**4. Analytical quality**

106 Analytical Chemistry

systems.

**3.4. Social responsibility** 

among others, in particular.

Social responsibility (SR) is a concept encompassing a series of activities intended to support social well-being and help protect the environment which has extended from the corporate world to other human activities such as those involved in Science and Technology. In particular, Social Responsibility of Analytical Chemistry (SRAC) [17] is directed related to the impact of (bio)chemical information or knowledge from objects and systems to society, in general, and to human and animal health, the environment, industry and agrifoods,

SRAC encompasses two basic requirements, namely: (1) producing reliable data, information and knowledge by using sustainable procedures in the framework of so named "green methods of analysis" [18]; and (2) ensuring consistency of delivered data, information and

Analytical Chemistry can therefore provide society with signals (data), results (information) and knowledge (reports), which can have a rather different impact. As can be seen in Figure 11, SRAC has two complementary connotations. One, intrinsic in nature, is the sustainable production of reliable data and results, and their appropriate transfer —which can be made difficult by contextualization and interpretation errors if left in the hands of nonexperts. The other, external connotation, is the appropriate delivery of reports (knowledge) to provide society with accurate information about the composition of natural and artificial objects and

**Figure 11.** Connotations of Social Responsibility in Analytical Chemistry and ways to transfer data,

information and knowledge to society. For details, see text.

knowledge with the facts to avoid false expectations and unwarranted warnings.

An integral approach to quality should rely on the following essential components: (1) the basic connotations of the concept as related to a set of features and comparisons, which in Analytical Chemistry materialize in analytical properties (Figure 6) and the three basic standards (Figure 4); (2) the practical connotations of fulfilling the (bio)chemical information needs posed by clients, which is one of the essential aims of Analytical Chemistry (Figure 3); and (3) the measurability of quality in terms of the capital, basic and productivity-related properties for analytical methods and their results.

Classification 3 in Figure 8 allows (bio)chemical information types to be depicted as shown in Figure 12, which additionally shows their mutual relationships via a tetrahedron. The arrows in the figure represent tendencies to converge —in the ideal situation, the tetrahedron could be replaced with a single, common point. Below is briefly described each member of the tetrahedron.

**Figure 12.** Types of analytical information according to quality and location in a tetrahedron. (1) denotes the ideal situation, in clear contrast with the other types (triangle 2–3–4). The triangles 1–2–4 and 1–3–4 represent problem solving and Metrology in Chemistry, respectively. For details, see text.

*1. True information* corresponds to intrinsic information about objects or systems. It is subject to no uncertainty and hence equivalent to trueness, which is unavailable to analysts. It is also known as "ideal analytical quality".

Analytical Chemistry Today and Tomorrow 109

There are thus two contradictory facets of Analytical Chemistry that coincide with the its two aims, namely: a high level of metrological quality and fulfilling the client's information needs (see Figure 3). Analytical Chemistry is located at their interfaces [4]. There are some apparent conflicts, however, including (1) contradictory relationships of capital and basic analytical properties with productivity-related properties (see Figure 6); (2) failing to include required information among basic standards (see Figure 4); and (3) conceptual

Achieving the general aims and objectives of Analytical chemistry in today's changing world requires producing tangible (reagents, sorbents, solvents, instