance education in post-independence Africa.

of 10,000 universities in the world (Wikipedia, 2011; Webometrics, 2011).

*3.6.2. Open and Distance Learning during the post-independence era* 

Africa also have their own pale ODL stories of success to tell.

numerous candidates for university or tertiary education.

placement in African universities.

Two landmarks were recorded during the pre-independence era and these include the establishment on African soil of clearing houses for European Correspondence Colleges and the establishment of the University of South Africa (UNISA) as the first African Distance Education institution in 1946. The post-independence era, after recording a major achievement soon after independence, produced rather later, towards the end of the 20th century, a number of weak ODL structures which nevertheless are gradually strengthening their roots.

#### *3.6.1. Open and Distance Learning during the pre-independence era*

During the colonial period, a few Africans enrolled as learners with overseas correspondence colleges; through most of the colonial period these learners received their course packages and returned assignments and correspondences overseas, through the post office. However, at the approach of independence, a number of these overseas correspondence colleges began to establish clearing houses in African countries with the view to both reducing the cost of postal correspondence to learners and accessing a larger market of correspondence education clients at independence.

Alongside this humble beginning of open and distance learning in Africa, came in 1946, the establishment of the University of South Africa (UNISA) as the first and foremost Open and Distance Learning institution in Africa (Wikipedia, 2011). Initially, UNISA combined the promotion of its own courses with those of some overseas correspondence colleges (Wikipedia, 2011); in other words, while it was possible to enroll for and obtain UNISA degrees and diplomas, opportunities were equally given to candidates to obtain degrees and diplomas of a few overseas correspondence colleges through UNISA.

This phenomenon carries both a historical connotation and practical significance; UNISA itself started in 1873, not only as mother institution to most other South African universities but as a clearing house for overseas universities such as Oxford and Cambridge universities (Wikipedia, 2011).

*Founded in 1873 as the University of the Cape of Good Hope, the University of South Africa spent most of its early history as an examining agency for Oxford and Cambridge universities and as an incubator from which most other universities in South Africa are descended. In 1946, it was given a new role as a distance education university and today it offers certificate, diploma and degree courses up to doctoral level (Wikipedia, 2011).* 

As time went on however, the new ODL institution grew in autonomy and it launched itself into the African open and distance learning orbit with all the sophistication and resilience it could muster to claim the first position in a developing sub-educational sector of Africa.

Today, UNISA caters for about 300,000 learners spread throughout the world with a personnel strength of 4,000 academic and administrative staff. The certificates delivered by the university enjoy international recognition and the university runs an open learning programme in addition to distance education as students who do not possess a university entrance matric can register for the University of South Africa's access programme. By July 2011, University of South Africa was ranked 9th out of 100 African universities and 1221st out of 10,000 universities in the world (Wikipedia, 2011; Webometrics, 2011).

Clearly, the University of South Africa rules over the African open and distance learning space. However, while South Africa remains to date the unequalled leader in the field of open and distance learning in Africa, the regions in the east, west and centre of Sub-Saharan Africa also have their own pale ODL stories of success to tell.

#### *3.6.2. Open and Distance Learning during the post-independence era*

34 Distance Education

their roots.

(Wikipedia, 2011).

beginning of massive decolonisation of Africa.

of Africa (Robiquet, 1897; Halsall, 1998) as a cake would have been shared, and 1960, the

Two landmarks were recorded during the pre-independence era and these include the establishment on African soil of clearing houses for European Correspondence Colleges and the establishment of the University of South Africa (UNISA) as the first African Distance Education institution in 1946. The post-independence era, after recording a major achievement soon after independence, produced rather later, towards the end of the 20th century, a number of weak ODL structures which nevertheless are gradually strengthening

During the colonial period, a few Africans enrolled as learners with overseas correspondence colleges; through most of the colonial period these learners received their course packages and returned assignments and correspondences overseas, through the post office. However, at the approach of independence, a number of these overseas correspondence colleges began to establish clearing houses in African countries with the view to both reducing the cost of postal correspondence to learners and accessing a larger

Alongside this humble beginning of open and distance learning in Africa, came in 1946, the establishment of the University of South Africa (UNISA) as the first and foremost Open and Distance Learning institution in Africa (Wikipedia, 2011). Initially, UNISA combined the promotion of its own courses with those of some overseas correspondence colleges (Wikipedia, 2011); in other words, while it was possible to enroll for and obtain UNISA degrees and diplomas, opportunities were equally given to candidates to obtain degrees and

This phenomenon carries both a historical connotation and practical significance; UNISA itself started in 1873, not only as mother institution to most other South African universities but as a clearing house for overseas universities such as Oxford and Cambridge universities

*Founded in 1873 as the University of the Cape of Good Hope, the University of South Africa spent most of its early history as an examining agency for Oxford and Cambridge universities and as an incubator from which most other universities in South Africa are descended. In 1946, it was given a new role as a distance education university and today it offers certificate, diploma* 

As time went on however, the new ODL institution grew in autonomy and it launched itself into the African open and distance learning orbit with all the sophistication and resilience it could muster to claim the first position in a developing sub-educational sector of Africa.

Today, UNISA caters for about 300,000 learners spread throughout the world with a personnel strength of 4,000 academic and administrative staff. The certificates delivered by

*3.6.1. Open and Distance Learning during the pre-independence era* 

market of correspondence education clients at independence.

diplomas of a few overseas correspondence colleges through UNISA.

*and degree courses up to doctoral level (Wikipedia, 2011).* 

A stroke of economic meltdown hit the world in the 1980s which scuttled at least temporarily, the ambitious project of developing enviable formal school systems in various African countries (World Bank, 1988). As a result of the slowing down in impetus of formal education growth, a system of adult remedial education began to develop in major cities of African nations at about the same time (Mpofu and Amin, 2004; Biao, 1992); this system of education is made up of learning meetings organised in the evenings and weekends that aim at helping learners acquire knowledge, skills, certificates and diplomas which they were not able to obtain through the formal school system; apart from being cheaper to maintain than formal schools, the services of these remedial education centres came at relatively low cost to learners. Most of the adult remedial education classes ran high school (secondary school) level learning programmes and are by that token institutions that prepared numerous candidates for university or tertiary education.

Over the years, the products of these adult remedial education centres, joined the regular high school graduates to queue for admission into African universities; these universities have consistently not been able to provide space for most of the qualified candidates as a result of the availability of only limited placements within their premises. Tilak (2009) submits that only between 6 and 7% of those qualified to obtain tertiary education do get placement in African universities.

As a result of this shortage of places in African universities, many qualified candidates turned their search for tertiary educational opportunities towards other educational structures including open and distance learning institutions. This then, marked the beginning of the demand for distance education in post-independence Africa.

One most significant early achievement recorded in the realm of open and distance learning after independence, was the establishment in 1962 of the "Centre d'Enseignement Superieur" in Brazzaville, Congo. This was a Correspondence College with its peculiarities. First, it was a college designed to serve a French speaking audience; secondly, the qualifications it granted were specifically tailored towards up-grading basic skills and preparing recipients for job; thirdly, in addition to serving candidates in search of tertiary institution qualifications, its main target audience is made up of rural populace and

extension workers--subsistence farmers, village women and development leaders-- (Dodds, 1973).

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 37

The Institute of Adult Education and Distance Learning of Makerere University, Uganda was established by Act of Parliament no. 12 of 1975 (www.iae.ac.tz/profile). As an organ with the mission of promoting adult education, the institute has been technically in existence since 1960, first as an extra-mural studies arm of the Makerere University College and secondly as Department of Adult Education attached to the University of Dar-es-salaam

Upon becoming Institute of Adult Education and Distance Learning (IAEDL) in 1975, this ODL outfit has toed the path of all other developing African ODL outfits by providing teacher education, literacy education and some amount of technical education; in this sense, it was not a significant enough open and distance learning outfit to be highlighted but for

A staff of Makerere University, Paul Birevu Muyinda began a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) study programme in 2005 during which an e-learning system that aims to increase interaction between facilitators and their distance learning students was developed; the initial testing of the invention christened Mobile Learning Model (M0LODUM) confirmed it as a groundbreaking innovation (Kisambira, 2008) and this event brought that one ODL

The advent of M0LODUM is important to both IAEDL and African ODL family because the invention has the potentials to increase the population of Open and Distance Learning clients on the continent and the quality of learning offered by the ODL route. Confirming

*The Department of Distance Learning at Makerere University has deployed an amazing mobiletelephone-based application to aid research supervision by students who learn and study long distance. Not only have they addressed a teething issue of limited collaboration between the distance learner and the supervisor; the department is also taking learning to a place it has never* 

Nigeria is the most populous black nation on earth; it equally posts one of the highest annual population growth rate in the world (National Population Commission, 2006); as a result of the combination of these factors with other socio-economic and environmental factors, the population of the country grew exponentially and all social amenities, including educational facilities, were stretched to a breaking point within the first two decades of independence.

For example, while at the close of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s, about 25% success was regularly registered at the West African School Certificate Examinations, Nigerian universities showed a glaring lack of capacity to absorb even such a low number of qualified candidates (Biao, 1992; Okebukola, 2004); by the close of the 20th century, Nigeria could absorb only 15 per cent of the about 1.5 million youths that regularly qualify to benefit

From the 1970s therefore, the need to seek other routes to higher education acquisition had become an issue in Nigeria; an aborted attempt was made to provide Nigeria with an Open

between 1963 and 1974 (www.iae.ac.tz/profile).

one event that occurred between 2005 and 2011.

*been before (Kisambira, 2008).* 

from tertiary education (Ambe-Uva, 2007).

outfit on the continent to limelight and to a status of importance.

the potential advantages of this invention, Kisambira submitted as follows:

However, beginning from the end of the 20th century, this college has begun to take on English-speaking populations of Africa; for example, it is currently operating in Kenya, Ghana and among English-speaking people of Cameroun.

After this significant early achievement, a number of open and distance learning institutions have come on stream among which only a few are major players within the ODL field; the institutions discussed here are those that are headed by an ODL specialist and/or staffed by an ODL-trained personnel to the tune of at least 15%; through sheer hard work and promotion of innovation, one or two ODL outfits have made it unto the list of the ODL institutions discussed here.

In East Africa, we may speak of only the ODL project, located at the University of Tanzania and that situated within Makerere University, Uganda; in Central Africa, no credible ODL project exists; in West Africa, Nigeria established in April 2001 an institution known as the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN); in Southern Africa, UNISA braises the trail; but the Botswana's, Lesotho's, Swaziland's, Namibia's and Zimbabwe's open and distance learning outfits, are other credible ODL projects that must be mentioned in that part of the continent.

More than a century ago, the geo-political entity known today as Tanzania had had to be governed by Germans, the French and the British at different periods in history; by the time Tanzania attained political independence in the 1960s, it had a chequered history indeed; the mainland having had a different colonial experience from the off-shore Zanzibar. Yet, at independence, national leaders decided to pool the two bits of the country together and marched with determination to make a success of the union (Mmari, 1999). Education was identified as an instrument for national development and integration; it was therefore vigorously promoted both at the community development level and at the formal school system level; while community development was promoted at the grassroots level, the formal schools, made up of primary, secondary and tertiary institutions, trained the low, middle and high level manpower that was to see to the development of the country.

The University of Tanzania which was the only university during the first years of independence to serve the country had capacity to admit only 30% of qualified candidates; this wastage was quickly noticed by the authorities and by 1988 the country set into motion the process of establishing an Open University whose objective was to provide increased access to educational opportunities to Tanzanians; by 1994, the Open University of Tanzania admitted 766 students as its first batch of open learning students. Between 1994 and 1998 the advent of the Open University increased access to higher education in the country by about 25% (Mmari, 1999).

During the second decade of the 21st century the university has been coping as well as it could with the global recession while at the same time fine tuning its strategies for better performance as soon as the difficult times were over.

The Institute of Adult Education and Distance Learning of Makerere University, Uganda was established by Act of Parliament no. 12 of 1975 (www.iae.ac.tz/profile). As an organ with the mission of promoting adult education, the institute has been technically in existence since 1960, first as an extra-mural studies arm of the Makerere University College and secondly as Department of Adult Education attached to the University of Dar-es-salaam between 1963 and 1974 (www.iae.ac.tz/profile).

36 Distance Education

institutions discussed here.

1973).

continent.

25% (Mmari, 1999).

performance as soon as the difficult times were over.

extension workers--subsistence farmers, village women and development leaders-- (Dodds,

However, beginning from the end of the 20th century, this college has begun to take on English-speaking populations of Africa; for example, it is currently operating in Kenya,

After this significant early achievement, a number of open and distance learning institutions have come on stream among which only a few are major players within the ODL field; the institutions discussed here are those that are headed by an ODL specialist and/or staffed by an ODL-trained personnel to the tune of at least 15%; through sheer hard work and promotion of innovation, one or two ODL outfits have made it unto the list of the ODL

In East Africa, we may speak of only the ODL project, located at the University of Tanzania and that situated within Makerere University, Uganda; in Central Africa, no credible ODL project exists; in West Africa, Nigeria established in April 2001 an institution known as the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN); in Southern Africa, UNISA braises the trail; but the Botswana's, Lesotho's, Swaziland's, Namibia's and Zimbabwe's open and distance learning outfits, are other credible ODL projects that must be mentioned in that part of the

More than a century ago, the geo-political entity known today as Tanzania had had to be governed by Germans, the French and the British at different periods in history; by the time Tanzania attained political independence in the 1960s, it had a chequered history indeed; the mainland having had a different colonial experience from the off-shore Zanzibar. Yet, at independence, national leaders decided to pool the two bits of the country together and marched with determination to make a success of the union (Mmari, 1999). Education was identified as an instrument for national development and integration; it was therefore vigorously promoted both at the community development level and at the formal school system level; while community development was promoted at the grassroots level, the formal schools, made up of primary, secondary and tertiary institutions, trained the low,

middle and high level manpower that was to see to the development of the country.

The University of Tanzania which was the only university during the first years of independence to serve the country had capacity to admit only 30% of qualified candidates; this wastage was quickly noticed by the authorities and by 1988 the country set into motion the process of establishing an Open University whose objective was to provide increased access to educational opportunities to Tanzanians; by 1994, the Open University of Tanzania admitted 766 students as its first batch of open learning students. Between 1994 and 1998 the advent of the Open University increased access to higher education in the country by about

During the second decade of the 21st century the university has been coping as well as it could with the global recession while at the same time fine tuning its strategies for better

Ghana and among English-speaking people of Cameroun.

Upon becoming Institute of Adult Education and Distance Learning (IAEDL) in 1975, this ODL outfit has toed the path of all other developing African ODL outfits by providing teacher education, literacy education and some amount of technical education; in this sense, it was not a significant enough open and distance learning outfit to be highlighted but for one event that occurred between 2005 and 2011.

A staff of Makerere University, Paul Birevu Muyinda began a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) study programme in 2005 during which an e-learning system that aims to increase interaction between facilitators and their distance learning students was developed; the initial testing of the invention christened Mobile Learning Model (M0LODUM) confirmed it as a groundbreaking innovation (Kisambira, 2008) and this event brought that one ODL outfit on the continent to limelight and to a status of importance.

The advent of M0LODUM is important to both IAEDL and African ODL family because the invention has the potentials to increase the population of Open and Distance Learning clients on the continent and the quality of learning offered by the ODL route. Confirming the potential advantages of this invention, Kisambira submitted as follows:

*The Department of Distance Learning at Makerere University has deployed an amazing mobiletelephone-based application to aid research supervision by students who learn and study long distance. Not only have they addressed a teething issue of limited collaboration between the distance learner and the supervisor; the department is also taking learning to a place it has never been before (Kisambira, 2008).* 

Nigeria is the most populous black nation on earth; it equally posts one of the highest annual population growth rate in the world (National Population Commission, 2006); as a result of the combination of these factors with other socio-economic and environmental factors, the population of the country grew exponentially and all social amenities, including educational facilities, were stretched to a breaking point within the first two decades of independence.

For example, while at the close of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s, about 25% success was regularly registered at the West African School Certificate Examinations, Nigerian universities showed a glaring lack of capacity to absorb even such a low number of qualified candidates (Biao, 1992; Okebukola, 2004); by the close of the 20th century, Nigeria could absorb only 15 per cent of the about 1.5 million youths that regularly qualify to benefit from tertiary education (Ambe-Uva, 2007).

From the 1970s therefore, the need to seek other routes to higher education acquisition had become an issue in Nigeria; an aborted attempt was made to provide Nigeria with an Open

University in 1983; the plan eventually materialised only in 2001 with the establishment of 4 centres in Lagos, Adamawa, Borno and Kano States. Fifty learning programmes were rolled out and 32,400 pioneer learners were registered (National Open University of Nigeria, 2009). The National Open University of Nigeria is "Nigeria's leading-and only specialist-provider of open and distance learning at tertiary level" (National Open University of Nigeria, 2009).

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 39

teacher education, Bachelors in Education, Commerce, Law and the Sciences are taught and plans are at foot to introduce courses in Bachelor of Technology; the centres offering inservice training for teachers attract the highest number of learners that range between 1,000

Zimbabwe Open University had its hey days between 1993 and 1999. Its humble beginning is to be traced to the establishment of the Centre for Distance Education within the University of Zimbabwe in 1993; it then became University of Zimbabwe College for Distance Education in 1997 before becoming the Zimbabwe Open University through a 1998

Between 1993 and 1999, the Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) made giant steps within the realm of open and distance learning as it not only attracted good heads in ODL around Africa, but also attracted international funding which enabled it develop materials, strategies and technologies that portrayed it as a truly promising African ODL outfit; to its credit, the solid ODL network established throughout all the provinces of the country must be highlighted. During its hey days, every aspiring learner residing in any part of Zimbabwe felt the presence and the intensity of the activities of ZOU through its provincial coordinates. However, it must be acknowledged that beginning from the year 2000, the political and economic reforms in that country have come to nearly completely erase the

For example, less than 8 per cent of the staff in Zimbabwe's conventional universities currently hold a Doctorate degree, a situation that temporarily led to the suspension of classes at the University of Zimbabwe during the first decade of the 21st century (Wikipedia, 2011; Nyaruwata, 2011); the few ODL specialists that served as backbone to the initial impressive achievements recorded in ZOU have been forced to relocate away from Zimbabwe and the gradual development of the soft ODL infrastructure (regular supply of electrical energy, availability of ever improving Information Communication Technologies, etc..) that held out such a great promise had equally been terminated; so have the development-oriented learning programmes introduced by the university diminished in quality and quantity. Yet, there are high hopes that, from the ashes of the initial toils and achievements of this promising ODL University, will rise again a great African ODL outfit at

Current observation suggests that the demand for open and distance learning will keep augmenting in Africa. What then are those other factors that continue to fuel ODL demand on the continent? Apart from the inability of conventional institutions to cater for the educational needs of teeming populations desirous to acquire education, a whole set of other factors account and will continue to account for the development of ODL in Africa.

For example, during the periods of struggle for independence in Africa, it was discovered by the elites that elementary and secondary education levels were not enough to effectively challenge colonial administration; a first university degree at least built greater confidence and elicited greater respect from the colonisers; consequently, a number of Africans who were not able to travel overseas for higher education, seized the opportunities offered by

and 2,000 (Dodds et al, 1999).

the end of the reforms.

Act of Parliament (Nyaruwata, 2011).

beautiful work accomplished during the initial years of ZOU.

The Distance Education Association of Southern Africa (DEASA) comprises Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and Namibia; other DEASA countries include Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, Angola, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Mauritius, the Seychelles, Madagascar, the Democratic Republic of Congo and South Africa (DEASA, 2010).

Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and Namibia shared the common destiny of resisting apartheid; consequently, they naturally found themselves collaborating on many other fronts for the sake of collective survival in the face of the monster that apartheid was; one of the fronts where they collaborated was education. Dodds (1973) submits that initially, Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland ran a common university known as the University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland (UBLS) between 1964 and 1975. University of Namibia was originally modelled after the Afrikaner tradition with little contact with the outside world. While Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland ran a joint institution, the Distance Learning developed through the joint institution was committed to promoting community development.

When the joint institution got dissolved and each country set up its own university, higher education distance learning was developed in each of the countries. Botswana launched its Diploma in Theology in 1979 but could not make a success of it; it launched its distance education Certificate in Adult Education in 1982 and was able to run it till the end of the 1990s with about 27 students usually on the programme (Dodds et al, 1999). Beyond the 1990s, the Certificate in Adult Education has been upgraded to the Diploma in Adult Education by distance education and this Diploma programme is going on up to date, understandably with its problems of low enrolment, greatly reduced government support and low patronage by non-governmental organizations. However, within the first decade of the 21st century, Botswana has managed to equip about 9,000 primary school teachers with a Diploma in Primary Education through distance learning (Kamau, 2009).

The National University of Lesotho (NUL) currently runs Diploma and Bachelor programmes in Adult Education and Education by distance learning mode; these programmes were put up a few years ago and the Diploma in Adult Education and Bachelor in Education programmes have particularly attracted impressive patronage. Swaziland established its Institute of Distance Education (IDE) in the last decade of the 20th century to offer courses in Diploma in Law, in Commerce and B. A. in Humanities and B.Ed in Adult Education. The population on the various courses range between 30 and 100 learners. With courses in Law attracting the highest number of enrolees (Dodds et al, 1999).

Namibia went into independence with one university which was already equipped with a Department of Distance Education; this university's department, in addition to three other public institutions offer tertiary level distance education; many courses such as in-service teacher education, Bachelors in Education, Commerce, Law and the Sciences are taught and plans are at foot to introduce courses in Bachelor of Technology; the centres offering inservice training for teachers attract the highest number of learners that range between 1,000 and 2,000 (Dodds et al, 1999).

38 Distance Education

development.

University in 1983; the plan eventually materialised only in 2001 with the establishment of 4 centres in Lagos, Adamawa, Borno and Kano States. Fifty learning programmes were rolled out and 32,400 pioneer learners were registered (National Open University of Nigeria, 2009). The National Open University of Nigeria is "Nigeria's leading-and only specialist-provider of open and distance learning at tertiary level" (National Open University of Nigeria, 2009). The Distance Education Association of Southern Africa (DEASA) comprises Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and Namibia; other DEASA countries include Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, Angola, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Mauritius, the Seychelles, Madagascar, the

Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and Namibia shared the common destiny of resisting apartheid; consequently, they naturally found themselves collaborating on many other fronts for the sake of collective survival in the face of the monster that apartheid was; one of the fronts where they collaborated was education. Dodds (1973) submits that initially, Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland ran a common university known as the University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland (UBLS) between 1964 and 1975. University of Namibia was originally modelled after the Afrikaner tradition with little contact with the outside world. While Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland ran a joint institution, the Distance Learning developed through the joint institution was committed to promoting community

When the joint institution got dissolved and each country set up its own university, higher education distance learning was developed in each of the countries. Botswana launched its Diploma in Theology in 1979 but could not make a success of it; it launched its distance education Certificate in Adult Education in 1982 and was able to run it till the end of the 1990s with about 27 students usually on the programme (Dodds et al, 1999). Beyond the 1990s, the Certificate in Adult Education has been upgraded to the Diploma in Adult Education by distance education and this Diploma programme is going on up to date, understandably with its problems of low enrolment, greatly reduced government support and low patronage by non-governmental organizations. However, within the first decade of the 21st century, Botswana has managed to equip about 9,000 primary school teachers with a

The National University of Lesotho (NUL) currently runs Diploma and Bachelor programmes in Adult Education and Education by distance learning mode; these programmes were put up a few years ago and the Diploma in Adult Education and Bachelor in Education programmes have particularly attracted impressive patronage. Swaziland established its Institute of Distance Education (IDE) in the last decade of the 20th century to offer courses in Diploma in Law, in Commerce and B. A. in Humanities and B.Ed in Adult Education. The population on the various courses range between 30 and 100 learners. With

Namibia went into independence with one university which was already equipped with a Department of Distance Education; this university's department, in addition to three other public institutions offer tertiary level distance education; many courses such as in-service

Diploma in Primary Education through distance learning (Kamau, 2009).

courses in Law attracting the highest number of enrolees (Dodds et al, 1999).

Democratic Republic of Congo and South Africa (DEASA, 2010).

Zimbabwe Open University had its hey days between 1993 and 1999. Its humble beginning is to be traced to the establishment of the Centre for Distance Education within the University of Zimbabwe in 1993; it then became University of Zimbabwe College for Distance Education in 1997 before becoming the Zimbabwe Open University through a 1998 Act of Parliament (Nyaruwata, 2011).

Between 1993 and 1999, the Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) made giant steps within the realm of open and distance learning as it not only attracted good heads in ODL around Africa, but also attracted international funding which enabled it develop materials, strategies and technologies that portrayed it as a truly promising African ODL outfit; to its credit, the solid ODL network established throughout all the provinces of the country must be highlighted. During its hey days, every aspiring learner residing in any part of Zimbabwe felt the presence and the intensity of the activities of ZOU through its provincial coordinates. However, it must be acknowledged that beginning from the year 2000, the political and economic reforms in that country have come to nearly completely erase the beautiful work accomplished during the initial years of ZOU.

For example, less than 8 per cent of the staff in Zimbabwe's conventional universities currently hold a Doctorate degree, a situation that temporarily led to the suspension of classes at the University of Zimbabwe during the first decade of the 21st century (Wikipedia, 2011; Nyaruwata, 2011); the few ODL specialists that served as backbone to the initial impressive achievements recorded in ZOU have been forced to relocate away from Zimbabwe and the gradual development of the soft ODL infrastructure (regular supply of electrical energy, availability of ever improving Information Communication Technologies, etc..) that held out such a great promise had equally been terminated; so have the development-oriented learning programmes introduced by the university diminished in quality and quantity. Yet, there are high hopes that, from the ashes of the initial toils and achievements of this promising ODL University, will rise again a great African ODL outfit at the end of the reforms.

Current observation suggests that the demand for open and distance learning will keep augmenting in Africa. What then are those other factors that continue to fuel ODL demand on the continent? Apart from the inability of conventional institutions to cater for the educational needs of teeming populations desirous to acquire education, a whole set of other factors account and will continue to account for the development of ODL in Africa.

For example, during the periods of struggle for independence in Africa, it was discovered by the elites that elementary and secondary education levels were not enough to effectively challenge colonial administration; a first university degree at least built greater confidence and elicited greater respect from the colonisers; consequently, a number of Africans who were not able to travel overseas for higher education, seized the opportunities offered by

ODL institutions to read for Bachelor and higher degrees while continuing their liberation movement activities.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 41

The East African Community (EAC) has bought into SADC's Vision 2030; therefore in addition to developing agriculture through the Strengthening of Trade in Agricultural Inputs in Africa (STAR) Project and through Integrated Regional Emergency Preparedness and Response Plan on Trans-boundary Human and Animal Diseases, and to poverty alleviation programmes run within member states, it is collaborating with SADC on many

Central Africa has equally bought into SADC's Vision 2030 and many countries in that bloc are involved in collaborative activities with SADC. ECOWAS rolled out in 2009, a five-point development plan it intends to attain by 2020; issues focused upon, include governance, the infrastructure, the private sector, women, children and youths and the utilization of the environment; in the main, the community wishes to run an ever-increasingly accountable government, an infrastructure able to support a 21st century economy and regional development; ECOWAS Vision equally seeks to operate a viable private sector, empower women, children and youths and encourage a sustainable use of the environment

These various vision statments are of course consistent with the expectations of African populations; however, for their actualisation, almost all African nations' populations need to be literate and about 40% of those populations need to acquire higher education; the literacisation of the populations would enable as many people as possible understand the contents of the Vision documents while the high level manpower is needed for the successful implementation of the Visions; since no true development may take place without the participation of the people for whom the said development is designed, it is suspected that all current vision statements in Africa, which are so inspired by modern style of living,

At present, only about 6% of the relevant Sub-Saharan African population has access to higher education as stated earlier; therefore, in order to increase the chance of success of the various vision statements on the continent, work is to be done to increase both literacy rate

Without our realising it, open and distance learning institutions, have been supplementing the conventional supply of higher education with the view to increasing the high level manpower that will eventually contribute to the actualisation of the continental vision statements. However, as could be seen a great effort is still needed to raise tertiary school

Globalisation is another factor fuelling demand for open and distance learning on the continent. While Shiva (1997) in Arku and Arku (2011) advances three historical sources (European colonialism, the imposition of western development models and free trade) of globalisation, Saul (2004) also in Arku and Arku (2011) suggests that the true harbinger of globalisation is the economic crisis of the 1980s that forced industrialised countries' companies to look for cheap labour elsewhere as a result of the unfavourable restrictions

may remain dead letters without appreciable improvement in people's education.

fronts (EAC, 2011).

(ECOWAS 2009).

and access to higher education in Africa.

enrolment from 6 to 40%.

brought on them at home.

During this same periods too, many Africans got incarcerated for their political views and actions as a strategy for breaking their resolve to fight for liberation; while in prisons across the continent, many of these confined liberation fighters conceived of learning and improvement in educational attainment as a continuation of the struggle and a preparation for a more sustained struggle after their eventual release; consequently, with the consent and help of prison authorities, they, too, learnt and acquired degrees and diplomas through ODL institutions that existed mainly outside the shores of Africa.

During the post-independence era, the fear of job loss, personal ambition, search for skilled manpower for the implementation of complex regional developmental agendas and globalisation are some of the factors that have fuelled expansion of the ODL sector.

By the 1980s, as a result of the economic recession at the time, Africa had started experiencing both significant unemployment problem and job losses; one strategy used by employers during that period to reduce work force was to set aside a time lag during which the work force in sections of enterprises or government organisations was directed to obtain higher relevant qualifications or be laid off; many found ODL institutions helpful in warding off the threat of job loss not only in the ability of these institutions to enable them acquire relevant qualifications that ultimately kept them on their jobs but in helping them keep their jobs while studying.

A number of individuals have always existed who have had the personal ambition of acquiring particular types of knowledge, skills and/or attitude; a number of reasons may account for such an ambition; the desire to learn may be for the purpose of practising a hobby or for preparing for a change of job at a later date; indeed, the learning may be for the purpose of upgrading skills on the current job for the purpose of retaining it. In other words, the reasons for learning could be both intrinsic and externally and socially driven.

Additionally, since becoming independent, African countries have sought to fast track their development through putting up gigantic developmental plans whose implementation can be facilitated by only the availability of not only a high population of literate citizens but by the availability within their borders of an appreciable population of citizens holding tertiary education qualifications (Biao, 2010).

For example, the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the East African and the Central African Organisation, all have developed visions aimed at actualising major development plans within the first three decades of the 21st century.

SADC aims to improve agriculture and agro-processing activities through substantial investment in irrigation infrastructure, through the development of innovative market linkages and through the development of preferential procurement mechanisms; it plans to reduce unemployment within the borders of member states to between 10 and 6% by 2030; SADC equally plans to embark on the development of light industries and to link all member state capitals by highway, rail road and waterway (SADC, 2011).

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 41

40 Distance Education

movement activities.

education qualifications (Biao, 2010).

within the first three decades of the 21st century.

ODL institutions to read for Bachelor and higher degrees while continuing their liberation

During this same periods too, many Africans got incarcerated for their political views and actions as a strategy for breaking their resolve to fight for liberation; while in prisons across the continent, many of these confined liberation fighters conceived of learning and improvement in educational attainment as a continuation of the struggle and a preparation for a more sustained struggle after their eventual release; consequently, with the consent and help of prison authorities, they, too, learnt and acquired degrees and diplomas through

During the post-independence era, the fear of job loss, personal ambition, search for skilled manpower for the implementation of complex regional developmental agendas and

By the 1980s, as a result of the economic recession at the time, Africa had started experiencing both significant unemployment problem and job losses; one strategy used by employers during that period to reduce work force was to set aside a time lag during which the work force in sections of enterprises or government organisations was directed to obtain higher relevant qualifications or be laid off; many found ODL institutions helpful in warding off the threat of job loss not only in the ability of these institutions to enable them acquire relevant qualifications that ultimately kept them on their jobs but in helping them keep their jobs while studying.

A number of individuals have always existed who have had the personal ambition of acquiring particular types of knowledge, skills and/or attitude; a number of reasons may account for such an ambition; the desire to learn may be for the purpose of practising a hobby or for preparing for a change of job at a later date; indeed, the learning may be for the purpose of upgrading skills on the current job for the purpose of retaining it. In other words, the reasons for learning could be both intrinsic and externally and socially driven.

Additionally, since becoming independent, African countries have sought to fast track their development through putting up gigantic developmental plans whose implementation can be facilitated by only the availability of not only a high population of literate citizens but by the availability within their borders of an appreciable population of citizens holding tertiary

For example, the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the East African and the Central African Organisation, all have developed visions aimed at actualising major development plans

SADC aims to improve agriculture and agro-processing activities through substantial investment in irrigation infrastructure, through the development of innovative market linkages and through the development of preferential procurement mechanisms; it plans to reduce unemployment within the borders of member states to between 10 and 6% by 2030; SADC equally plans to embark on the development of light industries and to link all

member state capitals by highway, rail road and waterway (SADC, 2011).

globalisation are some of the factors that have fuelled expansion of the ODL sector.

ODL institutions that existed mainly outside the shores of Africa.

The East African Community (EAC) has bought into SADC's Vision 2030; therefore in addition to developing agriculture through the Strengthening of Trade in Agricultural Inputs in Africa (STAR) Project and through Integrated Regional Emergency Preparedness and Response Plan on Trans-boundary Human and Animal Diseases, and to poverty alleviation programmes run within member states, it is collaborating with SADC on many fronts (EAC, 2011).

Central Africa has equally bought into SADC's Vision 2030 and many countries in that bloc are involved in collaborative activities with SADC. ECOWAS rolled out in 2009, a five-point development plan it intends to attain by 2020; issues focused upon, include governance, the infrastructure, the private sector, women, children and youths and the utilization of the environment; in the main, the community wishes to run an ever-increasingly accountable government, an infrastructure able to support a 21st century economy and regional development; ECOWAS Vision equally seeks to operate a viable private sector, empower women, children and youths and encourage a sustainable use of the environment (ECOWAS 2009).

These various vision statments are of course consistent with the expectations of African populations; however, for their actualisation, almost all African nations' populations need to be literate and about 40% of those populations need to acquire higher education; the literacisation of the populations would enable as many people as possible understand the contents of the Vision documents while the high level manpower is needed for the successful implementation of the Visions; since no true development may take place without the participation of the people for whom the said development is designed, it is suspected that all current vision statements in Africa, which are so inspired by modern style of living, may remain dead letters without appreciable improvement in people's education.

At present, only about 6% of the relevant Sub-Saharan African population has access to higher education as stated earlier; therefore, in order to increase the chance of success of the various vision statements on the continent, work is to be done to increase both literacy rate and access to higher education in Africa.

Without our realising it, open and distance learning institutions, have been supplementing the conventional supply of higher education with the view to increasing the high level manpower that will eventually contribute to the actualisation of the continental vision statements. However, as could be seen a great effort is still needed to raise tertiary school enrolment from 6 to 40%.

Globalisation is another factor fuelling demand for open and distance learning on the continent. While Shiva (1997) in Arku and Arku (2011) advances three historical sources (European colonialism, the imposition of western development models and free trade) of globalisation, Saul (2004) also in Arku and Arku (2011) suggests that the true harbinger of globalisation is the economic crisis of the 1980s that forced industrialised countries' companies to look for cheap labour elsewhere as a result of the unfavourable restrictions brought on them at home.

Be it as it may, globalisation is a process that creates a borderless environment within which vigorous human interaction is promoted on all fronts including the realms of economy, trade, leisure, culture and education. Such a social interaction tends to introduce people into new habits, knowledge systems and attitudes that they may wish to try out.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 43

One other advantage of involvement in ODL that is not quite advertised is that some conventional institutions that are currently involved in the provision of distance education are obtaining surplus financial resources from the distance education project with which they supplement shortfalls in government subventions meant for the running of their institutions.

The first and major challenge to orderly growth of the domain of ODL in Africa is absence of national ODL policies; while many ODL outfits spring up and while governments authorise and do license conventional and non-conventional tertiary institutions to dispense ODL programmes and courses, there are no national policies clearly delineating a path for ODL to run on. Where government directives (policy incubation) have been issued for either conventional or non-conventional institutions to run ODL courses, the very operationalisation of those programmes end up being muffled and contrived by the

*Most open universities……are open universities trapped in residential national education policy environments. National regulatory agencies prescribe the minimum entry academic qualifications that learners must possess in order to be admitted into degree programmes…..This closes the window on openness as to admission and undermines the very philosophy upon which ODL is predicated. For..dual mode universities, institutional policies for staff recruitment, training and promotion are often modeled on and similar to those in residential face-to-face universities. The result is that emphasis is on research with little on evidence for effective* 

The second challenge is that of social acceptance of ODL products. There is abundant skepticism as to the quality of graduates produced through the ODL route. In the words of

Additionally, the dearth of ODL quality assurance frameworks (Barasa, 2010) is another of the challenges that the African ODL environment is expected to attend to if the growth of

Clearly, the way out of the policy aridity and the quagmire of social skepticism and underrated quality of ODL programmes is the conduct of more research with the view to encouraging the birth of viable policies and with the view to unearthing strategies for

The third challenge is that of relevance of ODL programmes. One has always been of the view that ODL institutions need not replicate the programmes of conventional universities.

*....in many countries except possibly South Africa which has been practising distance education at tertiary level since 1946, there is no universal appeal for distance education among would be learners and suspicions remain about the quality of qualifications acquired through distance* 

**5. Challenges within open and distance learning space in Africa** 

*teaching and learner support as criteria for promotion(Barasa, 2010).* 

improving the quality of this developing sub-educational sector in Africa.

unenlightened actions of the of regulatory agencies.

For example, Barasa (2010) submits:

*education (Pityana, 2004:12).* 

this sub-educational sector is to be sustained.

Pityana (2004),

Open and distance learning was one such practice that was fuelled by globalisation; the colossal advancement that has been recorded in the domain of ICT-supported open and distance learning during the first decade of the 21st century, is clearly to be attributed to the phenomenon of globalisation. Not only have many international brain storming sessions (conferences, workshops, roundtable discussions, etc.) been profited by, to improve the technological foundation and content of the African ODL space, numerous pieces of information garnered through the Internet and the world wide web have equally had a positive and globalising effect on African Open and Distance Learning practice.

## **4. Achievements in open and distance learning space in Africa**

Eager to accelerate the pace of educational development within their borders and anxious to fulfill the aims and meet the targets of various international agreements on education, many African nations started to employ open and distance learning strategies as tool for the massification of education beginning from the late 1970s; this process of massification was first directed towards the training of teachers before it was pointed towards other areas of education.

For example, Nigeria, Kenya, Malawi, and Botswana in 1976, 1986, 1992 and 1994 set up ODL programmes to train massive and staggering numbers of teachers to enable them prosecute their respective universal primary education programmes (Kamau, 2009; Rumajogee, Jeeroburkhan, Mohadeb and Mooneesamy, 2003). In one year alone (2004), Nigeria produced through its ODL programme, 10,629 trained teachers where 30,000 trained teachers were produced in 2003 from all the existing government and private teacher colleges in the country. Within three years of the commencement of its teacher training programme by ODL, Malawi produced 18,000 trained teachers; it would have taken all Malawi teacher training colleges, 12 years to produce this number of teachers through the conventional method of teaching. Also Botswana and Kenya produced huge numbers of trained teachers within a short time which colleges of education in those countries would have rolled out not only at prohibitive cost but also after many years of teaching and training (Kamau, 2009; Rumajogee, Jeeroburkhan, Mohadeb and Mooneesamy, 2003).

Apart from advancing teacher education and education massification in general, open and distance learning equally has been used in promoting technical, vocational education and community development; additionally, the cost of providing education got reduced considerably wherever ODL was employed, since distance education is characteristically more cost-effective than conventional education (Bates, 2007; Rumajogee, Jeeroburkhan, Mohadeb and Mooneesamy 2003).

One other advantage of involvement in ODL that is not quite advertised is that some conventional institutions that are currently involved in the provision of distance education are obtaining surplus financial resources from the distance education project with which they supplement shortfalls in government subventions meant for the running of their institutions.

## **5. Challenges within open and distance learning space in Africa**

The first and major challenge to orderly growth of the domain of ODL in Africa is absence of national ODL policies; while many ODL outfits spring up and while governments authorise and do license conventional and non-conventional tertiary institutions to dispense ODL programmes and courses, there are no national policies clearly delineating a path for ODL to run on. Where government directives (policy incubation) have been issued for either conventional or non-conventional institutions to run ODL courses, the very operationalisation of those programmes end up being muffled and contrived by the unenlightened actions of the of regulatory agencies.

For example, Barasa (2010) submits:

42 Distance Education

education.

Mooneesamy, 2003).

Mohadeb and Mooneesamy 2003).

Be it as it may, globalisation is a process that creates a borderless environment within which vigorous human interaction is promoted on all fronts including the realms of economy, trade, leisure, culture and education. Such a social interaction tends to introduce people into

Open and distance learning was one such practice that was fuelled by globalisation; the colossal advancement that has been recorded in the domain of ICT-supported open and distance learning during the first decade of the 21st century, is clearly to be attributed to the phenomenon of globalisation. Not only have many international brain storming sessions (conferences, workshops, roundtable discussions, etc.) been profited by, to improve the technological foundation and content of the African ODL space, numerous pieces of information garnered through the Internet and the world wide web have equally had a

Eager to accelerate the pace of educational development within their borders and anxious to fulfill the aims and meet the targets of various international agreements on education, many African nations started to employ open and distance learning strategies as tool for the massification of education beginning from the late 1970s; this process of massification was first directed towards the training of teachers before it was pointed towards other areas of

For example, Nigeria, Kenya, Malawi, and Botswana in 1976, 1986, 1992 and 1994 set up ODL programmes to train massive and staggering numbers of teachers to enable them prosecute their respective universal primary education programmes (Kamau, 2009; Rumajogee, Jeeroburkhan, Mohadeb and Mooneesamy, 2003). In one year alone (2004), Nigeria produced through its ODL programme, 10,629 trained teachers where 30,000 trained teachers were produced in 2003 from all the existing government and private teacher colleges in the country. Within three years of the commencement of its teacher training programme by ODL, Malawi produced 18,000 trained teachers; it would have taken all Malawi teacher training colleges, 12 years to produce this number of teachers through the conventional method of teaching. Also Botswana and Kenya produced huge numbers of trained teachers within a short time which colleges of education in those countries would have rolled out not only at prohibitive cost but also after many years of teaching and training (Kamau, 2009; Rumajogee, Jeeroburkhan, Mohadeb and

Apart from advancing teacher education and education massification in general, open and distance learning equally has been used in promoting technical, vocational education and community development; additionally, the cost of providing education got reduced considerably wherever ODL was employed, since distance education is characteristically more cost-effective than conventional education (Bates, 2007; Rumajogee, Jeeroburkhan,

new habits, knowledge systems and attitudes that they may wish to try out.

positive and globalising effect on African Open and Distance Learning practice.

**4. Achievements in open and distance learning space in Africa** 

*Most open universities……are open universities trapped in residential national education policy environments. National regulatory agencies prescribe the minimum entry academic qualifications that learners must possess in order to be admitted into degree programmes…..This closes the window on openness as to admission and undermines the very philosophy upon which ODL is predicated. For..dual mode universities, institutional policies for staff recruitment, training and promotion are often modeled on and similar to those in residential face-to-face universities. The result is that emphasis is on research with little on evidence for effective teaching and learner support as criteria for promotion(Barasa, 2010).* 

The second challenge is that of social acceptance of ODL products. There is abundant skepticism as to the quality of graduates produced through the ODL route. In the words of Pityana (2004),

*....in many countries except possibly South Africa which has been practising distance education at tertiary level since 1946, there is no universal appeal for distance education among would be learners and suspicions remain about the quality of qualifications acquired through distance education (Pityana, 2004:12).* 

Additionally, the dearth of ODL quality assurance frameworks (Barasa, 2010) is another of the challenges that the African ODL environment is expected to attend to if the growth of this sub-educational sector is to be sustained.

Clearly, the way out of the policy aridity and the quagmire of social skepticism and underrated quality of ODL programmes is the conduct of more research with the view to encouraging the birth of viable policies and with the view to unearthing strategies for improving the quality of this developing sub-educational sector in Africa.

The third challenge is that of relevance of ODL programmes. One has always been of the view that ODL institutions need not replicate the programmes of conventional universities.

Similar suggestions emerged from the findings of the Lesotho Pan-African Tele-Education centre study whose report appears further within this chapter. It is therefore to believe that only a proactive, innovative and future probing Open and Distance Learning project will be seen as relevant and worthwhile in the 21st century.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 45

*The Pan-African e-Network Project is a joint initiative of the Government of India and African Union and is funded by the Government of India at an estimated cost of US\$116 Million. It aims at imparting education to 10000 students of African countries participating in the project, using modern information communication technologies, from some of the topnotch universities of India. The eligible students enrolled in various programmes will be required to attend the classes in the learning centre set up in each member country as part of the project (Pan-African* 

All existing 53 African nations (before the birth of South Sudan in September, 2011) hooked on to the Pan-African e-Network project in 2010. The project actually comprises two main

The Tele-Medicine programme seeks to link selected African medical practitioners (500 doctors and 1000 nurses) to the technological infrastructures, techniques and know-how developed by India or available in the field of medical practice in India; it is not a medical education programme that may lead to award of degrees in medicine; it is rather a medical empowering process that seeks to bring medical practitioners in Africa to collaborate with their colleagues in India in the diagnosis and treatment of illnesses, using the Tele-Medicine facilities and expertise available in India. On the other hand, the Tele-Education programme is an educational programme whose aim is to impart education with the view to awarding Diploma, Bachelor and Masters degrees in Management (Business and Finance), Technology (Computer Science and Information Technology) and International Languages (English, French, German and Arabic). Indira Gandhi National Open University, (IGNOU) New Delhi, Amity University, Noida, Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS, Pilani) University of Delhi, New Delhi and University of Madras, Chennai are the Indian universities partnering with selected institutions in Africa to implement the Pan-African e-

On-line admission process, dedicated IP based network, live, interactive virtual classes, Offline access (through the Internet) to archived lecture contents for review learning, digital library and dedicated Tele-Education portal for knowledge management are some of the special features of the Tele-Education programme (Pan-African e-Network project, 2010).

Lesotho signed up to the Pan-African e-Network agreement during the second half of 2010 and classes effectively began at the Lesotho learning centre, by April, 2011. The Institute of Extra-Mural Studies of the National University of Lesotho hosts the Lesotho Learning centre of the Pan-African e-Network. The current contributor was a one-time Deputy Director of the National University of Lesotho's Institute of Extra-Mural Studies. Through a study whose findings are reported below he sought to learn, among other things, the extent to which this new mode (the Tele-Education), holds potentials for bringing its contribution to the furthering of the ODL edifice that the African social, economic and educational

The study sought to identify the characteristics of the clients that were the first to patronise the Tele-Education mode of delivering open and distance learning in Lesotho

components, namely, the Tele-Education and the Tele-Medicine components.

Network project (Pan-African e-Network project, 2010).

experiences have begun to build so earnestly.

**6. The study** 

*e-Network project, 2010).* 

The fourth challenge concerns dearth of trained personnel in the philosophy, principles and methods of Open and Distance Learning. While a large personnel is currently involved in running African ODL institutions, only a negligible portion of this personnel ever received formal training in the philosophy and principles of ODL. The Open University of Tanzania has just begun to give training leading to diplomas in ODL. It is expected that this area of the growing field of ODL will be taken quite seriously, very shortly by relevant institutions.

The fifth challenge concerns the low level of utilisation of Information Communication Technologies (ICT) within the area of ODL in Africa. The main issue that needs to be addressed before a high utilisation of ICT-based strategy may be experienced in Africa is the steady supply of electric power.

Unfortunately, no African country, including South Africa, is currently self-sufficient in electric supply; yet, one may not meaningfully run an ICT-based ODL project without adequate supply of electricity. All African ODL projects (except that of the African Virtual University that I did not discuss because it reaches a negligible population of African ODL clients) currently run solely on printed materials and minimal face-to-face meetings in order to circumvent unavailability of electricity; while, such a resourcefulness is commended, it should be stated that a combination of such a practice with some ICT-based strategies has a greater chance of impacting more positively on Open and Distance Learning projects.

The sixth challenge relates to the ease and credulity with which all ODL modes of delivery are embraced without discrimination or screening by open and distance learning institutions within the continent. While there may be value in employing some amount of multi-mode of delivery within the African ODL enterprise, it is certainly not conceivable that just any mode of delivery that may be invented anywhere on the planet will be suitable for the African ODL audience. Consequently, good practices dictate that careful trials of delivery modes or systematic researches be conducted to ascertain in the course of a limited time, the suitability or otherwise of any mode of delivery that may arrive on the African soil.

The main ODL modes in use in Africa at present are the correspondence education mode, long vacation courses mode, the weekend classes mode, Open University mode, noninteractive virtual classes modes and interactive virtual classes modes. Correspondence education mode is the oldest of all the ODL modes employed on the continent. However, the latest modes being employed on the continent are the interactive virtual classes modes which include the video conferencing mode and the Tele-Education mode; of these two modes, the Tele-Education mode is the newer. Currently, the newest and most famous of all open and distance learning programmes run through the Tele-Education mode in Africa, is the Pan-African e-Network.

*The Pan-African e-Network Project is a joint initiative of the Government of India and African Union and is funded by the Government of India at an estimated cost of US\$116 Million. It aims at imparting education to 10000 students of African countries participating in the project, using modern information communication technologies, from some of the topnotch universities of India. The eligible students enrolled in various programmes will be required to attend the classes in the learning centre set up in each member country as part of the project (Pan-African e-Network project, 2010).* 

All existing 53 African nations (before the birth of South Sudan in September, 2011) hooked on to the Pan-African e-Network project in 2010. The project actually comprises two main components, namely, the Tele-Education and the Tele-Medicine components.

The Tele-Medicine programme seeks to link selected African medical practitioners (500 doctors and 1000 nurses) to the technological infrastructures, techniques and know-how developed by India or available in the field of medical practice in India; it is not a medical education programme that may lead to award of degrees in medicine; it is rather a medical empowering process that seeks to bring medical practitioners in Africa to collaborate with their colleagues in India in the diagnosis and treatment of illnesses, using the Tele-Medicine facilities and expertise available in India. On the other hand, the Tele-Education programme is an educational programme whose aim is to impart education with the view to awarding Diploma, Bachelor and Masters degrees in Management (Business and Finance), Technology (Computer Science and Information Technology) and International Languages (English, French, German and Arabic). Indira Gandhi National Open University, (IGNOU) New Delhi, Amity University, Noida, Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS, Pilani) University of Delhi, New Delhi and University of Madras, Chennai are the Indian universities partnering with selected institutions in Africa to implement the Pan-African e-Network project (Pan-African e-Network project, 2010).

On-line admission process, dedicated IP based network, live, interactive virtual classes, Offline access (through the Internet) to archived lecture contents for review learning, digital library and dedicated Tele-Education portal for knowledge management are some of the special features of the Tele-Education programme (Pan-African e-Network project, 2010).

Lesotho signed up to the Pan-African e-Network agreement during the second half of 2010 and classes effectively began at the Lesotho learning centre, by April, 2011. The Institute of Extra-Mural Studies of the National University of Lesotho hosts the Lesotho Learning centre of the Pan-African e-Network. The current contributor was a one-time Deputy Director of the National University of Lesotho's Institute of Extra-Mural Studies. Through a study whose findings are reported below he sought to learn, among other things, the extent to which this new mode (the Tele-Education), holds potentials for bringing its contribution to the furthering of the ODL edifice that the African social, economic and educational experiences have begun to build so earnestly.

### **6. The study**

44 Distance Education

institutions.

steady supply of electric power.

the Pan-African e-Network.

Similar suggestions emerged from the findings of the Lesotho Pan-African Tele-Education centre study whose report appears further within this chapter. It is therefore to believe that only a proactive, innovative and future probing Open and Distance Learning project will be

The fourth challenge concerns dearth of trained personnel in the philosophy, principles and methods of Open and Distance Learning. While a large personnel is currently involved in running African ODL institutions, only a negligible portion of this personnel ever received formal training in the philosophy and principles of ODL. The Open University of Tanzania has just begun to give training leading to diplomas in ODL. It is expected that this area of the growing field of ODL will be taken quite seriously, very shortly by relevant

The fifth challenge concerns the low level of utilisation of Information Communication Technologies (ICT) within the area of ODL in Africa. The main issue that needs to be addressed before a high utilisation of ICT-based strategy may be experienced in Africa is the

Unfortunately, no African country, including South Africa, is currently self-sufficient in electric supply; yet, one may not meaningfully run an ICT-based ODL project without adequate supply of electricity. All African ODL projects (except that of the African Virtual University that I did not discuss because it reaches a negligible population of African ODL clients) currently run solely on printed materials and minimal face-to-face meetings in order to circumvent unavailability of electricity; while, such a resourcefulness is commended, it should be stated that a combination of such a practice with some ICT-based strategies has a

greater chance of impacting more positively on Open and Distance Learning projects.

The sixth challenge relates to the ease and credulity with which all ODL modes of delivery are embraced without discrimination or screening by open and distance learning institutions within the continent. While there may be value in employing some amount of multi-mode of delivery within the African ODL enterprise, it is certainly not conceivable that just any mode of delivery that may be invented anywhere on the planet will be suitable for the African ODL audience. Consequently, good practices dictate that careful trials of delivery modes or systematic researches be conducted to ascertain in the course of a limited time, the suitability or otherwise of any mode of delivery that may arrive on the African soil. The main ODL modes in use in Africa at present are the correspondence education mode, long vacation courses mode, the weekend classes mode, Open University mode, noninteractive virtual classes modes and interactive virtual classes modes. Correspondence education mode is the oldest of all the ODL modes employed on the continent. However, the latest modes being employed on the continent are the interactive virtual classes modes which include the video conferencing mode and the Tele-Education mode; of these two modes, the Tele-Education mode is the newer. Currently, the newest and most famous of all open and distance learning programmes run through the Tele-Education mode in Africa, is

seen as relevant and worthwhile in the 21st century.

The study sought to identify the characteristics of the clients that were the first to patronise the Tele-Education mode of delivering open and distance learning in Lesotho

and in Africa and to obtain these clients' views on the services offered them through this mode of learning. The study was conducted about one year after the programme had commenced.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 47

**S/N Total** 

70 **(35%)** 130 **(65%)** 200 **2. Age** 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 26 **(13%)** 20 **(10%)** 64 **(32%)** 42 **(21%)** 42 **(21%)** 2 **(1%)** 4 **(2%)** 200

102 ( **51%)** 90 **(45%)** 2 **(1%)** 6 **(3%)** 200

15 **(7%)** 12 **(6%)** 133 **(67%)** 40 **(20%)** 200

166 **(83%)** 34 **(17%)** 0 **(0%)** 200

16 **( 8%)** 60 **(30%)** 26 **(13%)** 64 **(32%)** 0 **(0%)** 34 **(17%)** 200

Very High high medium Low Very

30 **(15%)** 156 **(78%)** 14 **(7%)** 0 **(0%)** 0 **(0%)** 200

36

Eighty-three per cent of the learners were reading Business and Finance courses; only 17% of the learners read Technology courses; none of the learners read International Languages. Three quarters (75%) of the learners were enrolled on courses that lasted between 1 and 2 years; about the same number of learners (30% and 32% respectively) enrolled on a 1-year and 2-year study programmes; only 17% of the learners were undergoing a 3-year program

As for one of the motivating factors for participating in the Pan-African Tele-Education programme, 93% of the learners indicated that the desire to obtain a foreign tertiary

All respondents were unanimous about the fact that the convenience of reading while retaining one's job was one main reason for enrolling into the Pan-African Tele-Education programme as 100% of the learners agreed to this inventory item; in addition, this last item of the first section of the inventory that allowed for multiple and ranked responses, revealed

**Table 1.** General Information on the learners of Lesotho Centre of Pan-African Tele-Education

Compete for higher position of responsibility

Languages

Technology International

Civil servant Company

worker

months

low

Convenience of reading while keeping one's job. 103

3years

**1. Gender** Male Female

**4. Work status** Not working Self-

**5. Courses** Business &

**7. Desire for foreign degrees** 

**8. Other motivations for participation** 

programme

me as at the time of this study.

Finance Management

Obtain higher degrees. 40

education qualification counted as one main reason.

**3. Marital status** Married Single Divorced Widow(er)

employed

**6. Course duration** 6 months 1 year 1year 6mths 2yrs 2years 6

Change job 21

189 **(95%)** 40 **(20%)** 96 **(48%)** 200 **(100%)**

## **6.1. The design**

The study employed a descriptive survey design through which description and itemisation of basic characteristics and expressed views of the sample may be carried out.

## **6.2. Population and sample**

A total of 217 learners were on the roll of the Lesotho learning centre at the time of this study. The intention was to turn the whole population of learners into the sample for the study by reason of the relative small number of learners at the centre. However, only 203 learners returned duly completed the data collection instrument handed to them. Eventually the completed copies of the instrument of 200 learners were finally considered for final analysis for ease of computation. Consequently while the population of the study was 217 learners, the sample was made up of 200 learners.

#### **6.3. Instrumentation**

A 6-item inventory was designed which sought to elicit information on the demography of learners, learners' preference for meeting periods, comfort at the learning centre, learner support services and learners' psychological experiences. The validity of the inventory was ensured through the selection and inclusion on the instrument of such items that are strictly relevant to the aspects of ODL studied.

#### **6.4. Findings**

The findings are here summarized in seven tables which are each followed by a detailed explanation of the data contained in them.

**Table 1** shows that about two thirds (65%) of the learners in the Lesotho Tele-Education centre were female.

More than half of all the learners (53%) were aged between 26 and 35 years; specifically, 32% of the learners were aged between 26 and 30 years while 21% were aged between 31 and 35 years; only 1% and 2% of all the learners, were aged between 41 and 45 years and between 46 and 50 years respectively; interestingly, 13% of all the learners were found to fall within the age brackets of 16 and 20 years.

About half the learners (51%) were married while a large percentage (45%) of them were single. About two thirds (67%) of all learners were civil servants while 20% of the learners were working in some companies; six per cent of them were self-employed while 7% of them were not working.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 47

46 Distance Education

commenced.

**6.1. The design** 

**6.2. Population and sample** 

**6.3. Instrumentation** 

**6.4. Findings** 

centre were female.

learners, the sample was made up of 200 learners.

relevant to the aspects of ODL studied.

explanation of the data contained in them.

the age brackets of 16 and 20 years.

them were not working.

and in Africa and to obtain these clients' views on the services offered them through this mode of learning. The study was conducted about one year after the programme had

The study employed a descriptive survey design through which description and itemisation

A total of 217 learners were on the roll of the Lesotho learning centre at the time of this study. The intention was to turn the whole population of learners into the sample for the study by reason of the relative small number of learners at the centre. However, only 203 learners returned duly completed the data collection instrument handed to them. Eventually the completed copies of the instrument of 200 learners were finally considered for final analysis for ease of computation. Consequently while the population of the study was 217

A 6-item inventory was designed which sought to elicit information on the demography of learners, learners' preference for meeting periods, comfort at the learning centre, learner support services and learners' psychological experiences. The validity of the inventory was ensured through the selection and inclusion on the instrument of such items that are strictly

The findings are here summarized in seven tables which are each followed by a detailed

**Table 1** shows that about two thirds (65%) of the learners in the Lesotho Tele-Education

More than half of all the learners (53%) were aged between 26 and 35 years; specifically, 32% of the learners were aged between 26 and 30 years while 21% were aged between 31 and 35 years; only 1% and 2% of all the learners, were aged between 41 and 45 years and between 46 and 50 years respectively; interestingly, 13% of all the learners were found to fall within

About half the learners (51%) were married while a large percentage (45%) of them were single. About two thirds (67%) of all learners were civil servants while 20% of the learners were working in some companies; six per cent of them were self-employed while 7% of

of basic characteristics and expressed views of the sample may be carried out.


**Table 1.** General Information on the learners of Lesotho Centre of Pan-African Tele-Education programme

Eighty-three per cent of the learners were reading Business and Finance courses; only 17% of the learners read Technology courses; none of the learners read International Languages.

Three quarters (75%) of the learners were enrolled on courses that lasted between 1 and 2 years; about the same number of learners (30% and 32% respectively) enrolled on a 1-year and 2-year study programmes; only 17% of the learners were undergoing a 3-year program me as at the time of this study.

As for one of the motivating factors for participating in the Pan-African Tele-Education programme, 93% of the learners indicated that the desire to obtain a foreign tertiary education qualification counted as one main reason.

All respondents were unanimous about the fact that the convenience of reading while retaining one's job was one main reason for enrolling into the Pan-African Tele-Education programme as 100% of the learners agreed to this inventory item; in addition, this last item of the first section of the inventory that allowed for multiple and ranked responses, revealed

that the motivation to obtain a higher degree for the sake of it, spurred 95% of learners to register for the Tele-Education programme; forty-eight per cent of learners enrolled on the programme as a means for eventually competing for higher positions of responsibility within either the civil service or companies on completion of their studies; on the other hand, 20% of learners registered with the Pan-African Tele-Education programme with the hope of changing job on completion of study.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 49

Table 2 shows the summary of learners' responses regarding the time of the day they would prefer to have their classes. Learners were encouraged to post multiple responses against this second section of the inventory and to rank order those responses. Table 2 reveals that 91% of learners would like to have their classes during weekends; another group made up of 88% of learners indicated that they could have their classes after work hours; only 37% and 22% of learners indicated that lunch break periods and night classes were acceptable.

Other suggestions such as pre-work hours classes (6-8am) and during work hours classes

Effectively, the summary of the data in table 2 is that two choices (weekend classes and after

Table 3 reveals that between 85% and 97% of learners agreed that the chairs used at the centre were averagely comfortable and that the lighting, cleanliness, weather and noise control were of average quality. However, 60% of learners submitted that the writing desks

**Good** 

2 **(1%)** 6 **(3%)** 185 **(93%)** 7 **(3%)** 0 **(0%)** 200

0 **(0%)** 0 **(0%)** 16 **(8%)** 178 **(89%)** 6 **(3%)** 200

0 **(0%)** 0 **(0%)** 132 **(66%)** 61 **(31%)** 7 **(3%)** 200

0 **(0%)** 0 **(0%)** 0 **(0%)** 3 **(2%)** 197 **(98%)** 200

0 **(0%)** 0 **(0%)** 0 **(0%)** 1 **(1%)** 199 **(99%)** 200

0 **(0%)** 0 **(0%)** 0 **(0%)** 4 **(2%)** 196 **(98%)** 200

0 **(0%)** 0 **(0%)** 0 **(0%)** 1 **(1%)** 199 **(99%)** 200

Table 4 shows that between 98% and 99% of learners submitted that the provision made by the centre for tutorials, internet café, business centre and restaurant services was poor. In actual fact none of these services was provided by the centre. However, the services of the

Tele-Education attendant were adjudged to be good by 93% of respondents.

**Good Fair Poor Total** 

On the whole, the comfort at the centre has been adjudged to be of average quality.

attracted only 3% and 5% positive answers respectively.

at the centre were of poor quality and were not comfortable.

 **excellent Very** 

**1. Services of Tele-education** 

**2. Provision of Additional learning** 

**3, Availability of study space**

**4, Provision for tutorials**

**5, Provision for Internet Café**

**6. Provision for Business centre**

**7. Provision for restaurant services**

**Table 4.** Learner support services

**attendant** 

**resources** 

work hour classes) were made by respondents.


**Table 2.** Preferences for meeting period among Lesotho Centre Tele-Education learners


**Table 3.** Comfort at the learning centre

Table 2 shows the summary of learners' responses regarding the time of the day they would prefer to have their classes. Learners were encouraged to post multiple responses against this second section of the inventory and to rank order those responses. Table 2 reveals that 91% of learners would like to have their classes during weekends; another group made up of 88% of learners indicated that they could have their classes after work hours; only 37% and 22% of learners indicated that lunch break periods and night classes were acceptable.

Other suggestions such as pre-work hours classes (6-8am) and during work hours classes attracted only 3% and 5% positive answers respectively.

Effectively, the summary of the data in table 2 is that two choices (weekend classes and after work hour classes) were made by respondents.

Table 3 reveals that between 85% and 97% of learners agreed that the chairs used at the centre were averagely comfortable and that the lighting, cleanliness, weather and noise control were of average quality. However, 60% of learners submitted that the writing desks at the centre were of poor quality and were not comfortable.


On the whole, the comfort at the centre has been adjudged to be of average quality.

#### **Table 4.** Learner support services

48 Distance Education

hope of changing job on completion of study.

**2. After work hours**

**3. During work hours**

**4. During lunch break periods**

**5. Night classes**

**Table 2.** Preferences for meeting period among Lesotho Centre Tele-Education learners

**S/N Comfortable Averagely comfortable Not comfortable Total** 

178 **(89%)** 22 **(11%) 200** 

81**(40%)** 119 **(60%)** 200

169 **(85%)** 31 **(15%)** 200

193 **(97%)** 7 **(3%)** 200

186 **(93%)** 14 **(7%)** 200

183 **(92%)** 17 **(8%)** 200

**6. Pre-work hour classes**

**1. Chair** 

**3. Weather** 

**4. Lighting** 

**5. Noise control** 

**6. Cleanliness**

**Table 3.** Comfort at the learning centre

**2. Writing desk**

**1. weekends**

that the motivation to obtain a higher degree for the sake of it, spurred 95% of learners to register for the Tele-Education programme; forty-eight per cent of learners enrolled on the programme as a means for eventually competing for higher positions of responsibility within either the civil service or companies on completion of their studies; on the other hand, 20% of learners registered with the Pan-African Tele-Education programme with the

**S/N Yes Perhaps No Total** 

181 **(91%)** 7 **(3%)**

176 **(88%)** 19 **(10%)** 5 **(2%)** 200

10 **(5%)** 2 **(1%)** 188 **(94%)** 200

74 **(37%)** 7 **(3%)** 119 **(60%)** 200

44 **(22%)** 8 **(4%)** 148 **(74%) 200** 

6 **(3%)** 2 **(1%)** 192 **(96%**) **200** 

12 **(6%)** 200

Table 4 shows that between 98% and 99% of learners submitted that the provision made by the centre for tutorials, internet café, business centre and restaurant services was poor. In actual fact none of these services was provided by the centre. However, the services of the Tele-Education attendant were adjudged to be good by 93% of respondents.


Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 51

When the respondents were requested to assess the performances of both female and male lecturers, they rated male lecturers as being over and above female lecturers; this is because 84% of the learners found female lecturers to be good lecturers, but 16% of them found them to be poor in lecturing skills; on the other hand, 100% of learners submitted that male

Sixty-three percent of learners, found the images coming through the screen good and clear; but 37% of learners submitted that the images were poor in quality. The interaction gadgets (microphones, speakers, etc..) were found to be of good quality by 41% of learners while

 **Very High High Average Low Total** 

103 **(52%)** 97 **(48%)** 200

91 **(45%)** 109 **(55%)** 200

66 **(33%)** 134 **(67%)** 200

137 **(31%)** 63 **(69%)** 200

125 **(63%)** 75 **(37%) 200** 

Table 6 shows the manner in which learners fared academically through their responses to issues that are critical to success in learning. These issues include, ability to summarise oral presentations that may have been listened to, demonstration of speed in note taking, ability to study for at least 3 hours a day, demonstration of high academic self-concept and

Fifty-two per cent of learners indicated a high ability to summarise oral presentations; but 48% of learners indicated that a low ability to summarise oral presentations that they may

While 45% of learners indicated that they possess a high enough speed to take all the major notes on a lecture, fifty-five per cent of learners indicated that they are not able to capture all

Only 33% of the learners indicated that they are able to study for a minimum period of 3 hours a day. All remaining 67% of learners submitted that they are not able to study for

Thirty-one per cent of learners indicated that it is highly probable that they miss 30% of the classes while 69% of learners indicated that the chances are low that they miss up to 30% of

lecturers possessed good lecturing skills.

**1. Ability to summarise oral presentations**

**2. Speed in note taking**

**3. Possibility to study 3-4 hours a day**

**4. Have a high or low probability of missing** 

**5. Academic self-concept**

regularity of attendance at learning meetings.

**30% of each semester classes.** 

**Table 6.** Probability of success in learning

have listened to.

major notes of a lecture.

about 3 hours a day.

the classes.

59% of learners submitted that they were only of fair quality.

**Table 5.** Instructional processes

Table 5 shows that after about one year of instruction, 63% of learners indicated that they never had any real problem following and understanding the pronunciation and way of speaking of their Indian lecturers; however, 37% of learners still reported some difficulties in following their lecturers as a result of their way of speaking English language which is different from the way Southern Africans speak English.

When the inventory sought to know the extent to which Tele-Education mode resembles face-to-face teaching, more than half (55%) of learners submitted that there existed no similarity between the two modes of facilitating learning; thirty-three per cent of the learners responded that there existed a minimum amount of similarity between the two modes of instruction while about 12% of learners submitted that there existed a large amount of similarity between the two modes of instruction. Additionally, 63% and 37% submitted that, through the use of Tele-Education mode, facilitator-learner interaction was low and high respectively.

When the respondents were requested to assess the performances of both female and male lecturers, they rated male lecturers as being over and above female lecturers; this is because 84% of the learners found female lecturers to be good lecturers, but 16% of them found them to be poor in lecturing skills; on the other hand, 100% of learners submitted that male lecturers possessed good lecturing skills.

Sixty-three percent of learners, found the images coming through the screen good and clear; but 37% of learners submitted that the images were poor in quality. The interaction gadgets (microphones, speakers, etc..) were found to be of good quality by 41% of learners while 59% of learners submitted that they were only of fair quality.


**Table 6.** Probability of success in learning

50 Distance Education

**1. Ease in understanding the Lecturers (Lecturers' pronunciation)** 

**2. Facilitator-learner interaction**

**3. Clarity of images**

**facilitation resemble face-to-face teaching-learning technique** 

**4. How well does Tele-Education** 

**5. What is your assessment of female lecturers?** 

**lecturers?** 

**6. What is your assessment of male** 

**7. Performance of the interaction** 

**headphones, etc..)** 

**Table 5.** Instructional processes

low and high respectively.

**gadgets (speakers, microphones,** 

different from the way Southern Africans speak English.

**S/N Excellent Very** 

125

**Good** 

75 **(37%)** 125 **(63%)** 200

33 **(16%)** 92 **(47%)** 75 **(37%)** 200

25 **(12%)** 66 **(33%)** 109 **(54%)** 200

167 **(84%)** 33 **(16%)** 200

200 **(100%)** 0 **(0%)** 200

Table 5 shows that after about one year of instruction, 63% of learners indicated that they never had any real problem following and understanding the pronunciation and way of speaking of their Indian lecturers; however, 37% of learners still reported some difficulties in following their lecturers as a result of their way of speaking English language which is

When the inventory sought to know the extent to which Tele-Education mode resembles face-to-face teaching, more than half (55%) of learners submitted that there existed no similarity between the two modes of facilitating learning; thirty-three per cent of the learners responded that there existed a minimum amount of similarity between the two modes of instruction while about 12% of learners submitted that there existed a large amount of similarity between the two modes of instruction. Additionally, 63% and 37% submitted that, through the use of Tele-Education mode, facilitator-learner interaction was

83 **(41%)** 117

**(63%)**

25 **(12%)** 66 **(33%)** 109 **(55%)** 200

**(59%)**

**Good Fair Poor Total** 

75 **(37%)** 200

200

Table 6 shows the manner in which learners fared academically through their responses to issues that are critical to success in learning. These issues include, ability to summarise oral presentations that may have been listened to, demonstration of speed in note taking, ability to study for at least 3 hours a day, demonstration of high academic self-concept and regularity of attendance at learning meetings.

Fifty-two per cent of learners indicated a high ability to summarise oral presentations; but 48% of learners indicated that a low ability to summarise oral presentations that they may have listened to.

While 45% of learners indicated that they possess a high enough speed to take all the major notes on a lecture, fifty-five per cent of learners indicated that they are not able to capture all major notes of a lecture.

Only 33% of the learners indicated that they are able to study for a minimum period of 3 hours a day. All remaining 67% of learners submitted that they are not able to study for about 3 hours a day.

Thirty-one per cent of learners indicated that it is highly probable that they miss 30% of the classes while 69% of learners indicated that the chances are low that they miss up to 30% of the classes.

Sixty-three per cent of learners posted high academic performance; while 37% of respondents posted low academic self-concept.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 53

A number of issues have been thrown up by this study which reveals current peculiarities of African open and distance learning. These issues include the age brackets occupied by African ODL learners, the types of courses opted for in open and distance learning, request for tutorials in open and distance learning programmes and the issue of language of instruction as it concerns the facilitator; other issues include the socio-psychological determinants of success in open and distance learning, friendliness or learning

This study revealed that 23% or about a quarter of all learners fell within the age brackets 16-25 years; it was equally revealed that 32% or about a third of all the learners fell within the age brackets 26-30 years while 55% or more than half of all the learners fell within the age brackets 16-30 years. A total of 76% of all learners have been found to fall within the age

Ages 16 to 35 years constitute an acknowledged age grouping for the youths of any society; in Africa, these are the same age brackets within which about 90% of regular or formal tertiary institutions students fall into; therefore, if more than three quarters of the ODL learners fell within this age grouping, it should be deduced that open and distance learning is already serving the youths of Africa as an alternative tertiary education sector. It is also an indication that if African nations were willing to offer tertiary education to their teeming youths, they will have to more than double the number of their existing tertiary institutions. One other curious finding was the fact that 13% of all learners were found to be aged between 16 and 20 years; these are age brackets within which high school or secondary school students are usually found; persons who are able to complete high school education before or by the ages 16-20 years are considered brilliant students and should normally have

The researcher could engage only a few of the learners within these age brackets in poststudy interviews that turned out to be quite revealing; these learners actually made very good grades at their respective end of high school examinations; it could not have been otherwise since the Pan-African Tele-Education project did not lower entry qualifications for the purpose of admission into the various open and distance learning programmes. However, a number of other reasons informed the choice of open and distance learning mode over the formal tertiary education mode; learners within this age brackets declared that they were engaged in income generating activities as shop keepers, security guards, petit traders and even street vendors; apart from the fact that they did not have the required amount of money to register full time in tertiary institutions, they found open and distance learning mode offering them the double opportunity of earning a living for themselves and their families and of acquiring skills; these were not the only attractions offered by the Pan-African open and distance learning project; these youths equally submitted that the financial

conduciveness of ODL centres and relevance of learning materials to African realities.

**7. Discussion of findings** 

**7.1. Age of learners** 

brackets 16 to 35 years.

got placement in formal tertiary institutions.


**Table 7.** Free comments

Table 7 reflects the summary of learners' other comments that were freely offered after the main concerns of the study inventory had been attended to by them.

All (or 100%) of the learners expressed surprise and perhaps disappointment that the use of calculators was forbidden in the first examinations they sat for at the Pan-African ODL programme; when, in further casual interaction with the researcher, they were asked to assess the extent to which such a regulation affected their performance in the examinations concerned, they almost all submitted that there was no real adverse effect to their examinations; they submitted that they were rattled by the directive because they did not expect it.

Sixty-one per cent of the learners, submitted that both examination and study materials reflected more Indian realities than African realities. When asked again about the collateral damages that a situation such as this may have had on their study, most of the learners responded that there were no real damages as they were studying disciplines that had international outlook in their theories.

Fifty-four percent of the learners indicated that availability of time for the purpose of carrying out and completing the activities required by Pan-African Open and Distance Learning was a challenge to them. On the other hand, 37% of the learners expressed their frustration at the fact that only very few ODL learners received financial support from Lesotho government.

Although the 7 tables laid out here, contain data collected only from Lesotho, a keen observer of the African Open and Distance Learning scene would note that the near totality of the data displayed by those tables reflect the African situation; apart from being a country desirous to employ all forms of education to improve the lots of its people, Lesotho is also symbolic of African countries with a high population of youths that are jostling in all directions with the view to ultimately making a decent living through education and skills acquired either through formal or non-formal education. In other words, using the same instrument, if this same research were conducted among Pan-African ODL learners in other African countries, the findings will not be significant different from the current ones.

Therefore the discussion of the findings of this study is based upon the assumption that Lesotho is representative of all African nations in this context; consequently, in the lines that follow, the findings are generalised to the whole of Sub-Saharan Africa and their discussion is carried on as though they were derived from an African wide survey.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 53

## **7. Discussion of findings**

52 Distance Education

**Table 7.** Free comments

international outlook in their theories.

Lesotho government.

respondents posted low academic self-concept.

Sixty-three per cent of learners posted high academic performance; while 37% of

**S/No. Issues Percentage**  1. The use of calculators is forbidden during examinations 200 **(100%)** 2. Examination questions reflect Indian realities more than African realities 122 **(61%)** 3. Time is always in short supply to carry through the activities of Pan-African ODL 108 **(54%)** 4. ODL Learners do not enjoy government financial support 74 **(37%)**

Table 7 reflects the summary of learners' other comments that were freely offered after the

All (or 100%) of the learners expressed surprise and perhaps disappointment that the use of calculators was forbidden in the first examinations they sat for at the Pan-African ODL programme; when, in further casual interaction with the researcher, they were asked to assess the extent to which such a regulation affected their performance in the examinations concerned, they almost all submitted that there was no real adverse effect to their examinations; they

Sixty-one per cent of the learners, submitted that both examination and study materials reflected more Indian realities than African realities. When asked again about the collateral damages that a situation such as this may have had on their study, most of the learners responded that there were no real damages as they were studying disciplines that had

Fifty-four percent of the learners indicated that availability of time for the purpose of carrying out and completing the activities required by Pan-African Open and Distance Learning was a challenge to them. On the other hand, 37% of the learners expressed their frustration at the fact that only very few ODL learners received financial support from

Although the 7 tables laid out here, contain data collected only from Lesotho, a keen observer of the African Open and Distance Learning scene would note that the near totality of the data displayed by those tables reflect the African situation; apart from being a country desirous to employ all forms of education to improve the lots of its people, Lesotho is also symbolic of African countries with a high population of youths that are jostling in all directions with the view to ultimately making a decent living through education and skills acquired either through formal or non-formal education. In other words, using the same instrument, if this same research were conducted among Pan-African ODL learners in other

African countries, the findings will not be significant different from the current ones.

is carried on as though they were derived from an African wide survey.

Therefore the discussion of the findings of this study is based upon the assumption that Lesotho is representative of all African nations in this context; consequently, in the lines that follow, the findings are generalised to the whole of Sub-Saharan Africa and their discussion

main concerns of the study inventory had been attended to by them.

submitted that they were rattled by the directive because they did not expect it.

A number of issues have been thrown up by this study which reveals current peculiarities of African open and distance learning. These issues include the age brackets occupied by African ODL learners, the types of courses opted for in open and distance learning, request for tutorials in open and distance learning programmes and the issue of language of instruction as it concerns the facilitator; other issues include the socio-psychological determinants of success in open and distance learning, friendliness or learning conduciveness of ODL centres and relevance of learning materials to African realities.

## **7.1. Age of learners**

This study revealed that 23% or about a quarter of all learners fell within the age brackets 16-25 years; it was equally revealed that 32% or about a third of all the learners fell within the age brackets 26-30 years while 55% or more than half of all the learners fell within the age brackets 16-30 years. A total of 76% of all learners have been found to fall within the age brackets 16 to 35 years.

Ages 16 to 35 years constitute an acknowledged age grouping for the youths of any society; in Africa, these are the same age brackets within which about 90% of regular or formal tertiary institutions students fall into; therefore, if more than three quarters of the ODL learners fell within this age grouping, it should be deduced that open and distance learning is already serving the youths of Africa as an alternative tertiary education sector. It is also an indication that if African nations were willing to offer tertiary education to their teeming youths, they will have to more than double the number of their existing tertiary institutions.

One other curious finding was the fact that 13% of all learners were found to be aged between 16 and 20 years; these are age brackets within which high school or secondary school students are usually found; persons who are able to complete high school education before or by the ages 16-20 years are considered brilliant students and should normally have got placement in formal tertiary institutions.

The researcher could engage only a few of the learners within these age brackets in poststudy interviews that turned out to be quite revealing; these learners actually made very good grades at their respective end of high school examinations; it could not have been otherwise since the Pan-African Tele-Education project did not lower entry qualifications for the purpose of admission into the various open and distance learning programmes. However, a number of other reasons informed the choice of open and distance learning mode over the formal tertiary education mode; learners within this age brackets declared that they were engaged in income generating activities as shop keepers, security guards, petit traders and even street vendors; apart from the fact that they did not have the required amount of money to register full time in tertiary institutions, they found open and distance learning mode offering them the double opportunity of earning a living for themselves and their families and of acquiring skills; these were not the only attractions offered by the Pan-African open and distance learning project; these youths equally submitted that the financial

courses they were reading were dear to their heart as they saw in them an opportunity to break the vicious cycle of poverty that kept them in their present situation.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 55

regarding learning meeting periods; as a result of consultation over the matter, an arrangement now exists whereby all live lectures are recorded and posted on the Pan-African e-Network platform so that learners who may have missed lectures may still catch

The selection of convenient meeting periods for the purpose of participating in learning remains a serious challenge in open and distance learning; while self-study mode seems to be a solution to this challenge, the challenge of maintaining motivation to learn at a constantly high level at all time has been found to be another problem that constantly faces those learning alone; this motivational problem is usually resolved and overcome through group learning as the presence and prompting of peers and mates usually result in a

However, arrangement for out-of-work time meeting periods need to be arrived at soonest in a consultation that should involve learners and organizers of the Pan-African Tele-

Naturally, the comfort that may be found at the learning centres is a function of the level of

Learners found the Pan-African Tele-Education centre at Lesotho averagely comfortable; if Lesotho with a GDP per capita of \$1605 and Human Development Index ranking of 141 out of 169 countries (UNDP, 2010), could provide a centre adjudged to be averagely comfortable,

Of all the identified learner support services, the running of tutorials and the provision of internet café, business centre and restaurant services were declared as being poor by 99% of

Although in many centres across Africa, internet café, business centres and restaurant services may exist because of the availability of means and resources to provide these things, observation has shown that open and distance learning institutions on the continent usually play down on the need to provide tutorials to their learners; the general notion is that distance education learners are mature and independent enough to run and guide their own learning. Yet, the fact is that these learners initially were schooled in our formal educational institutions where no particular instruction was given to them in the area of learning how to learn; while through previous efforts at resolving and surmounting difficult learning experiences and while the ever sharpening process of introspection acquired through inner maturation would have availed these learners of some techniques of learning adapted to their various situations, these learners cannot be said to be equipped with a good enough range of learning techniques and habits that have been tested and proven reliable

up on these lectures and even enjoy them, albeit through secondary source.

generation of an internal energy that goads and motivates.

**7.4. Comfort at the centres** 

**7.5. Learner support services** 

Education, if we must avoid the loss of a high number of learners.

resources that are available to the country and institution hosting the centre.

the learners; in fact these services did not exist at the Lesotho Centre.

most Pan-African Tele-Education centres in Africa can be judged to be comfortable.

## **7.2. Preferred courses**

Eighty-three per cent and 17% of learners were reading business and technology courses respectively; courses such as these, offered greater opportunities of employment (both self and paid employment) to learners on the African labour market than International Languages that not a single learner registered for. Modern strategies of carrying on business and Information Communication Technologies are new domains of economic and professional activities in Africa; as such these domains that still boast of a great room for expansion are gradually growing, offering employment opportunities to persons with the right kind of skills.

Therefore, with greater needs-generated course offerings, open and distance learning institutions may end up being viewed as more beneficial to learners than formal tertiary institutions which Babalola (2007) described as being obsolete in their course offerings and as being institutions that equip their clients with knowledge and skills which the African labour market does not need.

Specifically, Babalola (2007) reports that:

*In 2006, the Federal Ministry of Education (FME) conducted a large survey involving more than 10,000 online participants, to track the "products" of Nigeria's educational sector. One of the objectives is to determine who the products are, their backgrounds, capabilities and needs to inform a long-term strategic planning process for the education sector. The survey targeted the beneficiaries of Nigeria's secondary, tertiary, technical or vocational institutions and the individuals who graduated or discontinued their education from these institutions between 1995 and 2005. The survey clearly showed a disturbing trend that over 60% of participants were unemployed or under employed.* 

Babalola (2007) then concluded that the 2006 findings confirmed the 2002 World Bank findings concerning mismatch between tertiary education teaching and labour market requirements. He further pointed out that tertiary graduate unemployment is further fuelled by i)lack of consultation with the private sector, ii)deficiency of practical skills at the level of graduates, iii)lack of qualified personnel to teach vocational skills and iv)high demand for skilled workers by the private sector.

### **7.3. Preferred learning meeting periods**

Ninety-one per cent and 88% of the learners indicated weekends and post-work hours respectively as the preferred learning meeting periods. Throughout Africa, the Pan-African Tele-Education classes currently hold during work hours.

A few months after the take-off of the Pan-African Tele-Education, the organisers in India were notified of concerns expressed by learners across many centres on the continent regarding learning meeting periods; as a result of consultation over the matter, an arrangement now exists whereby all live lectures are recorded and posted on the Pan-African e-Network platform so that learners who may have missed lectures may still catch up on these lectures and even enjoy them, albeit through secondary source.

The selection of convenient meeting periods for the purpose of participating in learning remains a serious challenge in open and distance learning; while self-study mode seems to be a solution to this challenge, the challenge of maintaining motivation to learn at a constantly high level at all time has been found to be another problem that constantly faces those learning alone; this motivational problem is usually resolved and overcome through group learning as the presence and prompting of peers and mates usually result in a generation of an internal energy that goads and motivates.

However, arrangement for out-of-work time meeting periods need to be arrived at soonest in a consultation that should involve learners and organizers of the Pan-African Tele-Education, if we must avoid the loss of a high number of learners.

#### **7.4. Comfort at the centres**

54 Distance Education

**7.2. Preferred courses** 

right kind of skills.

labour market does not need.

Specifically, Babalola (2007) reports that:

*unemployed or under employed.* 

skilled workers by the private sector.

**7.3. Preferred learning meeting periods** 

Tele-Education classes currently hold during work hours.

courses they were reading were dear to their heart as they saw in them an opportunity to

Eighty-three per cent and 17% of learners were reading business and technology courses respectively; courses such as these, offered greater opportunities of employment (both self and paid employment) to learners on the African labour market than International Languages that not a single learner registered for. Modern strategies of carrying on business and Information Communication Technologies are new domains of economic and professional activities in Africa; as such these domains that still boast of a great room for expansion are gradually growing, offering employment opportunities to persons with the

Therefore, with greater needs-generated course offerings, open and distance learning institutions may end up being viewed as more beneficial to learners than formal tertiary institutions which Babalola (2007) described as being obsolete in their course offerings and as being institutions that equip their clients with knowledge and skills which the African

*In 2006, the Federal Ministry of Education (FME) conducted a large survey involving more than 10,000 online participants, to track the "products" of Nigeria's educational sector. One of the objectives is to determine who the products are, their backgrounds, capabilities and needs to inform a long-term strategic planning process for the education sector. The survey targeted the beneficiaries of Nigeria's secondary, tertiary, technical or vocational institutions and the individuals who graduated or discontinued their education from these institutions between 1995 and 2005. The survey clearly showed a disturbing trend that over 60% of participants were* 

Babalola (2007) then concluded that the 2006 findings confirmed the 2002 World Bank findings concerning mismatch between tertiary education teaching and labour market requirements. He further pointed out that tertiary graduate unemployment is further fuelled by i)lack of consultation with the private sector, ii)deficiency of practical skills at the level of graduates, iii)lack of qualified personnel to teach vocational skills and iv)high demand for

Ninety-one per cent and 88% of the learners indicated weekends and post-work hours respectively as the preferred learning meeting periods. Throughout Africa, the Pan-African

A few months after the take-off of the Pan-African Tele-Education, the organisers in India were notified of concerns expressed by learners across many centres on the continent

break the vicious cycle of poverty that kept them in their present situation.

Naturally, the comfort that may be found at the learning centres is a function of the level of resources that are available to the country and institution hosting the centre.

Learners found the Pan-African Tele-Education centre at Lesotho averagely comfortable; if Lesotho with a GDP per capita of \$1605 and Human Development Index ranking of 141 out of 169 countries (UNDP, 2010), could provide a centre adjudged to be averagely comfortable, most Pan-African Tele-Education centres in Africa can be judged to be comfortable.

#### **7.5. Learner support services**

Of all the identified learner support services, the running of tutorials and the provision of internet café, business centre and restaurant services were declared as being poor by 99% of the learners; in fact these services did not exist at the Lesotho Centre.

Although in many centres across Africa, internet café, business centres and restaurant services may exist because of the availability of means and resources to provide these things, observation has shown that open and distance learning institutions on the continent usually play down on the need to provide tutorials to their learners; the general notion is that distance education learners are mature and independent enough to run and guide their own learning. Yet, the fact is that these learners initially were schooled in our formal educational institutions where no particular instruction was given to them in the area of learning how to learn; while through previous efforts at resolving and surmounting difficult learning experiences and while the ever sharpening process of introspection acquired through inner maturation would have availed these learners of some techniques of learning adapted to their various situations, these learners cannot be said to be equipped with a good enough range of learning techniques and habits that have been tested and proven reliable

through studies and observation. True, a few useful study skills and habits will remain personal and unique to learners, but the vast majority of good study skills need to be consciously learnt.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 57

High academic self-concept (Reasoner, 2010), speed in note-taking, 3-4 hours study a day and ability to summarise accurately a piece of writing that was read or a talk that was listened to (Lammers, Onweugbuzie and Slate, 2001; Kleijn, Ploeg and Topman, 1994) have

Although, 63% of learners had a high academic self-concept, only 33% are able to read for 3 hours a day and only 45% were fast in note-taking and only 52% of them can adequately summarise an oral presentation; the percentages concerning daily period for reading, note taking ability and capacity to summarise are too low to allow the prediction of success in learning; therefore, while learners showed a fairly high academic self-concept, the deficiencies in these other abilities indicate anything but probability of a significant success

Indeed, inability to reinforce the confidence and study skills of learners has begun to impact negatively a few African ODL outfits as Abiodun (2010) reports in the following

Under "free comments", three comments need some discussion; the first touches on absence of the reflection of African realities in Pan-African Tele-Education lecture and examination contents; the second concerns the unavailability of government scholarship for open and distance learning clients and the third regards learners' expressed concern for lack of time to

Although all learners indicated that the fact that next to no African realities were contained in their lectures and examinations, had no adverse effect on their learning, there is need to remedy the situation; injecting and spicing learning contents with scenes and images familiar to learners has the potential of motivating them to learn beyond points imaginable by the facilitator; additionally, this sort of motivation usually translates into success results that would be better than the result learners would have obtained in a situation devoid of

*Given the benefits of distance education, the recent sharp decline in enrolment of learners for distance education in Nigeria might suggest the existence of fundamental problems in the provision of distance education. This trend, if not addressed, would undermine the purposes of establishing distance education centres in the Nigerian education sector. Jaiyeola (2000) reported that students' enrolment rate for distance education programmes dropped from 75% in the year 2006 to 55% in the year 2008. Lewis (1994) suggests the reasons for relatively high rate of dropout include learners finding themselves in unfamiliar situations. In addition, many learners associate learning with being taught by a teacher who is physically present, while others who are unfamiliar with distance learning packages are finding learning more difficult since many of* 

all been identified as factors promoting success in learning.

*them lack capacity to learn this way (Abiodun, 2010:90).* 

**7.7. Success in learning** 

in learning.

**7.8. Free comments** 

adequately attend to their studies.

the realities of their milieu.

lines:

In addition, it is realistic to believe that some aspects of the subject matter being taught could prove stubborn to understand and penetrate even in a highly interactive setting as the one offered by the Pan-African Tele-Education; group discussions and tutorials are usually the tools with which these difficulties in understanding are overcome.

#### **7.6. Instructional processes**

The manner of speaking English language by Indian lecturers, similarity between face-toface teaching and Tele-Education and gender differences in lecture delivery were the three main issues that were highlighted in regards to instructional processes.

Although initial difficulties are usually faced in communication when two or more persons drawn from different linguistic backgrounds begin to use a common language, these difficulties are known to vanish under the process of habituation; habituation is a process whereby a constant and continued use or exposure to a language or a phenomenon ends up creating a harmonious condition between the phenomenon and the person exposed to it (Bello, 1988); in the case of language use and listening, the hearing organ and the brain have the ability to adjust within a short time to new types of sounds with the view to deciphering and comprehending them; as such, while 37% of learners submitted that they still experience comprehension difficulties one year after beginning to listen to Indian lecturers speak English, these learners nevertheless admitted that they have made a lot of acoustic progress and adjustment since only the understanding of very few words escaped them a year after the beginning of their classes as compared to the large number of words they could not understand a year earlier; this implies that the manner in which the language of instruction is spoken for purposes of promoting open and distance learning is not an issue as both facilitators and learners ultimately reach a level playing field in this matter.

More than half of the learners did not detect any similarity between Tele-Education and face-to-face modes while a third of the learners only spotted a slim similarity; yet, the Tele-Education mode is a highly interactive teaching-learning mode; is it that nothing can replace the human teacher? This lack of similarity however, did not have any repercussion on their learning.

The other interesting finding was that the learners who were made up of 35% male and 65% female, found overwhelmingly, male facilitators to be better facilitators than female facilitators. Although the difference in performance between male and female facilitators was not significant (84% of learners submitted that female facilitators were good but 100% of learners stated that male lecturers were good), this finding merits some attention. Is there any element of gender attraction in this finding whereby a group of predominantly female learners would prefer to be taught by male facilitators? No attempt was made to answer this question during this investigation.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 57

#### **7.7. Success in learning**

56 Distance Education

learning.

question during this investigation.

consciously learnt.

**7.6. Instructional processes** 

through studies and observation. True, a few useful study skills and habits will remain personal and unique to learners, but the vast majority of good study skills need to be

In addition, it is realistic to believe that some aspects of the subject matter being taught could prove stubborn to understand and penetrate even in a highly interactive setting as the one offered by the Pan-African Tele-Education; group discussions and tutorials are usually

The manner of speaking English language by Indian lecturers, similarity between face-toface teaching and Tele-Education and gender differences in lecture delivery were the three

Although initial difficulties are usually faced in communication when two or more persons drawn from different linguistic backgrounds begin to use a common language, these difficulties are known to vanish under the process of habituation; habituation is a process whereby a constant and continued use or exposure to a language or a phenomenon ends up creating a harmonious condition between the phenomenon and the person exposed to it (Bello, 1988); in the case of language use and listening, the hearing organ and the brain have the ability to adjust within a short time to new types of sounds with the view to deciphering and comprehending them; as such, while 37% of learners submitted that they still experience comprehension difficulties one year after beginning to listen to Indian lecturers speak English, these learners nevertheless admitted that they have made a lot of acoustic progress and adjustment since only the understanding of very few words escaped them a year after the beginning of their classes as compared to the large number of words they could not understand a year earlier; this implies that the manner in which the language of instruction is spoken for purposes of promoting open and distance learning is not an issue

as both facilitators and learners ultimately reach a level playing field in this matter.

More than half of the learners did not detect any similarity between Tele-Education and face-to-face modes while a third of the learners only spotted a slim similarity; yet, the Tele-Education mode is a highly interactive teaching-learning mode; is it that nothing can replace the human teacher? This lack of similarity however, did not have any repercussion on their

The other interesting finding was that the learners who were made up of 35% male and 65% female, found overwhelmingly, male facilitators to be better facilitators than female facilitators. Although the difference in performance between male and female facilitators was not significant (84% of learners submitted that female facilitators were good but 100% of learners stated that male lecturers were good), this finding merits some attention. Is there any element of gender attraction in this finding whereby a group of predominantly female learners would prefer to be taught by male facilitators? No attempt was made to answer this

the tools with which these difficulties in understanding are overcome.

main issues that were highlighted in regards to instructional processes.

High academic self-concept (Reasoner, 2010), speed in note-taking, 3-4 hours study a day and ability to summarise accurately a piece of writing that was read or a talk that was listened to (Lammers, Onweugbuzie and Slate, 2001; Kleijn, Ploeg and Topman, 1994) have all been identified as factors promoting success in learning.

Although, 63% of learners had a high academic self-concept, only 33% are able to read for 3 hours a day and only 45% were fast in note-taking and only 52% of them can adequately summarise an oral presentation; the percentages concerning daily period for reading, note taking ability and capacity to summarise are too low to allow the prediction of success in learning; therefore, while learners showed a fairly high academic self-concept, the deficiencies in these other abilities indicate anything but probability of a significant success in learning.

Indeed, inability to reinforce the confidence and study skills of learners has begun to impact negatively a few African ODL outfits as Abiodun (2010) reports in the following lines:

*Given the benefits of distance education, the recent sharp decline in enrolment of learners for distance education in Nigeria might suggest the existence of fundamental problems in the provision of distance education. This trend, if not addressed, would undermine the purposes of establishing distance education centres in the Nigerian education sector. Jaiyeola (2000) reported that students' enrolment rate for distance education programmes dropped from 75% in the year 2006 to 55% in the year 2008. Lewis (1994) suggests the reasons for relatively high rate of dropout include learners finding themselves in unfamiliar situations. In addition, many learners associate learning with being taught by a teacher who is physically present, while others who are unfamiliar with distance learning packages are finding learning more difficult since many of them lack capacity to learn this way (Abiodun, 2010:90).* 

#### **7.8. Free comments**

Under "free comments", three comments need some discussion; the first touches on absence of the reflection of African realities in Pan-African Tele-Education lecture and examination contents; the second concerns the unavailability of government scholarship for open and distance learning clients and the third regards learners' expressed concern for lack of time to adequately attend to their studies.

Although all learners indicated that the fact that next to no African realities were contained in their lectures and examinations, had no adverse effect on their learning, there is need to remedy the situation; injecting and spicing learning contents with scenes and images familiar to learners has the potential of motivating them to learn beyond points imaginable by the facilitator; additionally, this sort of motivation usually translates into success results that would be better than the result learners would have obtained in a situation devoid of the realities of their milieu.

The findings of this study as they regard the current age brackets of ODL learners and the choice of courses the learners seek to read in ODL institutions point to the fact that open and distance learning institutions have become both a complement and in some respects, an alternative to formal tertiary institutions on the continent; the importance of an institution such as this can no more be underplayed.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 59

 This study has revealed that learners of open and distance learning institutions tend to come with specific educational and training needs in mind (e.g. those with high prospects for employment); this phenomenon offers a unique opportunity to ODL institutions to design and offer alternative courses to those offered by conventional tertiary institutions that have proven too rigid, bureaucratic, conservative and sluggish in responding to the learning challenges of the 21st century. This opportunity would have been seized when ODL institutions begin to engage with their potential clients with the view to seeking their views on their educational preferences and the reasons for such preferences; the analysis of those views will ultimately guide these institutions toward designing relevant learning programmes but also toward attracting to their

 Ignorance of the existence of useful study skills and techniques by both ODL facilitators and learners currently constitute a menace to what would have otherwise been a noble contribution of open and distance learning to the educational field of Africa and the world. For example, as a result of lack of ability to manage their time effectively, learners drop out of study programmes in massive numbers; a number of them too who have the intellectual potentials to succeed, have failed as a result of poor study skill or habit. This is why it is here recommended that study skills courses should henceforth be

 Since injecting into and coating lecture contents and deliveries with African realities will ultimately motivate learners to learn much better than previously, it is recommended that facilitators and course designers should make a deliberate effort to learn about African realities with the view to enriching their teaching and course

 Without doubt, open and distance learning has now proved itself as an educational option that can no more be ignored on the African scene; that which is therefore expected at this point in time is the support of African governments to this emerging useful educational institution and option; government support may come in the forms of policies recognizing the value of ODL institution, material and financial support and

 As a follow-up to government's support to open and distance learning institutions on the continent, relevant and competent institutions should intensify the training of

 In direct relation to the adoption of the Tele-Education mode, the training of specialised personnel should focus on the provision of competent Tele-Education attendants. Also, ODL institutions through the numerous African ICT regional and national initiatives should attempt to secure the right technologies with the view to profitably employing the Tele-Education mode for the further development of Open and Distance Learning in

Although challenges remain to overcome, by way of testimony of the good omen that ODL is, and as a way of appeal to all stakeholders to support this developing educational option, it should be submitted that the achievements this far recorded within the realm of open and

made a part of the curricula of open and distance learning institutions.

gates, enthusiastic crowds of new types of learners.

contents.

Africa.

study scholarship awards to learners.

specialised personnel in this emerging educational sector.

distance learning in Africa are encouraging and highly motivating.

Since independence in the 1960s, African governments have developed elaborate study scholarship systems for formal tertiary education students; up to date, these same governments have not thought of developing similar systems of scholarship award that would enable distance education learners enroll in ODL institutions within or outside the continent; the time has obviously now come to consider seriously a type of scholarship system such as this, since open and distance learning is gradually advertising its merits and has in fact established its strong hold in parts of the African continent.

Learners' expression of unavailability of time for their study is nothing new or odd since learning in adulthood is only one out of the numerous social, professional and civic tasks the adult citizen is expected to perform. However, that which is yet to be taken seriously within learning circles is the recognition of time management as a study skill issue; the acceptance of this fact will ultimately bring facilitators to deliberately tutor learners on how to share and use the daily, weekly and monthly periods of the time available to them in a way as to transmute this scarce resource from an obstacle into an asset.

## **7.9. Acceptability level of the Tele-Education mode**

Judging from respondents' responses under "Instructional processes" and "Learner support services", the Tele-Education mode of delivery is a potential viable ODL mode of delivery where African ODL institutions are committed to resolving the challenges associated with the recruitment of well trained and equipped Tele-Education attendants and the acquisition and reinforcement of technologies that will bring in sharper images through the waves.

Although respondents' responses suggested that nothing seems to be able to replace the human teacher, it was clear that learners acquired learning without hindrance associated directly to the operation of the Tele-Education mode of delivery except that which may be connected with the supply of the right technologies. Additionally the human teacher is not indispensable within the field of open and distance learning where the learning environment is continuously improved to support learning without the human facilitator.

## **8. Recommendations**

The following recommendations flow from the study:

 Weekend or post-work hours classes have been overwhelmingly selected by learners as most appropriate. It is recommended therefore that the management of the Pan-African Tele-Education project should adjust its current beaming hours to accommodate this wish of the learners.

such as this can no more be underplayed.

The findings of this study as they regard the current age brackets of ODL learners and the choice of courses the learners seek to read in ODL institutions point to the fact that open and distance learning institutions have become both a complement and in some respects, an alternative to formal tertiary institutions on the continent; the importance of an institution

Since independence in the 1960s, African governments have developed elaborate study scholarship systems for formal tertiary education students; up to date, these same governments have not thought of developing similar systems of scholarship award that would enable distance education learners enroll in ODL institutions within or outside the continent; the time has obviously now come to consider seriously a type of scholarship system such as this, since open and distance learning is gradually advertising its merits and

Learners' expression of unavailability of time for their study is nothing new or odd since learning in adulthood is only one out of the numerous social, professional and civic tasks the adult citizen is expected to perform. However, that which is yet to be taken seriously within learning circles is the recognition of time management as a study skill issue; the acceptance of this fact will ultimately bring facilitators to deliberately tutor learners on how to share and use the daily, weekly and monthly periods of the time available to them in a

Judging from respondents' responses under "Instructional processes" and "Learner support services", the Tele-Education mode of delivery is a potential viable ODL mode of delivery where African ODL institutions are committed to resolving the challenges associated with the recruitment of well trained and equipped Tele-Education attendants and the acquisition and reinforcement of technologies that will bring in sharper images through the waves.

Although respondents' responses suggested that nothing seems to be able to replace the human teacher, it was clear that learners acquired learning without hindrance associated directly to the operation of the Tele-Education mode of delivery except that which may be connected with the supply of the right technologies. Additionally the human teacher is not indispensable within the field of open and distance learning where the learning environment is continuously improved to support learning without the human facilitator.

 Weekend or post-work hours classes have been overwhelmingly selected by learners as most appropriate. It is recommended therefore that the management of the Pan-African Tele-Education project should adjust its current beaming hours to accommodate this

has in fact established its strong hold in parts of the African continent.

way as to transmute this scarce resource from an obstacle into an asset.

**7.9. Acceptability level of the Tele-Education mode** 

The following recommendations flow from the study:

**8. Recommendations** 

wish of the learners.


Although challenges remain to overcome, by way of testimony of the good omen that ODL is, and as a way of appeal to all stakeholders to support this developing educational option, it should be submitted that the achievements this far recorded within the realm of open and distance learning in Africa are encouraging and highly motivating.

#### **9. Conclusion**

While a few notable achievements have been realised in the field of open and distance learning in Africa, this space still remains almost a virgin when one conceives of the boundless areas for intervention and the vast section of the space yet to be explored. The 21st century offers a lot of internal and external opportunities through which African nations may use open and distance learning as a tool for development.

Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 61

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## **Author details**

Idowu Biao *University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana* 

## **10. References**


Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa 61


60 Distance Education

**9. Conclusion** 

**Author details** 

**10. References** 

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Idowu Biao

While a few notable achievements have been realised in the field of open and distance learning in Africa, this space still remains almost a virgin when one conceives of the boundless areas for intervention and the vast section of the space yet to be explored. The 21st century offers a lot of internal and external opportunities through which African nations

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**Chapter 3** 

© 2012 Makoe, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The key to the successful enactment of interaction in distance education, according to Evans and Nation5 does not rest with the way the course is designed, delivered and assessed or on the media used, "but it rests on the philosophy of distance education which informs the decisions about techniques and technology" (p154) that supports and enhance interaction in distance education. The idea of using cell phones for education is premised on building on

**Bridging the Distance: The Pedagogy of** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

the lecturer, as well as between a student and her or his peers.

Mpine E. Makoe

**1. Introduction** 

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/47434

**Mobile Learning in Supporting Distance Learners** 

The challenge of the University of South Africa (UNISA), as the largest distance education institution in Africa, is to come up with innovative ways of supporting students who are not only geographically isolated from their teachers as sources of information, but also separated from their peers as sources of support. The effects of such isolation on distance learners can inhibit any possibility for engagement with teachers, study material and peers1. In distance education, the educational process is usually reduced from a dialogue to a monologue where a teacher sends out study material to the students. The assumption is that distance learners, do not need mediation or support as they go through their study material. Thorpe2 argued that "course materials prepared in advance of study, however learnercentred and interactive they may be, cannot respond to a known learner". One of the main barriers of learning in distance education is the absence of interaction with other human beings in a learning environment. For these students, learning is most successful when people interact with each other through interrogating and sharing their description of the world3. Mediated Interaction is central to any educational experience irrespective of whether the students are studying through distance or not4. The problem arises when interaction between a lecturer and a student is not as constant as that which exists in a conventional face-to-face situation. The incorporation of mobile technologies, such as cell phones, in education can address this need because they can enable interaction between a student and


NMEC (2004) Non-Formal Education Blueprint in Nigeria. Abuja: NMEC

	- Robiquet, P. (1897) Discours et opinions de Jules Ferry Paris: Armand Colin & Cie

**Chapter 3** 

## **Bridging the Distance: The Pedagogy of Mobile Learning in Supporting Distance Learners**

Mpine E. Makoe

62 Distance Education

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Nyaruwata, L. T. (2011) Open and distance learning strengthening the space of higher

Pan-African e-Network (2010) The Pan-African e-Network Project India-Addis-Ababa: AU-India. Pityana, N. B. (2004) Open distance learning in Africa: Access Quality and Success. A paper delivered at the occasion of the establishment of the African Council of Distance

Preece, J. & Biao, I. **"**Community service as open learning: case of ITMUA (Implementing

Reasoner, R. W. (2010) Review of self-esteem research http://www.self-esteem-

Robiquet, P. (1897) Discours et opinions de Jules Ferry Paris: Armand Colin & Cie Rowntree, D. (1992) Exploring Open and Distance learning London: Kogan Page Ltd.

Rumajogee, R., Jeeroburkhan, F., Mohadeb, P. & Mooneesamy, V. (2003) Case study on

Thompson, A. R. (1981) Education and development in Africa London: The Macmillan Press Ltd.

Watkins, B. & Wright, S. (1991) The foundations of American Distance Education: A century of Collegiate Correspondence Study. Dubuque, Iowa:Kendal/Hunt Publishing Co.

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Wikipedia (2011) University of South Africa en.wikipedia.org/wiki/universityofsouthafrica

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Introduction. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass Publishers Inc.

Morris, A. (2011) What is correspondence education? http//www.ehow.aboutcorrespondenceeducation

Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture.

Center for Democracy University of Illinois.

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international.org/content/5.research.htm

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Webometrics (2011) Ranking web of world universities

Wikipedia (2011). Ujamaa. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ujamaa

www.webometrics.info/top100continent

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NMEC (2004) Non-Formal Education Blueprint in Nigeria. Abuja: NMEC

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/47434

## **1. Introduction**

The challenge of the University of South Africa (UNISA), as the largest distance education institution in Africa, is to come up with innovative ways of supporting students who are not only geographically isolated from their teachers as sources of information, but also separated from their peers as sources of support. The effects of such isolation on distance learners can inhibit any possibility for engagement with teachers, study material and peers1. In distance education, the educational process is usually reduced from a dialogue to a monologue where a teacher sends out study material to the students. The assumption is that distance learners, do not need mediation or support as they go through their study material. Thorpe2 argued that "course materials prepared in advance of study, however learnercentred and interactive they may be, cannot respond to a known learner". One of the main barriers of learning in distance education is the absence of interaction with other human beings in a learning environment. For these students, learning is most successful when people interact with each other through interrogating and sharing their description of the world3. Mediated Interaction is central to any educational experience irrespective of whether the students are studying through distance or not4. The problem arises when interaction between a lecturer and a student is not as constant as that which exists in a conventional face-to-face situation. The incorporation of mobile technologies, such as cell phones, in education can address this need because they can enable interaction between a student and the lecturer, as well as between a student and her or his peers.

The key to the successful enactment of interaction in distance education, according to Evans and Nation5 does not rest with the way the course is designed, delivered and assessed or on the media used, "but it rests on the philosophy of distance education which informs the decisions about techniques and technology" (p154) that supports and enhance interaction in distance education. The idea of using cell phones for education is premised on building on

© 2012 Makoe, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

informal learning that most students are familiar with to develop formal learning opportunities for distance education students. The potential for using cell-phones in bridging the distance is enormous in a country of limited access to electricity and telephone networks; poor roads and postal services; and fewer people who have expertise of using computers. These limitations have lead to the rapid growth of wireless technology. Over the last ten years, cell phone users in Africa have increased at an annual rate of 65% - twice the global average6. In South Africa alone, the cell phone penetration is estimated at 98 percent. More than 90 percent of UNISA students own or have access to a cell phone that can be used in education for collaboration, tutoring, research, reading and writing purposes.

Bridging the Distance: The Pedagogy of Mobile Learning in Supporting Distance Learners 65

in the form of face-to-face tutorials that are optional and depends on the number of students

The challenge of UNISA is to identify mechanisms and intervention strategies that can support its 280 000 students who are dispersed in different parts of the country, the continent and the world. Students, no matter how far they are from the institution, need to be involved as active partners in the learning process. By and large, distance education requires and assumes that autonomous students do not need help from their lecturers. Students will always need guidance about course choice, study skills, access to group learning in informal small groups or tutorials offered by their lecturers18. The concept of learner autonomy as espoused by Wedemeyer is incongruent with the type of learning that most students are familiar with. A majority of students who enrol in distance education programmes came into higher education with expectations of past schooling where learning was directed and controlled by the teacher. When they are thrown into distance learning, where they are expected to work alone, they feel lonely, insecure and alienated. This problem is further exacerbated by the fact that many distance education students do not study through the medium of their first language. Although a majority of them choose to study in English, they lack fluency in the chosen language to cope adequately with academic

To address these concerns, UNISA has a network of community learning centres that provide a place where people can meet, attend weekly classes, participate in discussion groups, study, pick up books and other materials for learning. Unfortunately, students, who live in remote rural areas to not have access to these services because most of the learning centres are located in urban areas. Where it is not possible to offer face-to-face tutoring, teletutoring video, and computer-conferencing with lecturers is also used as well to support a two-way communication between the teacher and the learner. UNISA is also using Learning Management System - MyUnisa, to provide interaction and technological resources that supports all areas of teaching and learning. The multimedia approach that UNISA uses is much more effective than using one method of delivery. Despite well-meaning efforts of distance education providers, a majority of students still find it extremely difficult to adjust

An effective student support service in distance education is characterised by responsiveness to students' needs, that is, it personalises the learning process; it encourages and facilitates interaction between students and stakeholders; it facilitates learning within courses and "it evolves continuously to accommodate new learner populations, educational developments, economic conditions, technological advances and findings from research and evaluations"19p45. The emphasis, according to Thorpe20, is on the student needs not on the content of the study material. Simpson21 describes student support in terms of its activities beyond the production and delivery of course material. He divides student support services between academic and non-academic support. The former is concerned with developing cognitive and learning skills whereas the latter deals with the affective and organisational aspects of students' studies. The purpose of student support in distance education is to meet

who take the initiative to organise contact sessions.

work.

to and succeed in distance education.

the needs of all learners22.

Although many technologies have been used in the past to enhance interaction in distance education, Keegan7 argues that "it is not technologies with inherent pedagogical qualities that are successful in distance education, but technologies that are generally available to citizens" p3. Throughout the history of distance education, researchers and theorists have been involved in finding ways to bridge the distance between the students, their lecturers and their peers. Using cell phones is much more suited in supporting distance learning because it can reach those students who do not have access to other technological devices. A recent survey found that 39% of urban South Africans and 27% of rural residents are now browsing the internet from their cell phones8. Cell phones are more accessible to most rural communities in terms of cost, geographic coverage and ease to use.

The aim of this paper is to investigate the pedagogic approach that best support effective use of cell phones in the distance education context. It will draw on the integration of the distance education theories to argue for the principles that guide pedagogy and practice in using cell phones for the purpose of supporting distance education students. In this paper, distance education pedagogies will be mapped according to Moore's student-student; student-content and student-student interaction principles. Interaction is meant to provide cognitive, affective and systematic support to students in an education environment9. The success of any distance education system is based on three principles: "excellent (learning) and teaching material, high quality student support services and efficient logistical systems"10 p218. Out of these three areas, student support services are widely considered as critical in the success of distance education programmes. Studies have shown that proper provision of student support services may break learners' isolation and meet not only the academic demands of students in distance education but also their social needs [11,12,13].

#### **2. Context of student support at UNISA**

Central to student support is a mediated conversation between the students and the teacher through integrated and structured dialogue in the study material and in other interventions aimed at formative development of a student14,15. The issue of limited student support as problematic in distance education was highlighted in several South African policy documents16,17. The student support programmes that are in place at UNISA appear to support limited number of students who live in select urban areas, thereby neglecting the majority of the student body who live in rural areas. In most cases, the student services are in the form of face-to-face tutorials that are optional and depends on the number of students who take the initiative to organise contact sessions.

64 Distance Education

informal learning that most students are familiar with to develop formal learning opportunities for distance education students. The potential for using cell-phones in bridging the distance is enormous in a country of limited access to electricity and telephone networks; poor roads and postal services; and fewer people who have expertise of using computers. These limitations have lead to the rapid growth of wireless technology. Over the last ten years, cell phone users in Africa have increased at an annual rate of 65% - twice the global average6. In South Africa alone, the cell phone penetration is estimated at 98 percent. More than 90 percent of UNISA students own or have access to a cell phone that can be used

Although many technologies have been used in the past to enhance interaction in distance education, Keegan7 argues that "it is not technologies with inherent pedagogical qualities that are successful in distance education, but technologies that are generally available to citizens" p3. Throughout the history of distance education, researchers and theorists have been involved in finding ways to bridge the distance between the students, their lecturers and their peers. Using cell phones is much more suited in supporting distance learning because it can reach those students who do not have access to other technological devices. A recent survey found that 39% of urban South Africans and 27% of rural residents are now browsing the internet from their cell phones8. Cell phones are more accessible to most rural

The aim of this paper is to investigate the pedagogic approach that best support effective use of cell phones in the distance education context. It will draw on the integration of the distance education theories to argue for the principles that guide pedagogy and practice in using cell phones for the purpose of supporting distance education students. In this paper, distance education pedagogies will be mapped according to Moore's student-student; student-content and student-student interaction principles. Interaction is meant to provide cognitive, affective and systematic support to students in an education environment9. The success of any distance education system is based on three principles: "excellent (learning) and teaching material, high quality student support services and efficient logistical systems"10 p218. Out of these three areas, student support services are widely considered as critical in the success of distance education programmes. Studies have shown that proper provision of student support services may break learners' isolation and meet not only the academic demands of students in distance education but also their social needs [11,12,13].

Central to student support is a mediated conversation between the students and the teacher through integrated and structured dialogue in the study material and in other interventions aimed at formative development of a student14,15. The issue of limited student support as problematic in distance education was highlighted in several South African policy documents16,17. The student support programmes that are in place at UNISA appear to support limited number of students who live in select urban areas, thereby neglecting the majority of the student body who live in rural areas. In most cases, the student services are

in education for collaboration, tutoring, research, reading and writing purposes.

communities in terms of cost, geographic coverage and ease to use.

**2. Context of student support at UNISA** 

The challenge of UNISA is to identify mechanisms and intervention strategies that can support its 280 000 students who are dispersed in different parts of the country, the continent and the world. Students, no matter how far they are from the institution, need to be involved as active partners in the learning process. By and large, distance education requires and assumes that autonomous students do not need help from their lecturers. Students will always need guidance about course choice, study skills, access to group learning in informal small groups or tutorials offered by their lecturers18. The concept of learner autonomy as espoused by Wedemeyer is incongruent with the type of learning that most students are familiar with. A majority of students who enrol in distance education programmes came into higher education with expectations of past schooling where learning was directed and controlled by the teacher. When they are thrown into distance learning, where they are expected to work alone, they feel lonely, insecure and alienated. This problem is further exacerbated by the fact that many distance education students do not study through the medium of their first language. Although a majority of them choose to study in English, they lack fluency in the chosen language to cope adequately with academic work.

To address these concerns, UNISA has a network of community learning centres that provide a place where people can meet, attend weekly classes, participate in discussion groups, study, pick up books and other materials for learning. Unfortunately, students, who live in remote rural areas to not have access to these services because most of the learning centres are located in urban areas. Where it is not possible to offer face-to-face tutoring, teletutoring video, and computer-conferencing with lecturers is also used as well to support a two-way communication between the teacher and the learner. UNISA is also using Learning Management System - MyUnisa, to provide interaction and technological resources that supports all areas of teaching and learning. The multimedia approach that UNISA uses is much more effective than using one method of delivery. Despite well-meaning efforts of distance education providers, a majority of students still find it extremely difficult to adjust to and succeed in distance education.

An effective student support service in distance education is characterised by responsiveness to students' needs, that is, it personalises the learning process; it encourages and facilitates interaction between students and stakeholders; it facilitates learning within courses and "it evolves continuously to accommodate new learner populations, educational developments, economic conditions, technological advances and findings from research and evaluations"19p45. The emphasis, according to Thorpe20, is on the student needs not on the content of the study material. Simpson21 describes student support in terms of its activities beyond the production and delivery of course material. He divides student support services between academic and non-academic support. The former is concerned with developing cognitive and learning skills whereas the latter deals with the affective and organisational aspects of students' studies. The purpose of student support in distance education is to meet the needs of all learners22.

The distance education character of individual form of learning and the absence of communication is a challenge for both students who need help and lecturers who want to assist students in cognitive development. Thorpe23 believes that the quality of the interactivity between a student and his peers, a student and his teacher, and a student and his or her counsellor may enhance and even influence reactions to study. Keegan24 argues that the incorporation of mobile learning can afford new opportunities for teaching and supporting students in distance education. Cell phones can be used to facilitate both synchronous and asynchronous communication to support and facilitate the process of interaction between individuals and groups in distance education context.

Bridging the Distance: The Pedagogy of Mobile Learning in Supporting Distance Learners 67

integrated and structured dialogue in the study material and in other interventions aimed at formative development of a student. Iinteraction between the tutor and the student was done through student sending a completed assignment to the teacher who marks it and sends it back with comments and feedback. This system assumes that students have the ability to work through the study material independently. However, studies have shown that students seem to value contact with other people even when they study at a

Holmberg37 argues that the conversation concept can be successfully translated for use by the media available to distance students. Although the simulated conversation brought about by the presentation of the study material, the real or two-way conversation could be done through the written, personal and telephone interaction between the students and the tutors and others belonging to the supporting organisation. Keegan38 defined distance education as a system characterized by 1) the separation of instructor and student during most of the instructional process, 2) the influence of an educational organization, 3) provision of student assessment, 4) use of educational media to deliver course content, and

Moore39 defines this distance in terms of the responsiveness of an educational program to the student rather than in terms of the physical separation of the instructor and the student. He argues that distance education, not only a geographic separation between the teachers and the learners, is a pedagogic concept. This separation affects the patterns of teacher and student behaviour. In this separation there is a "psychological and communications space to be crossed, a space of potential misunderstandings" between instructors and students who are physically separated40p22. It is in this space, that Moore describes as transactional distance, where the structure of the educational program and the quality of the interaction

In his theory of transactional distance, Moore41, argued for the relationship between dialogue (the interaction that occurs when one gives instruction and the others respond), structure (teaching strategies and evaluation methods), and learner autonomy (the ability of the student to take responsibility of his or her learning). Transactional distance tends to be lessened in courses with high levels of dialogue and little predetermined structure because students receive ongoing guidance from instructors. But where there is a high structure and low dialogue, the responsibility of learning is on the students. Moore believed that interaction should be both unidirectional and bi-directional in distance education. It should serve a variety of purposes including encouraging interaction between student and content; student and student; and student and lecturer. "Deep and meaningful formal learning is supported as long as one of the three forms of interaction (student-teacher; student-student;

Anderson and Garrison43 took Moore's types of interaction a step further by including the teacher-teacher, teacher-content and content-content interaction. They argued that teaching and learning is not only about students, it also includes other forms interaction that takes place in distance education. This model presents a shift from focusing on the student to

5) two-way communication between instructor and student.

between the teacher and the student determines academic performance.

student-content) is at a high level"42.

distance34;35;36.

## **3. Theories of interaction in distance education**

Interaction, according to Anderson25 is the core of the educational experience. Without interaction, teaching becomes simply "passing on content as if it were dogmatic truth"26 p 29. The nature of distance education compels providers to use mediated forms of this interaction to support their students. This enables students to communicate with their lectures and talk with each other in an effort to understand the course content. Interaction, according to Anderson27, occurs when objects, events and people mutually influence one another. Through interaction, people become involved in a community of practice which embodies certain beliefs and behaviours to be acquired28. Vygotsky29 argues that social interactions are methodologies that turn experience into knowledge, with language as a medium for negotiation of teaching and learning. Therefore, students' development is determined by social interaction through problem-solving under the guidance of a teacher or in collaboration with capable peers Vygotsky30.

To understand how cell phones can be used for pedagogic purposes, it is important to look at interaction on the efficacy of distance learning. The main focus of the learning process should be based on a particular theory or theories that help to explain the functioning of people and institutions. Each theory of learning leads to an adoption of specific teaching and learning process. It is this regard that theories of distance education will be looked at in terms of supporting distance students. Keegan31 classified theories of distance education into three groups: theories of independence and autonomy, theories of industrialization of teaching, and theories of interaction and communication. This study will focus on those theorists that dealt specifically with the role of communication or interaction in supporting distance students.

The character of good distance education, according to Holmberg32, "resembles that of a guided conversations aiming at learning and that presence of the typical traits of such conversation facilitates learning." He argues that the study material that is developed with good didactic conversation in it should be written in a personal style; easily accessible; offer explicit advice and suggestions and invite exchange of views. The idea is to establish a personal relationship with the students and course developer and "find ways to noncontiguously cater for something functioning in the way that dialogue does"33p17.Central to student support is a mediated conversation between the students and the teacher through integrated and structured dialogue in the study material and in other interventions aimed at formative development of a student. Iinteraction between the tutor and the student was done through student sending a completed assignment to the teacher who marks it and sends it back with comments and feedback. This system assumes that students have the ability to work through the study material independently. However, studies have shown that students seem to value contact with other people even when they study at a distance34;35;36.

66 Distance Education

The distance education character of individual form of learning and the absence of communication is a challenge for both students who need help and lecturers who want to assist students in cognitive development. Thorpe23 believes that the quality of the interactivity between a student and his peers, a student and his teacher, and a student and his or her counsellor may enhance and even influence reactions to study. Keegan24 argues that the incorporation of mobile learning can afford new opportunities for teaching and supporting students in distance education. Cell phones can be used to facilitate both synchronous and asynchronous communication to support and facilitate the process of

Interaction, according to Anderson25 is the core of the educational experience. Without interaction, teaching becomes simply "passing on content as if it were dogmatic truth"26 p 29. The nature of distance education compels providers to use mediated forms of this interaction to support their students. This enables students to communicate with their lectures and talk with each other in an effort to understand the course content. Interaction, according to Anderson27, occurs when objects, events and people mutually influence one another. Through interaction, people become involved in a community of practice which embodies certain beliefs and behaviours to be acquired28. Vygotsky29 argues that social interactions are methodologies that turn experience into knowledge, with language as a medium for negotiation of teaching and learning. Therefore, students' development is determined by social interaction through problem-solving under the guidance of a teacher

To understand how cell phones can be used for pedagogic purposes, it is important to look at interaction on the efficacy of distance learning. The main focus of the learning process should be based on a particular theory or theories that help to explain the functioning of people and institutions. Each theory of learning leads to an adoption of specific teaching and learning process. It is this regard that theories of distance education will be looked at in terms of supporting distance students. Keegan31 classified theories of distance education into three groups: theories of independence and autonomy, theories of industrialization of teaching, and theories of interaction and communication. This study will focus on those theorists that dealt specifically with the role of communication or interaction in supporting

The character of good distance education, according to Holmberg32, "resembles that of a guided conversations aiming at learning and that presence of the typical traits of such conversation facilitates learning." He argues that the study material that is developed with good didactic conversation in it should be written in a personal style; easily accessible; offer explicit advice and suggestions and invite exchange of views. The idea is to establish a personal relationship with the students and course developer and "find ways to noncontiguously cater for something functioning in the way that dialogue does"33p17.Central to student support is a mediated conversation between the students and the teacher through

interaction between individuals and groups in distance education context.

**3. Theories of interaction in distance education** 

or in collaboration with capable peers Vygotsky30.

distance students.

Holmberg37 argues that the conversation concept can be successfully translated for use by the media available to distance students. Although the simulated conversation brought about by the presentation of the study material, the real or two-way conversation could be done through the written, personal and telephone interaction between the students and the tutors and others belonging to the supporting organisation. Keegan38 defined distance education as a system characterized by 1) the separation of instructor and student during most of the instructional process, 2) the influence of an educational organization, 3) provision of student assessment, 4) use of educational media to deliver course content, and 5) two-way communication between instructor and student.

Moore39 defines this distance in terms of the responsiveness of an educational program to the student rather than in terms of the physical separation of the instructor and the student. He argues that distance education, not only a geographic separation between the teachers and the learners, is a pedagogic concept. This separation affects the patterns of teacher and student behaviour. In this separation there is a "psychological and communications space to be crossed, a space of potential misunderstandings" between instructors and students who are physically separated40p22. It is in this space, that Moore describes as transactional distance, where the structure of the educational program and the quality of the interaction between the teacher and the student determines academic performance.

In his theory of transactional distance, Moore41, argued for the relationship between dialogue (the interaction that occurs when one gives instruction and the others respond), structure (teaching strategies and evaluation methods), and learner autonomy (the ability of the student to take responsibility of his or her learning). Transactional distance tends to be lessened in courses with high levels of dialogue and little predetermined structure because students receive ongoing guidance from instructors. But where there is a high structure and low dialogue, the responsibility of learning is on the students. Moore believed that interaction should be both unidirectional and bi-directional in distance education. It should serve a variety of purposes including encouraging interaction between student and content; student and student; and student and lecturer. "Deep and meaningful formal learning is supported as long as one of the three forms of interaction (student-teacher; student-student; student-content) is at a high level"42.

Anderson and Garrison43 took Moore's types of interaction a step further by including the teacher-teacher, teacher-content and content-content interaction. They argued that teaching and learning is not only about students, it also includes other forms interaction that takes place in distance education. This model presents a shift from focusing on the student to looking at the entire distance education system44. While Moore looked at interaction from a students' point of view, Anderson focused on the educational phenomenon of interaction from the multiple-perspectives. In developing this framework, Anderson was seeking to clarify the costs between independent-oriented and interactive-oriented learning strategies and activities. "He stressed the importance of cost and sustainability as well as pedagogical value in choosing appropriate mixes of interaction"45. From Anderson model, it is clear that there are many types of actors (both human and inanimate) and a variety of interactions

Bridging the Distance: The Pedagogy of Mobile Learning in Supporting Distance Learners 69

exchange of views.

support groups

deliver the instruction

resources.

learning

All these theories that have been mentioned in this study were trying to provide direction and new approaches that can be used to bridge the distance associated with the correspondence nature of distance education. Distance education has always been challenged by the problem lack of communication in the education transaction. Therefore, the distance education theory "must reflect purposeful and spontaneous nature of an educational experience"61p2. Many theories which looked at the challenge of interaction in distance education agreed that students need to be supported both cognitively and affectively through mediated technologies and face to face intervention. An effective student

administrators etc.

Study material should be written in a personal style; easily accessible; offer explicit advice, suggestions and invite

Mediated conversation facilitates the development of learning relationships between the lecturer and the student

the student masters the content

Learner – lecturer :The lecturer provides an organised curriculum to ensure that

Learner – learner: Students form peer

Learner-content : Student reads a book, views or listens to DVDs and CDs and interacts with inanimate learning

Learner-interface: interaction between the student and the technologies used to

The course is designed and developed using networks of diverse mobile applications to support two-way communication. Students are empowered to control process of

Focus is on the entire distance education system that includes interaction within the content and among teachers, course developers, instructional designers,

**framework Main characteristics Pedagogical focus** 

Conversation character of the written pre-produced course

Real and simulated conversation

Dialogue – two-way communication; interaction Structure - teaching strategies and

evaluation methods Learner autonomy

Dialogue, Learner Control

Learner-interface interaction

Two-way communication

Interaction from the multipleperspectives including teacherteacher, teacher-content and content-content interaction.

Costs of interaction

**Table 1.** Pedagogical focus of theories of interaction

**4. Implication for practice** 

package

**Theoretical** 

Guided didactic conversation55.

Transactional distance 56;57;58.

Two-way

Equivalency Theorem 60.

communication 59.

Most of the interaction that takes place in the distance education environment is often mediated by technologies. In introducing the fourth type of interaction, learner-interface interaction, Hillman, Willis, and Gunawardena46 argue that student should have the skills and the necessary competencies that will give confidence in operating the mechanisms of the delivery system before they can successfully interact with content, the lecturer and other students. "What is known lies in the interaction between individuals and artefacts, such as computers and other technological devices"47p30. The successful implementation of learner-interface interaction, according to Hillman et al.48requires the student "to operate from a paradigm that includes understanding not only the procedures of working with the interface, but also the reasons why these procedures obtain results"p34. It is therefore important that students understand why they are using cell phones in an educational environment in order to interact successfully with content, lecturers and peers.

The use of technology is an essential component of supporting two-way communication in the education transaction49. The mediating role of information and communication technologies such as cell phones places the student at the centre of learning. Garrison's concept of learner control is based on the students' "ability to influence and direct a course of events"50p27 within a distance education environment. He believes that a twoway communication can only be sustained if students are also in control of the educational transaction. In this context, according Garrison51, a student assumes responsibility for constructing meaning is an interactive environment. Mobile learning, by nature tends to ascribe to the student-centred approach which aims to develop in each student a sense of responsibility for his or her own learning by focusing on individual student's experiences, perspectives, background, interests, capabilities and needs. Garrison's52 concepts of dialogue, structure and control are central to his two-way communication framework.

These selected theorists were concerned with explaining the functioning of the concept of interaction in enhancing and supporting learning in distance education. This shows that the potential to use cell phones in facilitating interaction is enormous and can be used in a variety of ways. Cell phones can be used as a tool to provide both synchronous and asynchronous support to learning. Cell phone social networks such as MXit can be used to facilitate the process of real-time communications between individuals and groups53;54. These devices can also be used by the teacher to stimulate discussion amongst students by sending a question via SMS. The idea is to find an accessible and available technological tool that can be used to support South African distance education students.


**Table 1.** Pedagogical focus of theories of interaction

## **4. Implication for practice**

68 Distance Education

peers.

communication framework.

looking at the entire distance education system44. While Moore looked at interaction from a students' point of view, Anderson focused on the educational phenomenon of interaction from the multiple-perspectives. In developing this framework, Anderson was seeking to clarify the costs between independent-oriented and interactive-oriented learning strategies and activities. "He stressed the importance of cost and sustainability as well as pedagogical value in choosing appropriate mixes of interaction"45. From Anderson model, it is clear that there are many types of actors (both human and inanimate) and a variety of interactions

Most of the interaction that takes place in the distance education environment is often mediated by technologies. In introducing the fourth type of interaction, learner-interface interaction, Hillman, Willis, and Gunawardena46 argue that student should have the skills and the necessary competencies that will give confidence in operating the mechanisms of the delivery system before they can successfully interact with content, the lecturer and other students. "What is known lies in the interaction between individuals and artefacts, such as computers and other technological devices"47p30. The successful implementation of learner-interface interaction, according to Hillman et al.48requires the student "to operate from a paradigm that includes understanding not only the procedures of working with the interface, but also the reasons why these procedures obtain results"p34. It is therefore important that students understand why they are using cell phones in an educational environment in order to interact successfully with content, lecturers and

The use of technology is an essential component of supporting two-way communication in the education transaction49. The mediating role of information and communication technologies such as cell phones places the student at the centre of learning. Garrison's concept of learner control is based on the students' "ability to influence and direct a course of events"50p27 within a distance education environment. He believes that a twoway communication can only be sustained if students are also in control of the educational transaction. In this context, according Garrison51, a student assumes responsibility for constructing meaning is an interactive environment. Mobile learning, by nature tends to ascribe to the student-centred approach which aims to develop in each student a sense of responsibility for his or her own learning by focusing on individual student's experiences, perspectives, background, interests, capabilities and needs. Garrison's52 concepts of dialogue, structure and control are central to his two-way

These selected theorists were concerned with explaining the functioning of the concept of interaction in enhancing and supporting learning in distance education. This shows that the potential to use cell phones in facilitating interaction is enormous and can be used in a variety of ways. Cell phones can be used as a tool to provide both synchronous and asynchronous support to learning. Cell phone social networks such as MXit can be used to facilitate the process of real-time communications between individuals and groups53;54. These devices can also be used by the teacher to stimulate discussion amongst students by sending a question via SMS. The idea is to find an accessible and available technological tool

that can be used to support South African distance education students.

All these theories that have been mentioned in this study were trying to provide direction and new approaches that can be used to bridge the distance associated with the correspondence nature of distance education. Distance education has always been challenged by the problem lack of communication in the education transaction. Therefore, the distance education theory "must reflect purposeful and spontaneous nature of an educational experience"61p2. Many theories which looked at the challenge of interaction in distance education agreed that students need to be supported both cognitively and affectively through mediated technologies and face to face intervention. An effective student

support services in distance education should address student needs as they first enquire about the courses to studying (independently or assisted) and finally to graduating. During this process student support resources should be geared towards supporting students':

Bridging the Distance: The Pedagogy of Mobile Learning in Supporting Distance Learners 71

that students do not feel left out, study materials and assignments should be designed in such a way that students are encouraged to analyse, summarise and draw conclusions on the content of the study material69. He believes that self-check exercises as well as frequent

Cell phones can also be used to enhance student-content interaction through weekly selfassessment quizzes. Through these quizzes students can test themselves on basic factual information. This will also encourage students to pace themselves as they go through their study material. Cell phone downloadable audio files can also be utilised to add a voice and provide a narrative to the content. The combination of printed study material, cell phone based self-assessment quizzes and audio can guide a student through the maze of learning

Since cell phones offer support that is immediate, convenient and personal, most students tend to look forward to receiving messages from their lecturers and the university. In a study conducted by Nonyongo[70] and collegues, UNISA students remarked that receiving SMS feedback on the content of the material made them feel that someone cares and they belong to the institution. Traxler and Dearden[71] used SMSs to deliver content such as hints, tips, revision etc. as well as to remind Kenyan teacher education students about their

The issue of the geographic distance was reported as problematic by most of UNISA's distance education students, especially those who live in rural remote parts of South Africa. Most of them felt that they are physically cut-off from the university's resources. They have problems contacting administrative staff, obtaining study materials and borrowing library books. To address this problem, the University of Pretoria in South Africa used cell phone asynchronous academic intervention systems such as Instant Voice Response (IVR) system through which "students can phone a Frequently Asked Question (FAQ) number and receive answers from a pre-programmes system" 72p225. Through these systems, students' administrative questions were answered. The University of Pretoria also use a cell phone

The role of the lecturer in any education transaction is to encourage students through asking questions, correcting misperceptions, offering assistance, stimulating discussion and utilising technology to communicate. In distance education, the student-lecturer interaction is generally low. The lack of contact and limited feedback from their lecturers is of great concern for

submission of assignments and extensive feedback increase motivation.

**5.1. Supporting student cognitively** 

while assisting them to pace themselves.

**5.2. Supporting students affectively** 

**5.3. Supporting students systematically** 

system that enables students to register73.

**6. Student – lecturer interaction** 

assignments and assessments.


In distance education, students are physically, emotionally and socially separated from the institution. To help us address this challenge, the analysis in this study will use Moore's concepts of student-content interaction; student-lecturer interaction; and student-student interaction as a guiding framework to suggest how cell phones can be used to support students cognitively, affectively and systematically. The aim is to find the best pedagogical principles, that is, strategies, techniques and styles used to assist distance education students to learn63. Anderson and Dron64 describe the usage of technologies and pedagogy as the two being intertwined in a dance: "the technology sets the beat and creates the music, while the pedagogy defines the moves". This means, according to Anderson65, technology can influence the type of pedagogy that fit into a specific model that a technology can support. The availability of technologies to support different models of learning strongly influences what kinds of models can be developed. The nature of mobile technology is such that it has the ability to support situated learning which a critical component of social interaction is66. Effective mobile learning provides a platform where students can access relevant information while studying collaboratively. The technology – the cell phones affordances encourages the development of pedagogies that support collaborative learning.

#### **5. Student-content interaction**

Studying through printed media will remain one of the main medium of instruction in most developing countries such as South Africa. The pre-produced self-contained study materials are developed with an explicit understanding that they facilitate access to learning. Holmberg67 argues that the study material that is developed with good didactic conversation in it should be written in a personal style; easily accessible; offer explicit advice and suggestions and invite exchange of views. Traditionally, students go through prepackaged and submit assignments and the lecturer provides feedback though tutorial letters and marked assignments. In recent times, different technologies have been used to enhance student-content interaction through automated testing, simulations and computer assisted instruction. These methods of independent study are meant to maximise student-content interaction.

In distance education, Holmberg68 believed that course material should be developed in such a way that the conversation is internalised and the "student will be more motivated and more successful than if the course studies has an impersonal textbook character" The idea is to facilitate access to conversation which is meant to support motivation. To ensure that students do not feel left out, study materials and assignments should be designed in such a way that students are encouraged to analyse, summarise and draw conclusions on the content of the study material69. He believes that self-check exercises as well as frequent submission of assignments and extensive feedback increase motivation.

#### **5.1. Supporting student cognitively**

70 Distance Education

support services in distance education should address student needs as they first enquire about the courses to studying (independently or assisted) and finally to graduating. During this process student support resources should be geared towards supporting students':

Affectively – by providing an environment which supports students, that creates

Systematically – by establishing administrative and information management systems

In distance education, students are physically, emotionally and socially separated from the institution. To help us address this challenge, the analysis in this study will use Moore's concepts of student-content interaction; student-lecturer interaction; and student-student interaction as a guiding framework to suggest how cell phones can be used to support students cognitively, affectively and systematically. The aim is to find the best pedagogical principles, that is, strategies, techniques and styles used to assist distance education students to learn63. Anderson and Dron64 describe the usage of technologies and pedagogy as the two being intertwined in a dance: "the technology sets the beat and creates the music, while the pedagogy defines the moves". This means, according to Anderson65, technology can influence the type of pedagogy that fit into a specific model that a technology can support. The availability of technologies to support different models of learning strongly influences what kinds of models can be developed. The nature of mobile technology is such that it has the ability to support situated learning which a critical component of social interaction is66. Effective mobile learning provides a platform where students can access relevant information while studying collaboratively. The technology – the cell phones affordances encourages the development of pedagogies that support collaborative learning.

Studying through printed media will remain one of the main medium of instruction in most developing countries such as South Africa. The pre-produced self-contained study materials are developed with an explicit understanding that they facilitate access to learning. Holmberg67 argues that the study material that is developed with good didactic conversation in it should be written in a personal style; easily accessible; offer explicit advice and suggestions and invite exchange of views. Traditionally, students go through prepackaged and submit assignments and the lecturer provides feedback though tutorial letters and marked assignments. In recent times, different technologies have been used to enhance student-content interaction through automated testing, simulations and computer assisted instruction. These methods of independent study are meant to maximise student-content

In distance education, Holmberg68 believed that course material should be developed in such a way that the conversation is internalised and the "student will be more motivated and more successful than if the course studies has an impersonal textbook character" The idea is to facilitate access to conversation which is meant to support motivation. To ensure

Cognitively – by developing study materials through mediation.

that are effective, transparent and student friendly62p289.

commitment and that enhances self-esteem.

**5. Student-content interaction** 

interaction.

Cell phones can also be used to enhance student-content interaction through weekly selfassessment quizzes. Through these quizzes students can test themselves on basic factual information. This will also encourage students to pace themselves as they go through their study material. Cell phone downloadable audio files can also be utilised to add a voice and provide a narrative to the content. The combination of printed study material, cell phone based self-assessment quizzes and audio can guide a student through the maze of learning while assisting them to pace themselves.

## **5.2. Supporting students affectively**

Since cell phones offer support that is immediate, convenient and personal, most students tend to look forward to receiving messages from their lecturers and the university. In a study conducted by Nonyongo[70] and collegues, UNISA students remarked that receiving SMS feedback on the content of the material made them feel that someone cares and they belong to the institution. Traxler and Dearden[71] used SMSs to deliver content such as hints, tips, revision etc. as well as to remind Kenyan teacher education students about their assignments and assessments.

### **5.3. Supporting students systematically**

The issue of the geographic distance was reported as problematic by most of UNISA's distance education students, especially those who live in rural remote parts of South Africa. Most of them felt that they are physically cut-off from the university's resources. They have problems contacting administrative staff, obtaining study materials and borrowing library books. To address this problem, the University of Pretoria in South Africa used cell phone asynchronous academic intervention systems such as Instant Voice Response (IVR) system through which "students can phone a Frequently Asked Question (FAQ) number and receive answers from a pre-programmes system" 72p225. Through these systems, students' administrative questions were answered. The University of Pretoria also use a cell phone system that enables students to register73.

### **6. Student – lecturer interaction**

The role of the lecturer in any education transaction is to encourage students through asking questions, correcting misperceptions, offering assistance, stimulating discussion and utilising technology to communicate. In distance education, the student-lecturer interaction is generally low. The lack of contact and limited feedback from their lecturers is of great concern for

distance education students. Most of them do not have the confidence to learn independently and a result they have trouble in self-evaluation. To encourage two-way communication, a variety of technologies such as telephones, computers, electronic mails have been integrated into the delivery of the study material to provide the missing interactivity74. It was reported that the direct student and lecturer conversation through telephones and computers have been used successfully in most developed countries. However, the lack of access to technologies such as computers and telephones was attributed as the reason why these technologies are not adopted for teaching and learning purposes in most developing countries including South Africa. By so doing, they ignore thousands of mobile technological devices that are in the pockets and schoolbags of thousands of students.

Bridging the Distance: The Pedagogy of Mobile Learning in Supporting Distance Learners 73

their lecturers. To address this challenge of feedback, comments can be sent to individual students through SMS texting. Students can also be encouraged to use different types of platforms to communicate with the lecturer. A lecturer can periodically post a topic for discussion and assist students as they go about with their learning. Distance education need to feel the presence of the lecturer. When the lecturer send information via personal and situated devices such as cell phones, students feel supported, they develop a positive relationship with their lecturers and the university and they find learning more pleasurable

In distance education, lecturers are expected to provide an organised plan and curriculum and communicate with the students via tutorial letters, emails and telephonically throughout the process of learning. To ensure that students are engaged in this process, a lecturer can encourage students through assessment exercises which can be sent to the university and be automatically marked and the results could be sent back to students through cell phones. This immediate and personal feedback is possible through the use of cell phones. Lecturers, on the other hand, could go through the students' responses and identify the problem areas that may need more clarification. The university can also develop

To most students, learning is a social process whereby a student feels the need to interact with fellow learners. This is significant in the learning process because the student need to be active in learning interaction in collaboration with other people. To address the problem of isolation, most UNISA students reported that they belonged to informal study groups even though this is neither encouraged nor discouraged by the university. It is in these study groups that students adopt a communal approach to learning by sharing responsibility for reading and explaining course material78. Through these groups "students can feel immediate identification with others in their group and so lose feelings of isolation and over anxiety" 79p84. In most African cultures, group interaction is a strong factor determining values and social interaction. It is in these study groups that students adopt a communal approach to learning by sharing responsibility for reading and explaining course material80. The notion of helping each other is based on the South African traditional concept of '*ubuntu'* meaning "humanity to others" which espouses collectivity and harmony. Learning in support groups is embedded in cultural beliefs and practices. That's why these

students become extremely lonely when they are expected to learn independently.

To help the informal study groups to become self-sustaining, cell phone social networks such as MXit can be used. This instant messaging application was used successfully to facilitate the process of real-time text chat between students. Through this network students

a variety of cell phone applications to enhance feedback to students.

and this in turn supports their motivation.

**6.3. Supporting students systematically** 

**7. Student-student interaction** 

**7.1. Supporting students cognitively** 

Students need some kind of contact with their lecturers as they learn. The portable nature of mobile technologies enables students to learn anywhere, anytime and at any place thus enabling them to contact their lecturer anytime they feel the need for support75. Mobile technologies by nature ascribe to student centred approach which empowers students and enhances lecturer's ability to clarify and challenge students ever changing base of knowledge. In this approach, the lecturer's role shifts from the custodian of knowledge to the facilitator of information.

#### **6.1. Supporting students cognitively**

Cell phones can be used as a tool to facilitate dialogue through synchronous and asynchronous learning. The lecturer can send questions to students via different types of cell phone messaging systems, i.e. twitter, MXit, WhatsUp, SMS etc. Through the development of the concept of mobile audio Wikipedia, Ford and Leinonen76 used SMS and text-to-speech technologies to enable access to information using voice. Students who participated in this study were able to capture information; take photos; compile slide presentation; record and store information. These tools allowed students to interact with their lectures using multiple formats that cell phones have to offer. These formats can enable students to work on activities within the study material and briefly send a message to the lecturer reporting on how he or she went about doing the assignment.

#### **6.2. Supporting students affectively**

The use of cell phones in education offer offers a more interactive education encouraging critical thinking, communications skills, and flexibility for both students and teachers. Students need lecturers to help them complete courses on time and support them when stress becomes a problem77. This problem can be mitigated through motivational SMS messages. In distance education, there is strong correlation between care and learner motivation. To keep students motivated, lecturer should send students feedback almost immediately because students rely on lecturers comments on their assignments.

Many students have doubts about their capabilities of knowing whether or not they are on the right track, feedback, especially the one they receive almost immediately motivates them and gives them strength to continue. Motivation is also affected by the comments made by their lecturers. To address this challenge of feedback, comments can be sent to individual students through SMS texting. Students can also be encouraged to use different types of platforms to communicate with the lecturer. A lecturer can periodically post a topic for discussion and assist students as they go about with their learning. Distance education need to feel the presence of the lecturer. When the lecturer send information via personal and situated devices such as cell phones, students feel supported, they develop a positive relationship with their lecturers and the university and they find learning more pleasurable and this in turn supports their motivation.

#### **6.3. Supporting students systematically**

72 Distance Education

pockets and schoolbags of thousands of students.

the facilitator of information.

**6.1. Supporting students cognitively** 

how he or she went about doing the assignment.

**6.2. Supporting students affectively** 

distance education students. Most of them do not have the confidence to learn independently and a result they have trouble in self-evaluation. To encourage two-way communication, a variety of technologies such as telephones, computers, electronic mails have been integrated into the delivery of the study material to provide the missing interactivity74. It was reported that the direct student and lecturer conversation through telephones and computers have been used successfully in most developed countries. However, the lack of access to technologies such as computers and telephones was attributed as the reason why these technologies are not adopted for teaching and learning purposes in most developing countries including South Africa. By so doing, they ignore thousands of mobile technological devices that are in the

Students need some kind of contact with their lecturers as they learn. The portable nature of mobile technologies enables students to learn anywhere, anytime and at any place thus enabling them to contact their lecturer anytime they feel the need for support75. Mobile technologies by nature ascribe to student centred approach which empowers students and enhances lecturer's ability to clarify and challenge students ever changing base of knowledge. In this approach, the lecturer's role shifts from the custodian of knowledge to

Cell phones can be used as a tool to facilitate dialogue through synchronous and asynchronous learning. The lecturer can send questions to students via different types of cell phone messaging systems, i.e. twitter, MXit, WhatsUp, SMS etc. Through the development of the concept of mobile audio Wikipedia, Ford and Leinonen76 used SMS and text-to-speech technologies to enable access to information using voice. Students who participated in this study were able to capture information; take photos; compile slide presentation; record and store information. These tools allowed students to interact with their lectures using multiple formats that cell phones have to offer. These formats can enable students to work on activities within the study material and briefly send a message to the lecturer reporting on

The use of cell phones in education offer offers a more interactive education encouraging critical thinking, communications skills, and flexibility for both students and teachers. Students need lecturers to help them complete courses on time and support them when stress becomes a problem77. This problem can be mitigated through motivational SMS messages. In distance education, there is strong correlation between care and learner motivation. To keep students motivated, lecturer should send students feedback almost

Many students have doubts about their capabilities of knowing whether or not they are on the right track, feedback, especially the one they receive almost immediately motivates them and gives them strength to continue. Motivation is also affected by the comments made by

immediately because students rely on lecturers comments on their assignments.

In distance education, lecturers are expected to provide an organised plan and curriculum and communicate with the students via tutorial letters, emails and telephonically throughout the process of learning. To ensure that students are engaged in this process, a lecturer can encourage students through assessment exercises which can be sent to the university and be automatically marked and the results could be sent back to students through cell phones. This immediate and personal feedback is possible through the use of cell phones. Lecturers, on the other hand, could go through the students' responses and identify the problem areas that may need more clarification. The university can also develop a variety of cell phone applications to enhance feedback to students.

#### **7. Student-student interaction**

To most students, learning is a social process whereby a student feels the need to interact with fellow learners. This is significant in the learning process because the student need to be active in learning interaction in collaboration with other people. To address the problem of isolation, most UNISA students reported that they belonged to informal study groups even though this is neither encouraged nor discouraged by the university. It is in these study groups that students adopt a communal approach to learning by sharing responsibility for reading and explaining course material78. Through these groups "students can feel immediate identification with others in their group and so lose feelings of isolation and over anxiety" 79p84. In most African cultures, group interaction is a strong factor determining values and social interaction. It is in these study groups that students adopt a communal approach to learning by sharing responsibility for reading and explaining course material80. The notion of helping each other is based on the South African traditional concept of '*ubuntu'* meaning "humanity to others" which espouses collectivity and harmony. Learning in support groups is embedded in cultural beliefs and practices. That's why these students become extremely lonely when they are expected to learn independently.

#### **7.1. Supporting students cognitively**

To help the informal study groups to become self-sustaining, cell phone social networks such as MXit can be used. This instant messaging application was used successfully to facilitate the process of real-time text chat between students. Through this network students

were able to work together on projects and assisted each other81. The use of MXit is uniquely situated to support distance education students because they are already familiar with it. Lecturers can post a topic for discussion amongst students via SMS and students can get into MXit and work together on a problem or discussion.

Bridging the Distance: The Pedagogy of Mobile Learning in Supporting Distance Learners 75

resources. Besides being affordable and accessible, the use of cell phones can provide opportunities for support in distance education context. The incorporation of cell phones in education can afford new opportunities for teaching and supporting students in distance education especially in developing countries such as South Africa. The biggest challenge of distance education institutions is to come up with ways in which teachers can be empowered with the necessary skills in order to fully utilise the affordances of mobile

[1] Simpson O. (2002) Supporting student in online, open and distance learning. Kogan

[2] Thorpe M. (2001). Rethinking Learner Support: the challenge of collaborative online learning, A paper presented at SCROLLA Symposium on Informing Practice in Networked Learning, Glasgow, 14 November 2001. Cited March 20, 2008. Available

[3] Sharples M.(2002) Disruptive devices: mobile technology for conversational learning, International Journal of Continuing Engineering Education and Lifelong Learning,

[4] Garrison R. (2000). Theoretical challenges for distance education in the 21st century: A shift from structural to transactional issues.International Review of Research in Open

[5] EvansT. D., Nation D. E. (1989). Critical reflections in distance education. In T. D. Evans & D. E. Nation (Eds.),Critical reflections on distance education (pp. 237–252). Brighton:

[6] Rao M. (2011). Mobile Africa Report: Regional Hubs of Excellence and Innovation,

[7] Keegan D. (2005). The incorporation of mobile learning into mainstream education and training, proceedings of the 4th World Conference on Mlearning, Cape Town, 25-28

[8] Rao, M. (2011). Mobile Africa Report: Regional Hubs of Excellence and Innovation,

[9] Tait A. (2003). "Reflections on Student Support in Open & Distance Learning", International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, vol. 4, No1, p.2-8.

technologies to engage and support students in the learning processes.

*Institute for Open Distance Learning, The University of South Africa, South Africa* 

from http://www.scrolla.ac.uk/papers/s1/thorpe\_paper.html

and Distance Leaming, 7(1). Cited March 20, 2008, Available from

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http://www.irrodl.org/content/v 1.1 /randy.html

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**Author details** 

Mpine E. Makoe

**9. References** 

Page, London.

12(5/6), 504-520

Falmer Press.

#### **7.2. Supporting students affectively**

Through this network, students formed study groups where they were able get together, engage in joint activities and discussions, help each other share information about the course. Communities develop their practice through problem solving, requests for information, coordination and discussing developments, mapping knowledge and identifying gaps. People engage in the communities of practice to interact with each other and learn together 82. It is through collaborative activities that students adopt a communal approach to learning by sharing responsibility for reading and explaining course material83.Through peer support groups, students are more likely to be motivated to share their work with each other. When students are in control of their learning, they are able to link up with other students as illustrated above to form collaborative learning networks. Mobile learning facilitates this process through building communities of learners who are committed to work together to achieve a goal. By so doing, "students were able feel immediate identification with others in their group and so lose feelings of isolation and over anxiety"84p365.

#### **7.3. Supporting students systematically**

Universities may do well by facilitating the process of helping students form study groups through social networks that are developed by the university. They can also ask students to send in their profiles so that they can link them up with other students. The advantage of the social network, students do not have to be at the same location or in close proximity with each other.

### **8. Conclusion**

Despite several studies that proved that mobile learning can be used to enhance learning, the use of these devices should not be seen as a panacea to support distance students. The success of using this technology should be based on its affordances, that is, its ability to enhance interaction in education. The multimedia functionality of cell phones and its simpler and user-friendly interface make cell phone easier to be used by people who may be uncomfortable with using other technologies such as computers. However, cell phones' limited ability to carry large chunks of information due to screen size can make it impossible to support certain types of pedagogies. Despite this limitation, young people are already inventing ways to use their phones to learn. It is this enthusiasm from young people that we need to exploit for the benefit of supporting distance education students. Therefore, cell phones should not be used on their own as a delivery tool for study material, they should be used to support printed study material, online learning and other forms of teaching resources. Besides being affordable and accessible, the use of cell phones can provide opportunities for support in distance education context. The incorporation of cell phones in education can afford new opportunities for teaching and supporting students in distance education especially in developing countries such as South Africa. The biggest challenge of distance education institutions is to come up with ways in which teachers can be empowered with the necessary skills in order to fully utilise the affordances of mobile technologies to engage and support students in the learning processes.

## **Author details**

74 Distance Education

anxiety"84p365.

with each other.

**8. Conclusion** 

were able to work together on projects and assisted each other81. The use of MXit is uniquely situated to support distance education students because they are already familiar with it. Lecturers can post a topic for discussion amongst students via SMS and students can get

Through this network, students formed study groups where they were able get together, engage in joint activities and discussions, help each other share information about the course. Communities develop their practice through problem solving, requests for information, coordination and discussing developments, mapping knowledge and identifying gaps. People engage in the communities of practice to interact with each other and learn together 82. It is through collaborative activities that students adopt a communal approach to learning by sharing responsibility for reading and explaining course material83.Through peer support groups, students are more likely to be motivated to share their work with each other. When students are in control of their learning, they are able to link up with other students as illustrated above to form collaborative learning networks. Mobile learning facilitates this process through building communities of learners who are committed to work together to achieve a goal. By so doing, "students were able feel immediate identification with others in their group and so lose feelings of isolation and over

Universities may do well by facilitating the process of helping students form study groups through social networks that are developed by the university. They can also ask students to send in their profiles so that they can link them up with other students. The advantage of the social network, students do not have to be at the same location or in close proximity

Despite several studies that proved that mobile learning can be used to enhance learning, the use of these devices should not be seen as a panacea to support distance students. The success of using this technology should be based on its affordances, that is, its ability to enhance interaction in education. The multimedia functionality of cell phones and its simpler and user-friendly interface make cell phone easier to be used by people who may be uncomfortable with using other technologies such as computers. However, cell phones' limited ability to carry large chunks of information due to screen size can make it impossible to support certain types of pedagogies. Despite this limitation, young people are already inventing ways to use their phones to learn. It is this enthusiasm from young people that we need to exploit for the benefit of supporting distance education students. Therefore, cell phones should not be used on their own as a delivery tool for study material, they should be used to support printed study material, online learning and other forms of teaching

into MXit and work together on a problem or discussion.

**7.2. Supporting students affectively** 

**7.3. Supporting students systematically** 

Mpine E. Makoe *Institute for Open Distance Learning, The University of South Africa, South Africa* 

## **9. References**


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**Chapter 4** 

© 2012 Pereira and Piovesan licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

**Virtual Reality Applied in Distance Education** 

The constant evolution of technology is leading the education to new ways, which are more attractive to students, making possible to use new tools, leading to an evolution in the teaching and learning process. The Virtual Reality has an important place in this evolution.

There are many definitions about virtual reality, but in general, refers to an immersive and interactive 3D-based graphics generated in real time by computer, that is, a computer-

Virtual Reality is present in many knowledge areas, allowing several benefits in its uses.

 Immersion: all sensorial devices are important for the immersion feeling. Regularly, they use objects such as viewing helmets and projections views rooms to help in the

 Interaction: this idea is related to the computer's ability to detect the user input and modify immediately the virtual world and the actions on it (reactive capacity). Involvement: is related to the motivation degree to a person engagement with a

Education can be seen as a discovery, exploration and observation process, except the eternal knowledge construction. Thus, the Virtual Reality specific features can turn it into a

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Health: virtual surgeries, treating patients in the ICU, rehabilitation.

Training: flight simulators, motorcycles, vehicles quality test, etc.

Adriana Soares Pereira and Sandra Dutra Piovesan

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

generated a real world simulation or just imaginary.

Entertainment: games and virtual tours.

Education: educational software.

Business: virtual models, buildings, interiors.

The virtual reality systems have three characteristics:

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50381

**1. Introduction** 

Some examples:

immersion.

particular activity.


## **Virtual Reality Applied in Distance Education**

Adriana Soares Pereira and Sandra Dutra Piovesan

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50381

**1. Introduction** 

80 Distance Education

Press:195-214.

12(5/6), 504-520

2008).

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2008).

Open University, 364-367.

Cambridge, Cambridge University Press

Jamaica, 30 October – 3 November.

Available at http://www.infrastruction.com/barriers.htm

*Training,* M. Ally (ed). Athabasca University: AU Press:195-214.

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International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 5(1)

International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 5(1)

Networked Learning, Glasgow, [cited 14 November 2001], Available from

http://www.scrolla.ac.uk/papers/s1/thorpe\_paper.html

learning for distance education, Open Learning 25, (3), 251–257.

Available at http://www.infrastruction.com/barriers.htm

the Delivery of Education and Training, M. Ally (ed). Athabasca University: AU

[73] Hendrikz, J. (2006) Mobile phone technology as an instrument for student support in Africa, a paper presented at the Fourth Pan-Commonwealth Forum on Open Learning,

[74] Galusha, J.M. (1997) Barriers to learning in distance education. Interpersonal Computing and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st Century, 5(3/4): 6–14.

[75] Sharples M.(2002) Disruptive devices: mobile technology for conversational learning, International Journal of Continuing Engineering Education and Lifelong Learning,

[76] Ford, M.; Leinonen, T. (2009). MobilED – Mobile Tools and Services platform for formal and informal learning, *Mobile Learning: Transforming the Delivery of Education and* 

[77] Galusha, J.M. (1997) Barriers to learning in distance education. Interpersonal Computing and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st Century, 5(3/4): 6–14.

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www.irrodol.org/index.php/irrodol/article/viewArticle/171/253 (accessed 21 September

www.irrodol.org/index.php/irrodol/article/viewArticle/171/253 (accessed 21 September

The constant evolution of technology is leading the education to new ways, which are more attractive to students, making possible to use new tools, leading to an evolution in the teaching and learning process. The Virtual Reality has an important place in this evolution.

There are many definitions about virtual reality, but in general, refers to an immersive and interactive 3D-based graphics generated in real time by computer, that is, a computergenerated a real world simulation or just imaginary.

Virtual Reality is present in many knowledge areas, allowing several benefits in its uses. Some examples:


The virtual reality systems have three characteristics:


Education can be seen as a discovery, exploration and observation process, except the eternal knowledge construction. Thus, the Virtual Reality specific features can turn it into a

powerful instrument in the service of all who seek the evolution of education. Many things that until a short time were dreams nowadays, existing with technological advances, become a reality, a Virtual Reality.

Virtual Reality Applied in Distance Education 83

active participation rather than passivity opening these opportunities for special

Nowadays, the Internet provides the possibility not only to seek information, but also to help the teacher in the distance education process, using new interaction methods with the student, such as participation in chat rooms, discussion boards, and videoconferencing.

For education, the Internet can be considered the learning tool most complete, comprehensive and complex which have been used so far. We can, through them, find sources of information that virtually enable us to study different areas of knowledge [4].

For the scientific community or researcher, we can say that the Internet is an indispensable tool. Through it, we have access to more advanced search features of the world. Thus, one can discuss research with colleagues who work with the same concerns and seeking to

The educational software proposed aims to help students and teachers to have a more complete and interesting of Automata and changes in its minimization. It also aims to make the subject more interesting to students, making learning easier as well as making the

The application of Virtual Reality is an animated simulation that lets you define and display a 3D object, change its point of reference and field of view, manipulate and interact with objects, and make these objects affect each other. The Virtual Reality software allows to pervade objects with behaviors as well as programming them to activate some kind of visual feedback, auditory or tactile when a specific event happens, and manage the entire sequence

The most systems of building virtual worlds share some basic concepts that characterize the development of Virtual Reality and allow developers to create a very realistic simulation.

According to Jacobson (1994), these basic concepts could be: the universe and its objects, presentation techniques and dynamic feedback. The Universe is the place where the experience of virtual reality that is the place to be modeled. This universe contains objects that are characterized by the geometry (shape of the object), appearance (size, color, composition, lighting and shading applied to the geometry of the object) and behavior (reactions to events ahead of the object). Any object is formed by a set of polygons and its presentation techniques involve concepts of computer graphics. Some of these concepts are: linear perspective (the object size decreases with increasing distance from the user), lighting (intensity of light striking an object), shading (shading caused by the position of another object between the light source and the object) and overlay (objects obscuring other objects or parts of them). In addition to sharing the concepts mentioned above, the software for creating Virtual Reality also usually offer resources for certain types of interaction devices, allowing programming them to activate some kind of visual feedback, auditory or tactile. In

students to become more participatory, so they have a more interactive learning.

**2. Tools for software development using virtual reality** 

education and distance education [6].

achieve equal results.

of events.

With Virtual Reality working in education we can discover, explore and build knowledge about places and situations that we could never explore. The great potential of virtual reality is exactly these possibilities, not only through classes or physical objects, but also by manipulating virtual target to be explored, analyzed and studied.

It is understood by the Theory of Automata and Formal Languages the mathematical models study that enable the specification and recognition language (in the broad sense of the word), their classifications, structures, properties, characteristics and interrelationships [8].

The importance of this theory in computer science is twofold: it supports both other aspects of theoretical computer science, as also it underlies several computer applications such as language processing, pattern recognition and systems modeling.

The Educational Software is a technical resource teaching, with pre-established educational objectives for teaching and learning of their target. It is any software used with educational purpose integrated curricular activities with the possibility of a multidisciplinary tool available to students and teachers.

The educational software should be well structured, properly uses the technological resources, to have interaction in the curriculum and activities, has friendly interface, be easy to perform, and mostly have well-defined its target to achieve its goals.

The quality of an educational software depends on some criteria to be observed: clear and defined goals; vocabulary appropriate to the target; activities with writing correction (spelling), clarity and conciseness of the text; feedback; implementation easy and secure with the possibility of termination at any time, user-friendly interface, online help, the possibility for interactivity [10] [3].

The virtual reality has been available as a technology for learning, offering great potential for applications in many areas. RV is considered a new and advanced computer interface for 3D models, which presents a whole new world of possibilities for human-machine interaction. It provides an environment in which users are able to interact and view images from different viewing angles. Consequently, the Virtual Reality enables the user to develop a spatial relationship with the information he is interacting.

The virtual reality, when inserted into an educational context can provide many benefits to teaching and learning, promoting:


 active participation rather than passivity opening these opportunities for special education and distance education [6].

Nowadays, the Internet provides the possibility not only to seek information, but also to help the teacher in the distance education process, using new interaction methods with the student, such as participation in chat rooms, discussion boards, and videoconferencing.

For education, the Internet can be considered the learning tool most complete, comprehensive and complex which have been used so far. We can, through them, find sources of information that virtually enable us to study different areas of knowledge [4].

For the scientific community or researcher, we can say that the Internet is an indispensable tool. Through it, we have access to more advanced search features of the world. Thus, one can discuss research with colleagues who work with the same concerns and seeking to achieve equal results.

The educational software proposed aims to help students and teachers to have a more complete and interesting of Automata and changes in its minimization. It also aims to make the subject more interesting to students, making learning easier as well as making the students to become more participatory, so they have a more interactive learning.

## **2. Tools for software development using virtual reality**

82 Distance Education

[8].

become a reality, a Virtual Reality.

available to students and teachers.

possibility for interactivity [10] [3].

teaching and learning, promoting:

the student creativity;

powerful instrument in the service of all who seek the evolution of education. Many things that until a short time were dreams nowadays, existing with technological advances,

With Virtual Reality working in education we can discover, explore and build knowledge about places and situations that we could never explore. The great potential of virtual reality is exactly these possibilities, not only through classes or physical objects, but also by

It is understood by the Theory of Automata and Formal Languages the mathematical models study that enable the specification and recognition language (in the broad sense of the word), their classifications, structures, properties, characteristics and interrelationships

The importance of this theory in computer science is twofold: it supports both other aspects of theoretical computer science, as also it underlies several computer applications such as

The Educational Software is a technical resource teaching, with pre-established educational objectives for teaching and learning of their target. It is any software used with educational purpose integrated curricular activities with the possibility of a multidisciplinary tool

The educational software should be well structured, properly uses the technological resources, to have interaction in the curriculum and activities, has friendly interface, be easy

The quality of an educational software depends on some criteria to be observed: clear and defined goals; vocabulary appropriate to the target; activities with writing correction (spelling), clarity and conciseness of the text; feedback; implementation easy and secure with the possibility of termination at any time, user-friendly interface, online help, the

The virtual reality has been available as a technology for learning, offering great potential for applications in many areas. RV is considered a new and advanced computer interface for 3D models, which presents a whole new world of possibilities for human-machine interaction. It provides an environment in which users are able to interact and view images from different viewing angles. Consequently, the Virtual Reality enables the user to develop

The virtual reality, when inserted into an educational context can provide many benefits to

manipulating virtual target to be explored, analyzed and studied.

language processing, pattern recognition and systems modeling.

to perform, and mostly have well-defined its target to achieve its goals.

a spatial relationship with the information he is interacting.

motivation and multisensory stimulation to the learners;

 opportunities to communicate with students from other cultures; possibility of the learner performing an experiment at his own pace; The application of Virtual Reality is an animated simulation that lets you define and display a 3D object, change its point of reference and field of view, manipulate and interact with objects, and make these objects affect each other. The Virtual Reality software allows to pervade objects with behaviors as well as programming them to activate some kind of visual feedback, auditory or tactile when a specific event happens, and manage the entire sequence of events.

The most systems of building virtual worlds share some basic concepts that characterize the development of Virtual Reality and allow developers to create a very realistic simulation.

According to Jacobson (1994), these basic concepts could be: the universe and its objects, presentation techniques and dynamic feedback. The Universe is the place where the experience of virtual reality that is the place to be modeled. This universe contains objects that are characterized by the geometry (shape of the object), appearance (size, color, composition, lighting and shading applied to the geometry of the object) and behavior (reactions to events ahead of the object). Any object is formed by a set of polygons and its presentation techniques involve concepts of computer graphics. Some of these concepts are: linear perspective (the object size decreases with increasing distance from the user), lighting (intensity of light striking an object), shading (shading caused by the position of another object between the light source and the object) and overlay (objects obscuring other objects or parts of them). In addition to sharing the concepts mentioned above, the software for creating Virtual Reality also usually offer resources for certain types of interaction devices, allowing programming them to activate some kind of visual feedback, auditory or tactile. In this virtual world you can use a 3D modeling program to create virtual objects and scenarios and import them into the software that creates virtual reality. The modeling usually is based on primitives called polygons, and an object of the virtual world is composed by multiple polygons combined. Then, the 3D modeling programs will combine modeling (creation of objects), visual representation (application properties to objects, such as texture and lighting) and animation (movement of objects in the scene), making the presentation of scenes and objects as close to reality as possible.

Virtual Reality Applied in Distance Education 85

dimensional objects can set color, transparency, gloss, texture. The objects can be basic shapes such as spheres, cubes, ovoid, hexahedrons, cones, cylinders, or forms created by the

In addition to objects, it is possible to add interactivity to them by means of sensors, so you can move them in position, add light to produce a sound when the object is clicked or simply close it and open a file or Web page or yet another page in VRML, when the object is

It isn´t necessary a specific software for VRML files creation (although there are), since all objects can be created in text mode. Figure 26 shows an example of code in VRML 2.0 using Windows Notepad (txt extension) to be opened. VRML 2.0 is the version used to create the

Plug-in Cortona is an interactive 3D display ideal for viewing virtual worlds on the web. It is compatible with many 3D technologies for VRML formats developing. Plug-ins are

In the web address: www.parallelgraphics.com/products/cortona/ is available to download and install free software. Plug-in makes the images with .*wrl* extension are automatically

There are different plug-ins for different operating systems, but the Cortona plug-in was

The acronym HTML derives from the English expression HyperText Markup Language. It is a markup language used to produce web pages. These codes can be interpreted by browsers

Unlike other structured languages, HTML uses tags, markings that are known as tags, which consist of brief instructions with a start tag and the other end, by which to determine

Macromedia Dreamweaver is a development tool for web created by Macromedia (now Adobe Systems), which is currently in version 8. Early application versions served as simple WYSIWYG HTML editor ("What You See Is What You Get", or "What you see is what you get"), but newer versions have incorporated notable support for many other web

Since the late '90s, Dreamweaver has had increasing success and now dominates around 80% of the market for HTML editors. There are versions for both Mac OS and Windows, but

the text formatting, images and other elements that compose a HTML page.

technologies such as XHTML, CSS, JavaScript and several server scripts [9].

programs that allow the virtual worlds visualization developed in VRML [2].

chosen for the Formal Languages development software .

to display pages on the World Wide Web [5].

*2.4.1. Macromedia dreamweaver* 

programmer [12].

software to Formal Languages.

**2.3. Plug-in Cortona** 

loaded into the browser.

**2.4. HTML** 

triggered.

Currently, there are several software programs for the Virtual Reality. Some allow only the creation of Virtual Reality exploratory where the participant may not modify or interact with the environment and its components, while others allow you to create sophisticated scenes with interaction capabilities across devices compatible. In this chapter we present the software used to create the system to Formal Languages.

## **2.1. Blender**

Blender or Blender3D is a program for modeling three-dimensional (3D) that is evolving very quickly. The program is open source, and it is developed by the Blender Foundation [1].

Originally, the program was developed as an in-house application by Dutch animation studio NeoGeo (not to be confused with NeoGeo game console) and Not a Number Technologies (NaN), the lead author, Ton Roosendaal, founded in June 1998 to NaN to develop and distribute the program. Blender was initially distributed as freeware until NaN went bankrupt in 2002 [1].

The debtors agreed to release Blender as open source under the GNU terms General Public License, with a single payment of € 100,000. On July 18, 2002, a Blender funding campaign was started by Roosendaal in order to collect donations and September 7, 2002 it was announced that the fundraising was enough, and that the blender source code would be released.

The objective of the development team is able to reach the development of commercial software. There are many professionals who have already used this program as a primary or secondary in their work [1].

The Blender3D can be used in any area that is necessary for generation three-dimensional models. We can mention architecture, industrial design and engineering, among others [1].

Blender can be downloaded from the actual web page design: www.blender.org, and yet there are several pages about the program.

#### **2.2. VRML**

VRML (Virtual Reality Modeling Language) is a standard for virtual reality applications used on the Internet. Through this language, written in text mode, you can create threedimensional objects can set color, transparency, gloss, texture. The objects can be basic shapes such as spheres, cubes, ovoid, hexahedrons, cones, cylinders, or forms created by the programmer [12].

In addition to objects, it is possible to add interactivity to them by means of sensors, so you can move them in position, add light to produce a sound when the object is clicked or simply close it and open a file or Web page or yet another page in VRML, when the object is triggered.

It isn´t necessary a specific software for VRML files creation (although there are), since all objects can be created in text mode. Figure 26 shows an example of code in VRML 2.0 using Windows Notepad (txt extension) to be opened. VRML 2.0 is the version used to create the software to Formal Languages.

#### **2.3. Plug-in Cortona**

84 Distance Education

**2.1. Blender** 

went bankrupt in 2002 [1].

secondary in their work [1].

there are several pages about the program.

[1].

released.

**2.2. VRML** 

scenes and objects as close to reality as possible.

software used to create the system to Formal Languages.

this virtual world you can use a 3D modeling program to create virtual objects and scenarios and import them into the software that creates virtual reality. The modeling usually is based on primitives called polygons, and an object of the virtual world is composed by multiple polygons combined. Then, the 3D modeling programs will combine modeling (creation of objects), visual representation (application properties to objects, such as texture and lighting) and animation (movement of objects in the scene), making the presentation of

Currently, there are several software programs for the Virtual Reality. Some allow only the creation of Virtual Reality exploratory where the participant may not modify or interact with the environment and its components, while others allow you to create sophisticated scenes with interaction capabilities across devices compatible. In this chapter we present the

Blender or Blender3D is a program for modeling three-dimensional (3D) that is evolving very quickly. The program is open source, and it is developed by the Blender Foundation

Originally, the program was developed as an in-house application by Dutch animation studio NeoGeo (not to be confused with NeoGeo game console) and Not a Number Technologies (NaN), the lead author, Ton Roosendaal, founded in June 1998 to NaN to develop and distribute the program. Blender was initially distributed as freeware until NaN

The debtors agreed to release Blender as open source under the GNU terms General Public License, with a single payment of € 100,000. On July 18, 2002, a Blender funding campaign was started by Roosendaal in order to collect donations and September 7, 2002 it was announced that the fundraising was enough, and that the blender source code would be

The objective of the development team is able to reach the development of commercial software. There are many professionals who have already used this program as a primary or

The Blender3D can be used in any area that is necessary for generation three-dimensional models. We can mention architecture, industrial design and engineering, among others [1].

Blender can be downloaded from the actual web page design: www.blender.org, and yet

VRML (Virtual Reality Modeling Language) is a standard for virtual reality applications used on the Internet. Through this language, written in text mode, you can create threePlug-in Cortona is an interactive 3D display ideal for viewing virtual worlds on the web. It is compatible with many 3D technologies for VRML formats developing. Plug-ins are programs that allow the virtual worlds visualization developed in VRML [2].

In the web address: www.parallelgraphics.com/products/cortona/ is available to download and install free software. Plug-in makes the images with .*wrl* extension are automatically loaded into the browser.

There are different plug-ins for different operating systems, but the Cortona plug-in was chosen for the Formal Languages development software .

#### **2.4. HTML**

The acronym HTML derives from the English expression HyperText Markup Language. It is a markup language used to produce web pages. These codes can be interpreted by browsers to display pages on the World Wide Web [5].

Unlike other structured languages, HTML uses tags, markings that are known as tags, which consist of brief instructions with a start tag and the other end, by which to determine the text formatting, images and other elements that compose a HTML page.

#### *2.4.1. Macromedia dreamweaver*

Macromedia Dreamweaver is a development tool for web created by Macromedia (now Adobe Systems), which is currently in version 8. Early application versions served as simple WYSIWYG HTML editor ("What You See Is What You Get", or "What you see is what you get"), but newer versions have incorporated notable support for many other web technologies such as XHTML, CSS, JavaScript and several server scripts [9].

Since the late '90s, Dreamweaver has had increasing success and now dominates around 80% of the market for HTML editors. There are versions for both Mac OS and Windows, but

you can also run it on Unix platforms and through the use of emulation software like Wine. As a WYSIWYG editor, Dreamweaver can hide the HTML details user, making it possible for non-experts to easily create web pages and sites.

Virtual Reality Applied in Distance Education 87

provides good support for regular expressions (a feature also common scripting

In this chapter we will introduce how the Educational Software building was made for the

The educational software developed, is based on Virtual Reality facing the Formal Languages subject, targeting the automata minimization study. For this software installation was used Blender 2.37a modeler for the automata images construction (Figure 1) that allows

It is also necessary that Cortona plug-in is installed on your computer where the software will be used (Figure 2). Plug-in opens the Browser with controls that allow the user to view

The Maker Blender used to create images of Automata doesn´t allow that letters and numbers are exported, then it is necessary that the letters and numbers (q1, q2, a, b, 0) are

**3. Modeling of virtual reality system for formal languages** 

languages).

Formal Languages subject.

you to export your files to VRML 2.0.

**Figure 1.** Construction of Automata using Modeler Blender

placed in the images through the VRML Language.

images from different angles.

To develop the Formal Languages pages layout software was used Macromedia Dreamweaver MX.

### **2.5. PHP**

PHP (a recursive acronym for "PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor") is a computer programming language interpreted, free and very used to generate dynamic content on the Web Despite being an easy language to learn and use for small scripts, simple dynamic PHP is a powerful object-oriented language [11].

The language appeared around 1994 as a Perl subset scripts created by Rasmus Lerdof. With Zeev Suraski and Andi Gutmans, two Israeli developers belonging to the Technion, the Israel Institute of Technology, who additions rewrote the parser, was launched in 1997 to PHP 3, the first stable version and like the current language. By rewriting the parser was created the Zend Engine, which is officially maintained by the company together with the Zend PHP community. In May 2000, came to public version 4, and in July 2004, version 5, where the main change was a new API for object orientation provided by the Zend Engine 2.

This is a highly modularized language, which makes it ideal for installation and use on web servers. Several modules are created in PECL repository extensions (PHP Extension Community Library) and some of these modules are introduced as standard on new language versions. It is very similar, data types, syntax and even functions, with C and C + +. Maybe, depending on server configuration, embedded in HTML. Moreover, there is the extreme ease with which PHP handles database servers such as MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft SQL Server and Oracle.

There are PHP versions which are available for the following operating systems: Windows, Linux, Mac OS, OS / 2, AS/400, Novell Netware, RISC OS, IRIX and Solaris.

### **2.6. JavaScript**

JavaScript is a programming language created by Netscape - in 1995, which at first was called LiveScript to meet mainly the following requirements:


Javascript has syntax similar to Java, but is totally different in its concept and use:


 provides good support for regular expressions (a feature also common scripting languages).

## **3. Modeling of virtual reality system for formal languages**

86 Distance Education

Dreamweaver MX.

object-oriented language [11].

Microsoft SQL Server and Oracle.

**2.5. PHP** 

Zend Engine 2.

**2.6. JavaScript** 

you can also run it on Unix platforms and through the use of emulation software like Wine. As a WYSIWYG editor, Dreamweaver can hide the HTML details user, making it possible

To develop the Formal Languages pages layout software was used Macromedia

PHP (a recursive acronym for "PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor") is a computer programming language interpreted, free and very used to generate dynamic content on the Web Despite being an easy language to learn and use for small scripts, simple dynamic PHP is a powerful

The language appeared around 1994 as a Perl subset scripts created by Rasmus Lerdof. With Zeev Suraski and Andi Gutmans, two Israeli developers belonging to the Technion, the Israel Institute of Technology, who additions rewrote the parser, was launched in 1997 to PHP 3, the first stable version and like the current language. By rewriting the parser was created the Zend Engine, which is officially maintained by the company together with the Zend PHP community. In May 2000, came to public version 4, and in July 2004, version 5, where the main change was a new API for object orientation provided by the

This is a highly modularized language, which makes it ideal for installation and use on web servers. Several modules are created in PECL repository extensions (PHP Extension Community Library) and some of these modules are introduced as standard on new language versions. It is very similar, data types, syntax and even functions, with C and C + +. Maybe, depending on server configuration, embedded in HTML. Moreover, there is the extreme ease with which PHP handles database servers such as MySQL, PostgreSQL,

There are PHP versions which are available for the following operating systems: Windows,

JavaScript is a programming language created by Netscape - in 1995, which at first was

Linux, Mac OS, OS / 2, AS/400, Novell Netware, RISC OS, IRIX and Solaris.

interaction with the page. Thus, it was done as a scripting language [7].

Javascript has syntax similar to Java, but is totally different in its concept and use:

has great tools for standard listings (such as scripting languages in general);

called LiveScript to meet mainly the following requirements:

provides dynamic typing - variable types aren´t defined;

is interpreted rather than compiled;

form validation on the client side (browser software);

for non-experts to easily create web pages and sites.

In this chapter we will introduce how the Educational Software building was made for the Formal Languages subject.

The educational software developed, is based on Virtual Reality facing the Formal Languages subject, targeting the automata minimization study. For this software installation was used Blender 2.37a modeler for the automata images construction (Figure 1) that allows you to export your files to VRML 2.0.

**Figure 1.** Construction of Automata using Modeler Blender

It is also necessary that Cortona plug-in is installed on your computer where the software will be used (Figure 2). Plug-in opens the Browser with controls that allow the user to view images from different angles.

The Maker Blender used to create images of Automata doesn´t allow that letters and numbers are exported, then it is necessary that the letters and numbers (q1, q2, a, b, 0) are placed in the images through the VRML Language.

Virtual Reality Applied in Distance Education 89

Obter Resultados

Escolher Opção Correta

Desenvolver a Minimização

If he accesses the Minimization link, he goes in another menu that will give him the option to choose the exercise he wants to minimize doing or want before he visits the help page. If he chooses the exercise, the user will perform the exercise and should fill the spaces with equivalent states, so the user gets the correct answer or if the program will prompt re-run

If the user accesses the regular expressions link, he can choose the exercise he wants to do. After choosing the exercise, he will answer what is the correct regular expression and gets

**3.2. Virtual reality system for formal languages with emphasis on regular** 

The exercises will be available to students through the homepage (Figure 4). The pages layout was built using HTML through Dreamweaver MX software. From the home page users can access the page menu that shows the studying options it shows to the student the possibility to download the plug-in Cortona and also provides some links for reading

Escolher Exercício

Responder Questôes

Escolher Exercício

Acessar Página Ajuda

The software will be available through pages built using the PHP programming language. The student can choose for answer questions about regular expressions before performing the Automata minimization. The figure 6 shows an exercise on regular expressions which is

the exercise.

the answer result.

**Figure 3.** Use Case Diagram

Acessar Links Utilizados

Acessar Monografia

available through the Menu.

**expressions** 

Usuário

(Figure 5).

The user can also access the links used in the workplace.

Acessar Materia Explicativo sobre Linguagens Formais

Acessar Link Minimização de Autômatos

Aceesar Questôes Objetivas

Acessar Link Expressoes Regulares

Salvar Monografia

Imprimir Monografia

Aceesar Plug-in Cortona Fazer Download

**Figure 2.** Cortona Plugin by opening an image generated by Blender

#### **3.1. Use case diagram**

The figure 3 shows a use case diagram that demonstrates the system use.

Initially the user will access the subject homepage. By entering the page, display the main menu that will give the student the possibility to choose the type of study he will perform. Through the menu, the user can:


If the user chooses to access the Plug-in Cortona, it must save and run, so he can view the Automata images.

If the user chooses to access the Explanatory Material on Formal Languages, he will have access to the reading material, with concepts and how to solve a minimization exercise.

If the user chooses to answer the objective questions, he will receive the answer if the options chosen were the right ones.

If he accesses the Minimization link, he goes in another menu that will give him the option to choose the exercise he wants to minimize doing or want before he visits the help page. If he chooses the exercise, the user will perform the exercise and should fill the spaces with equivalent states, so the user gets the correct answer or if the program will prompt re-run the exercise.

If the user accesses the regular expressions link, he can choose the exercise he wants to do. After choosing the exercise, he will answer what is the correct regular expression and gets the answer result.

The user can also access the links used in the workplace.

**Figure 3.** Use Case Diagram

88 Distance Education

**Figure 2.** Cortona Plugin by opening an image generated by Blender

Access the Explanatory Material Formal Languages;

The figure 3 shows a use case diagram that demonstrates the system use.

Initially the user will access the subject homepage. By entering the page, display the main menu that will give the student the possibility to choose the type of study he will perform.

If the user chooses to access the Plug-in Cortona, it must save and run, so he can view the

If the user chooses to access the Explanatory Material on Formal Languages, he will have access to the reading material, with concepts and how to solve a minimization exercise.

If the user chooses to answer the objective questions, he will receive the answer if the

**3.1. Use case diagram** 

Through the menu, the user can:

Access Plug-in Cortona;

 Access Issues Objectives; Access the Menu Minimization; Access the Menu Regular Expression;

options chosen were the right ones.

Access Links Used.

Automata images.

## **3.2. Virtual reality system for formal languages with emphasis on regular expressions**

The exercises will be available to students through the homepage (Figure 4). The pages layout was built using HTML through Dreamweaver MX software. From the home page users can access the page menu that shows the studying options it shows to the student the possibility to download the plug-in Cortona and also provides some links for reading (Figure 5).

The software will be available through pages built using the PHP programming language. The student can choose for answer questions about regular expressions before performing the Automata minimization. The figure 6 shows an exercise on regular expressions which is available through the Menu.

Virtual Reality Applied in Distance Education 91

**Figure 6.** Exercises about Regular Expressions

**Figure 7.** Home Exercise with Minimization

The automata minimization is done on a screen where the user views the Automata drawings in 3D and must enter some state that is necessary and use the table and the lists to find the equivalent states that can be removed. When you find the equivalent states, he can view the 3D minimized automata. If the student doesn´t hit the equivalent states, the page

warns him about the error and the student may retake the answers (Figure 7).

**Figure 4.** Home Screen

**Figure 5.** Menu

#### Virtual Reality Applied in Distance Education 91

**Figure 6.** Exercises about Regular Expressions

90 Distance Education

**Figure 4.** Home Screen

**Figure 5.** Menu

The automata minimization is done on a screen where the user views the Automata drawings in 3D and must enter some state that is necessary and use the table and the lists to find the equivalent states that can be removed. When you find the equivalent states, he can view the 3D minimized automata. If the student doesn´t hit the equivalent states, the page warns him about the error and the student may retake the answers (Figure 7).

**Figure 7.** Home Exercise with Minimization

The page shows multiple choice exercises, where students will answer the questions and check whether the chosen answers were correct. (Figure 8) so students can test their theoretical knowledge. The page warns the student when the choices made in multiplechoice questions aren´t correct and the student will have the option to redo these wrong questions.

Virtual Reality Applied in Distance Education 93

**Figure 10.** Menu Minimization

**Figure 11.** Material support

The page shows a Reading Material which is intended to answer doubts about Regular Expressions and Automata Minimization. This page can also be used by educators in their

classroom or virtual class. The figure 9 shows the Theoretical Material page.

**Figure 8.** Exercises Multiple Choice

**Figure 9.** Materials for Reading

**Figure 10.** Menu Minimization

questions.

**Figure 8.** Exercises Multiple Choice

**Figure 9.** Materials for Reading

The page shows multiple choice exercises, where students will answer the questions and check whether the chosen answers were correct. (Figure 8) so students can test their theoretical knowledge. The page warns the student when the choices made in multiplechoice questions aren´t correct and the student will have the option to redo these wrong

**Figure 11.** Material support

The page shows a Reading Material which is intended to answer doubts about Regular Expressions and Automata Minimization. This page can also be used by educators in their classroom or virtual class. The figure 9 shows the Theoretical Material page.

The page also has a help material, which explains how to use the pages with exercises Minimization. This help is available through the Menu Minimization that is shown in Figure 10.

Virtual Reality Applied in Distance Education 95

If the reading material doesn´t take all the doubts, is available through pages some links that were used in the workplace. The figure 12 shows the page that contains the web address

Also are available on the discipline page, the answers for the minimization questions, which can be accessed through the help page. This page aims to help teachers and students if problems occur in these exercises solution. The figure 13 shows the page with the

The educational software was used to take the Formal Languages subject from the

The research made about the tools used for this research development can help in future

Using the system above together a distribution package apache server that has PHP phpMyAdmin tool (Figure 14) was created a database to store the students' login and

classrooms to the computer labs, making the study more interesting to students.

research about Virtual Reality and Educational Software.

**3.3. Assessment tool for the formal languages department** 

**Figure 14.** PhpMyAdmin tool which is created the database to store the login

links for reference.

minimization exercises solution.

**Figure 12.** Links

**Figure 13.** Answers to Questions Minimization

The figure 11 shows the help page, where teachers and students can ask questions about the use of the Minimization exercises pages.

If the reading material doesn´t take all the doubts, is available through pages some links that were used in the workplace. The figure 12 shows the page that contains the web address links for reference.

Also are available on the discipline page, the answers for the minimization questions, which can be accessed through the help page. This page aims to help teachers and students if problems occur in these exercises solution. The figure 13 shows the page with the minimization exercises solution.

The educational software was used to take the Formal Languages subject from the classrooms to the computer labs, making the study more interesting to students.

The research made about the tools used for this research development can help in future research about Virtual Reality and Educational Software.

#### **3.3. Assessment tool for the formal languages department**

94 Distance Education

**Figure 12.** Links

**Figure 13.** Answers to Questions Minimization

use of the Minimization exercises pages.

The page also has a help material, which explains how to use the pages with exercises Minimization. This help is available through the Menu Minimization that is shown in Figure 10.

The figure 11 shows the help page, where teachers and students can ask questions about the

Using the system above together a distribution package apache server that has PHP phpMyAdmin tool (Figure 14) was created a database to store the students' login and

**Figure 14.** PhpMyAdmin tool which is created the database to store the login

password to perform the evaluation. The student´s login must be the email that he wants to receive his assessment, and the teacher will receive an email that is already defined in the program. To facilitate the database use will be exported and must be imported by the teacher who wishes to use the system.

Virtual Reality Applied in Distance Education 97

setcookie("objs[\$i]", \$valor, time()+3600);}

setcookie("objetivas", \$ver, time()+3600); setcookie("nota", \$nota, time()+3600);

evaluation made, according to the code below:

After performing all the exercises the student will automatically send the results and note to the email address registered at the beginning as login and for the teacher´s email, so the

mail(\$prof,\$assunto,\$texto); // send email to the teacher, variable text containing all the

mail(\$user,\$assunto,\$texto); // send e-mail to the student's login, variable text containing all

In this work was shown an educational software for the Formal Languages subject, using virtual reality, with the goal carrying the subject from classroom to the computer labs, also

The study was developed using the modeler Blender for the images creation, which were converted to VRML, to be used on the available Internet pages. We also used the PHP languages, to provide the proposed exercises, for the HTML layout pages and JavaScript for

Virtual Reality is a relatively new area, where the student sees the possibility of exploring the environments through the objects manipulation scattered in the virtual environment, related to the content to be learned, making learning more interesting and easier for the

The ability to simulate real situations in a way that wouldn´t be possible, allow a breakthrough in several military and business sectors. In education, the use of Virtual Reality enables conducting experiments with the interactively knowledge, allowing the environments exploration, processes or objects, through the manipulation, interaction and

making possible to use for distance education or as an extracurricular task.

header("location:menu.php");

if (isset(\$\_COOKIE['user']))

\$user = \$\_COOKIE['user'];

\$prof = 'sanpiovesan@hotmail.com'; \$assunto = 'Resultado Avaliação';

\$ver = true;

?>

}

answers

the answers

students.

**4. Conclusion** 

the multiple-choice exercises.

virtual analysis from the own target in context.

```
$texto.='</br></br>Minimization: </br>'; 
if (isset($_COOKIE['tb1'])) 
{$tb1 = $_COOKIE['tb1']; 
$texto.="</br>M1: $tb1"; 
}else{$texto.="</br> Exercise has not been resolved!";}
```
After the scan is done if the answers are correct as the code below:

```
<?php 
include('conexao_mysql.php'); 
if (isset($_COOKIE['nota'])) 
{$nota = $_COOKIE['nota'];} 
$q[0] = $_POST['quest1']; 
$q[1] = $_POST['quest2']; 
$q[2] = $_POST['quest3']; 
$q[3] = $_POST['quest4']; 
$q[4] = $_POST['quest5']; 
$q[5] = $_POST['quest6']; 
$q[6] = $_POST['quest7']; 
$q[7] = $_POST['quest8']; 
$q[8] = $_POST['quest9']; 
$q[9] = $_POST['quest10']; 
$certas_O[0] = 2; 
$certas_O[1] = 1; 
$certas_O[2] = 2; 
$certas_O[3] = 3; 
$certas_O[4] = 1; 
$certas_O[5] = 2; 
$certas_O[6] = 1; 
$certas_O[7] = 2; 
$certas_O[8] = 1; 
$certas_O[9] = 3; 
for($i=0;$i<10;$i++) 
{if($certas_O[$i] != $q[$i]) 
{$valor = 'incorreta';} 
else 
{$valor = 'correta'; $nota = $nota + 0.2;}
```

```
setcookie("objs[$i]", $valor, time()+3600);} 
$ver = true; 
setcookie("objetivas", $ver, time()+3600); 
setcookie("nota", $nota, time()+3600); 
header("location:menu.php"); 
?>
```
After performing all the exercises the student will automatically send the results and note to the email address registered at the beginning as login and for the teacher´s email, so the evaluation made, according to the code below:

```
if (isset($_COOKIE['user']))
```
96 Distance Education

<?php

\$certas\_O[0] = 2; \$certas\_O[1] = 1; \$certas\_O[2] = 2; \$certas\_O[3] = 3; \$certas\_O[4] = 1; \$certas\_O[5] = 2; \$certas\_O[6] = 1; \$certas\_O[7] = 2; \$certas\_O[8] = 1; \$certas\_O[9] = 3;

for(\$i=0;\$i<10;\$i++) {if(\$certas\_O[\$i] != \$q[\$i]) {\$valor = 'incorreta';}

{\$valor = 'correta'; \$nota = \$nota + 0.2;}

else

teacher who wishes to use the system.

if (isset(\$\_COOKIE['tb1'])) {\$tb1 = \$\_COOKIE['tb1']; \$texto.="</br>M1: \$tb1";

include('conexao\_mysql.php'); if (isset(\$\_COOKIE['nota'])) {\$nota = \$\_COOKIE['nota'];} \$q[0] = \$\_POST['quest1']; \$q[1] = \$\_POST['quest2']; \$q[2] = \$\_POST['quest3']; \$q[3] = \$\_POST['quest4']; \$q[4] = \$\_POST['quest5']; \$q[5] = \$\_POST['quest6']; \$q[6] = \$\_POST['quest7']; \$q[7] = \$\_POST['quest8']; \$q[8] = \$\_POST['quest9']; \$q[9] = \$\_POST['quest10'];

\$texto.='</br></br>Minimization: </br>';

}else{\$texto.="</br> Exercise has not been resolved!";}

After the scan is done if the answers are correct as the code below:

password to perform the evaluation. The student´s login must be the email that he wants to receive his assessment, and the teacher will receive an email that is already defined in the program. To facilitate the database use will be exported and must be imported by the

```
$user = $_COOKIE['user'];
```

```
} 
$prof = 'sanpiovesan@hotmail.com'; 
$assunto = 'Resultado Avaliação';
```
mail(\$prof,\$assunto,\$texto); // send email to the teacher, variable text containing all the answers

mail(\$user,\$assunto,\$texto); // send e-mail to the student's login, variable text containing all the answers

## **4. Conclusion**

In this work was shown an educational software for the Formal Languages subject, using virtual reality, with the goal carrying the subject from classroom to the computer labs, also making possible to use for distance education or as an extracurricular task.

The study was developed using the modeler Blender for the images creation, which were converted to VRML, to be used on the available Internet pages. We also used the PHP languages, to provide the proposed exercises, for the HTML layout pages and JavaScript for the multiple-choice exercises.

Virtual Reality is a relatively new area, where the student sees the possibility of exploring the environments through the objects manipulation scattered in the virtual environment, related to the content to be learned, making learning more interesting and easier for the students.

The ability to simulate real situations in a way that wouldn´t be possible, allow a breakthrough in several military and business sectors. In education, the use of Virtual Reality enables conducting experiments with the interactively knowledge, allowing the environments exploration, processes or objects, through the manipulation, interaction and virtual analysis from the own target in context.

Currently, with the increasing information spread through the Internet, the development of virtual environments that allow integration among students through the Internet can enable geographically dispersed students to learn without being present in the classroom.

**Chapter 5** 

© 2012 Josceanu et al., licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

It is known that Romania has had an impressive ICT experience, being the first Easter European country to build computers: CIFA-1957, MECIPT–1961, and DACICC-1962 [1]. Nowadays, ICT is not anymore a product or service for elites, and it is considered that

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**E-Learning in Chemical Education** 

Anca Madalina Dumitrescu and Razvan Onofrei

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

**Figure 1.** High rate of all IT sectors in Romania 2000-2009 [1]

"Information Society is for all".

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50292

**1. Introduction** 

Ana Maria Josceanu, Raluca Daniela Isopescu, Paula Postelnicescu,

condition for general economic and social development (figures 1 and 2).

Continuous efforts are devoted to fulfil locally the European and national policies in developing a higher education system supported by information and communications technology (ICT). In Romania, the development of infrastructure, communications, and information systems and services has been very rapid because it represents a crucial

Thus we can say that Virtual Reality is starting to change education. This is because, in spite of the technological barriers, the use of Virtual Reality can be associated with fantasy and imagination, revolutionizing the teaching and learning traditional concepts.

## **Author details**

#### Adriana Soares Pereira

*Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Colégio Agrícola de Frederico Westphalen, Brazil* 

#### Sandra Dutra Piovesan

*Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Programa de Pós graduação em Infomática na Educação, Brazil* 

## **5. References**


Ana Maria Josceanu, Raluca Daniela Isopescu, Paula Postelnicescu, Anca Madalina Dumitrescu and Razvan Onofrei

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50292

#### **1. Introduction**

98 Distance Education

**Author details** 

Adriana Soares Pereira

Sandra Dutra Piovesan

**5. References** 

2011).

2011).

2011).

2011).

[8] Linguagem Formal – Wikipedia,

(accessed Apr 24, 2011).

(accessed Dec 10, 2010).

*Brazil* 

Currently, with the increasing information spread through the Internet, the development of virtual environments that allow integration among students through the Internet can enable

Thus we can say that Virtual Reality is starting to change education. This is because, in spite of the technological barriers, the use of Virtual Reality can be associated with fantasy and

*Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Programa de Pós graduação em Infomática na Educação,* 

[1] Blender Brasil, http://www.blender.com.br/portugues/index.php, (accessed May 06,

[2] Cortona VRML Client. www.parallelgraphics.com/products/cortona, (accessed Dec 12, 2010).DÁMICO, C. B. AMEA – Ambiente multiagente de ensino-aprendizagem na

http://www.bibvirt.futuro.usp.br/textos/artigos/ novamidia.PDF, (accessed Jun 10,

http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguagens\_formais\_e\_compiladores, (accessed May 24,

[9] Macromedia Dreamweaver, http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macromedia\_Dreamweaver,

[10] PANQUEVA, A. H. Software educativo multimídia – Aspectos Críticos no seu ciclo de

[11] PHP, www.php.net/downloads.php, (accessed Mar 03, 2011).VRML – Wikipedia,

vida. http://www.univates.br/sicompi/wcompi2002/11-johansen-ramos.pdf,

http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/VRML, (accessed Dec 10, 2011).

[6] HOFFMANN, Augusto Bohner. Micro Mundos Virtuais Interativos para Aplicações Educacionais. http://www.lsc.ufsc.br/microm/manual/Manual.html, (accessed Mar 27,

geographically dispersed students to learn without being present in the classroom.

imagination, revolutionizing the teaching and learning traditional concepts.

*Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Colégio Agrícola de Frederico Westphalen, Brazil* 

WEB. II Workshop de Informática na Educação – UFRGS. [4] GARCIA, Paulo Sérgio. A Internet como nova mídia na educação.

[5] HTML, http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTML, (accessed Mar 19, 2011).

[7] JavaScript, http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript, (accessed May 24, 2011).

Continuous efforts are devoted to fulfil locally the European and national policies in developing a higher education system supported by information and communications technology (ICT). In Romania, the development of infrastructure, communications, and information systems and services has been very rapid because it represents a crucial condition for general economic and social development (figures 1 and 2).

**Figure 1.** High rate of all IT sectors in Romania 2000-2009 [1]

It is known that Romania has had an impressive ICT experience, being the first Easter European country to build computers: CIFA-1957, MECIPT–1961, and DACICC-1962 [1]. Nowadays, ICT is not anymore a product or service for elites, and it is considered that "Information Society is for all".

> © 2012 Josceanu et al., licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

reduced attention span, and considerable lack of faith in institutions and explanatory narratives, reduced sense of place, community, and history, and reduced vision for a personal or collective future. On the other hand, academics face particular challenges raised by the special Bologna requirements and the role played by the teacher in the ICT era [2-4].

The ICT-based education contributes to the development of a well established set of European approved skills using the 'learning by doing' approach, and it offers flexible lectures design and virtual practice lab, and simulation environments. ITC technology

The new engineering curriculum, adapted to Bologna Convention requirements, implies a more student-oriented teaching system, with stepwise knowledge achievements for graduate and postgraduate degrees. A systematic attention should be directed towards the teaching and learning processes for engineering degrees. Even though a variety of innovative teaching techniques are available to engineering instructors, the education of engineers in many universities still follows the traditional lecture format [5]. On the other hand, the Romanian universities insist too much on the theoretical training and tend to

Currently, there is a gap between the present education of engineers and the expectations of their roles in the engineering workforce. In our country, many engineering graduates have difficulties when moving from schooldays to employment. Using the ICT-based education, engineering education can more successfully bridge the gap between the lecture theatre and

Because the higher education in chemical engineering assumes the difficult task of creating specialists with good knowledge in the area of chemical and biochemical processes, the academic community in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Sciences in University "Politehnica" of Bucharest has been involved in several projects for developing e-learning applications for technical higher education, aiming to offer adequate tools for

A theoretical framework for technology-pedagogy relationship in developing e-learning systems for chemical and chemical engineering education has been the basis for the system and content development. All considerations presented in the followings are based on the experience gained by the teaching staff of Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, University "POLITEHNICA" of Bucharest in the activity carried out in 2002 2012 time interval, with special references towards two major projects. The first one has been aiming to develop and implement a nationwide e-learning community for chemistry teachers working with K12 students, aged from 13 to 19 (VIIth XIIth grade), as well as to provide them with basic or advanced ICT training, and offer support for using the newly acquires skills and instruments in their day to day teaching (referred to as *project I*). The second project aims to develop an integrated e-learning portal for a university (referred to as *project II*). Major partners in these projects have been the University "Politehnica" of Bucharest and Siveco Romania S.A, an important software

the engineering profession [5], and ensure a long life learning approach.

should become a productivity tool – "more, better, faster."

produce super-skilled graduates [1].

customized on-line and off-line training.

company in Romania.

**Figure 2.** Development of the communication market in Romania 2000-2009 [1]

ICT revolution has a significant impact on all kinds of human activities. Educational and training activities are no exception. Rather, it could be said that the impact on them is larger, and the ICT-assisted education may become a personalized and adaptive experience.

Learning nowadays is a continuous and active process, performed with a specified goal and applied to real life situations. In the past, the main criteria in selecting a higher education institution were connected to its prestige and location. In Romania, characterised by a relatively low life standard, the location criterion was an important one for potential students. On the other hand, the prestige criterion brought many foreign students to Romanian universities. Globalisation tends to amplify both criteria. Thus, a true education market, governed by rules identical to any other services market, has been created. As a consequence, many high prestige academic institutions have found themselves in the situation of loosing some of their students in favour to other institutions, located at larger distances, but better anchored in the education market.

Higher education in Romania has been undergoing major changes, in order to achieve the highest possible compliance degree to the Bologna declaration and the 'communiqué' adopted by the Ministers of Higher Education of the Bologna Signatory States gathered in Bergen, in 2005. The challenges and priorities identified then have been associated to the link between higher education and research, social dimensions of higher level training, mobility, and attractiveness of European Higher Education Area. The legal framework has already been established in Romania in 2005. Since then, the educational path consists of a 3 / 4 years bachelor, a 2 years master, and hopefully a 3 years Ph. D degree. The Romanian academic education has been also enriched with postdoctoral fellowships.

Today students have a much wider view of the world than their parents, can juggle several cognitive tasks at the same time, are more relativistic and tolerant, and approach new situations and problems as a challenge. They also present a more fragmented sense of time, reduced attention span, and considerable lack of faith in institutions and explanatory narratives, reduced sense of place, community, and history, and reduced vision for a personal or collective future. On the other hand, academics face particular challenges raised by the special Bologna requirements and the role played by the teacher in the ICT era [2-4].

100 Distance Education

**Figure 2.** Development of the communication market in Romania 2000-2009 [1]

distances, but better anchored in the education market.

ICT revolution has a significant impact on all kinds of human activities. Educational and training activities are no exception. Rather, it could be said that the impact on them is larger,

Learning nowadays is a continuous and active process, performed with a specified goal and applied to real life situations. In the past, the main criteria in selecting a higher education institution were connected to its prestige and location. In Romania, characterised by a relatively low life standard, the location criterion was an important one for potential students. On the other hand, the prestige criterion brought many foreign students to Romanian universities. Globalisation tends to amplify both criteria. Thus, a true education market, governed by rules identical to any other services market, has been created. As a consequence, many high prestige academic institutions have found themselves in the situation of loosing some of their students in favour to other institutions, located at larger

Higher education in Romania has been undergoing major changes, in order to achieve the highest possible compliance degree to the Bologna declaration and the 'communiqué' adopted by the Ministers of Higher Education of the Bologna Signatory States gathered in Bergen, in 2005. The challenges and priorities identified then have been associated to the link between higher education and research, social dimensions of higher level training, mobility, and attractiveness of European Higher Education Area. The legal framework has already been established in Romania in 2005. Since then, the educational path consists of a 3 / 4 years bachelor, a 2 years master, and hopefully a 3 years Ph. D degree. The Romanian

Today students have a much wider view of the world than their parents, can juggle several cognitive tasks at the same time, are more relativistic and tolerant, and approach new situations and problems as a challenge. They also present a more fragmented sense of time,

academic education has been also enriched with postdoctoral fellowships.

and the ICT-assisted education may become a personalized and adaptive experience.

The ICT-based education contributes to the development of a well established set of European approved skills using the 'learning by doing' approach, and it offers flexible lectures design and virtual practice lab, and simulation environments. ITC technology should become a productivity tool – "more, better, faster."

The new engineering curriculum, adapted to Bologna Convention requirements, implies a more student-oriented teaching system, with stepwise knowledge achievements for graduate and postgraduate degrees. A systematic attention should be directed towards the teaching and learning processes for engineering degrees. Even though a variety of innovative teaching techniques are available to engineering instructors, the education of engineers in many universities still follows the traditional lecture format [5]. On the other hand, the Romanian universities insist too much on the theoretical training and tend to produce super-skilled graduates [1].

Currently, there is a gap between the present education of engineers and the expectations of their roles in the engineering workforce. In our country, many engineering graduates have difficulties when moving from schooldays to employment. Using the ICT-based education, engineering education can more successfully bridge the gap between the lecture theatre and the engineering profession [5], and ensure a long life learning approach.

Because the higher education in chemical engineering assumes the difficult task of creating specialists with good knowledge in the area of chemical and biochemical processes, the academic community in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Sciences in University "Politehnica" of Bucharest has been involved in several projects for developing e-learning applications for technical higher education, aiming to offer adequate tools for customized on-line and off-line training.

A theoretical framework for technology-pedagogy relationship in developing e-learning systems for chemical and chemical engineering education has been the basis for the system and content development. All considerations presented in the followings are based on the experience gained by the teaching staff of Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, University "POLITEHNICA" of Bucharest in the activity carried out in 2002 2012 time interval, with special references towards two major projects. The first one has been aiming to develop and implement a nationwide e-learning community for chemistry teachers working with K12 students, aged from 13 to 19 (VIIth XIIth grade), as well as to provide them with basic or advanced ICT training, and offer support for using the newly acquires skills and instruments in their day to day teaching (referred to as *project I*). The second project aims to develop an integrated e-learning portal for a university (referred to as *project II*). Major partners in these projects have been the University "Politehnica" of Bucharest and Siveco Romania S.A, an important software company in Romania.

## **2. Learning management system development**

It has become increasingly common for universities and other educational institutions to support learning activities with e-learning platforms. The range of use extends from simple sharing to more complex forms of socializing. Apart from being a usable medium, an e-learning platform is also a basic communication means that, similar to websites, has to attract, engage, and hold users.

E-Learning in Chemical Education 103

**Figure 3.** SeLFT – a Learning Management System developed in FACMS

provide feedback, and offer support during the learning process.

realistic management of the teaching activity in the faculty;

teacher assisted or unassisted learning / assessment).

dedicated charts and graphs;

encyclopaedias);

development of students communication skills;

As for the learning strategies, they should be selected as to motivate students, facilitate the deepening of information, promote an effective learning context, encourage interaction,

The system has supported the management of the students activities in the University by:

 offering standardized educational content specific for technical faculties such as: process simulation, virtual experiments, virtual laboratories for chemical analysis,

integration of process simulation with modern analysis equipment and implementation

 integration with specialized software applications (IOLS, simulators, editors, video conferencing, CAD software, dedicated platforms, virtual dictionaries, and

 building a larger flexibility for individual study (online and offline courses in some defined periods of time, nonlinear scroll of the support material, adaptive testing,

of a remote control laboratory for monitoring environmental quality;

There is a broad spectrum of activities which constitute e-learning, from straightforward applications which enhance classroom activities to full distance, online and remote learning. If in the early days of e-learning, the systems were oriented towards solving welldefined problems (having an unique, determinate purpose) and their change and continuous adaptation meant a great deal of work and material resources, today's research has been oriented towards systems able to extend and adapt to any situations. Moreover, e-learning systems should provide support for students' collaboration, offering multiple ways of learning: solitary learning (documents accessible via the internet, downloadable from the Internet or on external media: CDs, video boxes), scheduled classes (direct interaction between the subject and object of learning), and group learning (online forums and chat-rooms).

The main factors, critical for operating any e-learning system are:


Shortly, a good e-learning system is supposed to fulfil all of the following requirements:


These features have become a part of the first e-learning portal that has been developed and tested in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Material Science (FACMS) of University 'Politehnica' of Bucharest starting with 2004 (figure 3).

**Figure 3.** SeLFT – a Learning Management System developed in FACMS

attract, engage, and hold users.

**2. Learning management system development** 

It has become increasingly common for universities and other educational institutions to support learning activities with e-learning platforms. The range of use extends from simple sharing to more complex forms of socializing. Apart from being a usable medium, an e-learning platform is also a basic communication means that, similar to websites, has to

There is a broad spectrum of activities which constitute e-learning, from straightforward applications which enhance classroom activities to full distance, online and remote learning. If in the early days of e-learning, the systems were oriented towards solving welldefined problems (having an unique, determinate purpose) and their change and continuous adaptation meant a great deal of work and material resources, today's research has been oriented towards systems able to extend and adapt to any situations. Moreover, e-learning systems should provide support for students' collaboration, offering multiple ways of learning: solitary learning (documents accessible via the internet, downloadable from the Internet or on external media: CDs, video boxes), scheduled classes (direct interaction between

the subject and object of learning), and group learning (online forums and chat-rooms).

should include many automatic features in order to minimize user's work;

 *availability***:** the system should be robust enough to serve simultaneously the different needs of thousands of students, administrators, content developers, and instructors; *adaptability***:** infrastructure should allow further expansion under new requirements; *utility:* it must be intuitive and easy to use (to be as natural as Internet browsing) and

 *interoperability:* the system should support content from different sources, in different formats, different solutions offered by various hardware / software vendors, it must be based on Open Source technologies, meet coding (XML, SOAP and AQ) and education

*stability*: it must be operable at any time and should handle all situations for which it

combine the concept "class of students" with the concept "education through the

These features have become a part of the first e-learning portal that has been developed and tested in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Material Science (FACMS) of University

*security:* the system must insure content safety by controlling access to resources.

 support education on a widely used Web-based platform, with a low cost, assemble and deliver learning material quickly, in several languages ,

be portable and implement standards such as AICC, IMS, SCORM.

Shortly, a good e-learning system is supposed to fulfil all of the following requirements:

The main factors, critical for operating any e-learning system are:

(AICC, SCORM, IMS and IEEE) standards;

measure the effectiveness of educational activities,

centralize and automate administrative activities,

'Politehnica' of Bucharest starting with 2004 (figure 3).

has been designed;

Internet / e-learning",

As for the learning strategies, they should be selected as to motivate students, facilitate the deepening of information, promote an effective learning context, encourage interaction, provide feedback, and offer support during the learning process.

The system has supported the management of the students activities in the University by:


The platform created by Siveco Romania S.A. and tested in the University 'Politehnica' of Bucharest attempted to fulfil all the requirements presented earlier. Besides offering basic information for the ongoing subjects, AEL toped up by creating a virtual library suitable for all level students. The content of this library consisted of various documents: lectures, problems, project themes, project instructions, images, and videos, tests, created inhouse by the academic staff and available to all authenticated users. Re-usage of e-lecture materials and the collaboration of all interested players, within the developed systems, provided a larger and better base for Process and Chemical Engineering education.

E-Learning in Chemical Education 105

Thus engineering students have been offered a mixture of real and remote laboratory facilities. The remote control experiments allowed students to acquire good laboratory practice skills and experience related to real equipments in an intuitive and cost-effective way. Another attractive advantage was represented by the chance of free and flexible training in contrast to a fixed and regular class schedule. The design and delivery mechanism for the new module of the e-learning portal were tailored as recommended in the literature to: i) provide a constructivist pedagogical approach; ii) model a collaborative learning environment for group interaction; iii) match the characteristics of the delivery media to specific learning processes (media-synchronicity theory) including the provision of unambiguous feedback and guidance; iv) assign appropriate instructional roles, and v) determine desirable student competency outcomes, all in a remote learning context. A multi-tier role architecture consisting of faculty facilitators at both local, and remote sites, and students, has been used and adapted to maintain academic integrity and offer the same quality of interaction as the on-site laboratory activity. The interface between the user and the automatic machine is developed in Visual Studio .net and PHP. The automatic machine is split into an interface, firmware component developed in assembly language, and a hardware module, composed by microcontrollers from PIC family. The communication is

established as Ethernet 10 MB and uses standard protocols like TCP and UDP.

In terms of communication SeLFT in use at the Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Material Science offered a special forum facility used by students to post any type of announcement,

According to the feedback collected, an optimal e-learning platform should provide facilities to let team members (students, instructors, administrators, and technical staff in an e-learning model) access a series of shared content libraries and make use of a broad range

 access to news and announcements, presented to members when they log in to the platform (also available in the form of alerts, which can be auto-generated and mailed

mechanisms for submitting documents for comment, review, and approval, with the

shared lists for tasks, calendars, schedules, and other group/team activity-scheduling,

support for interactive discussions through message boards, instant messaging, and

 support for online meetings, either text-only or with voice and/or video capability, as well. Obviously, technology in and of itself does not guarantee better learning. But when effectively used, technology can help focus attention while attracting and maintaining the learner's interest. Interests identified among engineering students were very much oriented towards collaborative activities. An offline study module, with offline communication

**2.1. Advanced communication and collaboration module** 

ability to track status, ownership, tasks, and assignments;

send messages and files.

of services that include:

to team members by request);

and inquiry mechanisms;

e-mail distribution lists;

SeLFT, the e-learning platform implemented in 2004 in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Material Science of University 'Politehnica' of Bucharest was initially developed for synchronous study, offering larger access to the educational content in terms of location and time. For the first 4 years the access to the platform was limited to working stations on the faculty premises. Security reasons imposed this restricted access policy via Internet. An offline study module was later designed and integrated in the updated platform AEL [6, 7], so that all interested users became exposed to synchronous and asynchronous instruction. In terms of communication the platform offered a special forum facility used by students to post any type of announcement, send messages and files.

The tested portal offered users (students and academics) five different spaces: personal homepage, teaching/learning, workspace, collaboration, and administration (figure 4). Common document, drawing board, agenda, meeting notes, instant messaging, private discussion, Web tour, slide presentation, audio and/or video conferencing represent the tools available in the workspace. The portal has been highly appreciated by those who have used it for training purposes in the chemical engineering undergraduate curricula. The next stage in the development of this portal has been a remote laboratory for environment quality monitoring.


**Figure 4.** Modules in the e-Learning portal developed in project II

Thus engineering students have been offered a mixture of real and remote laboratory facilities. The remote control experiments allowed students to acquire good laboratory practice skills and experience related to real equipments in an intuitive and cost-effective way. Another attractive advantage was represented by the chance of free and flexible training in contrast to a fixed and regular class schedule. The design and delivery mechanism for the new module of the e-learning portal were tailored as recommended in the literature to: i) provide a constructivist pedagogical approach; ii) model a collaborative learning environment for group interaction; iii) match the characteristics of the delivery media to specific learning processes (media-synchronicity theory) including the provision of unambiguous feedback and guidance; iv) assign appropriate instructional roles, and v) determine desirable student competency outcomes, all in a remote learning context. A multi-tier role architecture consisting of faculty facilitators at both local, and remote sites, and students, has been used and adapted to maintain academic integrity and offer the same quality of interaction as the on-site laboratory activity. The interface between the user and the automatic machine is developed in Visual Studio .net and PHP. The automatic machine is split into an interface, firmware component developed in assembly language, and a hardware module, composed by microcontrollers from PIC family. The communication is established as Ethernet 10 MB and uses standard protocols like TCP and UDP.

#### **2.1. Advanced communication and collaboration module**

104 Distance Education

quality monitoring.

The platform created by Siveco Romania S.A. and tested in the University 'Politehnica' of Bucharest attempted to fulfil all the requirements presented earlier. Besides offering basic information for the ongoing subjects, AEL toped up by creating a virtual library suitable for all level students. The content of this library consisted of various documents: lectures, problems, project themes, project instructions, images, and videos, tests, created inhouse by the academic staff and available to all authenticated users. Re-usage of e-lecture materials and the collaboration of all interested players, within the developed systems, provided a

SeLFT, the e-learning platform implemented in 2004 in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Material Science of University 'Politehnica' of Bucharest was initially developed for synchronous study, offering larger access to the educational content in terms of location and time. For the first 4 years the access to the platform was limited to working stations on the faculty premises. Security reasons imposed this restricted access policy via Internet. An offline study module was later designed and integrated in the updated platform AEL [6, 7], so that all interested users became exposed to synchronous and asynchronous instruction. In terms of communication the platform offered a special forum facility used by students to

The tested portal offered users (students and academics) five different spaces: personal homepage, teaching/learning, workspace, collaboration, and administration (figure 4). Common document, drawing board, agenda, meeting notes, instant messaging, private discussion, Web tour, slide presentation, audio and/or video conferencing represent the tools available in the workspace. The portal has been highly appreciated by those who have used it for training purposes in the chemical engineering undergraduate curricula. The next stage in the development of this portal has been a remote laboratory for environment

larger and better base for Process and Chemical Engineering education.

post any type of announcement, send messages and files.

**Figure 4.** Modules in the e-Learning portal developed in project II

In terms of communication SeLFT in use at the Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Material Science offered a special forum facility used by students to post any type of announcement, send messages and files.

According to the feedback collected, an optimal e-learning platform should provide facilities to let team members (students, instructors, administrators, and technical staff in an e-learning model) access a series of shared content libraries and make use of a broad range of services that include:


Obviously, technology in and of itself does not guarantee better learning. But when effectively used, technology can help focus attention while attracting and maintaining the learner's interest. Interests identified among engineering students were very much oriented towards collaborative activities. An offline study module, with offline communication channels (forums, discussion boards, and file sending) does not support effectively their joint projects and realtime communication needs. A new version of the AEL Enterprise platform designed by Siveco Romania S.A. has offered the higher education user three different spaces: a learning space, a teaching space, and an integrated working space. The last is provided with both off and online communication channels, and collaborative working tools. Requiring additional hardware, the newly deployed working space offers audio and videoconferencing, common document creation, web tours, drawing board, slides presentations, chat, private discussions and/or video conferencing. The platform has been thoroughly evaluated in the academic community, as to determine viability, versatility, and effects on the learning and teaching process. The news and announcements of general interest, as well as the personal messages among users are substantially augmented. The messages and announcements of general interest can be seen by all users, even if they are not authenticated. Personal messages are available only after authentication. The users are automatically notified by personal messages, which can be auto-generated and mailed to team members by request, when they are associated as students to a course or when synchronous sessions, which they must attend, are scheduled.

E-Learning in Chemical Education 107

When working on projects, one of the students might be given session cohosting duties. This may be the case when the academic in charge chooses not to attend the working session, and leaves the group to interact and collaborate in a more flexible and friendly

The common workspace and applications facility give the participants the chance to contribute to Windows Word, Excel, PowerPoint, PDF and other specialized type files, provided that each participant has installed the corresponding application on his working station. Otherwise, only common visualization is possible, without editing. This facility offers the possibility to visualize and control an application running on another system, or the entire workspace of a computer. There is also the possibility to offer remote control of an application running on another computer when the keyboard and mouse are remote-controlled. Signal stability during medium length sessions (up to 45 minutes) proved to be satisfactory for the network transfer rate. Each user chooses to make use of all, one or none of these communication channels, according to physical availability and hardware performances. Best results were

Nevertheless, the communication and group work facilities were ranked as rather insufficient by 75 % of the interviewed users, pointing out the need for further development if access and motivation, online socialization, information exchange, knowledge

In order to implement correctly and efficiently the legal stipulations regarding university studies (technical, economic, medical, judicial, and vocational), it is necessary that specialized entities in the universities (university or faculty registrar services) collect and

Besides bachelor studies, University 'Politehnica' of Bucharest organizes, according to the legal stipulations, master studies, doctoral, and post doctoral studies. All the possibilities stipulated by the law must reverberate in the management instruments of the university. They imply a complex activity for the administrative staff, in order to provide documents following individually the students, their retention and success rates, the professional route,

A registrar specialized module has been stipulated in the frame of the e-learning portal for universities (figure 6), in direct relation with the management of student academic activity.


construction, and personal development remained the favoured pedagogical tasks.

obtained when similar hardware was used by all participants in a session.




and finally issue the graduating diplomas.

It has been designed to ensure:

various activity domains,

environment.

**2.2. Registrar function** 

process information regarding:

During collaborative sessions, participants are generally given similar rights, such as sending and receiving audio/video signal, web tour or using drawing board when the session is set up. There is a session host with additional duties, being the only role entitled to end a session, add or remove participants, and define their individual rights [8]. Before sending the invitation to join a collaborative session, the host may define a meeting agenda or load an existing one. The collaborative mode is the implicit one for videoconferencing (Figure 5).

**Figure 5.** Videoconference session for a distillation column design

When working on projects, one of the students might be given session cohosting duties. This may be the case when the academic in charge chooses not to attend the working session, and leaves the group to interact and collaborate in a more flexible and friendly environment.

The common workspace and applications facility give the participants the chance to contribute to Windows Word, Excel, PowerPoint, PDF and other specialized type files, provided that each participant has installed the corresponding application on his working station. Otherwise, only common visualization is possible, without editing. This facility offers the possibility to visualize and control an application running on another system, or the entire workspace of a computer. There is also the possibility to offer remote control of an application running on another computer when the keyboard and mouse are remote-controlled. Signal stability during medium length sessions (up to 45 minutes) proved to be satisfactory for the network transfer rate. Each user chooses to make use of all, one or none of these communication channels, according to physical availability and hardware performances. Best results were obtained when similar hardware was used by all participants in a session.

Nevertheless, the communication and group work facilities were ranked as rather insufficient by 75 % of the interviewed users, pointing out the need for further development if access and motivation, online socialization, information exchange, knowledge construction, and personal development remained the favoured pedagogical tasks.

#### **2.2. Registrar function**

106 Distance Education

channels (forums, discussion boards, and file sending) does not support effectively their joint projects and realtime communication needs. A new version of the AEL Enterprise platform designed by Siveco Romania S.A. has offered the higher education user three different spaces: a learning space, a teaching space, and an integrated working space. The last is provided with both off and online communication channels, and collaborative working tools. Requiring additional hardware, the newly deployed working space offers audio and videoconferencing, common document creation, web tours, drawing board, slides presentations, chat, private discussions and/or video conferencing. The platform has been thoroughly evaluated in the academic community, as to determine viability, versatility, and effects on the learning and teaching process. The news and announcements of general interest, as well as the personal messages among users are substantially augmented. The messages and announcements of general interest can be seen by all users, even if they are not authenticated. Personal messages are available only after authentication. The users are automatically notified by personal messages, which can be auto-generated and mailed to team members by request, when they are associated as students to a course or when

During collaborative sessions, participants are generally given similar rights, such as sending and receiving audio/video signal, web tour or using drawing board when the session is set up. There is a session host with additional duties, being the only role entitled to end a session, add or remove participants, and define their individual rights [8]. Before sending the invitation to join a collaborative session, the host may define a meeting agenda or load an existing one. The

synchronous sessions, which they must attend, are scheduled.

collaborative mode is the implicit one for videoconferencing (Figure 5).

**Figure 5.** Videoconference session for a distillation column design

In order to implement correctly and efficiently the legal stipulations regarding university studies (technical, economic, medical, judicial, and vocational), it is necessary that specialized entities in the universities (university or faculty registrar services) collect and process information regarding:


Besides bachelor studies, University 'Politehnica' of Bucharest organizes, according to the legal stipulations, master studies, doctoral, and post doctoral studies. All the possibilities stipulated by the law must reverberate in the management instruments of the university. They imply a complex activity for the administrative staff, in order to provide documents following individually the students, their retention and success rates, the professional route, and finally issue the graduating diplomas.

A registrar specialized module has been stipulated in the frame of the e-learning portal for universities (figure 6), in direct relation with the management of student academic activity. It has been designed to ensure:



E-Learning in Chemical Education 109

The basic administrative documents of any faculty, regardless its profile, importance or the university it belongs to, produced for any academic year are various and numerous (educational programs, catalogues, studies contracts, etc.). The informatics application centred on the management of the information and data flux from the university administration is integrated in the context of all other informatics applications implemented in the university. The development of these applications supports and improves the

According to the necessities of information, management, and analysis specific to the academic environment, the application was designed and developed to fulfil the following

1. include all educational forms legally stipulated: bachelor, master, doctoral studies, short

2. diversify the possibilities of assessing students activity, for any course, by introducing up to 6 components (laboratory, seminar, personal assignment, partial examination,

3. implement academic staff evaluation by students through confidential surveys. The surveys are administered through the system, and results can be visualized only by the

number of students enrolled in each education form (license, master, doctoral

student distribution as a function of age, gender, nationality, citizenship, last




accountancy of the students who need re-examinations as a function of the

The access in the system is controlled and secured by defining the users, user groups, and access rights for various functionalities and documents. For obtaining information from the system each user must authenticate itself when connected. After closing the session the system will not allow the access to the closed application (by using "Back" function of Web

Users are grouped on the ground of the functions they have in the university or the registrar office. A user can belong to one or several groups. Each user is able to access only the


exams as a function of the domain, series and groups,

exchange of information and data within the organization.

other marks, final mark) with an editable weight,

4. report generation in connection to the educational process evolution:

evaluated professor and by the faculty dean.

studies, post doctoral studies etc.)

credits;

browsers).

disciplines and / or teacher.

education form he/she graduated, etc. rate of success, in all sorts of forms, such as:


functional requirements:

term courses,


**Figure 6.** Secretarial application for an university with unique activity field

The basic administrative documents of any faculty, regardless its profile, importance or the university it belongs to, produced for any academic year are various and numerous (educational programs, catalogues, studies contracts, etc.). The informatics application centred on the management of the information and data flux from the university administration is integrated in the context of all other informatics applications implemented in the university. The development of these applications supports and improves the exchange of information and data within the organization.

According to the necessities of information, management, and analysis specific to the academic environment, the application was designed and developed to fulfil the following functional requirements:

	- number of students enrolled in each education form (license, master, doctoral studies, post doctoral studies etc.)
	- student distribution as a function of age, gender, nationality, citizenship, last education form he/she graduated, etc.
	- rate of success, in all sorts of forms, such as:

108 Distance Education

(a)

(b)

assurances in university studies.


the study degrees organized by a university,

order to fulfil the requirements of the chosen curricula, - generation of statistics regarding the students activities.

**Figure 6.** Secretarial application for an university with unique activity field





The access in the system is controlled and secured by defining the users, user groups, and access rights for various functionalities and documents. For obtaining information from the system each user must authenticate itself when connected. After closing the session the system will not allow the access to the closed application (by using "Back" function of Web browsers).

Users are grouped on the ground of the functions they have in the university or the registrar office. A user can belong to one or several groups. Each user is able to access only the documents and information for which he has an explicit permit. The administrator defines the access rights for each group of users, and each system function. The access rights are also specified at folder level.

E-Learning in Chemical Education 111

First of all, in e-learning, usability is defined by the ability of a multimedia object to support or enable a particular concrete cognitive goal. Concepts, such as working memory, cognitive load, production system theories of knowledge and learning, self-explaining behaviours, all become important considerations for the instructional designer who must learn to use technology effectively and intelligently, rather than simply because it is available and seems flashy or exciting. The human mind is limited in the amount of information it can process. Because computer-based training can quickly overwhelm these limited capacities, it becomes important for the instructional designer to understand the principles of cognitive science and how they apply to effective instructional design for multimedia instruction and education. Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) states that the working memory is limited in its capacity to selectively attend to and process incoming sensory data. Working memory is a concept that grew out of the older model of short term memory, which was seen more as a structure for temporarily storing information before it passed to long-term memory. The model for working memory is a system with subcomponents that not only held temporary information, but processes it so that several pieces of verbal or visual information could be stored and integrated. CLT is concerned with the way in which a learner's cognitive resources are focused and used during learning, suggesting that for instruction to be effective, care must be taken to design instruction in a way as to not overload the mind's capacity for processing information. The implication for multimedia and education is that if we only have a very limited amount of information processing capacity in the working memory at any single moment, then instructional designers should not be seduced into filling up this limited capacity with unimportant, but flashy content in a multimedia instructional unit. An example of what this means for multimedia instructional design is that the layout should be visually appealing and intuitive, and that activities should remain focused on the concepts to be learned, rather than trying too much to entertain. Content knowledge is organized into schemas found in the longterm memory, and these schemas control how new information is handled as it enters the working memory. Schemas organize simpler elements and can then act as elements in higher order schemas. In other words, as learning occurs, increasingly sophisticated schemas are developed and learned procedures are transferred from controlled to automatic processing. Automation frees capacity in the working memory for other functions. CLT suggests that instructional techniques that require students to engage in activities that aren't directed towards schema acquisition and automation can quickly exceed the limited capacity of the working memory and hinder the learning objectives. In simple terms, this means that you shouldn't create unnecessary activities in connection with a lesson that requires excessive attention or concentration that may overload the working memory and prevent one from acquiring the essential information that is to be learned. This is an important rule in any form of instruction and education, but it is an essential rule in multimedia instruction and

education, because of the ease with which distractions can be incorporated.

A model of knowledge transmission in the classical (non-virtual) educational process is based on presenting information, followed by the proposal of problem items which students should solve based on the information presented. Unfortunately, this model, which has been also incorporated in multimedia instruction and education, skips an important step between

## **3. Technology-pedagogy relationship in developing content for e-learning systems**

Nowadays, the rapid evolution of information and communications technology creates new opportunities for multimedia instruction and education, ranging from ways of delivering content to ways of expressing this content, but similarly strong claims are being made for the potential of multimedia learning environments. In this context, natural questions arise: how can be avoided a trail of broken promises concerning the educational benefits of new educational technologies such as multimedia learning environments, and how to use these new opportunities for delivery and expression of educational content in order to maximize learning? A reasonable solution is to use instructional technology in ways that are grounded in research-based theory. There is a (natural) developing tendency for multimedia instruction and systems, from instructor-centred environments to learner-centred environments. In such circumstances, concerns about the efficiency of such systems are even more justified. Unfortunately, there still is a lack of standardization in what concerns the development principles of multimedia instruction and education systems; there is a tendency of content developers to create environments with spectacular components rather than educational ones that ultimately proves to be a counterproductive practice. The efficient use of technology-pedagogy relationship in developing multimedia instruction and education systems is, ultimately, a matter of usability. Usability concerns the measure of a product potential to accomplish the goals of the user. There are different levels of usability focus in developing multimedia systems, spanning from navigation to the use of colours, text, and graphics. Usability, and particularly learner friendliness is one of the most neglected areas in e-learning design and implementation. Too much focus on developing the application and not enough focus on the implementation is also a major problem. The main problem is that developers think the job is done when the application is developed. So, even if the applications have a high quality, the usability can be low. Increasing the quality of both content and functionality of the application can represent increased value for users of an e-learning product. Addressing usability issues guarantees that the learning environment doesn't become a barrier to learning. Consequently, learners are able to work through a course, with minimal distraction or frustration.

Besides considering technological issues, usability principles must rely on an *educational theory*, somehow driving the designer in developing suitable applications. Currently, the constructivist theory is almost universally adopted. This theory stresses that learning is a personal process, characterized by individual's developing knowledge and understanding, by forming and refining concepts. This leads to the view that learners should be assisted in some way to construct and refine concepts in personally meaningful ways. From a constructivist perspective, learners need to be encouraged to take responsibility for their learning, while generating a sense of ownership of learning experiences.

First of all, in e-learning, usability is defined by the ability of a multimedia object to support or enable a particular concrete cognitive goal. Concepts, such as working memory, cognitive load, production system theories of knowledge and learning, self-explaining behaviours, all become important considerations for the instructional designer who must learn to use technology effectively and intelligently, rather than simply because it is available and seems flashy or exciting. The human mind is limited in the amount of information it can process. Because computer-based training can quickly overwhelm these limited capacities, it becomes important for the instructional designer to understand the principles of cognitive science and how they apply to effective instructional design for multimedia instruction and education. Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) states that the working memory is limited in its capacity to selectively attend to and process incoming sensory data. Working memory is a concept that grew out of the older model of short term memory, which was seen more as a structure for temporarily storing information before it passed to long-term memory. The model for working memory is a system with subcomponents that not only held temporary information, but processes it so that several pieces of verbal or visual information could be stored and integrated. CLT is concerned with the way in which a learner's cognitive resources are focused and used during learning, suggesting that for instruction to be effective, care must be taken to design instruction in a way as to not overload the mind's capacity for processing information. The implication for multimedia and education is that if we only have a very limited amount of information processing capacity in the working memory at any single moment, then instructional designers should not be seduced into filling up this limited capacity with unimportant, but flashy content in a multimedia instructional unit. An example of what this means for multimedia instructional design is that the layout should be visually appealing and intuitive, and that activities should remain focused on the concepts to be learned, rather than trying too much to entertain. Content knowledge is organized into schemas found in the longterm memory, and these schemas control how new information is handled as it enters the working memory. Schemas organize simpler elements and can then act as elements in higher order schemas. In other words, as learning occurs, increasingly sophisticated schemas are developed and learned procedures are transferred from controlled to automatic processing. Automation frees capacity in the working memory for other functions. CLT suggests that instructional techniques that require students to engage in activities that aren't directed towards schema acquisition and automation can quickly exceed the limited capacity of the working memory and hinder the learning objectives. In simple terms, this means that you shouldn't create unnecessary activities in connection with a lesson that requires excessive attention or concentration that may overload the working memory and prevent one from acquiring the essential information that is to be learned. This is an important rule in any form of instruction and education, but it is an essential rule in multimedia instruction and education, because of the ease with which distractions can be incorporated.

110 Distance Education

also specified at folder level.

course, with minimal distraction or frustration.

**e-learning systems** 

documents and information for which he has an explicit permit. The administrator defines the access rights for each group of users, and each system function. The access rights are

Nowadays, the rapid evolution of information and communications technology creates new opportunities for multimedia instruction and education, ranging from ways of delivering content to ways of expressing this content, but similarly strong claims are being made for the potential of multimedia learning environments. In this context, natural questions arise: how can be avoided a trail of broken promises concerning the educational benefits of new educational technologies such as multimedia learning environments, and how to use these new opportunities for delivery and expression of educational content in order to maximize learning? A reasonable solution is to use instructional technology in ways that are grounded in research-based theory. There is a (natural) developing tendency for multimedia instruction and systems, from instructor-centred environments to learner-centred environments. In such circumstances, concerns about the efficiency of such systems are even more justified. Unfortunately, there still is a lack of standardization in what concerns the development principles of multimedia instruction and education systems; there is a tendency of content developers to create environments with spectacular components rather than educational ones that ultimately proves to be a counterproductive practice. The efficient use of technology-pedagogy relationship in developing multimedia instruction and education systems is, ultimately, a matter of usability. Usability concerns the measure of a product potential to accomplish the goals of the user. There are different levels of usability focus in developing multimedia systems, spanning from navigation to the use of colours, text, and graphics. Usability, and particularly learner friendliness is one of the most neglected areas in e-learning design and implementation. Too much focus on developing the application and not enough focus on the implementation is also a major problem. The main problem is that developers think the job is done when the application is developed. So, even if the applications have a high quality, the usability can be low. Increasing the quality of both content and functionality of the application can represent increased value for users of an e-learning product. Addressing usability issues guarantees that the learning environment doesn't become a barrier to learning. Consequently, learners are able to work through a

Besides considering technological issues, usability principles must rely on an *educational theory*, somehow driving the designer in developing suitable applications. Currently, the constructivist theory is almost universally adopted. This theory stresses that learning is a personal process, characterized by individual's developing knowledge and understanding, by forming and refining concepts. This leads to the view that learners should be assisted in some way to construct and refine concepts in personally meaningful ways. From a constructivist perspective, learners need to be encouraged to take responsibility for their

learning, while generating a sense of ownership of learning experiences.

**3. Technology-pedagogy relationship in developing content for** 

A model of knowledge transmission in the classical (non-virtual) educational process is based on presenting information, followed by the proposal of problem items which students should solve based on the information presented. Unfortunately, this model, which has been also incorporated in multimedia instruction and education, skips an important step between

the presentation of information and problems proposals, namely the presentation of worked-out examples, as well as the algorithms and techniques recommended to work out these problems. If we consider that multimedia technology is extremely generous in terms of expression modes, when it comes to presenting a theoretical concept, then definitely it is even more suitable, by the multitude of technical possibilities of expression, when it is used to present the problems solving methods. Providing learners with worked-out examples can be very useful. This means that if a multimedia instructional unit was appealing enough to hold the learner's attention and cause the learner to really study the process of a worked-out problem in detail, then it could likely be just as much or more effective than having them work the problem out themselves.

E-Learning in Chemical Education 113

**Figure 7.** Principles of usability applied to the navigational system of a multimedia instruction system – the architecture of the system interface: 1 – Indications about the place in system; 2 – Table of contents; 3 – Information broadcasted through text channel; 4 – Instructions for using the multimedia application; 5 – Elements for navigation within the multimedia application; 6 - Elements for navigation within the

For instance, in laboratories, both classical and virtual, it is required that the student follows specific steps: acquiring information regarding the laboratory objective, theoretical concepts, constructive and functional presentation of the equipment, mode of operation, data

Often there is no clear boundary between these thematic modules, and the learner's attention should be split in several tasks, with negative consequences on the process of

Solutions must be found for organizing the information, based on existing multimedia technologies that avoid split-attention. We present here an example where we used simple Web technologies to organize educational material that represents a virtual laboratory (project I). Figure 8 presents a screenshot of this application. As it can be seen, by using frames in HTML technology, the content is divided into three main areas: the area of general data, the table of contents, and the content area. This splitting allows the student to have always availability over the general data and over the content structure, as he/she browses it. The content area is, in turn, split in two parts: a text area and a multimedia area (in which graphic, video, and audio content, interactive animations etc. can be presented). This approach allows the student to browse smaller or larger amounts of text, without losing the multimedia material to which reference is made to in this text from the visual field. This information organization is a collection of best practices related to nonlinear navigation opportunities provided by the information and communication

chapter; 7 – Multimedia application.

processing and interpretation.

technology.

knowledge understanding and integration.

In developing interactive media, the design of the user interface, system architecture, and navigation tools are often left to chance. It is well known that with emergence and development of interactive media, and especially of the World Wide Web, promoted the philosophy of nonlinear content scrolling, which was one of the strengths which has imposed new ways of presenting information in relation to the traditional ones (printed materials, television, radio, etc.). Here are some usability best practices in this respect:


Some of these principles, applied to the interface of the interactive educational system developed in the framework of project I are illustrated in Figure 7.

But it is also highly important that the principles of non-linear navigation are designed keeping in mind the way working memory works, and not least its capacity. One of the problems we face in this context is split-attention. Split-attention occurs when learners are presented with multiple sources of information that have to be integrated before they are understood. The instruction should not be designed in a way that forces the learner to divide his attention between several tasks.

work the problem out themselves.

application architecture.

the presentation of information and problems proposals, namely the presentation of worked-out examples, as well as the algorithms and techniques recommended to work out these problems. If we consider that multimedia technology is extremely generous in terms of expression modes, when it comes to presenting a theoretical concept, then definitely it is even more suitable, by the multitude of technical possibilities of expression, when it is used to present the problems solving methods. Providing learners with worked-out examples can be very useful. This means that if a multimedia instructional unit was appealing enough to hold the learner's attention and cause the learner to really study the process of a worked-out problem in detail, then it could likely be just as much or more effective than having them

In developing interactive media, the design of the user interface, system architecture, and navigation tools are often left to chance. It is well known that with emergence and development of interactive media, and especially of the World Wide Web, promoted the philosophy of nonlinear content scrolling, which was one of the strengths which has imposed new ways of presenting information in relation to the traditional ones (printed materials, television, radio, etc.). Here are some usability best practices in this respect:





Some of these principles, applied to the interface of the interactive educational system

But it is also highly important that the principles of non-linear navigation are designed keeping in mind the way working memory works, and not least its capacity. One of the problems we face in this context is split-attention. Split-attention occurs when learners are presented with multiple sources of information that have to be integrated before they are understood. The instruction should not be designed in a way that forces the learner to

to include an index and search function for extensive multimedia applications.

information about applications, such as status updates.


developed in the framework of project I are illustrated in Figure 7.

instruments than usual content segments.

divide his attention between several tasks.

**Figure 7.** Principles of usability applied to the navigational system of a multimedia instruction system – the architecture of the system interface: 1 – Indications about the place in system; 2 – Table of contents; 3 – Information broadcasted through text channel; 4 – Instructions for using the multimedia application; 5 – Elements for navigation within the multimedia application; 6 - Elements for navigation within the chapter; 7 – Multimedia application.

For instance, in laboratories, both classical and virtual, it is required that the student follows specific steps: acquiring information regarding the laboratory objective, theoretical concepts, constructive and functional presentation of the equipment, mode of operation, data processing and interpretation.

Often there is no clear boundary between these thematic modules, and the learner's attention should be split in several tasks, with negative consequences on the process of knowledge understanding and integration.

Solutions must be found for organizing the information, based on existing multimedia technologies that avoid split-attention. We present here an example where we used simple Web technologies to organize educational material that represents a virtual laboratory (project I). Figure 8 presents a screenshot of this application. As it can be seen, by using frames in HTML technology, the content is divided into three main areas: the area of general data, the table of contents, and the content area. This splitting allows the student to have always availability over the general data and over the content structure, as he/she browses it. The content area is, in turn, split in two parts: a text area and a multimedia area (in which graphic, video, and audio content, interactive animations etc. can be presented). This approach allows the student to browse smaller or larger amounts of text, without losing the multimedia material to which reference is made to in this text from the visual field. This information organization is a collection of best practices related to nonlinear navigation opportunities provided by the information and communication technology.

When the student is directed to the content of a virtual laboratory, he finds the content structured in a way that suggests to browse through the different information modules in an

Before starting the laboratory, the student is guided to the module attending the constructive and functional presentation of the equipment, and the operation mode, however being not obliged to go through it, if he considers himself familiarized to this piece of information from previous educational experience. If he/she accesses the link to any of these modules, a pop-up window appears, which overlaps with the main text, thus not allowing temporary access to it, but that does not overlap with the interactive application that simulates the equipment. This way, a selective, contextual presentation of information is achieved. Moreover, this content structure is subject to the contiguity principle, which states that better transfer occurs when corresponding contents are presented simultaneously, both temporally and spatially. Temporal contiguity means that corresponding words and pictures are presented at the same time, while spatial contiguity means that corresponding words and pictures are presented near rather than far from each other on a page or screen. In other words, an important visual image should not be placed on one page or frame, and then discuss it in a preceding or following page/frame without

The split-attention problem arises not only in determining the optimal navigation system in the virtual environment, but it is also related to the information presentation in a multimedia application. There are situations when presentation of a theoretical concept through the aid of a static graphical item requires a high information density. In physics and chemistry such situations are quite common, for instance when understanding a process requires presentation of macroscopic aspects, but also the microscopic intimacy of the process. Presentation of the two categories of information together, in the same image, impedes process understanding, while presenting them in different images dilutes the logical connection between the two aspects. In the frame of project I the simultaneous presentation, in the same multimedia application, of both macroscopic and microscopic aspects of the studied process was necessary. A simple and elegant solution was adopted, and, according to the feedback collected from students, it proved to be a real success. When running the application, the user can watch the process evolution at macroscopic level; when he/she is quite familiar with it, he/she can, by moving an instrument available permanently on screen, in a particular area of simulation, visualize the microscopic level

Another critical factor that must be taken into account in developing educational multimedia materials is pacing. The pacing principle states that better transfer occurs when the pace of presentation is controlled by the learner, rather than by the program. Learners vary in the time needed to engage in the cognitive processes of selecting, organizing, and integrating incoming information, so they must have the ability to work at their own pace, to slow or stop the presentation if necessary. If the pace of the presented material is too fast, then the cognitive processes may not be carried out properly and learning will suffer. Also, if the pace is too slow, that can lead to student irritation, with negative effects on the educational process. A technical

absolute individually way.

continuing to show the visual image.

evolution for the specific area (as demonstrated in Figure 9).

**Figure 8.** HTML technology usage for screen division in a multimedia instruction system for a virtual laboratory experiment: 1 - General data area; 2 - Table of contents, 3 - Text area; 4 - Multimedia area; 5 - Pop-up window overlapping the main text.

When the student is directed to the content of a virtual laboratory, he finds the content structured in a way that suggests to browse through the different information modules in an absolute individually way.

114 Distance Education

**Figure 8.** HTML technology usage for screen division in a multimedia instruction system for a virtual laboratory experiment: 1 - General data area; 2 - Table of contents, 3 - Text area; 4 - Multimedia area; 5 -

Pop-up window overlapping the main text.

Before starting the laboratory, the student is guided to the module attending the constructive and functional presentation of the equipment, and the operation mode, however being not obliged to go through it, if he considers himself familiarized to this piece of information from previous educational experience. If he/she accesses the link to any of these modules, a pop-up window appears, which overlaps with the main text, thus not allowing temporary access to it, but that does not overlap with the interactive application that simulates the equipment. This way, a selective, contextual presentation of information is achieved. Moreover, this content structure is subject to the contiguity principle, which states that better transfer occurs when corresponding contents are presented simultaneously, both temporally and spatially. Temporal contiguity means that corresponding words and pictures are presented at the same time, while spatial contiguity means that corresponding words and pictures are presented near rather than far from each other on a page or screen. In other words, an important visual image should not be placed on one page or frame, and then discuss it in a preceding or following page/frame without continuing to show the visual image.

The split-attention problem arises not only in determining the optimal navigation system in the virtual environment, but it is also related to the information presentation in a multimedia application. There are situations when presentation of a theoretical concept through the aid of a static graphical item requires a high information density. In physics and chemistry such situations are quite common, for instance when understanding a process requires presentation of macroscopic aspects, but also the microscopic intimacy of the process. Presentation of the two categories of information together, in the same image, impedes process understanding, while presenting them in different images dilutes the logical connection between the two aspects. In the frame of project I the simultaneous presentation, in the same multimedia application, of both macroscopic and microscopic aspects of the studied process was necessary. A simple and elegant solution was adopted, and, according to the feedback collected from students, it proved to be a real success. When running the application, the user can watch the process evolution at macroscopic level; when he/she is quite familiar with it, he/she can, by moving an instrument available permanently on screen, in a particular area of simulation, visualize the microscopic level evolution for the specific area (as demonstrated in Figure 9).

Another critical factor that must be taken into account in developing educational multimedia materials is pacing. The pacing principle states that better transfer occurs when the pace of presentation is controlled by the learner, rather than by the program. Learners vary in the time needed to engage in the cognitive processes of selecting, organizing, and integrating incoming information, so they must have the ability to work at their own pace, to slow or stop the presentation if necessary. If the pace of the presented material is too fast, then the cognitive processes may not be carried out properly and learning will suffer. Also, if the pace is too slow, that can lead to student irritation, with negative effects on the educational process. A technical

solution at the reach of multimedia developers is the possibility of attaching a slider to interactive applications, through which the user can pause, rewind, and fast-forward the application. This technique was used in many multimedia applications developed for project I (see an examples from project I in figure 10).

E-Learning in Chemical Education 117

learning contexts need different types of applications in order to support the activity task. For example, a multimedia application useful as support for quick help may not be a usable learning support in a continuous perspective. The content may be similar, but the context is different. This has important implications for usability, because the context partially determines how a given application will be used. Consequently, analysis of the learning context is vital. Within project I a situation somewhat atypical in terms of this so-called learning context was faced. As it has been previously mentioned, the project objective was to create a virtual educational environment for chemistry teachers working in the K12 education system, but also to offer guidelines for using it. Consequently, we have had to deal with a double educational process, with two categories of end users. On the one hand it is about knowledge transfer from instructors to teachers, followed by another transfer, this time from teachers to students. In this equation, teachers are learners in the first phase, and become instructors in the second. Consequently, application development had to be carried out in such a way that it could be used in both educational contexts, with maximum efficiency. The biggest challenge has been the design of applications for both adult learners and young learners. It is well-known that adult learners have another set of motivations

**Figure 10.** Using sliders in multimedia applications: The role of buffer solution in the human body.

Adult learners need to know why they should learn something, want to learn experientially, approach learning as problem-solving, and accumulate best when the topic is of immediate value. Another feature of this project is linked to the fact that learning activities planning and structuring do not aim to bring around an alternative way to traditional learning, but to create a significant shift from traditional learning to e-learning. Learning is carried out in social settings, by adopting ideas, ways of thinking and how things are done. Introducing new learning methods like e-learning will normally alter the existing learning culture. Not

than young learners.

**Figure 9.** Visualization of an electrochemical process at macroscopic (a) and microscopic levels (b).

An important usability dimension in developing multimedia instruction and education systems relates to the degree of planning and structuring the learning activities. Different learning contexts need different types of applications in order to support the activity task. For example, a multimedia application useful as support for quick help may not be a usable learning support in a continuous perspective. The content may be similar, but the context is different. This has important implications for usability, because the context partially determines how a given application will be used. Consequently, analysis of the learning context is vital. Within project I a situation somewhat atypical in terms of this so-called learning context was faced. As it has been previously mentioned, the project objective was to create a virtual educational environment for chemistry teachers working in the K12 education system, but also to offer guidelines for using it. Consequently, we have had to deal with a double educational process, with two categories of end users. On the one hand it is about knowledge transfer from instructors to teachers, followed by another transfer, this time from teachers to students. In this equation, teachers are learners in the first phase, and become instructors in the second. Consequently, application development had to be carried out in such a way that it could be used in both educational contexts, with maximum efficiency. The biggest challenge has been the design of applications for both adult learners and young learners. It is well-known that adult learners have another set of motivations than young learners.

116 Distance Education

(a)

(b)

(see an examples from project I in figure 10).

solution at the reach of multimedia developers is the possibility of attaching a slider to interactive applications, through which the user can pause, rewind, and fast-forward the application. This technique was used in many multimedia applications developed for project I

**Figure 9.** Visualization of an electrochemical process at macroscopic (a) and microscopic levels (b).

An important usability dimension in developing multimedia instruction and education systems relates to the degree of planning and structuring the learning activities. Different

**Figure 10.** Using sliders in multimedia applications: The role of buffer solution in the human body.

Adult learners need to know why they should learn something, want to learn experientially, approach learning as problem-solving, and accumulate best when the topic is of immediate value. Another feature of this project is linked to the fact that learning activities planning and structuring do not aim to bring around an alternative way to traditional learning, but to create a significant shift from traditional learning to e-learning. Learning is carried out in social settings, by adopting ideas, ways of thinking and how things are done. Introducing new learning methods like e-learning will normally alter the existing learning culture. Not only what we learn, but also how we learn becomes a major issue. Understanding the target audience should help in defining the communication style of the newly created elearning environment. Where appropriate, learner's profile must be used to develop an instructional design, style, and tone. To improve the readability of an e-learning environment, natural language must be used, avoiding slang or acronyms. As it has been declared previously, the constructivist theory is almost universally adopted in the elearning philosophy. Recently, the constructivist approach has been significantly extended from social perspectives to so-called socio-constructivism.

E-Learning in Chemical Education 119

enhanced by wiki technologies. Wiki technologies enable communities to write documents collaboratively, by adding, modifying or deleting the content. Openness of wikis gives rise to the concept of '"darwikinism", which is a concept that describes the "socially Darwinian process" that wiki pages are subject to. Basically, because of the openness of wikis and the rapidity with which wiki pages can be edited, the pages undergo a natural selection process like that to which nature subjects living organisms to. "Unfit" sentences and sections are ruthlessly culled, edited, and replaced if they are not considered "fit", which hopefully results in the evolution of a higher quality and more relevant page. Whilst such openness may invite "vandalism" and posting of untrue information, the same openness also makes it possible to rapidly correct or restore a "quality" wiki page. Sustainability of the wiki concept is endorsed by achievements based on it, the best known example being Wikipedia, the

e-Learning 2.0 can also bring strong focus on content syndication, its reuse/re-purposing, adaptation, and personalization. There are high quality multimedia applications in the World Wide Web virtual space, made available for free by prestigious institutions. Moreover, the authors of these applications make available source codes, thus allowing and even encouraging their modification, in order to improve or customize them. Many websites managing these resources contain planning and structuring of learning activities customized for different educational scenarios, and, as in the case of source codes, the contribution of users is allowed and even encouraged. If in the project I educational multimedia applications were developed together with SIVECO ROMANIA S.A., one of the largest software companies in Romania, a different approach was used in project II, namely using freeware resources, existing in the virtual space of the World Wide Web: PhET, Virtual Chemistry Experiments (http://www.chm.davidson.edu/vce/index.html), ChemCollective

1. PhET: Free online physics, chemistry, biology, earth science and math simulations

PhET provides interactive, research-based simulations of physical phenomena, from the PhET™ project at the University of Colorado. To ensure educational effectiveness and usability, all these simulations are extensively tested and evaluated. These tests include student interviews in addition to actual utilization of the simulations in a variety of settings, including lectures, group work, homework and lab work. All PhET simulations are freely available from the PhET website and are easy to use and incorporate into the classroom. They are written in Java and Flash, and can be run using a standard web browser as long as Flash and Java are installed. There is a "Teacher Ideas & Activities" page, which is a gateway to instructor-submitted contributions, designed to be used in conjunction with the PhET simulations. PhET simulations are available in 6 categories (Physics, Biology, Chemistry, Earth Science, Math and Cutting Edge Research) and are organized into projects, each of which can contain one or more related simulations. For example, the "nuclear-physics" project contains 4 simulations,

largest and most popular general reference work on the Internet.

(http://ir.chem.cmu.edu/).

(http://phet.colorado.edu/)

Some of these are:

But how is it possible to project this social component of constructivism into the technical solutions used in developing instructional virtual environments? The answer is simple: given that the educational multimedia content is mostly delivered through web technologies, the shift from Web 1.0 to Web 2.0 can bring a quantum leap in expressing educational virtual environments. Web 2.0 defines web features that facilitate participatory information sharing, interoperability, user-centred design, and collaboration on the World Wide Web. Web 2.0 allows users to interact and collaborate with each other in a social media dialogue as creators of user-generated content in a virtual community, in contrast to websites, where users are limited to the passive viewing of content that was created for them. The shift to Web 2.0 has its counterparts in both e-learning technology and methodology. Thus, Web 2.0 concept can result in the e-Learning 2.0 concept, for which one of the core support methodologies is connectivism, concentrating on making connections among learning resources and people. e-Learning 2.0 emerges inspired by the popularity of Web 2.0, which places increased emphasis on social learning and use of social software. Conventional e-learning systems were based on instructional packets that were delivered to students using Internet technologies. The role of students consisted in learning from the reading and preparing assignments. By contrast, e-Learning 2.0 is built around collaboration, which assumes that knowledge is socially constructed. Learning takes place through conversations about content and grounded interaction about problems and actions. Collaborative learning has been found to increase student motivation and enhance their performance. Through collaboration, students become actively engaged in the learning process, exchange ideas, and produce knowledge, helping other students to better understand the learning material. In contrast to traditional education, typical e-learning environments lack face-to-face interaction between students. Therefore, the introduction and adaptation of collaborative techniques in these environments is especially necessary. Successful design of collaboration will help students to feel less isolated and become part of the virtual course community, resulting in better educational performance, motivation, and persistence in the course. Many strategies are proposed, focusing on promoting communication, social interaction, and participation to scaffold e-learning. Therefore, it is desirable to design and develop learning environments to achieve e-Learning 2.0, encouraging learners' active involvement to resource contribution, enabling convenient resources accessing and utilization, and facilitating better interaction and collaboration. One of the ideas with great potential in this direction (but that unfortunately remained, so far, more in this idea stage) consists in achieving collaborative e-learning environments enhanced by wiki technologies. Wiki technologies enable communities to write documents collaboratively, by adding, modifying or deleting the content. Openness of wikis gives rise to the concept of '"darwikinism", which is a concept that describes the "socially Darwinian process" that wiki pages are subject to. Basically, because of the openness of wikis and the rapidity with which wiki pages can be edited, the pages undergo a natural selection process like that to which nature subjects living organisms to. "Unfit" sentences and sections are ruthlessly culled, edited, and replaced if they are not considered "fit", which hopefully results in the evolution of a higher quality and more relevant page. Whilst such openness may invite "vandalism" and posting of untrue information, the same openness also makes it possible to rapidly correct or restore a "quality" wiki page. Sustainability of the wiki concept is endorsed by achievements based on it, the best known example being Wikipedia, the largest and most popular general reference work on the Internet.

e-Learning 2.0 can also bring strong focus on content syndication, its reuse/re-purposing, adaptation, and personalization. There are high quality multimedia applications in the World Wide Web virtual space, made available for free by prestigious institutions. Moreover, the authors of these applications make available source codes, thus allowing and even encouraging their modification, in order to improve or customize them. Many websites managing these resources contain planning and structuring of learning activities customized for different educational scenarios, and, as in the case of source codes, the contribution of users is allowed and even encouraged. If in the project I educational multimedia applications were developed together with SIVECO ROMANIA S.A., one of the largest software companies in Romania, a different approach was used in project II, namely using freeware resources, existing in the virtual space of the World Wide Web: PhET, Virtual Chemistry Experiments (http://www.chm.davidson.edu/vce/index.html), ChemCollective (http://ir.chem.cmu.edu/).

Some of these are:

118 Distance Education

so-called socio-constructivism.

only what we learn, but also how we learn becomes a major issue. Understanding the target audience should help in defining the communication style of the newly created elearning environment. Where appropriate, learner's profile must be used to develop an instructional design, style, and tone. To improve the readability of an e-learning environment, natural language must be used, avoiding slang or acronyms. As it has been declared previously, the constructivist theory is almost universally adopted in the elearning philosophy. Recently, the constructivist approach has been significantly extended from social perspectives to

But how is it possible to project this social component of constructivism into the technical solutions used in developing instructional virtual environments? The answer is simple: given that the educational multimedia content is mostly delivered through web technologies, the shift from Web 1.0 to Web 2.0 can bring a quantum leap in expressing educational virtual environments. Web 2.0 defines web features that facilitate participatory information sharing, interoperability, user-centred design, and collaboration on the World Wide Web. Web 2.0 allows users to interact and collaborate with each other in a social media dialogue as creators of user-generated content in a virtual community, in contrast to websites, where users are limited to the passive viewing of content that was created for them. The shift to Web 2.0 has its counterparts in both e-learning technology and methodology. Thus, Web 2.0 concept can result in the e-Learning 2.0 concept, for which one of the core support methodologies is connectivism, concentrating on making connections among learning resources and people. e-Learning 2.0 emerges inspired by the popularity of Web 2.0, which places increased emphasis on social learning and use of social software. Conventional e-learning systems were based on instructional packets that were delivered to students using Internet technologies. The role of students consisted in learning from the reading and preparing assignments. By contrast, e-Learning 2.0 is built around collaboration, which assumes that knowledge is socially constructed. Learning takes place through conversations about content and grounded interaction about problems and actions. Collaborative learning has been found to increase student motivation and enhance their performance. Through collaboration, students become actively engaged in the learning process, exchange ideas, and produce knowledge, helping other students to better understand the learning material. In contrast to traditional education, typical e-learning environments lack face-to-face interaction between students. Therefore, the introduction and adaptation of collaborative techniques in these environments is especially necessary. Successful design of collaboration will help students to feel less isolated and become part of the virtual course community, resulting in better educational performance, motivation, and persistence in the course. Many strategies are proposed, focusing on promoting communication, social interaction, and participation to scaffold e-learning. Therefore, it is desirable to design and develop learning environments to achieve e-Learning 2.0, encouraging learners' active involvement to resource contribution, enabling convenient resources accessing and utilization, and facilitating better interaction and collaboration. One of the ideas with great potential in this direction (but that unfortunately remained, so far, more in this idea stage) consists in achieving collaborative e-learning environments

1. PhET: Free online physics, chemistry, biology, earth science and math simulations (http://phet.colorado.edu/)

PhET provides interactive, research-based simulations of physical phenomena, from the PhET™ project at the University of Colorado. To ensure educational effectiveness and usability, all these simulations are extensively tested and evaluated. These tests include student interviews in addition to actual utilization of the simulations in a variety of settings, including lectures, group work, homework and lab work. All PhET simulations are freely available from the PhET website and are easy to use and incorporate into the classroom. They are written in Java and Flash, and can be run using a standard web browser as long as Flash and Java are installed. There is a "Teacher Ideas & Activities" page, which is a gateway to instructor-submitted contributions, designed to be used in conjunction with the PhET simulations. PhET simulations are available in 6 categories (Physics, Biology, Chemistry, Earth Science, Math and Cutting Edge Research) and are organized into projects, each of which can contain one or more related simulations. For example, the "nuclear-physics" project contains 4 simulations,

including "Alpha Decay" and "Radioactive Dating Game". The source code for all PhET simulations is available for use and/or modification.

E-Learning in Chemical Education 121

**Figure 11.** Information presented in a transparent layer (b) which overlaps the main content (a).

(a)

(b)

Error prevention is also a good usability practice. According to specialized studies, errors lead to loss of credibility in multimedia applications. Thus, such a design is required so that it predicts all possible states that can be triggered by the user. Unlikely or strange situations should also be considered. Unfortunately this task is even harder to accomplish when there are several user input parameters. We have faced such a situation in the project I, with an

2. Virtual Chemistry Experiments (http://www.chm.davidson.edu/vce/index.html) Virtual Chemistry Experiments are a collection of interactive web-based chemistry tutorials. The tutorials employ Physlets and Chemistry Applets to simulate experiments or depict molecular and atomic structure. The guiding concept is to involve the read in making observations and acquiring data, and then using this information to draw conclusions and infer chemical principles. The interactive content is made possible through the use of Java. Exercises dealing with molecular and electronic structure also employ Java3D. Virtual Chemistry Experiments web pages may be downloaded and deployed locally.

The role of usability in minimizing distraction sources for the user in the educational process is very important. One of the current sources is the coherence degree of the material. More elements shown in a material are not necessarily beneficial for learning, leading the learners to focus away. The applications with too much ornament can confuse the learner. On the other hand, the lack or the insufficiency of some absolutely required elements can create user frustration, with equally negative consequences as those caused by distraction. Consequently, it is important to find technical solutions for achieving an optimum. In this context, in the frame of project I it has been very important how to describe the virtual equipment in a virtual simulation. One of the technical solutions identified in this respect is presented in figure 11.

Thus, there is a button always present on the application screen which can bring in, at any moment of its dynamic run, the necessary information for describing the equipment. This information is presented in a transparent layer which overlaps the main content of the simulation, which will fade in the background. For expediency, this layer stays open as long as the user keeps pressing the button which calls the layer.

A particular aspect of usability is learnability. Learnability is a measure of the degree to which a user interface can be learned quickly and effectively. User interfaces are typically easier to learn from when they are designed based on core psychological properties, and when they are familiar. Familiarity may come from the fact that it follows standards or the design follows a metaphor from people's real world experience. An instructional interface is especially effective when the learner is able to focus on learning content rather than on how to access it. Multimedia content developers must be consistent and follow standards in layout and content organization: consistency ensures a predictable environment for learners. A standard look and feel for the course must be created. The organization of content and objects should be meaningful to the user. Using a minimalist design is a good practice, not only for aesthetic purposes, but also for learning. Simplicity reduces the demand on users' brain power and focuses users' attention on the task. Multimedia content developers must strive for simplicity in layout, screen function, structural design, and other program elements. Complex or extraneous interface elements unnecessarily burden users' working memory. The colours should be used wisely and the application must not rely on colour alone to communicate a message.

deployed locally.

including "Alpha Decay" and "Radioactive Dating Game". The source code for all PhET

Virtual Chemistry Experiments are a collection of interactive web-based chemistry tutorials. The tutorials employ Physlets and Chemistry Applets to simulate experiments or depict molecular and atomic structure. The guiding concept is to involve the read in making observations and acquiring data, and then using this information to draw conclusions and infer chemical principles. The interactive content is made possible through the use of Java. Exercises dealing with molecular and electronic structure also employ Java3D. Virtual Chemistry Experiments web pages may be downloaded and

The role of usability in minimizing distraction sources for the user in the educational process is very important. One of the current sources is the coherence degree of the material. More elements shown in a material are not necessarily beneficial for learning, leading the learners to focus away. The applications with too much ornament can confuse the learner. On the other hand, the lack or the insufficiency of some absolutely required elements can create user frustration, with equally negative consequences as those caused by distraction. Consequently, it is important to find technical solutions for achieving an optimum. In this context, in the frame of project I it has been very important how to describe the virtual equipment in a virtual simulation. One of the technical solutions identified in this respect is presented in figure 11.

Thus, there is a button always present on the application screen which can bring in, at any moment of its dynamic run, the necessary information for describing the equipment. This information is presented in a transparent layer which overlaps the main content of the simulation, which will fade in the background. For expediency, this layer stays open as long

A particular aspect of usability is learnability. Learnability is a measure of the degree to which a user interface can be learned quickly and effectively. User interfaces are typically easier to learn from when they are designed based on core psychological properties, and when they are familiar. Familiarity may come from the fact that it follows standards or the design follows a metaphor from people's real world experience. An instructional interface is especially effective when the learner is able to focus on learning content rather than on how to access it. Multimedia content developers must be consistent and follow standards in layout and content organization: consistency ensures a predictable environment for learners. A standard look and feel for the course must be created. The organization of content and objects should be meaningful to the user. Using a minimalist design is a good practice, not only for aesthetic purposes, but also for learning. Simplicity reduces the demand on users' brain power and focuses users' attention on the task. Multimedia content developers must strive for simplicity in layout, screen function, structural design, and other program elements. Complex or extraneous interface elements unnecessarily burden users' working memory. The colours should be used wisely and the application must not rely on colour

2. Virtual Chemistry Experiments (http://www.chm.davidson.edu/vce/index.html)

simulations is available for use and/or modification.

as the user keeps pressing the button which calls the layer.

alone to communicate a message.

**Figure 11.** Information presented in a transparent layer (b) which overlaps the main content (a).

Error prevention is also a good usability practice. According to specialized studies, errors lead to loss of credibility in multimedia applications. Thus, such a design is required so that it predicts all possible states that can be triggered by the user. Unlikely or strange situations should also be considered. Unfortunately this task is even harder to accomplish when there are several user input parameters. We have faced such a situation in the project I, with an application that simulates a titration (figure 12). The relatively large number of parameters to be decided by the user, along with the drivers and complex mathematical models behind the simulation, lead to configurations in which the simulation could give errors. We have adopted a solution that has proven very effective, namely, we designed a sequential progress, wizardtype, where required parameters are introduced in several steps, each step being somewhat influenced by the decisions made in the previous one. For instance, titrant and titrated species can be chosen only at step 2, from a list filtered by the option made at step 1, by the choice of type of titration. Thus, the temporal split of application may have consequences in the delimitation of those elements, whose combinations represent sources of errors.

E-Learning in Chemical Education 123

**CAI & traditional pedagogy 42%**

undergraduates, aged 18 – 22, and postgraduate students, studying for a masters' degree, aged 24 – 55. In the mature students category there was a special lot formed by educators involved in primary and high school education; they were enrolled in a complementarytype continuing education master program and showed rather similar

The dominant feeling among the student population is that computer aided instruction is very useful in modern pedagogy for all teaching levels, higher education included. As regards the direct link between the technology and pedagogy, 93 % of the students agree that pedagogy should be defined according to the chosen technology. It is interesting to note that all participating mature students have expressed their preference for the constructivist approach, while half of the undergraduates (41 people) declared to be happier with an

A group of enthusiastic students was identified, adopting elearning to match their constructivist preference for the educational process. There is a second group using gladly technology, but preferring a classical pedagogical approach. A third group is satisfied by a constructivist approach in facetoface educational activities, but does not see the advantage of using any ICT tools. Finally, a fourth group still does not acknowledge the potential of using elearning as an interactive tool for teaching and learning, and therefore

In addition to the different requirements of various learning tasks, the students identified other variables likely to influence learning success: learner's experience for the subject in question, background knowledge, learning preferences ("learning style/cognitive style/thinking style") and orientation, including his or her reaction towards technology, learner's sensory pathways and cognitive processing abilities, emotional state, gender and age differences, cultural / corporate / institutional / societal requirements and values, presence or absence of collaboration with other learners, learning environment, including "learning distracters", availability of human and technological resources, and whether an

**modern pedagogy 14%**

The content development in the e-learning system implemented in the faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science followed an ascending route starting with the creation of

show deliberately no interest in testing computer aided instruction - CAI (figure 13).

**Figure 13.** Students' pedagogical options for the educational process

**traditional pedagogy 5%**

**CAI & modern pedagogy 39%**

individual or a group is being taught to (figures 14 and 15).

opinions in connection to the main educational issues.

instructivist education style.

Multimedia content developers must strive for simplicity in layout, screen function, structural design and other program elements. Complex or extraneous interface elements unnecessarily burden users' working memory.

**Figure 12.** Wizard-type multimedia application

## **4. Content development: Examples**

Since 2004, higher education in Romania has been undergoing substantial changes, in order to achieve the highest possible efficiency in developing adequate skills for young graduates, skills essential for their employability. The content development for the e-learning system in the faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science followed the relation between technology and pedagogy, as presented in the previous section.

A first attempt to know the preferences of our students was by carrying out a survey on a 237 people sample [9]. This survey revealed the position of different categories of students: undergraduates, aged 18 – 22, and postgraduate students, studying for a masters' degree, aged 24 – 55. In the mature students category there was a special lot formed by educators involved in primary and high school education; they were enrolled in a complementarytype continuing education master program and showed rather similar opinions in connection to the main educational issues.

122 Distance Education

application that simulates a titration (figure 12). The relatively large number of parameters to be decided by the user, along with the drivers and complex mathematical models behind the simulation, lead to configurations in which the simulation could give errors. We have adopted a solution that has proven very effective, namely, we designed a sequential progress, wizardtype, where required parameters are introduced in several steps, each step being somewhat influenced by the decisions made in the previous one. For instance, titrant and titrated species can be chosen only at step 2, from a list filtered by the option made at step 1, by the choice of type of titration. Thus, the temporal split of application may have consequences in the

Multimedia content developers must strive for simplicity in layout, screen function, structural design and other program elements. Complex or extraneous interface elements

Since 2004, higher education in Romania has been undergoing substantial changes, in order to achieve the highest possible efficiency in developing adequate skills for young graduates, skills essential for their employability. The content development for the e-learning system in the faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science followed the relation between

A first attempt to know the preferences of our students was by carrying out a survey on a 237 people sample [9]. This survey revealed the position of different categories of students:

delimitation of those elements, whose combinations represent sources of errors.

unnecessarily burden users' working memory.

**Figure 12.** Wizard-type multimedia application

**4. Content development: Examples** 

technology and pedagogy, as presented in the previous section.

The dominant feeling among the student population is that computer aided instruction is very useful in modern pedagogy for all teaching levels, higher education included. As regards the direct link between the technology and pedagogy, 93 % of the students agree that pedagogy should be defined according to the chosen technology. It is interesting to note that all participating mature students have expressed their preference for the constructivist approach, while half of the undergraduates (41 people) declared to be happier with an instructivist education style.

A group of enthusiastic students was identified, adopting elearning to match their constructivist preference for the educational process. There is a second group using gladly technology, but preferring a classical pedagogical approach. A third group is satisfied by a constructivist approach in facetoface educational activities, but does not see the advantage of using any ICT tools. Finally, a fourth group still does not acknowledge the potential of using elearning as an interactive tool for teaching and learning, and therefore show deliberately no interest in testing computer aided instruction - CAI (figure 13).

**Figure 13.** Students' pedagogical options for the educational process

In addition to the different requirements of various learning tasks, the students identified other variables likely to influence learning success: learner's experience for the subject in question, background knowledge, learning preferences ("learning style/cognitive style/thinking style") and orientation, including his or her reaction towards technology, learner's sensory pathways and cognitive processing abilities, emotional state, gender and age differences, cultural / corporate / institutional / societal requirements and values, presence or absence of collaboration with other learners, learning environment, including "learning distracters", availability of human and technological resources, and whether an individual or a group is being taught to (figures 14 and 15).

The content development in the e-learning system implemented in the faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science followed an ascending route starting with the creation of content delivery modules for faculty application consisting of lectures presented as power point presentations, including animations and links to videos concerning the topic in view (dedicated to instructivist teaching approach), simulated interactive laboratory experiments for all major subjects, and knowledge evaluation tests. These were included in the "Library" module of the e-learning platform and were accessible in the class, assisting the teaching stuff in delivering vivid lectures, or they could be accessed by each student that had access to the platform on his/her own computer [10]. The industrial chemistry curriculum has a certain characteristic that makes it different from other technical courses: the higher amount of shared knowledge between different disciplines. As mentioned in the literature [11, 12], the classical teaching methods often fail in achieving the required fluidity between the curriculum subjects. By nature, an e-learning system allows modules from different disciplines to connect, and furthermore, to interact [13].

E-Learning in Chemical Education 125

In the same time, an exceptional effort was done to design and implement complex chemistry lessons for the e-learning community created within the collaborative project "**WE LOOK TOWARDS THE FUTURE-***Professional Training of the Teaching Staff for Using Modern Digital Resources in Efficiently Teaching Chemistry***",** developed in the frame of the European Social Fund - SOP HRD 2007-2013, SOP HRD 61839. This project (referred to in the

development of ITC skills for teachers who teach chemistry and technology-related

Face-to-face sessions with on-line and off-line activities have been designed and specially tailored digital educational resources for the K12 system have been implemented. Digital lectures and virtual laboratory experiments have been created for all main fields in chemistry (Inorganic, Organic, Analytical and Physical Chemistry). In order to improve the way chemistry is seen by high school students the project aimed to ensure: a relevant chemistry education philosophy, an optimized curriculum, and appropriate teaching approaches in chemistry by using ICT tools. Relevant assessment and evaluation strategies and relevant professional development for teachers have been also considered. The project also creates a collaborative virtual network between the chemistry teachers involved in the

As concerns the chemical engineering education in the faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, an important number of subjects such as analytical chemistry, chemical engineering bases, unit operations in chemical engineering, computer programming used the e-learning platform for teaching, and examination in a blend of assisted (virtual classroom) and non-assisted (virtual library) training sessions. Some examples are given

Figure 16 represents an aspect of some unit operation lecture included in the library of the e-learning system. As figure 16 shows, on the same slide students can see the main equations governing the design of a distillation column, the representation of vapour and liquid streams in the column and graphical solution for the calculation of the number of

Figure 17 presents a moment from an Analytical Chemistry lesson, where the main steps in choosing the titration agent are explained. For each step links to further details are provided. Figure 18 presents an application for an interactive seminar session were students are asked to study a two-stage vapour compression refrigeration system. The application allows to choose the refrigerant, the suitable temperature ranges and to follow the fluid

In higher education chemistry laboratories, the practical experience is essential for students

to increase their analytical skills and understanding of chemical concepts.

design of pilot ICT instruments suitable for transferring chemical knowledge,

building-up a collaborative virtual community spread across Romania.

contribution as project I) had the following main objectives:

promoting on-line learning techniques in the K12 system,

project which will be a good start for future collaborations.

transformation in an enthalpy-pressure diagram.

subjects in the K12 system,

bellow.

stages.

**Figure 14.** Required skills when using ITC technology.

(a -experience in the subject; b - background knowledge; c-learning preferences; d-learning reaction towards technology; e - sensory pathways; f - cognitive processing abilities; g - emotional state; h - age differences; i - gender differences, j – cultural/ corporate /institutional societal values; k - collaboration with other learners; l - learning environment; m – none)

In the same time, an exceptional effort was done to design and implement complex chemistry lessons for the e-learning community created within the collaborative project "**WE LOOK TOWARDS THE FUTURE-***Professional Training of the Teaching Staff for Using Modern Digital Resources in Efficiently Teaching Chemistry***",** developed in the frame of the European Social Fund - SOP HRD 2007-2013, SOP HRD 61839. This project (referred to in the contribution as project I) had the following main objectives:


124 Distance Education

content delivery modules for faculty application consisting of lectures presented as power point presentations, including animations and links to videos concerning the topic in view (dedicated to instructivist teaching approach), simulated interactive laboratory experiments for all major subjects, and knowledge evaluation tests. These were included in the "Library" module of the e-learning platform and were accessible in the class, assisting the teaching stuff in delivering vivid lectures, or they could be accessed by each student that had access to the platform on his/her own computer [10]. The industrial chemistry curriculum has a certain characteristic that makes it different from other technical courses: the higher amount of shared knowledge between different disciplines. As mentioned in the literature [11, 12], the classical teaching methods often fail in achieving the required fluidity between the curriculum subjects. By nature, an e-learning system allows modules from different

> **expertise in interactive education 29%**

disciplines to connect, and furthermore, to interact [13].

**multitask capability 16%**

**Figure 14.** Required skills when using ITC technology.

**ICT familiar 55%**

**Figure 15.** Main variables important for learners

**0**

**10**

**20**

**30**

**%**

**40**

**50**

**60**

with other learners; l - learning environment; m – none)

(a -experience in the subject; b - background knowledge; c-learning preferences; d-learning reaction towards technology; e - sensory pathways; f - cognitive processing abilities; g - emotional state; h - age differences; i - gender differences, j – cultural/ corporate /institutional societal values; k - collaboration

**abcde fgh i j k lm**

building-up a collaborative virtual community spread across Romania.

Face-to-face sessions with on-line and off-line activities have been designed and specially tailored digital educational resources for the K12 system have been implemented. Digital lectures and virtual laboratory experiments have been created for all main fields in chemistry (Inorganic, Organic, Analytical and Physical Chemistry). In order to improve the way chemistry is seen by high school students the project aimed to ensure: a relevant chemistry education philosophy, an optimized curriculum, and appropriate teaching approaches in chemistry by using ICT tools. Relevant assessment and evaluation strategies and relevant professional development for teachers have been also considered. The project also creates a collaborative virtual network between the chemistry teachers involved in the project which will be a good start for future collaborations.

As concerns the chemical engineering education in the faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, an important number of subjects such as analytical chemistry, chemical engineering bases, unit operations in chemical engineering, computer programming used the e-learning platform for teaching, and examination in a blend of assisted (virtual classroom) and non-assisted (virtual library) training sessions. Some examples are given bellow.

Figure 16 represents an aspect of some unit operation lecture included in the library of the e-learning system. As figure 16 shows, on the same slide students can see the main equations governing the design of a distillation column, the representation of vapour and liquid streams in the column and graphical solution for the calculation of the number of stages.

Figure 17 presents a moment from an Analytical Chemistry lesson, where the main steps in choosing the titration agent are explained. For each step links to further details are provided. Figure 18 presents an application for an interactive seminar session were students are asked to study a two-stage vapour compression refrigeration system. The application allows to choose the refrigerant, the suitable temperature ranges and to follow the fluid transformation in an enthalpy-pressure diagram.

In higher education chemistry laboratories, the practical experience is essential for students to increase their analytical skills and understanding of chemical concepts.

**Figure 18.** Vapour compression refrigeration system

substitute to traditional labs every now and then.

The necessity to follow strict directions are factors of limited time, large numbers of students, cost restrictions, and the need to ensure the safety of all students in the laboratory. Laboratories should not only provide students with the opportunity to increase their analytical skills, but also to actively engage in practical activities while learning. One alternative to the traditional laboratory are virtual and remote labs, which can provide an interactive learning environment and connections to real world scenarios. Virtual laboratories should be used in conjunction with traditional laboratories. Virtual laboratories can be used as pre-lab to traditional laboratories, followups for further exploration, or as

**Virtual laboratories** have been designed for both higher education and high-schools need. An example is a complex analytical chemistry experiment where students have to study the absorbance of a given indicator using the spectrophotometric analysis (figure 19). After a brief theoretical presentation (figures 19 a, and b) a new window is opened when the multimedia application button is activated. This window presents the laboratory equipment necessary for preparing buffer solutions of different *p*H values. The samples are prepared in Berzelius vessels using two burettes from two distinct solutions: citric acid and diacidic sodium phosphate (Figure 19 c); then different indicator solution at given pH values are obtained by mixing buffer and fixed indicator volume, while a final pH measurement is carried out (figures 19 d, and e). Figure 19 f presents the absorption spectrum of each solution obtained with the aid of a virtual spectrophotometer and the registration of the absorbance value. When the sample is analysed, a pop-up window opens to show the

**Figure 16.** Design of a distillation column: Lecture in e-learning platform

**Figure 17.** Analytical Chemistry lesson implemented in the library module.

**Figure 18.** Vapour compression refrigeration system

**Figure 16.** Design of a distillation column: Lecture in e-learning platform

**Figure 17.** Analytical Chemistry lesson implemented in the library module.

The necessity to follow strict directions are factors of limited time, large numbers of students, cost restrictions, and the need to ensure the safety of all students in the laboratory. Laboratories should not only provide students with the opportunity to increase their analytical skills, but also to actively engage in practical activities while learning. One alternative to the traditional laboratory are virtual and remote labs, which can provide an interactive learning environment and connections to real world scenarios. Virtual laboratories should be used in conjunction with traditional laboratories. Virtual laboratories can be used as pre-lab to traditional laboratories, followups for further exploration, or as substitute to traditional labs every now and then.

**Virtual laboratories** have been designed for both higher education and high-schools need. An example is a complex analytical chemistry experiment where students have to study the absorbance of a given indicator using the spectrophotometric analysis (figure 19). After a brief theoretical presentation (figures 19 a, and b) a new window is opened when the multimedia application button is activated. This window presents the laboratory equipment necessary for preparing buffer solutions of different *p*H values. The samples are prepared in Berzelius vessels using two burettes from two distinct solutions: citric acid and diacidic sodium phosphate (Figure 19 c); then different indicator solution at given pH values are obtained by mixing buffer and fixed indicator volume, while a final pH measurement is carried out (figures 19 d, and e). Figure 19 f presents the absorption spectrum of each solution obtained with the aid of a virtual spectrophotometer and the registration of the absorbance value. When the sample is analysed, a pop-up window opens to show the

spectrum, and, when selecting the red dot indicating the maximum absorption, the value is registered in the table (Figure 19 g). Finally, the calculation can be done according to the sheet that is provided by the application (Figure 19 h). As figure 19 shows, all principles of usability applied to a navigational system of a multimedia instruction system (as presented in section 2) are applied: indication of the place in the system, instruction to use the application (up left corner), pup-up buttons (figure 19 b).

E-Learning in Chemical Education 129

**Figure 19.** Spectrophotometric study of *p*H indicators

Apart from simulated laboratory experiments, a **remote laboratory module** was implemented in the e-learning system in the University 'Politehnica'of Bucharest [14]. This approach has both advantages and disadvantages. In the advantages category one should mention: provision of laboratory experience to on-campus students, as well as to distance learning students, more efficient use of premises and equipment, design of laboratory pilots matching closer the industrial reality, and increased responsibility of the student user when operating the available equipment.

As for drawbacks, the list includes consistent acquisition, implementation, and running (consumables, staff, energy) costs, and the development of on-line communication and security tools for continuous supervision of on- and off-campus students.

The remote laboratory module is based on an in-house developed robot consisting of a central processing unit, mechanical set-up for sample and sensors handling incorporating a stable frame, revolving disc, and a miniature step-by-step engine, and flexible sensor arms, chemical sensors, and the communication interface with the portal.

The graphical integration at level of workspace and teaching/learning space is defined for the two actors: teacher and student.

The teacher can create courses (embedding the theoretical parts of the experiment), schedule courses, add participants, and initiate the laboratory (sensors, solutions). The student can access the course assigned in the learning space, study the experiment theoretical issues, and finally perform the experiment.

The remote laboratory module can be accessed from the e-learning portal. The professor creates a course in the system and adds objects to the courses (Figure 20). Figure 21 presents the remote laboratory general structure.

The next major moment in education is implementation of computers, not only for teaching, finding information or solving complex calculus, but also for testing purposes. The creation and implementation of evaluation test grids was an important step in the development of our e-learning systems [15]. This already-not-so-new form of examination arises for both reducing-time and increasing-objectivity purposes (a written test contains now *many little problems*, instead of *few big problems*, and could be marked in real time). To avoid repetition, which leads the students to learn the grid instead of studying the course, the test grids should be *refreshed* from time to time.

The technical schools were the last to adopt this form of examination, mainly because it seems very unsuitable for this area. Usually, a test grid is composed from several *short questions*, each of them having a few given, alternative, and *exclusive* answers. This manner is perfect to test

**Figure 19.** Spectrophotometric study of *p*H indicators

128 Distance Education

spectrum, and, when selecting the red dot indicating the maximum absorption, the value is registered in the table (Figure 19 g). Finally, the calculation can be done according to the sheet that is provided by the application (Figure 19 h). As figure 19 shows, all principles of usability applied to a navigational system of a multimedia instruction system (as presented in section 2) are applied: indication of the place in the system, instruction to use the

Apart from simulated laboratory experiments, a **remote laboratory module** was implemented in the e-learning system in the University 'Politehnica'of Bucharest [14]. This approach has both advantages and disadvantages. In the advantages category one should mention: provision of laboratory experience to on-campus students, as well as to distance learning students, more efficient use of premises and equipment, design of laboratory pilots matching closer the industrial reality, and increased responsibility of the student user when

As for drawbacks, the list includes consistent acquisition, implementation, and running (consumables, staff, energy) costs, and the development of on-line communication and

The remote laboratory module is based on an in-house developed robot consisting of a central processing unit, mechanical set-up for sample and sensors handling incorporating a stable frame, revolving disc, and a miniature step-by-step engine, and flexible sensor arms,

The graphical integration at level of workspace and teaching/learning space is defined for

The teacher can create courses (embedding the theoretical parts of the experiment), schedule courses, add participants, and initiate the laboratory (sensors, solutions). The student can access the course assigned in the learning space, study the experiment theoretical issues, and

The remote laboratory module can be accessed from the e-learning portal. The professor creates a course in the system and adds objects to the courses (Figure 20). Figure 21 presents

The next major moment in education is implementation of computers, not only for teaching, finding information or solving complex calculus, but also for testing purposes. The creation and implementation of evaluation test grids was an important step in the development of our e-learning systems [15]. This already-not-so-new form of examination arises for both reducing-time and increasing-objectivity purposes (a written test contains now *many little problems*, instead of *few big problems*, and could be marked in real time). To avoid repetition, which leads the students to learn the grid instead of studying the course, the test grids

The technical schools were the last to adopt this form of examination, mainly because it seems very unsuitable for this area. Usually, a test grid is composed from several *short questions*, each of them having a few given, alternative, and *exclusive* answers. This manner is perfect to test

security tools for continuous supervision of on- and off-campus students.

chemical sensors, and the communication interface with the portal.

application (up left corner), pup-up buttons (figure 19 b).

operating the available equipment.

the two actors: teacher and student.

finally perform the experiment.

the remote laboratory general structure.

should be *refreshed* from time to time.


It is obvious that this kind of test grid is not suitable for technical purposes. But, with adequate reformulation the above example could be easily changed so that the student has

Now the equation should be *really* solved, although first two points could be prior checked, while there is always at least one real solution for a third degree equation and, from inspection of the positive free term, it yields that at least one negative solution arises (it represents the inverse product of all three solutions). In this manner, someone who doesn't know the formula or being in time-crisis (at the end of allocated time) could check something, but all requirements are fulfilled only by solving the equation. While several good answers could be expected, consequently a more refined evaluation is possible – if a student had checked only part of the correct alternatives, perhaps some fraction of the attached points should be given. The major disadvantage of all test grids may be real only

In this manner, one can have at the same time and in the same classroom up to 31 students solving the same problem, but with slightly different data. Also, a small database containing the given number for each student will allow repeating the test and get a different integer that will be assigned using a small program. In order to correct these slightly different problems, the instructor should solve them all, but this is not such a big obstacle while a lot of matrix-oriented solvers are available (Excel, Mathcad, MATLAB). Even the doublechecking and the point attribution could be carried out with an algorithm and a developed

An example of test grid implemented in the faculty e-learning platform for the final examination in "Chemical Engineering Bases" is given bellow. Each student receives three files in his directory, one containing the application text, where some data are given as functions of the number **N** (the exam number, which customizes the problems) (figure 22). Also, instructions to solve the problems are given in a separate file, while the third one contains an empty table to be filled by student only with his results (figure 23). This is another innovation: we are no longer interested in how the student works to solve the problem, since same type problems were already solved during the semester – our philosophy here is that perhaps two or three methods are appropriate to solve and at least

"For the given cubic equation x3 + (7.8 + 0.1·**N**)·x2 – 17.12·x + 5.28 = 0, please…"

to really solve the equation and, moreover, to test other connected abilities:

d. the absolute value of some real solutions is above unity;

a. all solutions are imaginary; b. all solutions are real and positive; c. all real solutions are positive;

e. the imaginary part of one solution is *i*; f. there are no real solution less than – 10; g. there are opposite real solutions; h. there is at least one null solution;…"

with bad composed / organized test grids.

code.

"For the cubic equation x3 + 9.4·x2 – 17.12·x + 5.28 = 0, please check the *false* answers:

**Figure 20.** Adding sensors from the sensors list

**Figure 21.** Remote laboratory structure

acquired information, such as geographic or historic data. Using an evaluation test grid for technical purposes means was avoiding some ridiculous situations like the following:

"Solve the given cubic equation and find its solutions: x3 + 9.4·x2 – 17.12·x + 5.28 = 0.


It is obvious that no abilities to *solve* high degree equations are tested here, since the candidate has nothing else to do but to *replace* the given values and check if they are real solutions. Although a test grid like this is usually called "with multiple choices", very often only *one* choice is true!

It is obvious that this kind of test grid is not suitable for technical purposes. But, with adequate reformulation the above example could be easily changed so that the student has to really solve the equation and, moreover, to test other connected abilities:

"For the cubic equation x3 + 9.4·x2 – 17.12·x + 5.28 = 0, please check the *false* answers:

a. all solutions are imaginary;

130 Distance Education

**Figure 20.** Adding sensors from the sensors list

**Figure 21.** Remote laboratory structure

a. 1.2; – 11; 0.4; b. 1; 0; – 1; c. i; 0; – i; d. – 1.2; 11; 0.4; e. 1.2; – 11; – 0.4".

only *one* choice is true!

acquired information, such as geographic or historic data. Using an evaluation test grid for technical purposes means was avoiding some ridiculous situations like the following:

It is obvious that no abilities to *solve* high degree equations are tested here, since the candidate has nothing else to do but to *replace* the given values and check if they are real solutions. Although a test grid like this is usually called "with multiple choices", very often

"Solve the given cubic equation and find its solutions: x3 + 9.4·x2 – 17.12·x + 5.28 = 0.


Now the equation should be *really* solved, although first two points could be prior checked, while there is always at least one real solution for a third degree equation and, from inspection of the positive free term, it yields that at least one negative solution arises (it represents the inverse product of all three solutions). In this manner, someone who doesn't know the formula or being in time-crisis (at the end of allocated time) could check something, but all requirements are fulfilled only by solving the equation. While several good answers could be expected, consequently a more refined evaluation is possible – if a student had checked only part of the correct alternatives, perhaps some fraction of the attached points should be given. The major disadvantage of all test grids may be real only with bad composed / organized test grids.

"For the given cubic equation x3 + (7.8 + 0.1·**N**)·x2 – 17.12·x + 5.28 = 0, please…"

In this manner, one can have at the same time and in the same classroom up to 31 students solving the same problem, but with slightly different data. Also, a small database containing the given number for each student will allow repeating the test and get a different integer that will be assigned using a small program. In order to correct these slightly different problems, the instructor should solve them all, but this is not such a big obstacle while a lot of matrix-oriented solvers are available (Excel, Mathcad, MATLAB). Even the doublechecking and the point attribution could be carried out with an algorithm and a developed code.

An example of test grid implemented in the faculty e-learning platform for the final examination in "Chemical Engineering Bases" is given bellow. Each student receives three files in his directory, one containing the application text, where some data are given as functions of the number **N** (the exam number, which customizes the problems) (figure 22). Also, instructions to solve the problems are given in a separate file, while the third one contains an empty table to be filled by student only with his results (figure 23). This is another innovation: we are no longer interested in how the student works to solve the problem, since same type problems were already solved during the semester – our philosophy here is that perhaps two or three methods are appropriate to solve and at least

one hundred various mistakes could happen, so there no "prizes" only for applying an appropriate formula to get a wrong answer.

E-Learning in Chemical Education 133

**Figure 24.** Solutions for parametrical problem

difficulty.

Next stage of an on-line examination is the *theoretical test grid*. When the test grid is prepared, other innovations may be used. First, the whole taught material is divided into "slices", say *subjects* (for example, several subjects could arise from each lecture – they are like paragraphs in the book). Next, the *text* for every subject should be formulated as generally as possible (and yet, very brief, for example, "Identify true / false statements", "check the correct / wrong answers", etc.). Then, for each subject, a small database containing a large number of options, either true or false, is constructed. The number could be increased from time to time, and also each variant could be modified if necessary. For example, from chapter 2 of a given course, six subjects can be formulated, numbered 5 to 10, each one having more than 10 answers (at least one is true and/or one is false). Usually, there is almost the same number of true and false alternatives. The central point is how to construct a test grid from this database, in order to be both *complete* and *new*, even for students who re-sit the examination? This can be done using a *selection* algorithm, which is instructed to randomly choose an established number of subjects from each chapter. In the given example, there will be 2 subjects, of any combination of numbers between 5 and 10. At the lower level, the algorithm will randomly select a given number of variants (say 5 or 6) from the given database; the *order* (i.e., the position in the list, denoted by small letters, from **a** to **e**) could differ, the only constraint being to have at least one true and one false answer. Tests are automatically generated in this manner, and they have a different content, customized for each candidate. Also, a variable solving time could be used, to adjust to the

Figure 25 presents some theoretical test-grids implemented in the faculty e-learning system.

A well mixed vessel with a volume of V=5 m3 , contains m0=(1000+100 N) Kg of an aqueous solution of a salt, A, having the initial concentration wA,0=0,15 (mass fraction). The vessel has an overflow and a bottom drain connection. At a given moment, the vessel is fed at constant flowrate, Gm,i=(5-0.15N) kg/s with salt concentration of wA,i=0.3-0.01N. After 10 min, the liquid in the vessel begins to be evacuated by the bottom drain with constant flowrate Gm,e=10 kg/s. 1. What is the maximum quantity of solution in the vessel? 2. What is the corresponding salt concentration when the maximum quantity of solution is in the vessel? 3. Calculate the required time to evacuate all the liquid in the vessel (min). 4. What is the salt concentration in the vessel after 15 min from the beginning of the experiment. Note: The density of the solution is considered to be 1000 kg/m3 whatever the value of the salt concentration.

**Figure 22.** A personalized numerical evaluation test containing the parameter N).

A good engineer should supply the *approximate* good answer in a limited time, no matter the method. The table supplied is an Excel sheet, protected to receive only figures in some cells, and perhaps with imposed measure units in others. This type of table is very easy to be collected and passed through a validation algorithm, were some intervals are checked against written numbers (i.e., there are accepted solutions having small deviations like ±5%, of course if this is not *aberrant*).

Results double-check against a "teacher's table of truth", containing already solved applications for all numbers **N**, like in figure 24 (this time, a Mathcad sheet) were also provided.


**Figure 23.** Answering table for problems

**Figure 24.** Solutions for parametrical problem

vessel?

concentration.

appropriate formula to get a wrong answer.

A well mixed vessel with a volume of V=5 m3

1. What is the maximum quantity of solution in the vessel?

Note: The density of the solution is considered to be 1000 kg/m3

of course if this is not *aberrant*).

**Figure 23.** Answering table for problems

provided.

one hundred various mistakes could happen, so there no "prizes" only for applying an

solution of a salt, A, having the initial concentration wA,0=0,15 (mass fraction). The vessel has an overflow and a bottom drain connection. At a given moment, the vessel is fed at constant flowrate, Gm,i=(5-0.15N) kg/s with salt concentration of wA,i=0.3-0.01N. After 10 min, the liquid in the vessel

2. What is the corresponding salt concentration when the maximum quantity of solution is in the

4. What is the salt concentration in the vessel after 15 min from the beginning of the experiment.

, contains m0=(1000+100 N) Kg of an aqueous

whatever the value of the salt

A good engineer should supply the *approximate* good answer in a limited time, no matter the method. The table supplied is an Excel sheet, protected to receive only figures in some cells, and perhaps with imposed measure units in others. This type of table is very easy to be collected and passed through a validation algorithm, were some intervals are checked against written numbers (i.e., there are accepted solutions having small deviations like ±5%,

Results double-check against a "teacher's table of truth", containing already solved applications for all numbers **N**, like in figure 24 (this time, a Mathcad sheet) were also

**Figure 22.** A personalized numerical evaluation test containing the parameter N).

begins to be evacuated by the bottom drain with constant flowrate Gm,e=10 kg/s.

3. Calculate the required time to evacuate all the liquid in the vessel (min).

Next stage of an on-line examination is the *theoretical test grid*. When the test grid is prepared, other innovations may be used. First, the whole taught material is divided into "slices", say *subjects* (for example, several subjects could arise from each lecture – they are like paragraphs in the book). Next, the *text* for every subject should be formulated as generally as possible (and yet, very brief, for example, "Identify true / false statements", "check the correct / wrong answers", etc.). Then, for each subject, a small database containing a large number of options, either true or false, is constructed. The number could be increased from time to time, and also each variant could be modified if necessary. For example, from chapter 2 of a given course, six subjects can be formulated, numbered 5 to 10, each one having more than 10 answers (at least one is true and/or one is false). Usually, there is almost the same number of true and false alternatives. The central point is how to construct a test grid from this database, in order to be both *complete* and *new*, even for students who re-sit the examination? This can be done using a *selection* algorithm, which is instructed to randomly choose an established number of subjects from each chapter. In the given example, there will be 2 subjects, of any combination of numbers between 5 and 10. At the lower level, the algorithm will randomly select a given number of variants (say 5 or 6) from the given database; the *order* (i.e., the position in the list, denoted by small letters, from **a** to **e**) could differ, the only constraint being to have at least one true and one false answer. Tests are automatically generated in this manner, and they have a different content, customized for each candidate. Also, a variable solving time could be used, to adjust to the difficulty.

Figure 25 presents some theoretical test-grids implemented in the faculty e-learning system.

E-Learning in Chemical Education 135

As concerning specific content development for high school education, applications were created in order to make more attractive all basic chemistry knowledge, such as the periodic table of elements, the chemical bonds, physical and chemical properties of elements and compounds. Some more complex lessons were also designed in order to increase the interest of young people towards practical applications of chemistry in various technical fields and environment protection. As research has shown, chemistry teaching is unpopular and irrelevant in the eyes of students, does not promote higher order cognitive skills, leads to gaps between the students' wishes and teachers' teaching and, most important, is not changing, because teachers are afraid of change and need guidance [16]. The usage of vivid lessons involving ICT tools is expected to increase the interest towards chemistry in

The content implemented in the e-learning platform as an aid for high school chemistry education is designed according to the pedagogy-technology relationship presented earlier, in order to be easy to access and attractive. Some examples are given in the followings, to

Figure 26 shows how chemical bonds are explained in an inorganic chemistry class. As figure 26 shows, two atoms with unpaired electrons (a) can create double or triple bounds

Figure 27 is a moment from an inorganic chemistry lesson where the dissolution of an ionic salt in polar solvents (water) is explained. On the left side of the screen some theoretical explanation is given. On the left it is shown how water, that is pored over solid NaCl crystal, acts upon the ions in the crystalline structure, displacing ions, and, finally, both chloride and

Another example is the presentation of a simple experimental device to calculate the capacity of an accumulator. This is implemented as interactive lesson for high school students in the XIth grade. The experimental set-up must be built by using its elements (Figure 28 a). The application allows only the use of the correct positions for each element in the predefined scheme. When the experimental setup is ready, the experiment may start and the results are registered automatically (Figure 28 b), until the accumulator is totally discharged (Figure 28 c). Based on simulated experimental data the calculation sheet is

Some easy to use virtual laboratories are designed for environmental protection lectures. Figures 29-31 present three moments of a virtual laboratory studying the evolution of two

Figure 29 corresponds to the initial moment, when all the four plants are full of life. When the "start" button, placed in the window down on the left side, is activated the simulation of plants evolution begins. After starting the application, the clock indicates the elapsed time and so does the calendar on the shelf. Figure 30 corresponds to the situation noticed after 4 days: the plants in water are flourishing, while those in simulated acid rain regress. After 6

plants (begonia and philodendron) in water and simulated acid rain water.

days (Figure 31), the plants in simulated acid rain water are no more alive.

illustrate all domains in which interactive lessons are available.

(b) that are represented in a schematic manner as figured in (c).

Romanian high schools.

sodium ions move freely in solution.

provided (Figure 28 d).


**Figure 25.** Evaluation grid test in analytical chemistry examination.

As concerning specific content development for high school education, applications were created in order to make more attractive all basic chemistry knowledge, such as the periodic table of elements, the chemical bonds, physical and chemical properties of elements and compounds. Some more complex lessons were also designed in order to increase the interest of young people towards practical applications of chemistry in various technical fields and environment protection. As research has shown, chemistry teaching is unpopular and irrelevant in the eyes of students, does not promote higher order cognitive skills, leads to gaps between the students' wishes and teachers' teaching and, most important, is not changing, because teachers are afraid of change and need guidance [16]. The usage of vivid lessons involving ICT tools is expected to increase the interest towards chemistry in Romanian high schools.

134 Distance Education

**Figure 25.** Evaluation grid test in analytical chemistry examination.

The content implemented in the e-learning platform as an aid for high school chemistry education is designed according to the pedagogy-technology relationship presented earlier, in order to be easy to access and attractive. Some examples are given in the followings, to illustrate all domains in which interactive lessons are available.

Figure 26 shows how chemical bonds are explained in an inorganic chemistry class. As figure 26 shows, two atoms with unpaired electrons (a) can create double or triple bounds (b) that are represented in a schematic manner as figured in (c).

Figure 27 is a moment from an inorganic chemistry lesson where the dissolution of an ionic salt in polar solvents (water) is explained. On the left side of the screen some theoretical explanation is given. On the left it is shown how water, that is pored over solid NaCl crystal, acts upon the ions in the crystalline structure, displacing ions, and, finally, both chloride and sodium ions move freely in solution.

Another example is the presentation of a simple experimental device to calculate the capacity of an accumulator. This is implemented as interactive lesson for high school students in the XIth grade. The experimental set-up must be built by using its elements (Figure 28 a). The application allows only the use of the correct positions for each element in the predefined scheme. When the experimental setup is ready, the experiment may start and the results are registered automatically (Figure 28 b), until the accumulator is totally discharged (Figure 28 c). Based on simulated experimental data the calculation sheet is provided (Figure 28 d).

Some easy to use virtual laboratories are designed for environmental protection lectures. Figures 29-31 present three moments of a virtual laboratory studying the evolution of two plants (begonia and philodendron) in water and simulated acid rain water.

Figure 29 corresponds to the initial moment, when all the four plants are full of life. When the "start" button, placed in the window down on the left side, is activated the simulation of plants evolution begins. After starting the application, the clock indicates the elapsed time and so does the calendar on the shelf. Figure 30 corresponds to the situation noticed after 4 days: the plants in water are flourishing, while those in simulated acid rain regress. After 6 days (Figure 31), the plants in simulated acid rain water are no more alive.

**Figure 28.** Virtual experimental to calculate the capacity of a Ni-Cd accumulator

**Figure 29.** Environmental protection virtual laboratory-plants in water and simulated acid rain-initial

moment

**Figure 26.** Animation used in teaching the formation of covalent bonds.

**Figure 27.** Properties of ionic compounds

**Figure 28.** Virtual experimental to calculate the capacity of a Ni-Cd accumulator

136 Distance Education

**Figure 26.** Animation used in teaching the formation of covalent bonds.

**Figure 27.** Properties of ionic compounds

**Figure 29.** Environmental protection virtual laboratory-plants in water and simulated acid rain-initial moment

The use of ITC tools in teaching chemistry and chemical engineering can help K12 and higher education students to understand theoretical concepts easier and make chemistry a more attractive subject. The experience gained over the time by part of the teaching staff in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Material Sciences in developing and delivering educational resources with the aid of ICT tools has been shared in the present chapter, giving enough evidence that computer aided instruction is a valid, modern pedagogical approach for high school and university educators, will lead to increasing quality of education, and represents a realistic strategy for convincing young people to approach jobs

*Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Material Sciences, University Politehnica of Bucharest, District 1,* 

[1] Baltac V and Mihalca D (2007) On Romanian Experiences Related to Universities and ICT industry. 2nd IT STAR Workshop Universities and ICT Industry, Genzano. [2] Pearson J (2006) Investigating ICT Using Problem-Based Learning in Face-to Face and

[3] Josceanu A M, Isopescu R, Pleşu V, Zelch O (2006) Scorm-Based Content Delivery and e-Learning Platform for Chemical Engineering Education in University 'Politehnica' of

[4] Onofrei R, Josceanu A M, Postelnicescu P, Pleşu V (2005) e-Learning Interactivity Approach in Chemical Engineering Education. Chemical Engineering Transactions 7:

[5] Elshorbagy A and Schönwetter D (2001) Engineer Morphing: Bridging the Gap between Classroom Teaching and the Engineering Profession. Int. J. Engng. Ed. 3: 295-300. [6] Josceanu A M, Isopescu R, Postelnicescu P, Onofrei V, Plesu V (2007) E-Learning Support for Bologna-based Curricula for Chemical Engineering Education. Chemical

[7] Josceanu A M, Isopescu R, Postelnicescu P, Dumitrescu A M, Plesu V, Zelch O, Stefan C (2008) Enhancing higher chemical engineering education and collaboration in the frame

[8] Josceanu A M, Postelnicescu P, Dumitrescu A, Danciu T (2008) Communication and collaboration in the frame of an e-learning platform in chemical engineering education.

9th European Conference E-COMM-LINE 2008, Bucharest, CD-ROM of full texts.

of an e-learning platform. PRES 2008, Prague, CD-ROM of full texts.

**5. Conclusions** 

**Author details** 

*Bucharest, Romania* 

**6. References** 

431-436.

in science and engineering as a valid life perspective.

Paula Postelnicescu, Anca Madalina Dumitrescu and Razvan Onofrei

Online Learning Environments. Computers & Education 47: 56-73.

Ana Maria Josceanu, Raluca Daniela Isopescu,

Bucharest. PRES 2006, Prague.

Engineering Transactions 12: 561-566.

**Figure 30.** Environmental protection virtual laboratory-plants in water and simulated acid rain-after 4 days

**Figure 31.** Environmental protection virtual laboratory-plants in water and simulated acid rain-after six days

#### **5. Conclusions**

138 Distance Education

days

days

**Figure 30.** Environmental protection virtual laboratory-plants in water and simulated acid rain-after 4

**Figure 31.** Environmental protection virtual laboratory-plants in water and simulated acid rain-after six

The use of ITC tools in teaching chemistry and chemical engineering can help K12 and higher education students to understand theoretical concepts easier and make chemistry a more attractive subject. The experience gained over the time by part of the teaching staff in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Material Sciences in developing and delivering educational resources with the aid of ICT tools has been shared in the present chapter, giving enough evidence that computer aided instruction is a valid, modern pedagogical approach for high school and university educators, will lead to increasing quality of education, and represents a realistic strategy for convincing young people to approach jobs in science and engineering as a valid life perspective.

### **Author details**

Ana Maria Josceanu, Raluca Daniela Isopescu,

Paula Postelnicescu, Anca Madalina Dumitrescu and Razvan Onofrei *Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Material Sciences, University Politehnica of Bucharest, District 1, Bucharest, Romania* 

#### **6. References**


[9] Josceanu A M, Dumitrescu A M, Danciu T, Isopescu R, Postelnicescu P, Pleşu V, Stefan C (2010) E-Learning Today. Chemical Engineering Transactions 21: 1057-1062.

**Chapter 6** 

© 2012 Barilli, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Virtual Reality Technology as an Didactical and** 

**Pedagogical Resource in Distance Education for** 

When we read a good book, soon our imagination takes us to amazing situations: in an instant we are transported to sumptuous castles... in another we are piloting huge spaceships or traveling inside the human body. More than this, we sometimes ask ourselves how it would be like if fiction became reality and we could fly through clouds or explore

Today, what seemed impossible 'can' already be done through a technology that combined knowledge from many different domains (Anatomy, Biology, Biochemistry, Physics, Computer Sciences, Graphic Design, etc.) into one single multi-disciplinary entity capable of providing non-specialized users virtual worlds that simulate reality with a wealth of detail, giving them even the subtlest of sensations through its output devices. As regards the 'real world', in some areas like Health, there is no room for rehearsals and much less for errors.

Virtual Reality (VR) involves revolutionary technologies in the development of applications, as a result of the new possibilities it gives to the man-content interface, via multi-sensorial devices, navigation in three-dimensional spaces, immersion in the context of the application

Costa et al (2001) state that VR is the most natural of the Man-Computer Interfaces (MCI) due to its potential for multi-sensorial interaction. This means that, through this technology, the computer-generated virtual environment can provide the user with interaction with the use of senses (sight, hearing, touch and, more recently, smell). Apart from that, due to the manipulation of objects and movement in the environment happening in real time, the

Technical mastery can mean the difference between life and death.

**Professional Training** 

Elomar Christina Vieira Castilho Barilli

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50625

**1. Introduction** 

subsea mountain ranges?

and real time interaction.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter


## **Virtual Reality Technology as an Didactical and Pedagogical Resource in Distance Education for Professional Training**

Elomar Christina Vieira Castilho Barilli

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50625

## **1. Introduction**

140 Distance Education

education institutions.

Publications. pp 6.

Transactions 18: 773-778.

CD-ROM of full texts.

International 6:1-12.

[9] Josceanu A M, Dumitrescu A M, Danciu T, Isopescu R, Postelnicescu P, Pleşu V, Stefan C (2010) E-Learning Today. Chemical Engineering Transactions 21: 1057-1062. [10] Project no.1270/2006 Development of an advanced e-learning platform for higher

[11] McCowan J (2002) An Integrated and Comprehensive Approach to Engineering

[12] Wanks S (1995) Curriculum design. From an art towards a science. Berlin: Tempus

[13] Kartan N, Al-Reshaid K (2002) Design and Implementation of a Web-based Multimedia

[14] Josceanu A M, Postelnicescu P, Dumitrescu A M, Pleşu V, Stefan C (2009) Remote Control Experiments in Chemical Engineering Education, Chemical Engineering

[15] Danciu T, Dumitrescu A M, Postelnicescu P, Josceanu A M (2009) Test Grids in Technical Universities. The 10th European Conference E-COMM-LINE 2009, Bucharest,

[16] Holbrook J (2005) Making Chemistry Teaching Relevant. Chemical Education

Curricula Part Two: Techniques. Int. J. Enging. Ed. 18: 638-643.

Techniques for Construction Education. Int. J. Engng. Ed. 4:682-691.

When we read a good book, soon our imagination takes us to amazing situations: in an instant we are transported to sumptuous castles... in another we are piloting huge spaceships or traveling inside the human body. More than this, we sometimes ask ourselves how it would be like if fiction became reality and we could fly through clouds or explore subsea mountain ranges?

Today, what seemed impossible 'can' already be done through a technology that combined knowledge from many different domains (Anatomy, Biology, Biochemistry, Physics, Computer Sciences, Graphic Design, etc.) into one single multi-disciplinary entity capable of providing non-specialized users virtual worlds that simulate reality with a wealth of detail, giving them even the subtlest of sensations through its output devices. As regards the 'real world', in some areas like Health, there is no room for rehearsals and much less for errors. Technical mastery can mean the difference between life and death.

Virtual Reality (VR) involves revolutionary technologies in the development of applications, as a result of the new possibilities it gives to the man-content interface, via multi-sensorial devices, navigation in three-dimensional spaces, immersion in the context of the application and real time interaction.

Costa et al (2001) state that VR is the most natural of the Man-Computer Interfaces (MCI) due to its potential for multi-sensorial interaction. This means that, through this technology, the computer-generated virtual environment can provide the user with interaction with the use of senses (sight, hearing, touch and, more recently, smell). Apart from that, due to the manipulation of objects and movement in the environment happening in real time, the

© 2012 Barilli, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

authors believe that the big advantage of this interface lies in the fact that experiences occurring in the physical world can be intuitively changed in the virtual world.

Virtual Reality Technology as an Didactical and

Pedagogical Resource in Distance Education for Professional Training 143

VRML is a platform-independent language that describes and enables the creation of 3-D virtual environments on the Internet, where one can browse and visualize objects from different angles and interact with them, changing their characteristics if necessary. The immersion is not possible in VRML sites although they offer 3-D worlds, interactive and integrated with other worlds and Web links, giving them a flexible access nature (they can

The VRML environment can be written with a code produced in a word processor, describing the environment and the events associated with it, with no need of a compiler. The applications can then be produced with the use of commercially available editing software (Cosmo World, ISA and others), that will be interpreted by the browser with the assistance of a plug-in (http://www.cortona3-D.with/Products/Viewer/Cortona-3-D-Viewer.aspx). For more complex projects, however, 3-D modulators and graphics editors

Its execution is run from a link that, once decoded by the browser, loads a text file with the description of the environment and, after that, loads the textures. In other words, to open a Web address (URL) that contains a VRML document (**.wrl** extension). Once the browser detects the file type, a VRML visualizing plug-in enables the visualization and movement of the objects in the 3-D virtual world. From there on, the system is operated by the user.

The figure below shows a VR app for the Web where the student can rotate, and zoom the object in and out, apart from simulating different weighing operations and calibrations.

**Figure 1.** Distance Education Course on Food and Nutrition Inspection for Indigenous Health: Training

in Anthropometrics (http://www.DE.fiocruz.br/course/index.cfm?cursoid=794) Distance Education Coordination of the Brazilian Public Health School – Fundação Oswaldo Cruz

be accessed from notebooks, tablets, smartphones etc.).

should be used as support tools.

As regards Education, it should be pointed that the increase in the use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) requires the construction of a new pedagogical model in which the educational activities for the apprehending of (re)constructed knowledge promote the use of its resources to assist human beings to overcome physical, social, and cultural barriers universally.

Beyond the factors that are connected only to scope and/or scale, Education seeks more than expanding access opportunities. The challenge is to diversify the ways to present and represent the organized bodies of knowledge to foster the construction of meanings for cognitive appropriation.

Its goal is to enable the student to reflect on his or her own needs and potentials, contributing to the development of a critical consciousness about the contents that are relevant for the educational process, allowing them to decide when and how to use the knowledge acquired.

The integration of these factors make Distance Education (DE) one of the most promising educational alternatives, for its capacity to transcend time and space and assist in the development of an organized stance while providing human interaction and favoring cooperative learning.

In this context, the use of VR technology can contribute to motivate the learning experience through the 'experiencing of real phenomena', being free of the consequences the real world imposes. Thus, new educational possibilities can arise from the VR-DE integration.

At the same time, Colleges and Universities are experiencing a special moment, resulting from contemporary social demands: to prepare future professionals for a highly competitive job market, which requires workers with special profiles, well-defined technical competencies but, chiefly, capable of critically thinking about the daily phenomena of work and, with a generalist basis and knowledge, propose solutions to solve complex problems.

As a result, apart from technique and basic competencies (reading, understanding, interpreting, listening...), other highly-valued human competencies come to the fore (such as negotiating, getting to know the context of work, applying the method, sharing...,), as well as being adapted to the technological world people live in. Indeed, the creation of different technologies seems to emphasize its status as pre-requisite for the access to the possibilities of qualification for the job, through physical attendance to classes or in distance education.

In the field of professional training education the knowledge applied is multi-disciplinary and complex, and often requires visualization and manipulation. Thus, VR technology is a powerful ally to the 'from a distance' education proposal, capable of providing multiple educational opportunities. Together with it, the use of VRML (Virtual Modeling Language) enabled the use of its applications on the Internet, which contributes to the use of VR in education. Apart from the simulation of reality, after VRML its systems and applications became lighter and faster, an important feature in e-learning educational processes.

VRML is a platform-independent language that describes and enables the creation of 3-D virtual environments on the Internet, where one can browse and visualize objects from different angles and interact with them, changing their characteristics if necessary. The immersion is not possible in VRML sites although they offer 3-D worlds, interactive and integrated with other worlds and Web links, giving them a flexible access nature (they can be accessed from notebooks, tablets, smartphones etc.).

142 Distance Education

cultural barriers universally.

cognitive appropriation.

knowledge acquired.

cooperative learning.

authors believe that the big advantage of this interface lies in the fact that experiences

As regards Education, it should be pointed that the increase in the use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) requires the construction of a new pedagogical model in which the educational activities for the apprehending of (re)constructed knowledge promote the use of its resources to assist human beings to overcome physical, social, and

Beyond the factors that are connected only to scope and/or scale, Education seeks more than expanding access opportunities. The challenge is to diversify the ways to present and represent the organized bodies of knowledge to foster the construction of meanings for

Its goal is to enable the student to reflect on his or her own needs and potentials, contributing to the development of a critical consciousness about the contents that are relevant for the educational process, allowing them to decide when and how to use the

The integration of these factors make Distance Education (DE) one of the most promising educational alternatives, for its capacity to transcend time and space and assist in the development of an organized stance while providing human interaction and favoring

In this context, the use of VR technology can contribute to motivate the learning experience through the 'experiencing of real phenomena', being free of the consequences the real world

At the same time, Colleges and Universities are experiencing a special moment, resulting from contemporary social demands: to prepare future professionals for a highly competitive job market, which requires workers with special profiles, well-defined technical competencies but, chiefly, capable of critically thinking about the daily phenomena of work and, with a generalist basis and knowledge, propose solutions to solve complex problems.

As a result, apart from technique and basic competencies (reading, understanding, interpreting, listening...), other highly-valued human competencies come to the fore (such as negotiating, getting to know the context of work, applying the method, sharing...,), as well as being adapted to the technological world people live in. Indeed, the creation of different technologies seems to emphasize its status as pre-requisite for the access to the possibilities of qualification for the job, through physical attendance to classes or in distance education. In the field of professional training education the knowledge applied is multi-disciplinary and complex, and often requires visualization and manipulation. Thus, VR technology is a powerful ally to the 'from a distance' education proposal, capable of providing multiple educational opportunities. Together with it, the use of VRML (Virtual Modeling Language) enabled the use of its applications on the Internet, which contributes to the use of VR in education. Apart from the simulation of reality, after VRML its systems and applications

imposes. Thus, new educational possibilities can arise from the VR-DE integration.

became lighter and faster, an important feature in e-learning educational processes.

occurring in the physical world can be intuitively changed in the virtual world.

The VRML environment can be written with a code produced in a word processor, describing the environment and the events associated with it, with no need of a compiler. The applications can then be produced with the use of commercially available editing software (Cosmo World, ISA and others), that will be interpreted by the browser with the assistance of a plug-in (http://www.cortona3-D.with/Products/Viewer/Cortona-3-D-Viewer.aspx). For more complex projects, however, 3-D modulators and graphics editors should be used as support tools.

Its execution is run from a link that, once decoded by the browser, loads a text file with the description of the environment and, after that, loads the textures. In other words, to open a Web address (URL) that contains a VRML document (**.wrl** extension). Once the browser detects the file type, a VRML visualizing plug-in enables the visualization and movement of the objects in the 3-D virtual world. From there on, the system is operated by the user.

The figure below shows a VR app for the Web where the student can rotate, and zoom the object in and out, apart from simulating different weighing operations and calibrations.

**Figure 1.** Distance Education Course on Food and Nutrition Inspection for Indigenous Health: Training in Anthropometrics (http://www.DE.fiocruz.br/course/index.cfm?cursoid=794) Distance Education Coordination of the Brazilian Public Health School – Fundação Oswaldo Cruz

## **2. Pedagogical or technological reference: Which one is more powerful?**

Virtual Reality Technology as an Didactical and

Pedagogical Resource in Distance Education for Professional Training 145

Based on these points, strategies for professional qualification currently include elements related to the theoretical principles of psychopedagogy, relating them to the construction of knowledge from experience (constructivism), resulting from human cooperation in a social context (social constructivism), observing the ways of teaching and learning that are

Andragogy examines how adult students learn, incorporating to the educational project elements such as the needs of problem identification, analysis, decision-making, and autonomy. Significant Learning brings relevant context elements to the learning process,

As regards professional qualification education, the theoretical lines mentioned comply with the approach of Permanent Education (PE). PE is the concept in teaching/learning adopted by the Brazilian Health Sector, which recommends organic relations between teaching and the actions of the health services. PE starts at work, transforming everyday events into

Teaching strategies attempt to take the student to identify the critical moments in the daily life at work and study them under the light of a theoretical set of references aimed at

The goal of PE is therefore to qualify the work practices through education. In this conceptual scenario, the use of active learning methodologies seems to be the obvious choice, building teaching strategies that focus on provoking a reflection on real situations of the work context (case studies and problematic situations) to enable the student to reflect

In this context, the diversification of contents and the presentation of a simulation of

[...] From the perspective of today's Cognitive Psychology, the human mind is regarded as a system that computes representations. The mind receives sensorial information from the world and generates representations about it. These mental representations are

VR acts here as a tool capable of meeting the educational needs in distance teaching contexts, as it entails different cognitive styles and sensations of the outside world. VR rises as a new interface generation where, using tridimensional representations that are closer to the reality of the user, it allows breaking the barrier of the screen, enabling

From e-mail to the GPS, much has been discussed about the ways to provide distance education, its potential and limitations in a scenario of social and cultural diversity that rises from a proposal that goes beyond time and space: the role of the actors involved, the ways

provoked by the theories of Andragogy and significant learning.

allowing the construction of sense (meaning) for the student.

decision-making and towards a more effective action.

external stimuli will certainly help motivate and enhance learning.

ways to intimately re-present the outside world (p.10).

natural interactions (Kirner and Siscouto, 2007, p.4)

to construct and acquire knowledge...

learning situations.

For Santos (2008),

and question one's own reality.

## **2.1. Permanent professional training**

With the aim of demystifying the use of VR or any other technology (given that technology is not a panacea capable of solving the issues of education, but a resource to strengthen it) it should be noted that the theoretical-pedagogical reference is the element that determines the entire educational project the technology is inserted in.

According to Darsie (1999, p. 9), 'all the educational practice carries in it a theory of knowledge'. Thus, should the pedagogical orientation adopt "instructivism", which embraces an associationist and mechanistic epistemology (Neves and Damiani, 2006), the use of technological innovations will only reproduce traditional educational models supported on the pedagogy of memorization (mechanical learning), error and success.

On the contrary, that which is sought is the use of VR, with the implementation of construction processes that find identity with the theories of interaction-based constructivism and with dialectics, which bring as fundamental truths: 1) that all knowledge comes from social practice and returns to it; and 2) that knowledge is a collective undertaking, and cannot be produced in the loneliness of the subject (Vygotsky, 1984 apud Neves and Daminani, 2006). According to Beker (1993), authors considered as social constructivists such as Piaget, Freud, Vygotsky, Wallon, Luria, Baktin, and Freinet have the action of the student as a praxis in the medium of the learning process, as their common place, understanding 'praxis' as any intervention of human beings in society and on nature.

To the authors above, we can add to the theoretical premises that steer the learning processes to the autonomy, liberation, and citizenship of the student, via the dialogue.

DE can and should be considered as an educational modality that brings with it technology as a strategic resource that, if used 'rationally', can work as a mediating instrument between contents and learning. However, discussing the rational use of the technology in education requires a reflection on some points: 1) with physical presence or from a distance, the educational proposal is inserted in the field of Education and should therefore be subjected to its theoretical and methodological premises, that is, education with physical presence and DE are not different things that should be treated according to different theoretical references and therefore...; 2) the pedagogical reference should be the guiding element for the planning, definition of strategies, actions and resources (media). Thus..., 3) the means of communication are conditioned by the access parameters of the public that is the target of the educational proposal, and; 4) the teacher responsible for the pedagogical mediation (teaching), should get educational assistance to support one's actions.

The UNESCO's World Declaration on Higher Education in the 21st Century established essential elements, where we can find: the concern with social issues, the emphasis on fundamental values and the giving value to diversity in Education through the innovative use of educational methods that allow critical thinking, expansion, creativity, and growth opportunities through Distance Education.

Based on these points, strategies for professional qualification currently include elements related to the theoretical principles of psychopedagogy, relating them to the construction of knowledge from experience (constructivism), resulting from human cooperation in a social context (social constructivism), observing the ways of teaching and learning that are provoked by the theories of Andragogy and significant learning.

Andragogy examines how adult students learn, incorporating to the educational project elements such as the needs of problem identification, analysis, decision-making, and autonomy. Significant Learning brings relevant context elements to the learning process, allowing the construction of sense (meaning) for the student.

As regards professional qualification education, the theoretical lines mentioned comply with the approach of Permanent Education (PE). PE is the concept in teaching/learning adopted by the Brazilian Health Sector, which recommends organic relations between teaching and the actions of the health services. PE starts at work, transforming everyday events into learning situations.

Teaching strategies attempt to take the student to identify the critical moments in the daily life at work and study them under the light of a theoretical set of references aimed at decision-making and towards a more effective action.

The goal of PE is therefore to qualify the work practices through education. In this conceptual scenario, the use of active learning methodologies seems to be the obvious choice, building teaching strategies that focus on provoking a reflection on real situations of the work context (case studies and problematic situations) to enable the student to reflect and question one's own reality.

In this context, the diversification of contents and the presentation of a simulation of external stimuli will certainly help motivate and enhance learning.

For Santos (2008),

144 Distance Education

**2.1. Permanent professional training** 

entire educational project the technology is inserted in.

**2. Pedagogical or technological reference: Which one is more powerful?** 

With the aim of demystifying the use of VR or any other technology (given that technology is not a panacea capable of solving the issues of education, but a resource to strengthen it) it should be noted that the theoretical-pedagogical reference is the element that determines the

According to Darsie (1999, p. 9), 'all the educational practice carries in it a theory of knowledge'. Thus, should the pedagogical orientation adopt "instructivism", which embraces an associationist and mechanistic epistemology (Neves and Damiani, 2006), the use of technological innovations will only reproduce traditional educational models supported on the pedagogy of memorization (mechanical learning), error and success.

On the contrary, that which is sought is the use of VR, with the implementation of construction processes that find identity with the theories of interaction-based constructivism and with dialectics, which bring as fundamental truths: 1) that all knowledge comes from social practice and returns to it; and 2) that knowledge is a collective undertaking, and cannot be produced in the loneliness of the subject (Vygotsky, 1984 apud Neves and Daminani, 2006). According to Beker (1993), authors considered as social constructivists such as Piaget, Freud, Vygotsky, Wallon, Luria, Baktin, and Freinet have the action of the student as a praxis in the medium of the learning process, as their common place, understanding 'praxis' as any intervention of human beings in society and on nature.

To the authors above, we can add to the theoretical premises that steer the learning processes to the autonomy, liberation, and citizenship of the student, via the dialogue.

DE can and should be considered as an educational modality that brings with it technology as a strategic resource that, if used 'rationally', can work as a mediating instrument between contents and learning. However, discussing the rational use of the technology in education requires a reflection on some points: 1) with physical presence or from a distance, the educational proposal is inserted in the field of Education and should therefore be subjected to its theoretical and methodological premises, that is, education with physical presence and DE are not different things that should be treated according to different theoretical references and therefore...; 2) the pedagogical reference should be the guiding element for the planning, definition of strategies, actions and resources (media). Thus..., 3) the means of communication are conditioned by the access parameters of the public that is the target of the educational proposal, and; 4) the teacher responsible for the pedagogical mediation

The UNESCO's World Declaration on Higher Education in the 21st Century established essential elements, where we can find: the concern with social issues, the emphasis on fundamental values and the giving value to diversity in Education through the innovative use of educational methods that allow critical thinking, expansion, creativity, and growth

(teaching), should get educational assistance to support one's actions.

opportunities through Distance Education.

[...] From the perspective of today's Cognitive Psychology, the human mind is regarded as a system that computes representations. The mind receives sensorial information from the world and generates representations about it. These mental representations are ways to intimately re-present the outside world (p.10).

VR acts here as a tool capable of meeting the educational needs in distance teaching contexts, as it entails different cognitive styles and sensations of the outside world. VR rises as a new interface generation where, using tridimensional representations that are closer to the reality of the user, it allows breaking the barrier of the screen, enabling natural interactions (Kirner and Siscouto, 2007, p.4)

From e-mail to the GPS, much has been discussed about the ways to provide distance education, its potential and limitations in a scenario of social and cultural diversity that rises from a proposal that goes beyond time and space: the role of the actors involved, the ways to construct and acquire knowledge...

PE seeks to blend daily-life factors, using technology to unite people and, in the case of VR, to simulate situations as realistically as possible, bringing the learning experience to the concrete practice.

Virtual Reality Technology as an Didactical and

Pedagogical Resource in Distance Education for Professional Training 147

the act. The virtual tends to get updated without having moved, however, to effective or formal materialization (the tree is virtually present in the seed). In strictly philosophical terms the virtual does not oppose to the real, but to the present. Virtuality and actuality are

VR technology allowed that, apart from being an observer, Man became an explorer, interfering and modifying the elements of a virtual environment which, in real conditions would be inaccessible, in systems designed not only to mirror the real world but to represent all of its imaginative power. This characteristic places the student as an active

The expression VIRTUAL REALITY appeared in the 1980s when Jaron Lamier (father of the data glove and presently a specialist with the MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology) felt the need to coin an expression that would set 'traditional' simulations apart from the

For Vilela (2006), VR 'consolidated itself due to the convergence of immersion and interactivity in the man-machine relation'. For this author, the constant search for the feeling of immersion (and interaction) in the virtual environment, as supported by VR, is

There are several accepted definitions for VR. This is partly due to its interdisciplinary

VR is the 'generic' name that represents a technology through which the user can freely visualize, explore/manipulate, and interact with complex data in real time (Alves et al.,

With the grouping of other concepts, one can say that VR is an advanced technical interface capable of providing the user a feeling of immersion (feeling of being in the environment), of browsing and interaction in a computer-generated synthetic tri-dimensional

The environments developed in VR have five elements that form its main characteristic

Thus, VR can be immersive or not. That which sets it apart is the use of physical technologies (supported by logical ordering technologies). The first type depends on input/output devices (helmets, gloves, and even projection rooms). The non-immersive one is based on the use of a monitor, mouse, or touch screen. These are simpler and have low

The image below shows a student browsing the contents of one of the distance education

In order to intensify the feeling of immersion, a helmet and gloves can also be added, as well

(called 5 "Is"): Immersive, interactive, intuitive, illustrative, and intensive.

cost and are ideal for distance education courses via the Web.

as sound (sound can create a feeling of movement and location).

only two ways of being different' (Lévy, 1996, p. 15).

agent in the learning process, vital condition for distance education.

virtual worlds he then developed (Braga, 2007; Vilela, 2006).

responsible for its evolution.

2011).

nature but also to its historical development.

environment, using multi-sensorial channels.

courses that uses VR on a monitor.

However, for the educational project can contribute and lead the students to conquer their place in the world with dignity, with quality in their survival and well-being, it is necessary that all available resources are used within the perspective of a rationale of citizenship for the construction of autonomy. It is not enough to educate for work; it is necessary to educate for life.

Following this reading, how would you answer the question asked by the title of this topic?

## **3. The technology of Virtual Reality (VR)**

Since the summer of 1896, when Frenchman Joseph Nicéphore Niépce obtained the first photograph of the window of his house, Man has been attempting to move from the role of a passive spectator of whatever is presented by nature towards becoming an agent that culturally interferes in Nature (Barilli et al., 2011). From that moment on, Niépce opened the door to a vast array of possibilities offered by his intelligence, to quench his thirst in understanding the unknown, create and improve mechanisms, which put him on a constant search for innovation.

In the history of the Computer Sciences, VR was, until recently, rated as a new technology, because of its dependence on technological advances that were associated to the processing of computer systems and the standardization of equipment conceived for interaction. The latter can be considered an important element in the democratization of its use in different knowledge domains.

VR is the result of a long evolutionary process. The first VR applications appeared in the 1960s in the US military sector, due to the need to provide training to aircraft pilots. A virtual environment aimed at simulating real situations and risk factors, minimizing cost and, at the same time, raising safety and efficiency levels in training. Presently, the military industry still uses this technology, improving the presentation / interaction of its interfaces.

The advancement in communication technologies, as well as IT and computer technologies, however, broadened its use, allowing other knowledge domains to also benefit from it, simulating phenomena for domains such as the mining, oil, health and education sectors (amongst others).

The word *virtual* comes from the medieval Latin word *virtualis*, stemming from *virtus*, which means strength, power. In Scholastics1, virtual is that which exists in possibility and not in

<sup>1</sup> Scholastics represents the last period of Christian thinking that goes from the 9th century to the end of the 16th century, that is, the constitution of the sacred Roman barbarian empire at the end of the Middle Age that is usually marked by the discovery of America (1492). This period in Christian thinking is known as Scholastics as it was the branch of Philosophy taught in schools back then by the masters, known as a result as scholastics. The subjects taught in medieval schools were represented by the so-called Liberal Arts split into three subjects: Grammar, Rhetoric, Dialectics, and into four disciplines: Arithmetics, Geometry, Astronomy, and Music. Scholastics rises historically from the special development of Dialectics. (http://www.mundodosfilosofos.com.br/escolastica.htm

the act. The virtual tends to get updated without having moved, however, to effective or formal materialization (the tree is virtually present in the seed). In strictly philosophical terms the virtual does not oppose to the real, but to the present. Virtuality and actuality are only two ways of being different' (Lévy, 1996, p. 15).

146 Distance Education

for life.

concrete practice.

search for innovation.

knowledge domains.

(amongst others).

PE seeks to blend daily-life factors, using technology to unite people and, in the case of VR, to simulate situations as realistically as possible, bringing the learning experience to the

However, for the educational project can contribute and lead the students to conquer their place in the world with dignity, with quality in their survival and well-being, it is necessary that all available resources are used within the perspective of a rationale of citizenship for the construction of autonomy. It is not enough to educate for work; it is necessary to educate

Following this reading, how would you answer the question asked by the title of this topic?

Since the summer of 1896, when Frenchman Joseph Nicéphore Niépce obtained the first photograph of the window of his house, Man has been attempting to move from the role of a passive spectator of whatever is presented by nature towards becoming an agent that culturally interferes in Nature (Barilli et al., 2011). From that moment on, Niépce opened the door to a vast array of possibilities offered by his intelligence, to quench his thirst in understanding the unknown, create and improve mechanisms, which put him on a constant

In the history of the Computer Sciences, VR was, until recently, rated as a new technology, because of its dependence on technological advances that were associated to the processing of computer systems and the standardization of equipment conceived for interaction. The latter can be considered an important element in the democratization of its use in different

VR is the result of a long evolutionary process. The first VR applications appeared in the 1960s in the US military sector, due to the need to provide training to aircraft pilots. A virtual environment aimed at simulating real situations and risk factors, minimizing cost and, at the same time, raising safety and efficiency levels in training. Presently, the military industry still uses this technology, improving the presentation / interaction of its interfaces. The advancement in communication technologies, as well as IT and computer technologies, however, broadened its use, allowing other knowledge domains to also benefit from it, simulating phenomena for domains such as the mining, oil, health and education sectors

The word *virtual* comes from the medieval Latin word *virtualis*, stemming from *virtus*, which means strength, power. In Scholastics1, virtual is that which exists in possibility and not in

1 Scholastics represents the last period of Christian thinking that goes from the 9th century to the end of the 16th century, that is, the constitution of the sacred Roman barbarian empire at the end of the Middle Age that is usually marked by the discovery of America (1492). This period in Christian thinking is known as Scholastics as it was the branch of Philosophy taught in schools back then by the masters, known as a result as scholastics. The subjects taught in medieval schools were represented by the so-called Liberal Arts split into three subjects: Grammar, Rhetoric, Dialectics, and into four disciplines: Arithmetics, Geometry, Astronomy, and Music. Scholastics rises historically from

the special development of Dialectics. (http://www.mundodosfilosofos.com.br/escolastica.htm

**3. The technology of Virtual Reality (VR)** 

VR technology allowed that, apart from being an observer, Man became an explorer, interfering and modifying the elements of a virtual environment which, in real conditions would be inaccessible, in systems designed not only to mirror the real world but to represent all of its imaginative power. This characteristic places the student as an active agent in the learning process, vital condition for distance education.

The expression VIRTUAL REALITY appeared in the 1980s when Jaron Lamier (father of the data glove and presently a specialist with the MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology) felt the need to coin an expression that would set 'traditional' simulations apart from the virtual worlds he then developed (Braga, 2007; Vilela, 2006).

For Vilela (2006), VR 'consolidated itself due to the convergence of immersion and interactivity in the man-machine relation'. For this author, the constant search for the feeling of immersion (and interaction) in the virtual environment, as supported by VR, is responsible for its evolution.

There are several accepted definitions for VR. This is partly due to its interdisciplinary nature but also to its historical development.

VR is the 'generic' name that represents a technology through which the user can freely visualize, explore/manipulate, and interact with complex data in real time (Alves et al., 2011).

With the grouping of other concepts, one can say that VR is an advanced technical interface capable of providing the user a feeling of immersion (feeling of being in the environment), of browsing and interaction in a computer-generated synthetic tri-dimensional environment, using multi-sensorial channels.

The environments developed in VR have five elements that form its main characteristic (called 5 "Is"): Immersive, interactive, intuitive, illustrative, and intensive.

Thus, VR can be immersive or not. That which sets it apart is the use of physical technologies (supported by logical ordering technologies). The first type depends on input/output devices (helmets, gloves, and even projection rooms). The non-immersive one is based on the use of a monitor, mouse, or touch screen. These are simpler and have low cost and are ideal for distance education courses via the Web.

The image below shows a student browsing the contents of one of the distance education courses that uses VR on a monitor.

In order to intensify the feeling of immersion, a helmet and gloves can also be added, as well as sound (sound can create a feeling of movement and location).

Virtual Reality Technology as an Didactical and

Pedagogical Resource in Distance Education for Professional Training 149

Immersive VR logically provides more possibilities for interaction and involvement. However, depending on the goals and possibilities, non-immersive VR can be a feasible choice, as it is easy for developers (there is no need for writing special drivers or doing very complex programming) and for users (can experience the virtual environments with simple

VR systems also have the characteristic of uniting four basic ideas: immersion, interaction,

a. Immersion – Apart from the visual factor, the devices connected to the other senses also are important for the feeling of immersion, such as sound, automatic positioning of the

b. Interaction – The idea of interaction is connected to the capability of the application to detect the inputs from the user and immediately change the virtual world and the actions in it (reactive capability). People are captivated by a good simulation in which one can see the scenes change in response to one's commands (this is the most striking

d. Involvement – this idea links to the degree of motivation that drives the user to run a given activity. The involvement can be passive, such as reading a book or listening to good music, or active, in taking part in a game with other people. VR has potential for the two kinds of involvement when, apart from allowing the exploration, also provides

1. Tele-presence (tele-operation, tele-robotics, tele-existence); this technology increases human and sensorial mobility and the capability of solving problems in a remote environment. In tele-presence, a robot is physically separated from its human operator, who carries out the operations that are executed by the robot at a distance, offering a sensorial feedback to the human operator. This causes the operator to have the feeling of being present in the remote environment. This system has been widely used in the medical area, allowing technical immersion in the undertaking of remote surgery procedures by specialists who work in large urban centers. The surgical procedures supported by tele-presence minimize the distortion inherent to the human hand,

2. Augmented Reality (AR) is the overlapping of computer-generated virtual objects in a real environment, using a technological device. It is considered that AR is a sub-group of the so-called mixed reality which is a blend of the real environment over the virtual environment as generated by the computer. They can be split into: a) Augmented Virtuality: there is a predominance of virtual elements in the real environment, and b)

Taking advantage of the advances in mobile communication technology, a growth in Virtual Reality is observed for Mobile Computing or VR applications for mobile devices. This

Augmented Reality: where the predominant elements are the real ones.

person and of the movements of the head, force feedback controls, etc.;

c. Presence – obtained through multi-sensorial sensations (Costa, 2001);

hardware configuration settings and in any place).

presence, and involvement:

**3.1. VR systems** 

characteristic in videogames);

user interaction with a dynamic virtual world

increasing the precision of the cuts.

**Figure 2.** Monitor VR

Kirner and Sicouto (2007, p.92) state that a VR system can be synthetic (generated in real time), tri-dimensional, multi-sensorial, immersive, interactive, realistic (reproduction of real objects) and with presence. Therefore, we can consider it as a tri-dimensional graphical environment that integrates audio, generating in real time and that allows interactivity.

Audio-Visual Realism is the experience of uniting sight and hearing. Sensations of touch and strength (haptic devices) allow the system to be more realistic, minimizing, at the same time, its own presence (size and weight). These are the last devices, known as tactile interfaces and refer to the study of how to integrate the human sense of touch to a computer-generated world.

For Smith (2007), a problem displayed by VR systems is the lack of stimulation for the sense of touch. If an user tries to grab a virtual glass, for example, without a haptic device, it will not be possible to know whether the glass is in contact with the virtual hand. It is expected, in the short term, that studies on haptic feedback devices may supply this demand. Haptic devices can be further divided into: 1) tactile feedback - through which one feels shapes and textures. They are the devices that provide interaction with the nervous endings of the skin and that indicate heat levels and textures. The feeling of touch provides information on the surface geometry, its texture or temperature. It is largely used in virtual environments where the light levels are low or non-existent (sea floor, for example); and 2) force feedback or kinesthesia2 - through which one feels feedback forces and movement. They are devices that interact with the muscles and tendons, giving the user a feeling of application of force in the opposite direction. The feeling of force provides information on the weight of the object and its consistency. These devices are part especially of the robotic manipulators that push the user against the forces that correspond to the virtual environment.

<sup>2</sup> Kinesthesia - sense that perceives the position of the body, movement, force, weight and resistance through the movements of muscles and tendons.

Immersive VR logically provides more possibilities for interaction and involvement. However, depending on the goals and possibilities, non-immersive VR can be a feasible choice, as it is easy for developers (there is no need for writing special drivers or doing very complex programming) and for users (can experience the virtual environments with simple hardware configuration settings and in any place).

VR systems also have the characteristic of uniting four basic ideas: immersion, interaction, presence, and involvement:


#### **3.1. VR systems**

148 Distance Education

**Figure 2.** Monitor VR

computer-generated world.

movements of muscles and tendons.

Kirner and Sicouto (2007, p.92) state that a VR system can be synthetic (generated in real time), tri-dimensional, multi-sensorial, immersive, interactive, realistic (reproduction of real objects) and with presence. Therefore, we can consider it as a tri-dimensional graphical environment that integrates audio, generating in real time and that allows interactivity.

Audio-Visual Realism is the experience of uniting sight and hearing. Sensations of touch and strength (haptic devices) allow the system to be more realistic, minimizing, at the same time, its own presence (size and weight). These are the last devices, known as tactile interfaces and refer to the study of how to integrate the human sense of touch to a

For Smith (2007), a problem displayed by VR systems is the lack of stimulation for the sense of touch. If an user tries to grab a virtual glass, for example, without a haptic device, it will not be possible to know whether the glass is in contact with the virtual hand. It is expected, in the short term, that studies on haptic feedback devices may supply this demand. Haptic devices can be further divided into: 1) tactile feedback - through which one feels shapes and textures. They are the devices that provide interaction with the nervous endings of the skin and that indicate heat levels and textures. The feeling of touch provides information on the surface geometry, its texture or temperature. It is largely used in virtual environments where the light levels are low or non-existent (sea floor, for example); and 2) force feedback or kinesthesia2 - through which one feels feedback forces and movement. They are devices that interact with the muscles and tendons, giving the user a feeling of application of force in the opposite direction. The feeling of force provides information on the weight of the object and its consistency. These devices are part especially of the robotic manipulators that

2 Kinesthesia - sense that perceives the position of the body, movement, force, weight and resistance through the

push the user against the forces that correspond to the virtual environment.


Taking advantage of the advances in mobile communication technology, a growth in Virtual Reality is observed for Mobile Computing or VR applications for mobile devices. This resource can provide Distance Education with yet another resource for the enhancement of Mobile-Learning or simply m-Learning. This includes smartphones and tablets due to their portability and ease of use.

Virtual Reality Technology as an Didactical and

Pedagogical Resource in Distance Education for Professional Training 151

new manners of shared learning and in a networked way (to avoid the isolation

The idea, as we have seen it, is not to reproduce the space of the classroom in the distance but to construct a new space for human communication and interaction for learning through

The virtual classrooms of today have transcended the old bi-dimensional ones used in chats for a tri-dimensional model that is increasingly like that of the real world. The idea is to provide students with a realistic environment to reduce the distance and encourage peer

In Distance Education processes, the introduction of the technology is giving a new meaning to the role of students, teachers and the organizational ways of appropriation. When using VR technology, however, these changes gain greater magnitude as they allow experiences quite similar to the real world, where the members of learning community can relate between themselves (seeing, hearing, and touching) without never having been physically

There are several educational activities that already benefit from the use of VR. In the field of applications for the Health Sciences its use, dated from the 1990s, revolved around the field of Therapeutics. Now, the tri-dimensional and robotic models assist in bold plans for professional qualification: emergency rooms, surgical procedures and other activities linked

As we have seen before, the inclusion of system resources depends of the characteristics of the target public, a fact that conditions the adjustment of VR for education. The figures below show a virtual environment based on VR for the Web, designed to contribute as a

the collective production of contents and bodies of knowledge.

characteristic of the 1990s).

cooperation.

**Figure 3.** VR school

with one another.

to the promotion, care and protection of health.

VR systems are designed not only for reflecting the real world but to represent all the creative power of Man. Therefore, in its environments, the computer generates a simulation of a world that can be real or imaginary, using a graphical or text interface. For Distance Education (DE), second life environments are very much used as we shall see below.

## **4. The use of virtual reality technology in education**

The human forms of apprehension are multi-mode in their nature (Treviranus, 2004) and, as regards the constructivist premises of learning, this means placing the student at the center of the learning process, giving her/him the tools necessary for this experience and appraisal, especially in the Sciences where the visualization/manipulation of tri-dimensional objects are important for learning, as already used in the teaching of geometry systems (Augmented Reality) (Lima et al., 2007, p.3 ) and Algebra, facilitating the understanding of abstract concepts.

In Statistics, in the work with multi-varied data, the analysis and interpretation can be done interactively in immersion systems (digital CAVE), allowing students to understand and manipulate complex data sets (Sawant, 2000).

One characteristic of this technology that interests education is its adaptation to different forms of learning, that is, cognitive styles. For people with problems to understand equations, theories, and principles, VR can be used to make this type of information concrete. For those with a taste for the visual and not the verbal, who prefer graphics and images rather than explanations and formulae, VR is again useful, especially because of the its highly visual aspect. As regards those that would rather learn through exploration instead of deduction, VR can enable a detailed analysis that would often have been impossible by other means. Finally, for those who learn better by actively interacting with the environment, instead of learning in a reflexive way, with thinking and introspection, VR environments can be highly interactive, allowing the direct manipulation of environment elements that respond to the actions of the user in real time.

Young (2000) states that the insertion of VR technology in DE contributes to increase the quality of the educational processes as the access to the own contents and communication of DE can be strengthened by a report of experiences had in real time. Apart from that, the socalled monitor VR contributes to the humanization of DE, as it allows the student the personal impression resulting from the selection of individual routes and the use of the elements of interaction, setting the number of times for manipulation and / or the time of permanence at the place in the virtual world that attracted one's attention the most.

There is no doubt that the advances and the appropriation of the Web by part of the society in the world have forced the domain of Education to think about new ways for distance Education. More than the ease of access to information, the education seeks to incorporate new manners of shared learning and in a networked way (to avoid the isolation characteristic of the 1990s).

The idea, as we have seen it, is not to reproduce the space of the classroom in the distance but to construct a new space for human communication and interaction for learning through the collective production of contents and bodies of knowledge.

The virtual classrooms of today have transcended the old bi-dimensional ones used in chats for a tri-dimensional model that is increasingly like that of the real world. The idea is to provide students with a realistic environment to reduce the distance and encourage peer cooperation.

**Figure 3.** VR school

150 Distance Education

concepts.

portability and ease of use.

resource can provide Distance Education with yet another resource for the enhancement of Mobile-Learning or simply m-Learning. This includes smartphones and tablets due to their

VR systems are designed not only for reflecting the real world but to represent all the creative power of Man. Therefore, in its environments, the computer generates a simulation of a world that can be real or imaginary, using a graphical or text interface. For Distance

The human forms of apprehension are multi-mode in their nature (Treviranus, 2004) and, as regards the constructivist premises of learning, this means placing the student at the center of the learning process, giving her/him the tools necessary for this experience and appraisal, especially in the Sciences where the visualization/manipulation of tri-dimensional objects are important for learning, as already used in the teaching of geometry systems (Augmented Reality) (Lima et al., 2007, p.3 ) and Algebra, facilitating the understanding of abstract

In Statistics, in the work with multi-varied data, the analysis and interpretation can be done interactively in immersion systems (digital CAVE), allowing students to understand and

One characteristic of this technology that interests education is its adaptation to different forms of learning, that is, cognitive styles. For people with problems to understand equations, theories, and principles, VR can be used to make this type of information concrete. For those with a taste for the visual and not the verbal, who prefer graphics and images rather than explanations and formulae, VR is again useful, especially because of the its highly visual aspect. As regards those that would rather learn through exploration instead of deduction, VR can enable a detailed analysis that would often have been impossible by other means. Finally, for those who learn better by actively interacting with the environment, instead of learning in a reflexive way, with thinking and introspection, VR environments can be highly interactive, allowing the direct manipulation of environment

Young (2000) states that the insertion of VR technology in DE contributes to increase the quality of the educational processes as the access to the own contents and communication of DE can be strengthened by a report of experiences had in real time. Apart from that, the socalled monitor VR contributes to the humanization of DE, as it allows the student the personal impression resulting from the selection of individual routes and the use of the elements of interaction, setting the number of times for manipulation and / or the time of

There is no doubt that the advances and the appropriation of the Web by part of the society in the world have forced the domain of Education to think about new ways for distance Education. More than the ease of access to information, the education seeks to incorporate

permanence at the place in the virtual world that attracted one's attention the most.

Education (DE), second life environments are very much used as we shall see below.

**4. The use of virtual reality technology in education** 

manipulate complex data sets (Sawant, 2000).

elements that respond to the actions of the user in real time.

In Distance Education processes, the introduction of the technology is giving a new meaning to the role of students, teachers and the organizational ways of appropriation. When using VR technology, however, these changes gain greater magnitude as they allow experiences quite similar to the real world, where the members of learning community can relate between themselves (seeing, hearing, and touching) without never having been physically with one another.

There are several educational activities that already benefit from the use of VR. In the field of applications for the Health Sciences its use, dated from the 1990s, revolved around the field of Therapeutics. Now, the tri-dimensional and robotic models assist in bold plans for professional qualification: emergency rooms, surgical procedures and other activities linked to the promotion, care and protection of health.

As we have seen before, the inclusion of system resources depends of the characteristics of the target public, a fact that conditions the adjustment of VR for education. The figures below show a virtual environment based on VR for the Web, designed to contribute as a

supplementary learning environment for the course to qualify professionals associated with the Distance Education Course on Food and Nutrition Inspection of the Brazilian Department of Health.

Virtual Reality Technology as an Didactical and

Pedagogical Resource in Distance Education for Professional Training 153

In pedagogical terms, the system offers the possibility of interaction with 3-D tools, procedure visualization and execution (scale calibration, patient positioning, result indication and readings), analysis and interpretation of a case study. Due to the fact that the instruction design of the course adopts the theoretical references of constructivism and Permanent Education, the answers to the exercises proposed and the study case are sent (via email) to the teacher that is asked to discuss them with the student, using the error (if any),

Other examples can be found in the oil & gas industry (offshore) that are used to simulate in the digital CAVE learning situations in deep water and also to train naval industry engineers.

The simulators work with a replica of the cabin with all the active, integrated controls of a visualization system in

Still as regards the use of VR in Distance Education, Second Life (SL) has been one of the systems most used. SL is a virtual tri-dimensional environment that simulates some real life aspects. It can be understood as a 'parallel environment' where an individual 'extends' one's real life, expanding one contact network in a virtual environment. As regards the educational context, SL applications have been used to widen the interaction amongst the

SL environments have therefore been considered as collaborative environments (AVCs - Collaborative Virtual Environments) as the participants are simultaneously present in a world that simulates the real or the imaginary domain, and can interact with elements in real time. The communication is usually made via a conversation (chat) tool or as an audio

learning communities where the students participate in distance academic events.

http://www.inovacaotecnologica.with.br/noticias/noticia.php?artigo=simulador-portuario

as the starting point for the joint revision.

digital CAVE. [Image: COPPE/UFRJ. Extracted from

**Figure 5.** Port Simulator

**Figure 4.** Virtual Learning Environment in VR technology: Course of the Food and Nutritional Surveillance System, Distance Education Coordination – Brazilian Public Health School –Oswaldo Cruz Foundation

Apart from the contents already discussed in the didactical materials of the course, the virtual environment was developed as a prototype to assist in the anthropometric qualification (weighing and measuring), as such data is the basis for the construction of interventions related to the control of nutrients for the Brazilian population.

In pedagogical terms, the system offers the possibility of interaction with 3-D tools, procedure visualization and execution (scale calibration, patient positioning, result indication and readings), analysis and interpretation of a case study. Due to the fact that the instruction design of the course adopts the theoretical references of constructivism and Permanent Education, the answers to the exercises proposed and the study case are sent (via email) to the teacher that is asked to discuss them with the student, using the error (if any), as the starting point for the joint revision.

Other examples can be found in the oil & gas industry (offshore) that are used to simulate in the digital CAVE learning situations in deep water and also to train naval industry engineers.

The simulators work with a replica of the cabin with all the active, integrated controls of a visualization system in digital CAVE. [Image: COPPE/UFRJ. Extracted from http://www.inovacaotecnologica.with.br/noticias/noticia.php?artigo=simulador-portuario

**Figure 5.** Port Simulator

152 Distance Education

Foundation

Department of Health.

supplementary learning environment for the course to qualify professionals associated with the Distance Education Course on Food and Nutrition Inspection of the Brazilian

**Figure 4.** Virtual Learning Environment in VR technology: Course of the Food and Nutritional

interventions related to the control of nutrients for the Brazilian population.

Surveillance System, Distance Education Coordination – Brazilian Public Health School –Oswaldo Cruz

Apart from the contents already discussed in the didactical materials of the course, the virtual environment was developed as a prototype to assist in the anthropometric qualification (weighing and measuring), as such data is the basis for the construction of Still as regards the use of VR in Distance Education, Second Life (SL) has been one of the systems most used. SL is a virtual tri-dimensional environment that simulates some real life aspects. It can be understood as a 'parallel environment' where an individual 'extends' one's real life, expanding one contact network in a virtual environment. As regards the educational context, SL applications have been used to widen the interaction amongst the learning communities where the students participate in distance academic events.

SL environments have therefore been considered as collaborative environments (AVCs - Collaborative Virtual Environments) as the participants are simultaneously present in a world that simulates the real or the imaginary domain, and can interact with elements in real time. The communication is usually made via a conversation (chat) tool or as an audio or video conference. Each participant takes over an avatar that has one's physical characteristics (or not). However, the personal traits are evident.

Virtual Reality Technology as an Didactical and

Pedagogical Resource in Distance Education for Professional Training 155

Alves M.; Aghina A. C.; Mól C. A.J.; Celso L.; Nomiya D.; Cunha G. G.; Landau L.L.. *Tangible Interfaces for Virtual Nuclear Power Plant Control Desks. Information and Communication* Technologies Research Laboratory (LATEC/UFRJ), from the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), in partnership with the Applied Virtual Reality Group (GRVa), from the Laboratory for Computational Methods in Engineering

http://www.latec.ufrj.br/revistas/index.php?journal=realidadevirtual&page=article&op=

Barilli E. C. V. C.; Ebecken N. F. F.; Cunha G. G.. The technology of virtual reality resource for formation in public health in the distance: an application for the learning of anthropometric procedures. *Ciênc. saúde coletiva* vol.16, supl.1, Rio de Janeiro, 2011. Becker, F. *Modelos Pedagógicos e Modelos Epistemológicos*. Porto Alegre. Paixão de Aprender,

Behar Patricia Alejandra. *Modelos pedagógicos em educação a distância*, Chapter 1, 2009. http://downloads.artmed.com.br/public/B/BEHAR\_Patricia\_Alejandra/Modelos\_Pedag

Braga I. Realidade Aumentada em Museus: As Batalhas do Museu Nacional de Belas Artes, RJ. Tese de doutorado em Engenharia de Sistemas Computacionais. Universidade

Costa R. C.; Vidal L. A. Experimentando um Ambiente Virtual com Pacientes Neuropsiquiátricos. Comunicação apresentada na II Conferência Internacional.

Lévy, P.. *As tecnologias da inteligência*: o futuro do pensamento na era da informática. RJ:

Lima A. J.; Haguenauer C.; Cunha G.. *A Realidade Aumentada no Ensino de Geometria* 

Kirner Claudio; Siscouto Robson. Realidade Virtual e Aumentada: Conceitos, Projeto e Aplicações. Livro do *Pré-Simpósio IX Symposium on Virtual and Augmented Reality*.

Neves R.; Damiani M. Vygotsky e as teorias da aprendizagem*. UNIrevista* - Vol. 1, No. 2,

Santos A. Complexity and transdisciplinarity in education: five principles for rescuing the

Sawant N. *The Tele-Immersive Data Explorer (TIDE)*: A Distributed Architecture for Teleimmersive Scientific Visualization, Master of Science in Electrical Engineering and

Treviranus, J. *Adding Feeling, Sound and Equal Access to Distance Education*. Adaptative

Vilela I. O. *Uma Arquitetura Multiagente do Comportamento de Personagens Virtuais*. Tese de Doutorado em Engenharia de Sistemas Computacionais. Universidade Federal do Rio

Computer Science, Graduate College, University of Illinois at Chicago, 2000.

(LAMCE) from COPPE/UFRJ, 2011. Available from:

ogicos\_Educacao\_Distancia/Liberado/cap\_01.pdf

Federal do Rio de Janeiro, 2007. XIII, pp. 153.

*Descritiva*. GRAPHICA, Curitiba, 2007.

lost link. *Rev. Bras. Educ.* vol.13, No. 37, 2008.

Technology Resource Centre. University of Toronto, 2004.

Petrópolis – RJ, May, 2007.

de Janeiro, COPPE. 2006, 221 pp.

**5. References** 

view&path%5B%5D=194

No. 5:18-23, 1993.

Challenges, 2001.

Editora 34, 1996.

April, 2006.

**Figure 6.** Second Life environment (JOVEAD 2011)3

Despite all the potential provided by the VR, it is important to concentrate the efforts in the search for its use, as well as for the technological apparatuses available as motivator elements of the reflection on the practice thus reaffirming that the technology, in itself, does not promote the education.

Finally, due to its characteristics VR has been considered as a technology that occupies a 'market' that is highly promising as it can be used in very profitable areas (entertaining, oil & gas...). The reduction in dimension of the devices, coupled to processor speed has made this technology an object of investigation all over the world.

In the scientific field, however, it is expected that is seen as a multi-disciplinary approach, spanning involving knowledge of the areas of IT, Man-Computer Interfaces (tri-dimensional entity behavior, real-time interaction, etc.), Education, Psychology, amongst others, aimed at enhancing communication, rehabilitation, qualification... with the goal of having virtual learning contribute to the qualification of the real-world citizen.

## **Author details**

Elomar Christina Vieira Castilho Barilli

*Coordination of Knowledge Management. Area of Distance Education, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública Sergio Arouca - Brazilian Public Health School, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Brazilian Department of Health, Brazil* 

2011.html&ig=http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQoBLYZNDwwFQWUZaJJkrRQ4iiLWsX-0- HCYkNM9BvWHEeH9P95liP8RA&h=146&w=250&q=jovead+second+life&babsrc=SP\_def

<sup>3</sup>http://search.babylon.com/imageres.php?iu=http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-

<sup>35</sup>\_qlYNVBsE/ThJ2YpXol8I/AAAAAAAAEnA/8bqkm12-8VI/s250/sla.bmp&ir=http://explorandometaversos.blogspot.com/2011/07/apresentacao-de-trabalho-no-jovaed-

#### **5. References**

154 Distance Education

or video conference. Each participant takes over an avatar that has one's physical

Despite all the potential provided by the VR, it is important to concentrate the efforts in the search for its use, as well as for the technological apparatuses available as motivator elements of the reflection on the practice thus reaffirming that the technology, in itself, does

Finally, due to its characteristics VR has been considered as a technology that occupies a 'market' that is highly promising as it can be used in very profitable areas (entertaining, oil & gas...). The reduction in dimension of the devices, coupled to processor speed has made

In the scientific field, however, it is expected that is seen as a multi-disciplinary approach, spanning involving knowledge of the areas of IT, Man-Computer Interfaces (tri-dimensional entity behavior, real-time interaction, etc.), Education, Psychology, amongst others, aimed at enhancing communication, rehabilitation, qualification... with the goal of having virtual

*Coordination of Knowledge Management. Area of Distance Education, Escola Nacional de Saúde* 

*Pública Sergio Arouca - Brazilian Public Health School, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz,* 

35\_qlYNVBsE/ThJ2YpXol8I/AAAAAAAAEnA/8bqkm12-8VI/s250/sla.bmp&ir=http://explorando-

HCYkNM9BvWHEeH9P95liP8RA&h=146&w=250&q=jovead+second+life&babsrc=SP\_def

2011.html&ig=http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQoBLYZNDwwFQWUZaJJkrRQ4iiLWsX-0-

characteristics (or not). However, the personal traits are evident.

**Figure 6.** Second Life environment (JOVEAD 2011)3

this technology an object of investigation all over the world.

learning contribute to the qualification of the real-world citizen.

3http://search.babylon.com/imageres.php?iu=http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-

metaversos.blogspot.com/2011/07/apresentacao-de-trabalho-no-jovaed-

not promote the education.

**Author details** 

Elomar Christina Vieira Castilho Barilli

*Brazilian Department of Health, Brazil* 

Alves M.; Aghina A. C.; Mól C. A.J.; Celso L.; Nomiya D.; Cunha G. G.; Landau L.L.. *Tangible Interfaces for Virtual Nuclear Power Plant Control Desks. Information and Communication* Technologies Research Laboratory (LATEC/UFRJ), from the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), in partnership with the Applied Virtual Reality Group (GRVa), from the Laboratory for Computational Methods in Engineering (LAMCE) from COPPE/UFRJ, 2011. Available from:

 http://www.latec.ufrj.br/revistas/index.php?journal=realidadevirtual&page=article&op= view&path%5B%5D=194


Young J. *Virtual Reality on a Desktop Hailed as New Tool in Distance* Education. Information Technology, 2000. Available from [ http://chronicle.com/free/v47/i06/06a04301.htm].

**Chapter 7** 

© 2012 Vilas Boas et al., licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

**Quality Assurance in Distance Education in Brazil** 

Distance Education constitutes one of the education fields that are evolving rapidly around the world. So, it is possible to consider it as an important instrument to reach youngsters and adults whom learning needs were not satisfactorily met by the traditional educational system. Distance Education has a great potential in several levels and niches in the society. This educational methodology has shown a new paradigm that permits access to much more people at the universities, as well as the improvements of the qualitative level of the professors who haven't much time to upgrade themselves, mainly in Brazil where most primary and high school teachers dwell in more than one school to complement their wages

Due to the complexity of this process, which is still new for Brazilian reality, the institutions involved in this modality of education should spend time and money in evaluating the system performance in order to have it run smoothly. The whole process of Distance Education needs to face an overall evaluation. Each learning instrument or tool needs to be addressed for improving the quality of the knowledge the student will achieve during his

Within such a context, this chapter aims to analyse tutors', students' and university teachers' perception about quality assurance in a distance undergraduate management course offered in partnership with Brazil Open University, the Ministry of Education and the Federal

The next sections aim to highlight information and some authors' points of view on Distance Education conceptualization and challenges, and quality assurance in Distance Education. A practical experience on evaluating Distance Education is also addressed in this section. In the sequence, the authors present some aspects of the methodology used to gather data to discuss the Brazilian experience on distance education regarding teachers', tutors' and

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Ana Alice Vilas Boas, Thair Hamtini, Patricia Aparecida Ferreira

and Renata Pedretti Morais Furtado

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50437

**1. Introduction** 

which are very low.

learning process.

University of Lavras in Minas Gerais, Brazil.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

## **Quality Assurance in Distance Education in Brazil**

Ana Alice Vilas Boas, Thair Hamtini, Patricia Aparecida Ferreira and Renata Pedretti Morais Furtado

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50437

### **1. Introduction**

156 Distance Education

Young J. *Virtual Reality on a Desktop Hailed as New Tool in Distance* Education. Information Technology, 2000. Available from [ http://chronicle.com/free/v47/i06/06a04301.htm].

> Distance Education constitutes one of the education fields that are evolving rapidly around the world. So, it is possible to consider it as an important instrument to reach youngsters and adults whom learning needs were not satisfactorily met by the traditional educational system. Distance Education has a great potential in several levels and niches in the society. This educational methodology has shown a new paradigm that permits access to much more people at the universities, as well as the improvements of the qualitative level of the professors who haven't much time to upgrade themselves, mainly in Brazil where most primary and high school teachers dwell in more than one school to complement their wages which are very low.

> Due to the complexity of this process, which is still new for Brazilian reality, the institutions involved in this modality of education should spend time and money in evaluating the system performance in order to have it run smoothly. The whole process of Distance Education needs to face an overall evaluation. Each learning instrument or tool needs to be addressed for improving the quality of the knowledge the student will achieve during his learning process.

> Within such a context, this chapter aims to analyse tutors', students' and university teachers' perception about quality assurance in a distance undergraduate management course offered in partnership with Brazil Open University, the Ministry of Education and the Federal University of Lavras in Minas Gerais, Brazil.

> The next sections aim to highlight information and some authors' points of view on Distance Education conceptualization and challenges, and quality assurance in Distance Education. A practical experience on evaluating Distance Education is also addressed in this section. In the sequence, the authors present some aspects of the methodology used to gather data to discuss the Brazilian experience on distance education regarding teachers', tutors' and

students' points of views. The next part of this chapter deals with the results obtained in that research. Finally, the authors make some final considerations about the study and leave some ideas for new research on this matter in Brazil and worldwide.

Quality Assurance in Distance Education in Brazil 159

**2.2. Distance education challenges** 

The specific characteristics of Distance Education show the potential of long distance teaching and learning not only in Brazil, but worldwide. The challenges for Distance Education may rise at different levels, such as: the visibility of the pedagogical proposals and its connection to the quality of teaching and learning; the creation and organization of the managerial infra-structure; the access to appropriate communication technology; and the

In the specific case of Brazil, the biggest challenge for spreading Distance Education in this huge country is related to the diversity of contrasts and discrepancies at the social, economic and cultural levels. Many regions in the country are completely excluded from electric energy (which is the first condition to connect people to the internet to provide them more access to the evolution of digital technology) [5]. These are the moving powers necessary to

Another problem is related to the low family income level, which reflects directly on the school grade or level among children and even adults. In this specific case, the actions of local, regional and federal governments are essential to minimize this problem. In this context, The Ministry of Education of Brazil has created specific regulations for implementing Distance Education as an official teaching in the country. The main specific regulation for implementing Distance Education in Brazil is the Decree No. 5.5622 - December 19, 2005. This Decree regulates article 80 of Law no. 9.344 – December 20, 1996. It establishes the directives and bases of national education. This Decree characterizes Distance Education as an official educational modality, being its didactic and pedagogical mediation in the teaching-learning process developed via Information and Communication technologies, and by its teachers and students developing educational activities in different times and places [6]. In this context, a big challenge for all players at the educational sector is

Distance Education constitutes one of the education fields that are evolving rapidly around the world. So, it is possible to consider it as an important instrument to reach youngsters and adults whom learning needs were not satisfactorily met by the traditional educational system. Distance Education has a great potential in several levels and niches in the society. This educational methodology has shown a new paradigm that permits access to much more people at the universities, as well as the improvements of the qualitative level of the professors who has not much time to upgrade themselves, mainly in Brazil where most of primary and high school teachers dwell in more than one school to complement their wages,

For this reason, the whole process of Distance Education needs to face an overall evaluation of assurance quality. Not only Brazil, but also other parts of the world illustrate the importance of quality standards. The American Council on Education, in 1996, the American

promotion of the interaction among students, tutors, staff, and teachers.

promote large changes on Distance Education inside the country.

to ensure quality at this modality of education.

which are very low.

**2.3. Quality assurance in distance education** 

## **2. Related literature**

## **2.1. Distance education conceptualization**

It is possible to define Distance Education as a way of education such that the professor/ instructor is geographically distant from the student/trainee [1]. One form of distance teaching is using the Internet; gathering information together and making it available for those in need of it. Online courses offer opportunities in creating new ways of learning, and integration of multiple media (text, image, audio, and video) in a single tool. On the other hand, Distance Education can be seeing as a systematically organized way of self study in which the student instructs himself from the study material that is presented to him, and the follow up and the student success supervision are accomplished by a group of tutors and or professors [2].

Though, Distance Education presents the following elements: "Physical separation between professor and student, that distinguish itself from the in loco education; educational organization influence (planning, systematization, plan, project, tutored organization etc), that make it different from the individual education; utilization of communication technical means, usually printed, to transfer or disseminate technical contents or knowledge; forecast of a bi-directional communication, in which the student gets the dialogue benefits, and the possibility of initiatives bi-directional; occasional encounters possibilities with didactic purposes and of socialization" [3].

Distance Education is "a teaching-learning method, which shortens the distance between the students/courses-taken and the educational institutions, enabling them to construct their own bank of information with technical support, i.e., computer science (hardware and software), and the means of communication (satellite, cable or digital satellite TV, written and audiovisual web, and videoconferences, among others), both synchronously and asynchronously" [4]. Thus, this alternative reduces the number of excluded people from the digital world by teaching, informing and training them in Computer Science. However, the evasion in continued formation courses is still very high and has caused a deep concern to its idealizers and other people involved in Distance Education. As a result, this theme is becoming more relevant each day, calling for identification of gaps and faults, which can be prevented, so that the students can finalize their courses without the evasion risks. Thus, identifying higher quality patterns is relevant for corporate or traditional education institutions. However, understanding the authors' views and perceptions about distance courses is important.

Keeping these considerations in mind, to validate the use of this methodology is relevant to evaluate its results. Thus, the next section describes some theoretical review about the challenges in offering this modality of education in large countries like Brazil and each country with its specificities.

#### **2.2. Distance education challenges**

158 Distance Education

**2. Related literature** 

purposes and of socialization" [3].

courses is important.

country with its specificities.

**2.1. Distance education conceptualization** 

students' points of views. The next part of this chapter deals with the results obtained in that research. Finally, the authors make some final considerations about the study and leave

It is possible to define Distance Education as a way of education such that the professor/ instructor is geographically distant from the student/trainee [1]. One form of distance teaching is using the Internet; gathering information together and making it available for those in need of it. Online courses offer opportunities in creating new ways of learning, and integration of multiple media (text, image, audio, and video) in a single tool. On the other hand, Distance Education can be seeing as a systematically organized way of self study in which the student instructs himself from the study material that is presented to him, and the follow up and the student success supervision are accomplished by a group of tutors and or professors [2].

Though, Distance Education presents the following elements: "Physical separation between professor and student, that distinguish itself from the in loco education; educational organization influence (planning, systematization, plan, project, tutored organization etc), that make it different from the individual education; utilization of communication technical means, usually printed, to transfer or disseminate technical contents or knowledge; forecast of a bi-directional communication, in which the student gets the dialogue benefits, and the possibility of initiatives bi-directional; occasional encounters possibilities with didactic

Distance Education is "a teaching-learning method, which shortens the distance between the students/courses-taken and the educational institutions, enabling them to construct their own bank of information with technical support, i.e., computer science (hardware and software), and the means of communication (satellite, cable or digital satellite TV, written and audiovisual web, and videoconferences, among others), both synchronously and asynchronously" [4]. Thus, this alternative reduces the number of excluded people from the digital world by teaching, informing and training them in Computer Science. However, the evasion in continued formation courses is still very high and has caused a deep concern to its idealizers and other people involved in Distance Education. As a result, this theme is becoming more relevant each day, calling for identification of gaps and faults, which can be prevented, so that the students can finalize their courses without the evasion risks. Thus, identifying higher quality patterns is relevant for corporate or traditional education institutions. However, understanding the authors' views and perceptions about distance

Keeping these considerations in mind, to validate the use of this methodology is relevant to evaluate its results. Thus, the next section describes some theoretical review about the challenges in offering this modality of education in large countries like Brazil and each

some ideas for new research on this matter in Brazil and worldwide.

The specific characteristics of Distance Education show the potential of long distance teaching and learning not only in Brazil, but worldwide. The challenges for Distance Education may rise at different levels, such as: the visibility of the pedagogical proposals and its connection to the quality of teaching and learning; the creation and organization of the managerial infra-structure; the access to appropriate communication technology; and the promotion of the interaction among students, tutors, staff, and teachers.

In the specific case of Brazil, the biggest challenge for spreading Distance Education in this huge country is related to the diversity of contrasts and discrepancies at the social, economic and cultural levels. Many regions in the country are completely excluded from electric energy (which is the first condition to connect people to the internet to provide them more access to the evolution of digital technology) [5]. These are the moving powers necessary to promote large changes on Distance Education inside the country.

Another problem is related to the low family income level, which reflects directly on the school grade or level among children and even adults. In this specific case, the actions of local, regional and federal governments are essential to minimize this problem. In this context, The Ministry of Education of Brazil has created specific regulations for implementing Distance Education as an official teaching in the country. The main specific regulation for implementing Distance Education in Brazil is the Decree No. 5.5622 - December 19, 2005. This Decree regulates article 80 of Law no. 9.344 – December 20, 1996. It establishes the directives and bases of national education. This Decree characterizes Distance Education as an official educational modality, being its didactic and pedagogical mediation in the teaching-learning process developed via Information and Communication technologies, and by its teachers and students developing educational activities in different times and places [6]. In this context, a big challenge for all players at the educational sector is to ensure quality at this modality of education.

#### **2.3. Quality assurance in distance education**

Distance Education constitutes one of the education fields that are evolving rapidly around the world. So, it is possible to consider it as an important instrument to reach youngsters and adults whom learning needs were not satisfactorily met by the traditional educational system. Distance Education has a great potential in several levels and niches in the society. This educational methodology has shown a new paradigm that permits access to much more people at the universities, as well as the improvements of the qualitative level of the professors who has not much time to upgrade themselves, mainly in Brazil where most of primary and high school teachers dwell in more than one school to complement their wages, which are very low.

For this reason, the whole process of Distance Education needs to face an overall evaluation of assurance quality. Not only Brazil, but also other parts of the world illustrate the importance of quality standards. The American Council on Education, in 1996, the American

Federation of Teacher, in 2000, and the Council for Higher Education Accreditation, in 2005, have distributed and circulated documents outlining quality standard for distance education. Therefore, each learning instrument or tool needs to be addressed for improving the quality of the knowledge the student will get or achieve.

Quality Assurance in Distance Education in Brazil 161

sustainability. The evaluators have to consider all these aspects during in loco evaluation in

Keeping these ideas in mind, we may say that it is relevant to evaluate distance education, because it is a reality in Brazil and worldwide. A proper evaluation will assure improviments and quality in order to offer an appropriated knowledge for people in different areas of the country and people who did not meet the educational standards for their proper age. One of these experiences is the CEDERJ Consortium, celebrated among higher degree institutions in the state of Rio de Janeiro and the state government of Rio de

The Consortium for Distance Education in the State of Rio de Janeiro - CEDERJ was officially launched by the honourable State Governor, the honourable Science and Technology State Secretary, and the Magnificent Rectors of the public universities in the State of Rio de Janeiro, on January the 26th, 2000. The consortium objectives are: to contribute to the free offering of good quality superior education to the countryside in the State of Rio de Janeiro; contribute so that access to the superior education is available to the ones that could not attend the traditional time-table; acting at distance for the continued formation of professionals in the State, with special attention to the updating process for the teachers engaged on state primary and secondary schools; and to increase the vacancy offering in the

In 2000, it launched the first course with 160 places for Mathematics from the partnership with UFF and UFRJ. In the second semester of 2005 there were 9,864 students registered for 5 graduation courses: Mathematics, Biology, Physics, Pedagogy, and Computer Science spread all over the state. The students get the didactic material in book form; they have in loco attendance in the so-called poles; attendance at distance through a free phone line; they are also attended by e-mail, forum or chat in the platform. The main evaluation is done in loco in the poles and the student still cumulates evaluation points taken from the evaluation

Nowadays, the consortium counts on 7 poles at distance installed in the universities and CEFET Rio, 6 Science Spaces, and 33 Regional Poles. There are more than 30.000 students enrolled on 9 different courses. CEDERJ offered 5.433 vacancies for the second semester of 2012 for the following courses: Management, Public Mangement, Bachelor in Biological Sciences, Physics Degree, Degree in History, Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Mathematics, Pedagogy, BA in Chemistry, Bachelor in Tourism, Technology in Computer Systems and Technology in Tourism, Degree in Biology, Degree in Pedagogy and Degree in Chemistry. A

This consortium was the first large experience in joining expertise from different universities with the support of the state goverment. This experience served as pilot projet for creating Brazil Open University (UAB), in 2006. This is an important iniciative of the Ministry of Education and many other public universities and municipalities to offer distance education free of charge inside the country. For all these reasons, the next section will address the

graduation and post-graduation courses in the State of Rio de Janeiro [10].

total of 20.618 candidates enrolled on the admission tests [12].

order to accredit the course as a qualified course.

Janeiro.

at distance [11].

An environment that provides knowledge construction in distance education needs: to offer activities centered on the active student, which leads to the meaning of the real learning process – learning by doing; to propose activities inside situation where it is possible for the student to contextualize and re-contextualize in order to learn in a more natural form; to offer opportunities for negotiation and interpretation involving several perspectives conducting all the actors to a more reflexive mentality; highlight and incorporate previous experiences and experiences from day-to-day life for the meaning construction during the process of knowledge assimilation and construction; and use technology to measure the higher mental processes [7].

On the other hand, the challenge for improving quality in Distance Education is to ensure that pedagogical project contemplates the Best References for this modality of course, which were set by the Secretary of Distance Education Secretary, from the Ministry of Education and Culture – SEED/MEC. This is a quality assurance framework in distance education to be adopted by all initiatives on this modality of education in Brazil. This proposal involves [8]:


Along with that, the Ministry of Education through the National Institute of Educational Studies – INEP developed a framework to warranty quality in distance education in Brazil and they evaluate every course to provide "Accreditation" to each of them. The evaluating occurs before the course starts to give "Authorization" for its beginning, two years after to give "Recognition" to the course and after the first graduation to offer "Renew of Recognition". This framework involves eight aspects and they should be fully expressed in the Pedagogical Political Project of every distance education course [9]. These aspects are: (i) The design of education and curriculum in teaching and learning; (ii) Communication Systems; (iii) Educational material; (iv) Evaluation; (v) Multidisciplinary team; (vi) Infrastructure support; (vii) Academic and Administrative Management; (viii) Financial sustainability. The evaluators have to consider all these aspects during in loco evaluation in order to accredit the course as a qualified course.

160 Distance Education

higher mental processes [7].

student;

Federation of Teacher, in 2000, and the Council for Higher Education Accreditation, in 2005, have distributed and circulated documents outlining quality standard for distance education. Therefore, each learning instrument or tool needs to be addressed for improving

An environment that provides knowledge construction in distance education needs: to offer activities centered on the active student, which leads to the meaning of the real learning process – learning by doing; to propose activities inside situation where it is possible for the student to contextualize and re-contextualize in order to learn in a more natural form; to offer opportunities for negotiation and interpretation involving several perspectives conducting all the actors to a more reflexive mentality; highlight and incorporate previous experiences and experiences from day-to-day life for the meaning construction during the process of knowledge assimilation and construction; and use technology to measure the

On the other hand, the challenge for improving quality in Distance Education is to ensure that pedagogical project contemplates the Best References for this modality of course, which were set by the Secretary of Distance Education Secretary, from the Ministry of Education and Culture – SEED/MEC. This is a quality assurance framework in distance education to be adopted by all initiatives on this modality of education in Brazil. This proposal involves [8]: - Pedagogical mediation should be the result of the dynamic equilibrium and interaction among the actions developed to guarantee the pedagogical intention and to help





Along with that, the Ministry of Education through the National Institute of Educational Studies – INEP developed a framework to warranty quality in distance education in Brazil and they evaluate every course to provide "Accreditation" to each of them. The evaluating occurs before the course starts to give "Authorization" for its beginning, two years after to give "Recognition" to the course and after the first graduation to offer "Renew of Recognition". This framework involves eight aspects and they should be fully expressed in the Pedagogical Political Project of every distance education course [9]. These aspects are: (i) The design of education and curriculum in teaching and learning; (ii) Communication Systems; (iii) Educational material; (iv) Evaluation; (v) Multidisciplinary team; (vi) Infrastructure support; (vii) Academic and Administrative Management; (viii) Financial

the quality of the knowledge the student will get or achieve.

students to reach a better level of awareness;

students' profile, and the access conditions;

the development of the knowledge construction process.

of weaknesses and strengths;

Keeping these ideas in mind, we may say that it is relevant to evaluate distance education, because it is a reality in Brazil and worldwide. A proper evaluation will assure improviments and quality in order to offer an appropriated knowledge for people in different areas of the country and people who did not meet the educational standards for their proper age. One of these experiences is the CEDERJ Consortium, celebrated among higher degree institutions in the state of Rio de Janeiro and the state government of Rio de Janeiro.

The Consortium for Distance Education in the State of Rio de Janeiro - CEDERJ was officially launched by the honourable State Governor, the honourable Science and Technology State Secretary, and the Magnificent Rectors of the public universities in the State of Rio de Janeiro, on January the 26th, 2000. The consortium objectives are: to contribute to the free offering of good quality superior education to the countryside in the State of Rio de Janeiro; contribute so that access to the superior education is available to the ones that could not attend the traditional time-table; acting at distance for the continued formation of professionals in the State, with special attention to the updating process for the teachers engaged on state primary and secondary schools; and to increase the vacancy offering in the graduation and post-graduation courses in the State of Rio de Janeiro [10].

In 2000, it launched the first course with 160 places for Mathematics from the partnership with UFF and UFRJ. In the second semester of 2005 there were 9,864 students registered for 5 graduation courses: Mathematics, Biology, Physics, Pedagogy, and Computer Science spread all over the state. The students get the didactic material in book form; they have in loco attendance in the so-called poles; attendance at distance through a free phone line; they are also attended by e-mail, forum or chat in the platform. The main evaluation is done in loco in the poles and the student still cumulates evaluation points taken from the evaluation at distance [11].

Nowadays, the consortium counts on 7 poles at distance installed in the universities and CEFET Rio, 6 Science Spaces, and 33 Regional Poles. There are more than 30.000 students enrolled on 9 different courses. CEDERJ offered 5.433 vacancies for the second semester of 2012 for the following courses: Management, Public Mangement, Bachelor in Biological Sciences, Physics Degree, Degree in History, Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Mathematics, Pedagogy, BA in Chemistry, Bachelor in Tourism, Technology in Computer Systems and Technology in Tourism, Degree in Biology, Degree in Pedagogy and Degree in Chemistry. A total of 20.618 candidates enrolled on the admission tests [12].

This consortium was the first large experience in joining expertise from different universities with the support of the state goverment. This experience served as pilot projet for creating Brazil Open University (UAB), in 2006. This is an important iniciative of the Ministry of Education and many other public universities and municipalities to offer distance education free of charge inside the country. For all these reasons, the next section will address the

evaluation process developed by CEDERJ and its partner universities to ensure quality in this modality of education.

Quality Assurance in Distance Education in Brazil 163

The evaluation to access quality of CEDERJ distance courses was composed by a questionnaire composed of 8 main blocks of questions and the students had to tick one of the five graduation possibilities in the scale, which varied from Poor (1) to Excellent (5). The first block was related to the regional pole infrastructure, which accessed and evaluated students' points of views about the place where they have direct contact with other students and mainly the presence tutorial; as shown in Appendix. The next block was about the Platform. In this block the student was supposed to evaluate the tools that were available for their interaction to distance tutorial and all of the other facilities they have in it. Didactic Printed Material or the booklets were evaluated in the following block of topics. This one was very important because most of the students place much more emphasis on the printed material then the other facilities provided by the system

In the sequence, the students evaluated local tutorials considering different topics, and then at distance tutorials considering timetables, tutor attention and so on. In the following block they pointed out their views about local evaluations and at distance evaluations analyzing other topics. The students' assiduity comes next, and its efficiency was measured by the number of times the students access the platform, and attend local and at distance tutorials. It varied from none (so the student ticked number 1) up to more than 20 times (so the student ticked number 5). It is worth mentioning that the questionnaires provided very rich information to draw graphics and tables for visualizing the results according to the different

The questionnaire was returned to 3,345 students, whom were usually enrolled in 4 or 5 subjects per semester. The results were summarized in different topics, like: local tutorial, at distance tutorial, teaching team, subject evaluation tests, didactic booklets, didactic material available at the platform, U-Virtual or Virtual platform, and infrastructure of the poles. A program was developed to categorize and summarize all the data gathered from the

In this first round of the process, it was gathered 1,590 written messages. From these observations it was elaborated a summarized report, per area, with the main problems and their suggestions to improve the quality of the system as a whole. A part from that, a team of courses representatives visited the poles in order to perform the second step of this phase. Each course sent its representatives, and CEDERJ itself sent a representative to spend almost a day in touch with pole directors, tutors and students. The team also counted on one professional in charge of performing a short conference for the whole group of students and

As a result of each visit the team leader prepared a report summarizing the findings and addressing it to the evaluating team leader in the CEDERJ headquarter. The report has 2 or 3 pages and all the reports were sent to other colleagues for disseminating the information. The final phases of the evaluation process were the self-evaluation and then the external evaluation. Thus, some seminars were set to discuss the outcomes and prepare the following

[17].

poles, courses, and even subjects.

questionnaires [18].

tutors from each pole [19].

steps [20].

#### **2.4. A practical experience on evaluating distance education**

The Consortium for Distance Education in the State of Rio de Janeiro - CEDERJ is composed by The Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), The Fluminense Federal University (UFF), The Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ), The State University of the Fluminense North (UENF), The State University of Rio de Janeiro (UERJ) and The Federal Institute of Rio de Janeiro (IFET). CEDERJ's headquarter is located at Visconde de Niterói Street – 1364 – Mangueira – Rio de Janeiro – Brazil.

In order to understand the process of adapting methodologies and instruments to evaluate distance education courses [13] discussed the evolution of the evaluation methodology in this regional consortium experience. The main idea of this study was to present the results of the evaluation performed in that consortium. It was evaluated virtual platform (www.cederj.edu.br), instructional material and tutorial using a structured questionnaire. However, other aspects were also analysed from different perspectives. The information was gathered mainly from structured questionnaires available at the virtual platform and technical visits organized to evaluate presentialy the different municipalities where CEDERJ courses were offered in partnership with the six universities of the state of Rio de Janeiro. These authors came to the conclusion that evaluation methodology turned into a very broad process that was also very important to redefine the methodology for the following years. In 2008, CEDERJ applied a different questionnaire with open questions for students, tutors, teachers, poles, directors and course coordinators [14]. Some secondary data was also gathered and analysed to validate the methodology. This evaluation was mainly influenced by the amount of data gathered from the previous evaluation. The previous evaluation is described below.

The whole evaluation process counts on 5 steps or phases. The first one was to stimulate students and staff working at the regional poles, using advertisements fixed on the boards, messages left in the virtual platform and tutors talking to the students. The second phase was the qualitative and quantitative data collection itself. The evaluation was held during the second semester of the year, the first experience happened on October 2005, and involved filling out the questionnaires and the technical visits performed in each pole or municipality. The next phase was the self-evaluation, carried on the base of the gathered data from the questionnaires and technical visits [15].

The forth phase was an external evaluation in order to double check the data and process some extra analysis on them and get views from different actors who are not directly involved in the process. It happened in August 2006. The last phase was a reconsideration of the process as a whole. It was necessary to organize a seminar in early October 2006 to offer subsidies to establish future actions based on the process of self-evaluation and external evaluation [16].

The evaluation to access quality of CEDERJ distance courses was composed by a questionnaire composed of 8 main blocks of questions and the students had to tick one of the five graduation possibilities in the scale, which varied from Poor (1) to Excellent (5). The first block was related to the regional pole infrastructure, which accessed and evaluated students' points of views about the place where they have direct contact with other students and mainly the presence tutorial; as shown in Appendix. The next block was about the Platform. In this block the student was supposed to evaluate the tools that were available for their interaction to distance tutorial and all of the other facilities they have in it. Didactic Printed Material or the booklets were evaluated in the following block of topics. This one was very important because most of the students place much more emphasis on the printed material then the other facilities provided by the system [17].

162 Distance Education

described below.

evaluation [16].

this modality of education.

evaluation process developed by CEDERJ and its partner universities to ensure quality in

The Consortium for Distance Education in the State of Rio de Janeiro - CEDERJ is composed by The Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), The Fluminense Federal University (UFF), The Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ), The State University of the Fluminense North (UENF), The State University of Rio de Janeiro (UERJ) and The Federal Institute of Rio de Janeiro (IFET). CEDERJ's headquarter is located at Visconde de Niterói

In order to understand the process of adapting methodologies and instruments to evaluate distance education courses [13] discussed the evolution of the evaluation methodology in this regional consortium experience. The main idea of this study was to present the results of the evaluation performed in that consortium. It was evaluated virtual platform (www.cederj.edu.br), instructional material and tutorial using a structured questionnaire. However, other aspects were also analysed from different perspectives. The information was gathered mainly from structured questionnaires available at the virtual platform and technical visits organized to evaluate presentialy the different municipalities where CEDERJ courses were offered in partnership with the six universities of the state of Rio de Janeiro. These authors came to the conclusion that evaluation methodology turned into a very broad process that was also very important to redefine the methodology for the following years. In 2008, CEDERJ applied a different questionnaire with open questions for students, tutors, teachers, poles, directors and course coordinators [14]. Some secondary data was also gathered and analysed to validate the methodology. This evaluation was mainly influenced by the amount of data gathered from the previous evaluation. The previous evaluation is

The whole evaluation process counts on 5 steps or phases. The first one was to stimulate students and staff working at the regional poles, using advertisements fixed on the boards, messages left in the virtual platform and tutors talking to the students. The second phase was the qualitative and quantitative data collection itself. The evaluation was held during the second semester of the year, the first experience happened on October 2005, and involved filling out the questionnaires and the technical visits performed in each pole or municipality. The next phase was the self-evaluation, carried on the base of the gathered

The forth phase was an external evaluation in order to double check the data and process some extra analysis on them and get views from different actors who are not directly involved in the process. It happened in August 2006. The last phase was a reconsideration of the process as a whole. It was necessary to organize a seminar in early October 2006 to offer subsidies to establish future actions based on the process of self-evaluation and external

**2.4. A practical experience on evaluating distance education** 

Street – 1364 – Mangueira – Rio de Janeiro – Brazil.

data from the questionnaires and technical visits [15].

In the sequence, the students evaluated local tutorials considering different topics, and then at distance tutorials considering timetables, tutor attention and so on. In the following block they pointed out their views about local evaluations and at distance evaluations analyzing other topics. The students' assiduity comes next, and its efficiency was measured by the number of times the students access the platform, and attend local and at distance tutorials. It varied from none (so the student ticked number 1) up to more than 20 times (so the student ticked number 5). It is worth mentioning that the questionnaires provided very rich information to draw graphics and tables for visualizing the results according to the different poles, courses, and even subjects.

The questionnaire was returned to 3,345 students, whom were usually enrolled in 4 or 5 subjects per semester. The results were summarized in different topics, like: local tutorial, at distance tutorial, teaching team, subject evaluation tests, didactic booklets, didactic material available at the platform, U-Virtual or Virtual platform, and infrastructure of the poles. A program was developed to categorize and summarize all the data gathered from the questionnaires [18].

In this first round of the process, it was gathered 1,590 written messages. From these observations it was elaborated a summarized report, per area, with the main problems and their suggestions to improve the quality of the system as a whole. A part from that, a team of courses representatives visited the poles in order to perform the second step of this phase. Each course sent its representatives, and CEDERJ itself sent a representative to spend almost a day in touch with pole directors, tutors and students. The team also counted on one professional in charge of performing a short conference for the whole group of students and tutors from each pole [19].

As a result of each visit the team leader prepared a report summarizing the findings and addressing it to the evaluating team leader in the CEDERJ headquarter. The report has 2 or 3 pages and all the reports were sent to other colleagues for disseminating the information. The final phases of the evaluation process were the self-evaluation and then the external evaluation. Thus, some seminars were set to discuss the outcomes and prepare the following steps [20].

The evaluation methodology, presented here, has been implemented in the consortium and it seems to be working properly. The data from the questionnaires are usually processed into graphics and tables in order to better visualise and understand the students' perceptions and points of views about CEDERJ experience. The technical visits provide subsidies to re-orient the process. Some actions are always taken on the basis of the evaluation results. The whole methodology has been implemented every year and it is planned to last for one whole year. This means, each process starts when the previous one ends. This methodology is providing subsidies to improve the quality of the whole process including changes in the platform content and design, written material and tutorial activities. [21]. Since evaluation is a continuos process, CEDERJ improved the instrument of data collection and turned it into a more flexible instrument with structured and open ended questions.

Quality Assurance in Distance Education in Brazil 165

The students, tutors and teachers answered a questionnaire at the end of 2009. The questionnaire was available at http://www.admead.ufla.br/moodle. This survey provided a huge amount of data that was addressed to improve the quality of the experience itself and the quality of other distance education initiatives, like the Public Management Course, which is being offered by Brazil Open University in partnership with UFLA and other

The data was systematized and analyzed using Excel spreadsheets and then the information was transferred into tables and graphs to facilitate the readers understanding. The next section aims to present the results gathered from the questionnaires answered by the students, tutors and teachers from the Undergraduate Management course offered by the Federal University of Lavras, at Minas Gerais, Brazil and its partner, the Bank of Brazil.

In order to evaluate the quality of this course we will discuss the actors' opinions about: mechanisms of interaction between students, teachers and tutors; assessment about textbooks; students' perception about teachers' and tutors' performance; teacher's view about technology, students' involvement, didactic material, structure and management support, and their own involvement within the course. All these topics and other ones that

Students were asked to evaluate the forms of communication between the actors in this model of education. As alternatives to this issue there were four interaction mechanisms: video conferencing, electronic mail, forums and chats. Those with the most significant results were e-mail and forum, with positive acceptance of 81% and 79% respectively, as shown on Figure 1. Another video conference and chat have been evaluated positively for 45% and 53%. Instruments of immediate interaction, such as video conference and chat, were badly evaluated probably because of the quality of internet connection in certain localities where the students undertake the use of instruments of immediate interaction, like what was indirectly mentioned by [22] when he pointed out the challenges for distance

At Figure 2, we may observe tutors stated that students' and teachers' involvement predominate as they are considered the most important aspects for maintaining the quality of distance education. This reinforces that, although it is a course that relies on technology,

Respondents pointed textbooks or teaching materials as extremely important and significant in the process of teaching and learning at distance bases. All items questioned were evaluated with agreement by a least 77% of respondents (Figure 3). Teachers and tutors informed that interation with the content, development of skills and competences, interation among communication resources, and orientation related to the understanding of the proposed activities that are relevant to assess the quality of suitable printed material in distance education. They also mentioned that stimulating indeep appropriation of the

universities around the country. It took about 10 minutes for them to answer it.

**4. Findings and discussion of findings** 

education in a big country, such as Brazil.

may be related to them will be addressed in the sequence.

in a decisive manner the human component makes a difference.

Due to the complexity of this process, which is still new for Brazilian reality, the institutions involved in this modality of education should spend time and money in evaluating the system performance. Thus, the Federal University of Lavras and other different universities around the country, in partnership with the Bank of Brazil, offered an undergraduate managemnet course on distance bases. The Ministry of Education offered financial support to set such broad project. This is another experience and this chapter deals with some empirical results of teachers', tutors' and students' perceptions about the course. Some information about data gathering for this study is presented in the sequency.

## **3. Methodology**

This section aims to explain the procedures adopted to perform this research. The course was offered in partnership with the Brazil Open University and the Ministry of Education. The course was offered by 18 public Brazilian universities spread all over the country. In 2010, there were 118 poles, or municipalities, involved within this pilot project. Each university attends some poles in order to certify the students at the end of the course. They also give support for presential activities and meetings. This experience is singular in the country, so it is relevant to improve the pattern of life within the country too. It is because the initiative helps to offer more access to higher education. It is worth to say that this course is not a sequential one; it is just one entrance course. This is a "pilot project" that is subsidizing the decisions of the Ministry of Education regarding the offering of other different undergraduate courses on distance education modality.

For this chapter the authors chose the Federal University of Lavras (UFLA) as a sample for this research. UFLA has 289 registered students at the course. Among them, 130 are staff and members of the Bank of Brazil, and 159 belong to the civil society. In order to evaluate the quality of the course a structured questionnaire was developed. The first section of the questionnaire was aimed to describe the profile of the respondents. All the main actors (students, tutors, and teachers) involved in the educational process were supposed to answer it. The main section of the questionnaire addressed questions related to printed material, platform access, tutorial, chat, exams, meeting, and other issues related to the process of offering the course.

The students, tutors and teachers answered a questionnaire at the end of 2009. The questionnaire was available at http://www.admead.ufla.br/moodle. This survey provided a huge amount of data that was addressed to improve the quality of the experience itself and the quality of other distance education initiatives, like the Public Management Course, which is being offered by Brazil Open University in partnership with UFLA and other universities around the country. It took about 10 minutes for them to answer it.

The data was systematized and analyzed using Excel spreadsheets and then the information was transferred into tables and graphs to facilitate the readers understanding. The next section aims to present the results gathered from the questionnaires answered by the students, tutors and teachers from the Undergraduate Management course offered by the Federal University of Lavras, at Minas Gerais, Brazil and its partner, the Bank of Brazil.

## **4. Findings and discussion of findings**

164 Distance Education

ended questions.

**3. Methodology** 

process of offering the course.

The evaluation methodology, presented here, has been implemented in the consortium and it seems to be working properly. The data from the questionnaires are usually processed into graphics and tables in order to better visualise and understand the students' perceptions and points of views about CEDERJ experience. The technical visits provide subsidies to re-orient the process. Some actions are always taken on the basis of the evaluation results. The whole methodology has been implemented every year and it is planned to last for one whole year. This means, each process starts when the previous one ends. This methodology is providing subsidies to improve the quality of the whole process including changes in the platform content and design, written material and tutorial activities. [21]. Since evaluation is a continuos process, CEDERJ improved the instrument of data collection and turned it into a more flexible instrument with structured and open

Due to the complexity of this process, which is still new for Brazilian reality, the institutions involved in this modality of education should spend time and money in evaluating the system performance. Thus, the Federal University of Lavras and other different universities around the country, in partnership with the Bank of Brazil, offered an undergraduate managemnet course on distance bases. The Ministry of Education offered financial support to set such broad project. This is another experience and this chapter deals with some empirical results of teachers', tutors' and students' perceptions about the course. Some

This section aims to explain the procedures adopted to perform this research. The course was offered in partnership with the Brazil Open University and the Ministry of Education. The course was offered by 18 public Brazilian universities spread all over the country. In 2010, there were 118 poles, or municipalities, involved within this pilot project. Each university attends some poles in order to certify the students at the end of the course. They also give support for presential activities and meetings. This experience is singular in the country, so it is relevant to improve the pattern of life within the country too. It is because the initiative helps to offer more access to higher education. It is worth to say that this course is not a sequential one; it is just one entrance course. This is a "pilot project" that is subsidizing the decisions of the Ministry of Education regarding the offering of other

For this chapter the authors chose the Federal University of Lavras (UFLA) as a sample for this research. UFLA has 289 registered students at the course. Among them, 130 are staff and members of the Bank of Brazil, and 159 belong to the civil society. In order to evaluate the quality of the course a structured questionnaire was developed. The first section of the questionnaire was aimed to describe the profile of the respondents. All the main actors (students, tutors, and teachers) involved in the educational process were supposed to answer it. The main section of the questionnaire addressed questions related to printed material, platform access, tutorial, chat, exams, meeting, and other issues related to the

information about data gathering for this study is presented in the sequency.

different undergraduate courses on distance education modality.

In order to evaluate the quality of this course we will discuss the actors' opinions about: mechanisms of interaction between students, teachers and tutors; assessment about textbooks; students' perception about teachers' and tutors' performance; teacher's view about technology, students' involvement, didactic material, structure and management support, and their own involvement within the course. All these topics and other ones that may be related to them will be addressed in the sequence.

Students were asked to evaluate the forms of communication between the actors in this model of education. As alternatives to this issue there were four interaction mechanisms: video conferencing, electronic mail, forums and chats. Those with the most significant results were e-mail and forum, with positive acceptance of 81% and 79% respectively, as shown on Figure 1. Another video conference and chat have been evaluated positively for 45% and 53%. Instruments of immediate interaction, such as video conference and chat, were badly evaluated probably because of the quality of internet connection in certain localities where the students undertake the use of instruments of immediate interaction, like what was indirectly mentioned by [22] when he pointed out the challenges for distance education in a big country, such as Brazil.

At Figure 2, we may observe tutors stated that students' and teachers' involvement predominate as they are considered the most important aspects for maintaining the quality of distance education. This reinforces that, although it is a course that relies on technology, in a decisive manner the human component makes a difference.

Respondents pointed textbooks or teaching materials as extremely important and significant in the process of teaching and learning at distance bases. All items questioned were evaluated with agreement by a least 77% of respondents (Figure 3). Teachers and tutors informed that interation with the content, development of skills and competences, interation among communication resources, and orientation related to the understanding of the proposed activities that are relevant to assess the quality of suitable printed material in distance education. They also mentioned that stimulating indeep appropriation of the content is also relevant for students assimilating the content and generating new knowledge.

Quality Assurance in Distance Education in Brazil 167

Agree Disagree

Encourage deepening of content

Show the practical side Motivate students to participate Promote a learning environment Offer personalized service

Source: Research data

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%

> Interaction with the content

Source: Research data

**Figure 3.** Teachers' and tutors' points of view about textbooks

Skills develop ment

transmitting the practical aspects of each subject.

**Figure 4.** Tutors' points of view about stimulating interaction

44%

16%

According to Figure 4, tutors who answered the questionnaire had concern with the environment that must be created so that students may have available all the necessary factors to assure quality learning. On the other hand, tutors showed little concern in

Guidelines relevant to the understanding of activities

Integration of various medias

What is important to stimulate interaction from the perspective of tutors?

13%

27%

Assessment about textbooks by teachers and tutors

Teachers emphasized the promotion of a learning environment and encouraging students' participation through motivational elements to stimulate the interaction with the students as

Source: Research data

**Figure 1.** Students' perception about communication systems

Source: Research data

**Figure 2.** Tutors' view about quality of distance education

Source: Research data

166 Distance Education

knowledge.

Source: Research data

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%

Source: Research data

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%

**Figure 1.** Students' perception about communication systems

Video Conferecing e-mail Forum Chat

**Figure 2.** Tutors' view about quality of distance education

Didactic material

Support Structure

Tutors' view about maintaining the quality of distance education

Technology Involvement

of teachers

Involvement of students

content is also relevant for students assimilating the content and generating new

Positive Negative

Evaluation of communication systems

**Figure 3.** Teachers' and tutors' points of view about textbooks

According to Figure 4, tutors who answered the questionnaire had concern with the environment that must be created so that students may have available all the necessary factors to assure quality learning. On the other hand, tutors showed little concern in transmitting the practical aspects of each subject.

Source: Research data

**Figure 4.** Tutors' points of view about stimulating interaction

Teachers emphasized the promotion of a learning environment and encouraging students' participation through motivational elements to stimulate the interaction with the students as

shown in Figure 5. Teachers understand that personal service is not as important as the aspects mentioned above.

Quality Assurance in Distance Education in Brazil 169

The students do not participate and do not involve in classes The students do not align with the interests of the group Time management

There is not the face reaction

of the students

clearly a gap between the assessment of tutors and teachers about what is important and the assessment of students on the same time. The importance of practice that is emphasized by the students does not meet the same expectations in responses of tutors and teachers. On the other hand, there is a convergence of ideas about personalized services to be offered for different students. In this case, all the actors involved in the teaching and learning process

At Figure 7, we may see that tutors highlighted the absence of participation and involvement of students as the most significant difficulty in distance education, since 42% of the respondents indicated that alternative. Another element of note is the lack of physical and visual reactions of students, pointed as the main difficulty for 31% of the respondents. The other two options, time management and unproper alignment of students and others group members' interest, were not so relevant for interation according to the tutors points of

do not emphasize this topic.

view.

Source: Research data

**Figure 7.** Tutors' perspectives about difficulties in interaction with students

12%

15%

31%

Difficulties in interaction with students from the perspective of tutors

students was not considered a very significant difficulty.

information to improve the quality of distance education.

Teachers highlighted the absence of participation and involvement of the students as the most important difficulty in interacting with students (Figure 8). In this case, 49% of respondents chose this alternative. Another item often mentioned is the lack of face reaction of the students, with 27% of responses. It should be noted that time management by

42%

Teachers pointed out lack of commitment of the tutors and absence of their participation as the major difficulties encountered in the interaction with them in order to warrant the quality of the educational process. On Figure 9, we may see that for 32% of the respondents, tutors should be more aligned to the interest of the group of students and work faster with

Source: Research data

**Figure 5.** Teachers' points of view about stimulating interation

Students participating in this research highlighted the importance of being attached to practical content. This assertion was selected by 43% of respondents and shows how these students appreciate the combination of theory and practice to warrant quality on the whole system (Figure 6). Also noteworthy is that the students themselves do not believe it to be important to receive personalized service.

Source: Research data

**Figure 6.** Students' points of view about stimulation interaction

By comparing these three points of view, we can see that each actor in the educational process has a different perspective of quality regarding the interaction among them. There is clearly a gap between the assessment of tutors and teachers about what is important and the assessment of students on the same time. The importance of practice that is emphasized by the students does not meet the same expectations in responses of tutors and teachers. On the other hand, there is a convergence of ideas about personalized services to be offered for different students. In this case, all the actors involved in the teaching and learning process do not emphasize this topic.

At Figure 7, we may see that tutors highlighted the absence of participation and involvement of students as the most significant difficulty in distance education, since 42% of the respondents indicated that alternative. Another element of note is the lack of physical and visual reactions of students, pointed as the main difficulty for 31% of the respondents. The other two options, time management and unproper alignment of students and others group members' interest, were not so relevant for interation according to the tutors points of view.

Source: Research data

168 Distance Education

aspects mentioned above.

Source: Research data

Source: Research data

**Figure 5.** Teachers' points of view about stimulating interation

36%

7%

**Figure 6.** Students' points of view about stimulation interaction

22%

5%

important to receive personalized service.

30%

shown in Figure 5. Teachers understand that personal service is not as important as the

Show the practical side Motivate students to participate Promote a learning environment

Personalized service

Show the practical side Motivate students to participate Promote a learning environment Offer of personalized services

What is important to stimulate interaction from the perspective of teachers?

22%

35%

Students participating in this research highlighted the importance of being attached to practical content. This assertion was selected by 43% of respondents and shows how these students appreciate the combination of theory and practice to warrant quality on the whole system (Figure 6). Also noteworthy is that the students themselves do not believe it to be

What is important to stimulate interaction from the perspective of students?

43%

By comparing these three points of view, we can see that each actor in the educational process has a different perspective of quality regarding the interaction among them. There is **Figure 7.** Tutors' perspectives about difficulties in interaction with students

Teachers highlighted the absence of participation and involvement of the students as the most important difficulty in interacting with students (Figure 8). In this case, 49% of respondents chose this alternative. Another item often mentioned is the lack of face reaction of the students, with 27% of responses. It should be noted that time management by students was not considered a very significant difficulty.

Teachers pointed out lack of commitment of the tutors and absence of their participation as the major difficulties encountered in the interaction with them in order to warrant the quality of the educational process. On Figure 9, we may see that for 32% of the respondents, tutors should be more aligned to the interest of the group of students and work faster with information to improve the quality of distance education.

Quality Assurance in Distance Education in Brazil 171

and do not involve properly They are not aligned with the interests of the group Lack of commitment of the

Slowness in dealing with

teachers

information

Presents an elitist system

Commitment of students

interactivity

Interaction of involved professionals

Lack of the habit of working with

several perspectives. Therefore, these aspects are relevant to assure quality on distance

13% The teachers do not participate

According to the students, to achieve real commitment from students is the most relevant limiter for achieving quality for distance education as shown on Figure 11. This is an important fact to observe because the students themselves are aware that their commitiment to distance course interfere in the quality of the courses. In this case, managers and course coordinators should look for alternatives of tecnologies or any other combination of present activities to involve the students more within the course and its technologies. Another important factor which is related to this one is the lack of habit of working with interactivity on the learning platform. Interaction of involved professionals was also mentioned as

Limiters of distance education system from the perspective of students

21%

52%

**Figure 10.** Tutors' perspectives about difficulties in interacting with teachers

12%

23%

Difficulties in interaction with teachers from the perspective of tutors

**Figure 11.** Students' perspectives on limiters of distance education

5%

41%

education.

Source: Research data

another limiter in the process.

33%

Source: Research data

#### Source: Research data

Source: Research data

**Figure 9.** Teachers' perpectives about difficulties in interation with tutors

Looking from the other side now, Figure 10 shows that tutors also pointed out lack of proper participation and involvement (52%) and lack of commitment of the teachers (23%) as the major difficulties encountered to assure quality in the distance education process. The percentages are bigger in this case. So, one may say that teachers should be more integrated with tutors to improve the quality of distance learning process. On this regard, we may point to the proposal of [23] about the characteristics of the environment that provides knowledge construction. On their words, this environment needs to offer activities centered on active students, and to offer opportunities for negotiation and interpretation involving several perspectives. Therefore, these aspects are relevant to assure quality on distance education.

Source: Research data

170 Distance Education

Source: Research data

Source: Research data

**Figure 8.** Teachers' perpectives about dificulties in interaction with students

Difficulties in interaction with tutors from the perspective of teachers

30%

14% The tutors do not participate and

18%

16%

8%

38%

27%

Difficulties in interaction with students from the perspective of teachers

49%

The students do not participate and do not involve in classes The students do not align with the interests of the group Time management

There is not the face reaction

of the students

do not involve properly The tutors do not align with the

Lack of commitment of the tutors Slowness in dealing with

interest of the group

information

**Figure 9.** Teachers' perpectives about difficulties in interation with tutors

Looking from the other side now, Figure 10 shows that tutors also pointed out lack of proper participation and involvement (52%) and lack of commitment of the teachers (23%) as the major difficulties encountered to assure quality in the distance education process. The percentages are bigger in this case. So, one may say that teachers should be more integrated with tutors to improve the quality of distance learning process. On this regard, we may point to the proposal of [23] about the characteristics of the environment that provides knowledge construction. On their words, this environment needs to offer activities centered on active students, and to offer opportunities for negotiation and interpretation involving **Figure 10.** Tutors' perspectives about difficulties in interacting with teachers

According to the students, to achieve real commitment from students is the most relevant limiter for achieving quality for distance education as shown on Figure 11. This is an important fact to observe because the students themselves are aware that their commitiment to distance course interfere in the quality of the courses. In this case, managers and course coordinators should look for alternatives of tecnologies or any other combination of present activities to involve the students more within the course and its technologies. Another important factor which is related to this one is the lack of habit of working with interactivity on the learning platform. Interaction of involved professionals was also mentioned as another limiter in the process.

Source: Research data

**Figure 11.** Students' perspectives on limiters of distance education

Similarly, the majority of tutors (55%) also pointed out the real commitment of students as the most relevant limiter of distance education (Figure 12). The second most relevant limiter is the lack of habit of working with interactivity (26%). The third limiting fator for tutors was also mentioned in the third position for the students, which is interaction of involved professionals (15%). So, it is possible to state that students and tutors have the same points of views about the limiters of quality on distance education. On this specific case, the team working with distance education should address these kinds of limiters during the definition of the pedagogical project to delimiate acitivites ansuring that different actors involved in the operacionalization of the course work together, as pointed out by [24]. Teachers, tutors and course coordinators have to work on participatory and integrative bases to decrease evasion during the courses.

Quality Assurance in Distance Education in Brazil 173

Presents an elitist system

Interaction of involved professionals

Commitment of students

interactivity

Impersonality

paradigm

Attachement to presential

Communication among the actors involved in the process

Lack of stakeholder involvement

Lack of the habit of working with

Students' points of views about deficiencies of distance education courses in relation to presential education courses are presented in Figure 14. It shows that communication between the parts involved in distance education courses is not as good as communication between parts involved in presential courses (37%). The second most relevant item pointed by students is related to the impessoality that happens on distance courses. Apart from these, 23% of the respondents informed that lack of satkeholder involvement is another

Limiters of distance education system from the perspective of teachers

32%

Deficiencies in relation to presential courses from the perspective of students

27%

13%

deficiency on distance education courses.

**Figure 13.** Teachers' perspectives on the limiters of distance education

23%

37%

35%

27%

6%

**Figure 14.** Students' perception about the deficiencies in relation to presential courses

Source: Research data

Source: Research data

Source: Research data

**Figure 12.** Tutors' perspectives on limiters of distance education

According to the perspective of teachers, commitment of students and interaction of involved professionals or actors are the most limiting factors for distance education as shown on Figure 13. Following these two limiters, comes the lack of habit of working with interactivity as another important condition to improve quality in this educational process. Comparing these three points of views, we may say that all the actors involved in the education process have almost the same perception about limiters in this modality of education. It helps to reinforce one of the challenges for improving quality of Distance Education presented by different authors. One of them states that "interaction among students, teachers, and other actors involved in the learning process should be covered by trust, respect, freedom for stimulating the coming up of weaknesses and strengths." [25].

Students' points of views about deficiencies of distance education courses in relation to presential education courses are presented in Figure 14. It shows that communication between the parts involved in distance education courses is not as good as communication between parts involved in presential courses (37%). The second most relevant item pointed by students is related to the impessoality that happens on distance courses. Apart from these, 23% of the respondents informed that lack of satkeholder involvement is another deficiency on distance education courses.

Source: Research data

172 Distance Education

during the courses.

Source: Research data

weaknesses and strengths." [25].

**Figure 12.** Tutors' perspectives on limiters of distance education

According to the perspective of teachers, commitment of students and interaction of involved professionals or actors are the most limiting factors for distance education as shown on Figure 13. Following these two limiters, comes the lack of habit of working with interactivity as another important condition to improve quality in this educational process. Comparing these three points of views, we may say that all the actors involved in the education process have almost the same perception about limiters in this modality of education. It helps to reinforce one of the challenges for improving quality of Distance Education presented by different authors. One of them states that "interaction among students, teachers, and other actors involved in the learning process should be covered by trust, respect, freedom for stimulating the coming up of

Similarly, the majority of tutors (55%) also pointed out the real commitment of students as the most relevant limiter of distance education (Figure 12). The second most relevant limiter is the lack of habit of working with interactivity (26%). The third limiting fator for tutors was also mentioned in the third position for the students, which is interaction of involved professionals (15%). So, it is possible to state that students and tutors have the same points of views about the limiters of quality on distance education. On this specific case, the team working with distance education should address these kinds of limiters during the definition of the pedagogical project to delimiate acitivites ansuring that different actors involved in the operacionalization of the course work together, as pointed out by [24]. Teachers, tutors and course coordinators have to work on participatory and integrative bases to decrease evasion

Limiters of distance education system from the perspective of tutors

15%

Presents an elitist system

Interaction of involved professionals

Commitment of students

interactivity

Lack of the habit of working with

4%

26%

55%

**Figure 13.** Teachers' perspectives on the limiters of distance education

Source: Research data

**Figure 14.** Students' perception about the deficiencies in relation to presential courses

Nonetheless, teachers' points of views about deficiencies of distance courses in relation to deficiencies on presential courses have almost the same pattern of responses. First, but with a slightly higher difference, are the difficulties related to communication among actors involved in the process followed by lack of stakeholder involvement (Figure 15). The other two options impersonality (24%) and attachement to presential paradigm (21%) were also almost equally mentioned by teachers. Thus, comparing these two groups, their points of views are also similar. For this reason, one may state that information technology is relevant to improve the quality of distance education courses. "It is necessary setting an appropriated virtual learning environment where all the activities are well connected and interrelated in an invisible and dynamic net, allowing the development of knowledge construction process" [26]. In this case, developing an appropriated platform for interaction among the involved parts and accessibility to didatic material is very important too.

Quality Assurance in Distance Education in Brazil 175

**5. Conclusion and recommendation** 

web platform.

phone line.

involved.

Distance Education is showing a significant growth in the last few years in Brazil and more institutions are getting enrolled in this kind of education. The year of 2005 ended up with surprising news, and for the first time in Brazil, this education model was considered one of the priorities of the Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC). The reason is the great demand for vacancies, mainly in higher education, and the spread of information and communications technologies that make it possible. Apart from that, Distance Education may provide a great impulse to presential education because teachers receive support to elaborate didatic material and training to participate in the

Distance Education is growing, motivated by the demand of many students finishing secondary school, and other people from different ages and backgrounds that have begun to use on-line training as a way to update their knowledge in Brazil. This new educational paradigm is meeting students' expectations because they may study and work at the same, and they do not need to spend money and time to move from home to school every day. This saved time can be allocated for reading, exchanging ideas and information with other students, tutors and teachers by the internet or a free

CEDERJ experience, a consortium of the 6 universities of the state of Rio de Janeiro and the Federal Institute of Rio de Janeiro, is one of the well established distance education experience, which is working to improve the access and the quality of knowledge offered to the population in this state. More than 30.000 students are enrolled in its 9 graduation programs and for this reason, it is necessary to evaluate the quality of the system as a whole. The evaluation methodology, presented here, has being implemented in the consortium since 2006 and it suffered some changes during the process. One of the most significant changes was on the instrument of data collection to gather the students' opinions about their courses and the CEDERJ consortium as a whole. The technical visits provided subsidies to re-orient this process of evaluating distance education in Brazil. Different actions were taken on the basis of the results of such metodology of evaluation. The whole process is implemented every year and it is planned to last for one year. This means, each process starts when the previous one ends. This methodology is supposed to provide subsidies to improve the quality of the whole process including changes in the platform content and design, written material, tutorial activities, poles infrastructure and support, coordinating team and other actors

Another experience addressed in this chapter was the undergraduate Management Course offered by The Federal University of Lavras in partnership with the Bank of Brazil and the Ministry of Education and Culture. This course was a pilot project which subsidized the organization and institucionalization of the Brazil Open University. This experience involved 18 public Brazilian universities spread all over the country. The course accounted 289 students registered at the Federal University of Lavras. They answered the

Source: Research data

**Figure 15.** Teachers' perception on about the deficiencies in relation to presential courses

The aspects evaluated in this course in Minas Gerais - Brazil takes into account the framework to be considered by the Ministry of Education and the National Institute of Educational Studies – INEP in order to evaluate quality of Brazilian Distance Education Courses. As this course was a national piloting project it faced some difficulties mainly regarding communication systems involving students, tutors and teachers' interaction, educational material that sometimes were not totally appropriated for distance education courses and the difficulties regarding the multidisciplinary team, which was spread in different cities and sometimes could not articulate themselves properly to address students', tutors' and teachers' needs on time.

## **5. Conclusion and recommendation**

174 Distance Education

didatic material is very important too.

27%

28%

Source: Research data

tutors' and teachers' needs on time.

Nonetheless, teachers' points of views about deficiencies of distance courses in relation to deficiencies on presential courses have almost the same pattern of responses. First, but with a slightly higher difference, are the difficulties related to communication among actors involved in the process followed by lack of stakeholder involvement (Figure 15). The other two options impersonality (24%) and attachement to presential paradigm (21%) were also almost equally mentioned by teachers. Thus, comparing these two groups, their points of views are also similar. For this reason, one may state that information technology is relevant to improve the quality of distance education courses. "It is necessary setting an appropriated virtual learning environment where all the activities are well connected and interrelated in an invisible and dynamic net, allowing the development of knowledge construction process" [26]. In this case, developing an appropriated platform for interaction among the involved parts and accessibility to

**Figure 15.** Teachers' perception on about the deficiencies in relation to presential courses

Deficiencies in relation to presential courses from the perspective of teachers

24%

Impersonality

paradigm

Attachement to presential

Communication among the actors involved in the process

Lack of stakeholder involvement

21%

The aspects evaluated in this course in Minas Gerais - Brazil takes into account the framework to be considered by the Ministry of Education and the National Institute of Educational Studies – INEP in order to evaluate quality of Brazilian Distance Education Courses. As this course was a national piloting project it faced some difficulties mainly regarding communication systems involving students, tutors and teachers' interaction, educational material that sometimes were not totally appropriated for distance education courses and the difficulties regarding the multidisciplinary team, which was spread in different cities and sometimes could not articulate themselves properly to address students', Distance Education is showing a significant growth in the last few years in Brazil and more institutions are getting enrolled in this kind of education. The year of 2005 ended up with surprising news, and for the first time in Brazil, this education model was considered one of the priorities of the Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC). The reason is the great demand for vacancies, mainly in higher education, and the spread of information and communications technologies that make it possible. Apart from that, Distance Education may provide a great impulse to presential education because teachers receive support to elaborate didatic material and training to participate in the web platform.

Distance Education is growing, motivated by the demand of many students finishing secondary school, and other people from different ages and backgrounds that have begun to use on-line training as a way to update their knowledge in Brazil. This new educational paradigm is meeting students' expectations because they may study and work at the same, and they do not need to spend money and time to move from home to school every day. This saved time can be allocated for reading, exchanging ideas and information with other students, tutors and teachers by the internet or a free phone line.

CEDERJ experience, a consortium of the 6 universities of the state of Rio de Janeiro and the Federal Institute of Rio de Janeiro, is one of the well established distance education experience, which is working to improve the access and the quality of knowledge offered to the population in this state. More than 30.000 students are enrolled in its 9 graduation programs and for this reason, it is necessary to evaluate the quality of the system as a whole. The evaluation methodology, presented here, has being implemented in the consortium since 2006 and it suffered some changes during the process. One of the most significant changes was on the instrument of data collection to gather the students' opinions about their courses and the CEDERJ consortium as a whole. The technical visits provided subsidies to re-orient this process of evaluating distance education in Brazil. Different actions were taken on the basis of the results of such metodology of evaluation. The whole process is implemented every year and it is planned to last for one year. This means, each process starts when the previous one ends. This methodology is supposed to provide subsidies to improve the quality of the whole process including changes in the platform content and design, written material, tutorial activities, poles infrastructure and support, coordinating team and other actors involved.

Another experience addressed in this chapter was the undergraduate Management Course offered by The Federal University of Lavras in partnership with the Bank of Brazil and the Ministry of Education and Culture. This course was a pilot project which subsidized the organization and institucionalization of the Brazil Open University. This experience involved 18 public Brazilian universities spread all over the country. The course accounted 289 students registered at the Federal University of Lavras. They answered the

questionnaire along with tutors and teachers engaged in the course. The questionnaire was available at the distance education platform.

Quality Assurance in Distance Education in Brazil 177

Evaluation Topics 1 2 3 4 5

**Appendix** 

 **2. Platform** 

 Forum Downloading Tutorial rooms

Information update

Support for the platform access

 **3. Didactic Printed Material** Clearness of the Printed Material Visual aspect of the booklets Illustrations applicability

Speed of access to the information in the platform

Lateral notes utility (boxes and short sentences)

Relation between the subject objectives and the activities indicated

Media elements (links, videos, images and animation) at the platform

Relation of the material available at the platform and the

Contribution of the media elements for the learning process

 Motivation get from the booklets content Relevance of the proposed exercises

Didactic material in the platform

printed material

 **4. In Loco Tutorial** 

 Constantness of the tutors Punctuality of the Tutors

Level of knowledge of the tutors

Contribution of the tutorial for students learning

 **1. Regional Poles Infrastructure**

 Secretary attendance Studying rooms

 Physical space for tutorial Informatics Labs installations Equipments in the informatics labs

 Biology Labs installations Equipments in the Biology Labs Physics labs installations Equipments in the Physics labs

This research aimed to discuss students', teachers' and tutors' perception about quality assurance at distance education courses. It analyzed their perception about technology, mechanism of interaction, tutors' and teachers' involvement, communication tool used in this modality of education and teaching material (textbook) used during the course.

The results provided a useful amount of information to improve the quality of the course, including improvements on communication tools, printed material, and even the learning evaluating system and the facilities of the system used to implement the course. It also subsidized some important decisions of the Ministry of Education and Culture and Brazil Open University about offering new undergraduate course in the country. In the second semester of 2009, a Public Management Course started in the same bases of this pilot project. This study was supposed to support improvements on this new project too. The Federal University of Lavras is offering this new course in six new municipalities, and the "pilot project" on Management finished in the middle of 2011. Nowadays, the National Institute of Educational Studies – INEP is evaluating every distance course within Brazil to offer Accreditation regarding the framework stated at document References of Quality for Higher Distance Education [27].

Since the experiences addressed in this chapter were valuable to improve the quality of the courses, new researches at CEDERJ consortium, within the new courses offered by Brazil Open University and other broad iniciatives on distance education should be made to assess the quality of the courses offered nowadays. It is also recommended that new researches should be carried addressing the Accreditation in public and private institutions in order to evaluate the appropriateness of the model and the difficulties faced by the institutions in order to attend quality standard desired for distance education.

## **Author details**

Ana Alice Vilas Boas, Patricia Aparecida Ferreira and Renata Pedretti Morais Furtado *The Federal University of Lavras, Department of Management and Economics, Lavras, Minas Gerais, Brazil* 

Thair Hamtini *The University of Jordan, King Abdullah II School for Information Technology, Amman, Jordan* 

## **Acknowledgement**

We would like to say thank you to Simone Aparecida de Souza for making the data available for writing this chapter, and to Gustavo Henrique Nogueira de Andrade for the assistance on analyzing the data.

## **Appendix**

176 Distance Education

course.

Distance Education [27].

**Author details** 

*Gerais, Brazil* 

Thair Hamtini

**Acknowledgement** 

assistance on analyzing the data.

available at the distance education platform.

questionnaire along with tutors and teachers engaged in the course. The questionnaire was

This research aimed to discuss students', teachers' and tutors' perception about quality assurance at distance education courses. It analyzed their perception about technology, mechanism of interaction, tutors' and teachers' involvement, communication tool used in this modality of education and teaching material (textbook) used during the

The results provided a useful amount of information to improve the quality of the course, including improvements on communication tools, printed material, and even the learning evaluating system and the facilities of the system used to implement the course. It also subsidized some important decisions of the Ministry of Education and Culture and Brazil Open University about offering new undergraduate course in the country. In the second semester of 2009, a Public Management Course started in the same bases of this pilot project. This study was supposed to support improvements on this new project too. The Federal University of Lavras is offering this new course in six new municipalities, and the "pilot project" on Management finished in the middle of 2011. Nowadays, the National Institute of Educational Studies – INEP is evaluating every distance course within Brazil to offer Accreditation regarding the framework stated at document References of Quality for Higher

Since the experiences addressed in this chapter were valuable to improve the quality of the courses, new researches at CEDERJ consortium, within the new courses offered by Brazil Open University and other broad iniciatives on distance education should be made to assess the quality of the courses offered nowadays. It is also recommended that new researches should be carried addressing the Accreditation in public and private institutions in order to evaluate the appropriateness of the model and the difficulties faced by the institutions in

Ana Alice Vilas Boas, Patricia Aparecida Ferreira and Renata Pedretti Morais Furtado *The Federal University of Lavras, Department of Management and Economics, Lavras, Minas* 

*The University of Jordan, King Abdullah II School for Information Technology, Amman, Jordan* 

We would like to say thank you to Simone Aparecida de Souza for making the data available for writing this chapter, and to Gustavo Henrique Nogueira de Andrade for the

order to attend quality standard desired for distance education.



Quality Assurance in Distance Education in Brazil 179

[7] Hannaffin M, Land, S (2000) Student-Centred Learning Environment. In: JONASSEN, David & LAND, Susan. Theoretical Foundations of Learning Environments. Mahwah,

[8] Rezende F A. (2006) A complexidade possível de ser transposta na conformação de ambientes de ensino aprendizagem a distância. In: MEC/SEED. Desafios da Educação a Distância na Formação de Professores. Brasília, Secretaria de Educação a Distância. pp.

[9] Brasil (2007) Referenciais de Qualidade para Educação Superior a Distância. Available: <http://portal.mec.gov.br/seed/arquivos/pdf/legislacao/refead1.pdf>. Accessed 2011

[13] Vilas Boas A A, Martins N S, Nogueira H G P (2008) The Evolution of the Evaluation Methodology in a Regional Consortium Experience in Rio de Janeiro – Brazil.

[14] CEDERJ (2008) Questionário para Avaliação Interna. Available in: www.cederj.edu.br

[15] Vilas Boas A A, Oliveira G de J, Martins N S (2007) An evaluation methodology for distance education in a regional consortium experience. Proceedings of the Online

[16] Bielschowsky C E (2006) Educação Superior a distância: uma estratégia para avaliação institucional. In: MEC/SEED. Desafios da Educação a Distância na Formação de

[17] Vilas Boas A A, Oliveira G de J, Martins N S (2007) An evaluation methodology for distance education in a regional consortium experience. Proceedings of the Online

[18] Vilas Boas A A, Oliveira G de J, Martins N S (2007) An evaluation methodology for distance education in a regional consortium experience. Proceedings of the Online

[19] Bielschowsky C E (2006) Educação Superior a distância: uma estratégia para avaliação institucional. In: MEC/SEED. Desafios da Educação a Distância na Formação de

[20] Vilas Boas A A, Oliveira G de J, Martins N S (2007) An evaluation methodology for distance education in a regional consortium experience. Proceedings of the Online

[21] Vilas Boas A A, Oliveira G de J, Martins N S (2007) An evaluation methodology for distance education in a regional consortium experience. Proceedings of the Online

[22] Mundin K C (2006) Ensino a Distância no Brasil: problemas e desafios. In: MEC/SEED. Desafios da Educação a Distância na Formação de Professores. Brasília, Secretaria de

Professores. Brasília, DF, Secretaria de Educação a Distância. pp. 51-65

Professores. Brasília, DF, Secretaria de Educação a Distância. pp. 51-65

[10] CEDERJ (2001) Available: www.cederj.edu.gov.br Acessed 2001 May 21. [11] CEDERJ (2004) Available: www.cederj.edu.gov.br Acessed 2004 July 05. [12] CEDERJ (2012) Available: www.vestibular.cederj.edu.br Acessed 2012 April 5.

Proceedings of the Online Educa Africa, Ghana.

New Jersey: Lawrence Associates.

135-136.

November 18. p. 7.

Accessed 2008 March 05.

Educa Moscow.

Educa Moscow. p. 7.

Educa Moscow.

Educa Moscow.

Educa Moscow.

Educação a Distância. pp. 119-126.

Source: Vilas Boas et al (2007: 7-8)

**Table 1.** Evaluation topics included in the evaluation questionnaire

#### **6. References**


<http://portal.mec.gov.br/sesu/index.php?option=content&task=category&sectionid=7& id=100&Itemid=298>. Accessed 2005 December 05.


 **5. At Distance Tutorial**

 Contribution for learning **6. At Distance Evaluation** 

 **7. In Loco Evaluation** 

 **8. Students Assiduity** 

At distance tutorial monthly

Source: Vilas Boas et al (2007: 7-8)

**6. References** 

Imobiliária.

Available:

Biblioteca Nacional.

Imobiliária. p. 38.

 Timetable for distance tutorial attendance Interest and attention given by distance tutors Level of knowledge about students doubts

 Contribution of the topics addressed for in deep learning Correlation between the test questions and didactic material

Contribution of the addressed topics for in deep learning

Monthly assiduity in using didactic material at the platform

**Table 1.** Evaluation topics included in the evaluation questionnaire

Ciências Humanas e Sociais, Rio de Janeiro: UFRRJ.

id=100&Itemid=298>. Accessed 2005 December 05.

Educação a Distância. pp. 119-126.

[1] Reis A M V (1996) Ensino a Distância: megatendência atual. São Paulo: Editora

[2] Landin C M M P F (1997) Educação a Distância: algumas considerações. Rio de Janeiro:

[3] Reis A M V (1996) Ensino a Distância: megatendência atual. São Paulo: Editora

[4] Carvalho Filho A de (2006) Educação a Distância: a experiência de uma organização militar com sede no Rio de Janeiro. Dissertação (Mestrado Profissional) - Instituto de

[5] Mundin K C (2006) Ensino a Distância no Brasil: problemas e desafios. In: MEC/SEED. Desafios da Educação a Distância na Formação de Professores. Brasília, Secretaria de

[6] MEC – Ministério de Educação e Cultura. (2005) Educação a Distância. Decreto 5.622.

<http://portal.mec.gov.br/sesu/index.php?option=content&task=category&sectionid=7&

Correlation between the test questions and the didactic material

Language clearness in the saying of the questions

Language clearness in the saying of the questions

Monthly participation in the in loco tutorial


[23] Hannaffin M, Land, S (2000) Student-Centred Learning Environment. In: JONASSEN, David & LAND, Susan. Theoretical Foundations of Learning Environments. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Associates.

**Chapter 8** 

© 2012 Aoki, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Generations of Distance Education and** 

**in Japanese Higher Education** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Kumiko Aoki

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50090

**1. Introduction** 

**Challenges of Distance Education Institutions** 

Distance education has always provided some opportunities for pursuing education to those people who otherwise have not been able to do so. It had not been the mainstream of formal education until recently, but the status and attention of distance education has risen since the days of correspondence education, and now distance education has been discussed and practiced in many higher educational institutions around the world. In the near future, it may become a moot issue to discuss "distance" nature of "distance education", but

 There have been numerous attempts to classify distance education in the past. Most of them classify distance education in terms of dominant technologies used. Distance education and technologies are considered inseparable as in order to reach students at a distance, one must use certain tools or technologies to do so. While technologies of instruction have been examined closely, the organizational transformation those technologies necessitate tends to be overlooked. In changing the mode of instruction or the educational model of distance education, an institution must also rearrange or transform its organizational structure to enable and effectuate such changes. Actually many distance education institutions fail to transform themselves to adapt to the changes and stay behind

Distance education institutions are different from traditional campus-based institutions as the whole systems and operations of teaching and learning at distance education institutions have to be designed institutionally while at campus-based institutions, there are more rooms for individual instructors' discretion in deciding what methods and technologies to be used in their classrooms. In other words, divisions of labors among faculty and staff are more

"distance education" as a field of inquiry may not disappear altogether.

in adopting new technologies and methods of teaching and learning.


## **Generations of Distance Education and Challenges of Distance Education Institutions in Japanese Higher Education**

Kumiko Aoki

180 Distance Education

127-146.

135-136.

136.

November 18.

New Jersey: Lawrence Associates.

[23] Hannaffin M, Land, S (2000) Student-Centred Learning Environment. In: JONASSEN, David & LAND, Susan. Theoretical Foundations of Learning Environments. Mahwah,

[24] Rezende F A. (2006) A complexidade possível de ser transposta na conformação de ambientes de ensino aprendizagem a distância. In: MEC/SEED. Desafios da Educação a Distância na Formação de Professores. Brasília, Secretaria de Educação a Distância. pp.

[25] Rezende F A. (2006) A complexidade possível de ser transposta na conformação de ambientes de ensino aprendizagem a distância. In: MEC/SEED. Desafios da Educação a Distância na Formação de Professores. Brasília, Secretaria de Educação a Distância. pp.

[26] Rezende F A. (2006) A complexidade possível de ser transposta na conformação de ambientes de ensino aprendizagem a distância. In: MEC/SEED. Desafios da Educação a Distância na Formação de Professores. Brasília, Secretaria de Educação a Distância. p.

[27] Brasil (2007) Referenciais de Qualidade para Educação Superior a Distância. Available: <http://portal.mec.gov.br/seed/arquivos/pdf/legislacao/refead1.pdf>. Accessed 2011 Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50090

## **1. Introduction**

Distance education has always provided some opportunities for pursuing education to those people who otherwise have not been able to do so. It had not been the mainstream of formal education until recently, but the status and attention of distance education has risen since the days of correspondence education, and now distance education has been discussed and practiced in many higher educational institutions around the world. In the near future, it may become a moot issue to discuss "distance" nature of "distance education", but "distance education" as a field of inquiry may not disappear altogether.

 There have been numerous attempts to classify distance education in the past. Most of them classify distance education in terms of dominant technologies used. Distance education and technologies are considered inseparable as in order to reach students at a distance, one must use certain tools or technologies to do so. While technologies of instruction have been examined closely, the organizational transformation those technologies necessitate tends to be overlooked. In changing the mode of instruction or the educational model of distance education, an institution must also rearrange or transform its organizational structure to enable and effectuate such changes. Actually many distance education institutions fail to transform themselves to adapt to the changes and stay behind in adopting new technologies and methods of teaching and learning.

Distance education institutions are different from traditional campus-based institutions as the whole systems and operations of teaching and learning at distance education institutions have to be designed institutionally while at campus-based institutions, there are more rooms for individual instructors' discretion in deciding what methods and technologies to be used in their classrooms. In other words, divisions of labors among faculty and staff are more

© 2012 Aoki, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

prominent in distance education institutions due to the fact that many different technical aspects of teaching and learning come into play and instructors or tutors cannot be in charge of the entire operation and management of a course.

Generations of Distance Education

and Challenges of Distance Education Institutions in Japanese Higher Education 183

between teachers and students was usually limited to correspondence, meaning hand-

The second generation is characterized by the use of radio and television as instructional media in addition to print materials. This generation is often referred to as the "industrial mode" of distance education with highly specialized division of labor in producing and delivering instructional materials and the potential to educate thousands of students at once. Most open universities including British Open University, Anadolu University's Open Educational Faculty in Turkey, Korea National Open University and the Open University of

In North America, many televised programs were developed to be broadcasted over closedcircuit television as well as satellite television in university settings. The teacher-student interaction can occur through postal mail, telephone, facsimile, electronic mail, face-to-face contact, teleconferencing or video conferencing. However, the interaction between teachers and students is usually discouraged in this mode mainly because the system is not designed for their full-interaction and it becomes too costly for the institution or too burdensome for

The third generation of distance education utilizes information and communication technologies (ICT) to provide interaction in addition to content delivery. There are two aspects of interactivity in the use of ICT: the interactivity between the learner and the content as seen in interactive multimedia learning materials in CD-ROM as well as on the Web and the interactivity between teachers and students and among students. The latter

It can be also said that there is an emerging generation of distance education where interactivity or two-way communication between teachers and students and among students becomes of utmost importance. In terms of technology, the social media or socalled Web 2.0 plays an important part in transforming learning experiences in distance education. In addition, the wide availability of the Open Educational Resources (OER) reduces the burden of content production by distance education institutions and enables

Taylor [5] suggested five generations of distance education: First, the Correspondence Model based on print technology; Second, the Multi-media Model based on print, audio and video technologies; Third, the Tele-learning Model, based on applications of telecommunications technologies to provide opportunities for synchronous communication; Fourth, the Flexible Learning Model based on online delivery via the Internet; and Fifth, Intelligent Flexible Learning Model based on the interactive nature of the Internet. As this model was suggested before social media and Web 2.0 came into scenes, it is understandable that this model does not include the emerging generation of distance education, either,

Criticizing those classifications based on technologies, Anderson and Dron [6] suggests three generations of distance education in terms of its dominant pedagogy: the cognitive-

written texts that were sent via postal mail.

the teachers.

which was discussed above.

Japan also started as this second generation institutions.

interactivity makes the fourth generation of distance education.

them to focus more on learner support and design for learning.

When an organization is centralized and the work flows in the organization are distributed among multiple stakeholders, the organization becomes rigid and difficult to innovate and change. If an institution is started in one mode of operation, it requires tremendous institutional efforts to change its mode of operation even if the change is relatively minor. Those distance education institutions that have been set up for mass production and delivery of learning packages are now facing big challenges in offering customized production and provision of learning experiences.

Theories of distance education have so far offered organizational models for industrialized operation of distance education [1] and later transactional models for interactive teaching and learning[2, 3], but few theories bridge the gap between those two; even those institutions who offer fully interactive teaching and learning have to have some theoretical base in organizing the institution, but organizational models for enabling such teaching and learning have rarely been discussed in the recent literature of distance education. As long as distance education is offered within the formal or non-formal educational frameworks, it is inevitable to consider organizational aspects of such offerings. As the industrial production model of Otto Peters was created to realize economies of scale, an organizational model to realize economies of scope should be provided for distance education institutions in the postindustrial era.

It may be the case that a division of labor with in an institution, which was one of the main characteristics of industrialized operation of distance education, will be replaced by a division of labor across institutions: some institutions with relatively deep pockets may focus more on production of contents and make those contents widely available; on the other hand, other institutions may focus more on the provision of learning supports. Some other institutions may mainly focus on credentialing learning using the contents and learning supports provided by other institutions.

This paper first reflects on the evolutions of distance education practices as expressed in its generations. Then, it takes a look at the evolution of distance education practices in Japan, including the history of the Open University of Japan. It also discusses the obstacles and challenges many institutions of higher education in Japan are facing in offering distance education programs in the postindustrial era.

## **2. Generations of distance education**

The history of distance education tells us the evolving use of technologies. Bates [4] as well as Peters [1] mentioned that distance education had gone through three stages. The first generation of distance education refers to those which mainly utilize written and printed texts and postal services for delivering such texts in the forms of books, newspapers, and manuals. It is so-called print-based correspondence education. In this stage, the interaction between teachers and students was usually limited to correspondence, meaning handwritten texts that were sent via postal mail.

182 Distance Education

postindustrial era.

prominent in distance education institutions due to the fact that many different technical aspects of teaching and learning come into play and instructors or tutors cannot be in charge

When an organization is centralized and the work flows in the organization are distributed among multiple stakeholders, the organization becomes rigid and difficult to innovate and change. If an institution is started in one mode of operation, it requires tremendous institutional efforts to change its mode of operation even if the change is relatively minor. Those distance education institutions that have been set up for mass production and delivery of learning packages are now facing big challenges in offering customized

Theories of distance education have so far offered organizational models for industrialized operation of distance education [1] and later transactional models for interactive teaching and learning[2, 3], but few theories bridge the gap between those two; even those institutions who offer fully interactive teaching and learning have to have some theoretical base in organizing the institution, but organizational models for enabling such teaching and learning have rarely been discussed in the recent literature of distance education. As long as distance education is offered within the formal or non-formal educational frameworks, it is inevitable to consider organizational aspects of such offerings. As the industrial production model of Otto Peters was created to realize economies of scale, an organizational model to realize economies of scope should be provided for distance education institutions in the

It may be the case that a division of labor with in an institution, which was one of the main characteristics of industrialized operation of distance education, will be replaced by a division of labor across institutions: some institutions with relatively deep pockets may focus more on production of contents and make those contents widely available; on the other hand, other institutions may focus more on the provision of learning supports. Some other institutions may mainly focus on credentialing learning using the contents and

This paper first reflects on the evolutions of distance education practices as expressed in its generations. Then, it takes a look at the evolution of distance education practices in Japan, including the history of the Open University of Japan. It also discusses the obstacles and challenges many institutions of higher education in Japan are facing in offering distance

The history of distance education tells us the evolving use of technologies. Bates [4] as well as Peters [1] mentioned that distance education had gone through three stages. The first generation of distance education refers to those which mainly utilize written and printed texts and postal services for delivering such texts in the forms of books, newspapers, and manuals. It is so-called print-based correspondence education. In this stage, the interaction

of the entire operation and management of a course.

production and provision of learning experiences.

learning supports provided by other institutions.

education programs in the postindustrial era.

**2. Generations of distance education** 

The second generation is characterized by the use of radio and television as instructional media in addition to print materials. This generation is often referred to as the "industrial mode" of distance education with highly specialized division of labor in producing and delivering instructional materials and the potential to educate thousands of students at once. Most open universities including British Open University, Anadolu University's Open Educational Faculty in Turkey, Korea National Open University and the Open University of Japan also started as this second generation institutions.

In North America, many televised programs were developed to be broadcasted over closedcircuit television as well as satellite television in university settings. The teacher-student interaction can occur through postal mail, telephone, facsimile, electronic mail, face-to-face contact, teleconferencing or video conferencing. However, the interaction between teachers and students is usually discouraged in this mode mainly because the system is not designed for their full-interaction and it becomes too costly for the institution or too burdensome for the teachers.

The third generation of distance education utilizes information and communication technologies (ICT) to provide interaction in addition to content delivery. There are two aspects of interactivity in the use of ICT: the interactivity between the learner and the content as seen in interactive multimedia learning materials in CD-ROM as well as on the Web and the interactivity between teachers and students and among students. The latter interactivity makes the fourth generation of distance education.

It can be also said that there is an emerging generation of distance education where interactivity or two-way communication between teachers and students and among students becomes of utmost importance. In terms of technology, the social media or socalled Web 2.0 plays an important part in transforming learning experiences in distance education. In addition, the wide availability of the Open Educational Resources (OER) reduces the burden of content production by distance education institutions and enables them to focus more on learner support and design for learning.

Taylor [5] suggested five generations of distance education: First, the Correspondence Model based on print technology; Second, the Multi-media Model based on print, audio and video technologies; Third, the Tele-learning Model, based on applications of telecommunications technologies to provide opportunities for synchronous communication; Fourth, the Flexible Learning Model based on online delivery via the Internet; and Fifth, Intelligent Flexible Learning Model based on the interactive nature of the Internet. As this model was suggested before social media and Web 2.0 came into scenes, it is understandable that this model does not include the emerging generation of distance education, either, which was discussed above.

Criticizing those classifications based on technologies, Anderson and Dron [6] suggests three generations of distance education in terms of its dominant pedagogy: the cognitivebehaviorist pedagogy, the social-constructivist pedagogy, and the connectivist pedagogy of distance education. According to Anderson and Dron, the first generation, the cognitivebehaviorist pedagogy, is characterized by the thinking that learning means some behavioral changes instigated by learning stimuli, and was the dominant thinking in computer-assisted instruction and instructional systems designs. The second generation of distance education pedagogy, the social-constructivist pedagogy, was originated in the work of Vygotsky and Dewey, and focuses more on learning instead of teaching. In this pedagogy, human interaction (student-teacher and student-student) is emphasized, which makes it costly for an institution to adopt. The third generation, the connectivist pedagogy of distance education, is built around networked connections and based on the learners' ability to actively participate in networked communities of their choice.

Generations of Distance Education

and Challenges of Distance Education Institutions in Japanese Higher Education 185

arranged by an ad hoc institution based on learning goals students want to achieve. In other words, the emphasis is placed upon economies of scale in the industrial model while the emphasis is placed upon economies of scope in this emerging model of distance education. This third organizational model is still emerging, and has not yet been seen beyond experimental bases. As discussed above, there are many different models (whether it is termed as "generations" or not) of distance education and it is usually the case that evolving from one generation to another, or transforming itself from one model into another requires tremendous institutional efforts. It is so much easier to start anew rather than transforming

The technologies or the pedagogy that are dominant in one generation do not go away when the technologies in the next generation arrive. The new technologies tend to be just added to the old ones as the supplement of the existing ones in the beginning and later as the dominant technologies. The printed materials have not gone away yet and, still in many distance education programs, they are the primary learning materials. Radio and television have not gone away though, in many distance education programs, those pave the ways to DVDs and streaming audio and video on the Internet. The animated interactive programs on DVD or on the Web have not gone away though they might have become one of many open educational resources that are shared and made available publicly. In other words, distance education has been becoming more complex and multi-faceted as time has gone by with added features and technologies. This is also true to pedagogies. No single pedagogy has provided all the answers and usually a combination of different pedagogies is used as the technologies evolve. However, the organizational models cannot coexist within one

In considering distance education theories and practices, it is important to look at from the three perspectives: technologies, pedagogies and organizations. In the following, distance

In Japan, the first occurrence of distance education can be traced back to the "lecture notes" used in higher education in the late 19th century. In the Meiji period when higher education had not taken a solid form yet in Japan and no textbooks existed in Japanese, the only learning materials students could rely on were notes taken from the lectures given by professors. Thus, those "lecture notes" were printed and used by non-matriculated students in their studying. Waseda University, the Japan's premium private college, is well known for being the first one to implement this system. Those students who studied through the "lecture notes" could take an exam to obtain a certificate of completion. At that time, those who could not come to Tokyo to take college courses studied in this mode and took exams to gain certification. This is considered to be the origin of "correspondence education" or

education in Japan is discussed to consider its evolution from the three perspectives.

one institution into that of a different generation or model.

**3. Background of distance education in Japan** 

**3.1. Brief history of distance education in Japan** 

organization.

distance education in Japan.

As Anderson and Dron state that, "Connectivism is built on an assumption of a constructivist model of learning, with the learner at the centre, connecting and constructing knowledge in a context that includes not only external networks and groups but also his or her own histories and predilections," the connectivisit pedagogy does not seem significantly different from the social-constructivist pedagogy, but it may be significantly different from other paradigms of teaching and learning in terms of the degree of control an institution has over students' learning. In the previous paradigms of distance education, the role of institutions in designing and evaluating students' learning is quite large while in the connectivist model where learners rely upon existing networked communities to develop their own net presence, the role educational institutions play in individual learning may be reduced to credentialing what students have learned.

So far the evolution of distance education has been classified into generations in terms of its dominant technology and its dominant pedagogy. Here it is suggested that distance education can be classified into three organizational models. The first organizational model of distance education is the "supplementary model," where distance education is supplementary or complementary to traditional education, which targeted those who were excluded from traditional education for some reasons and needed some "access and equity" in their lives [7]. As the distance education programs are supplemental to on-campus programs, the institutional investment in offering the distance educational programs is minimal and usually managed by a special office called "extension programs," "external study," "independent study," etc. The second generation of distance education is the industrial model discussed earlier. The industrial model has been associated with mass education where hundreds or thousands of students learn in the same program using the same content and the same method. In order to enable this, the institution has to have a division of labors within the institution; hence, it becomes the "industrial" model of production and delivery of courses. The third and emerging model of distance education is the "ad hoc model," in which institutions may play one part in the whole process of learners' learning in various ways. For example, one institution may offer learning content while another institution may offer tutorials and student support. Yet, some other institution may offer evaluation of learning and credentialing of what students have learned. It's a division of labor across institutions to meet the demands of learners being arranged by an ad hoc institution based on learning goals students want to achieve. In other words, the emphasis is placed upon economies of scale in the industrial model while the emphasis is placed upon economies of scope in this emerging model of distance education. This third organizational model is still emerging, and has not yet been seen beyond experimental bases. As discussed above, there are many different models (whether it is termed as "generations" or not) of distance education and it is usually the case that evolving from one generation to another, or transforming itself from one model into another requires tremendous institutional efforts. It is so much easier to start anew rather than transforming one institution into that of a different generation or model.

The technologies or the pedagogy that are dominant in one generation do not go away when the technologies in the next generation arrive. The new technologies tend to be just added to the old ones as the supplement of the existing ones in the beginning and later as the dominant technologies. The printed materials have not gone away yet and, still in many distance education programs, they are the primary learning materials. Radio and television have not gone away though, in many distance education programs, those pave the ways to DVDs and streaming audio and video on the Internet. The animated interactive programs on DVD or on the Web have not gone away though they might have become one of many open educational resources that are shared and made available publicly. In other words, distance education has been becoming more complex and multi-faceted as time has gone by with added features and technologies. This is also true to pedagogies. No single pedagogy has provided all the answers and usually a combination of different pedagogies is used as the technologies evolve. However, the organizational models cannot coexist within one organization.

In considering distance education theories and practices, it is important to look at from the three perspectives: technologies, pedagogies and organizations. In the following, distance education in Japan is discussed to consider its evolution from the three perspectives.

## **3. Background of distance education in Japan**

#### **3.1. Brief history of distance education in Japan**

184 Distance Education

behaviorist pedagogy, the social-constructivist pedagogy, and the connectivist pedagogy of distance education. According to Anderson and Dron, the first generation, the cognitivebehaviorist pedagogy, is characterized by the thinking that learning means some behavioral changes instigated by learning stimuli, and was the dominant thinking in computer-assisted instruction and instructional systems designs. The second generation of distance education pedagogy, the social-constructivist pedagogy, was originated in the work of Vygotsky and Dewey, and focuses more on learning instead of teaching. In this pedagogy, human interaction (student-teacher and student-student) is emphasized, which makes it costly for an institution to adopt. The third generation, the connectivist pedagogy of distance education, is built around networked connections and based on the learners' ability to

As Anderson and Dron state that, "Connectivism is built on an assumption of a constructivist model of learning, with the learner at the centre, connecting and constructing knowledge in a context that includes not only external networks and groups but also his or her own histories and predilections," the connectivisit pedagogy does not seem significantly different from the social-constructivist pedagogy, but it may be significantly different from other paradigms of teaching and learning in terms of the degree of control an institution has over students' learning. In the previous paradigms of distance education, the role of institutions in designing and evaluating students' learning is quite large while in the connectivist model where learners rely upon existing networked communities to develop their own net presence, the role educational institutions play in individual learning may be

So far the evolution of distance education has been classified into generations in terms of its dominant technology and its dominant pedagogy. Here it is suggested that distance education can be classified into three organizational models. The first organizational model of distance education is the "supplementary model," where distance education is supplementary or complementary to traditional education, which targeted those who were excluded from traditional education for some reasons and needed some "access and equity" in their lives [7]. As the distance education programs are supplemental to on-campus programs, the institutional investment in offering the distance educational programs is minimal and usually managed by a special office called "extension programs," "external study," "independent study," etc. The second generation of distance education is the industrial model discussed earlier. The industrial model has been associated with mass education where hundreds or thousands of students learn in the same program using the same content and the same method. In order to enable this, the institution has to have a division of labors within the institution; hence, it becomes the "industrial" model of production and delivery of courses. The third and emerging model of distance education is the "ad hoc model," in which institutions may play one part in the whole process of learners' learning in various ways. For example, one institution may offer learning content while another institution may offer tutorials and student support. Yet, some other institution may offer evaluation of learning and credentialing of what students have learned. It's a division of labor across institutions to meet the demands of learners being

actively participate in networked communities of their choice.

reduced to credentialing what students have learned.

In Japan, the first occurrence of distance education can be traced back to the "lecture notes" used in higher education in the late 19th century. In the Meiji period when higher education had not taken a solid form yet in Japan and no textbooks existed in Japanese, the only learning materials students could rely on were notes taken from the lectures given by professors. Thus, those "lecture notes" were printed and used by non-matriculated students in their studying. Waseda University, the Japan's premium private college, is well known for being the first one to implement this system. Those students who studied through the "lecture notes" could take an exam to obtain a certificate of completion. At that time, those who could not come to Tokyo to take college courses studied in this mode and took exams to gain certification. This is considered to be the origin of "correspondence education" or distance education in Japan.

In 1950, for the first time in its history, those correspondence schools or distance learning schools were officially recognized by the Ministry of Education, which enabled recognized schools to offer degrees to their students. According to the Higher Education Council in Japan, this is the beginning of distance education in higher education in Japan. Those distance education programs in Japan were mainly created to give access to higher education to those who otherwise did not have. Therefore, primarily the distance education programs were offered by existing on-campus universities and the credits earned through distance education programs were transferrable to the credits for on-campus programs (and vice versa). The distance education programs have to be open to anybody who wishes to study without any entrance selections unlike on-campus programs which mostly have some entry selection. The teachers of those distance education programs must be the ones who are full-time faculty of the institution. The distance programs were mandated to offer face-toface sessions that worth 30 credits per year.

Generations of Distance Education
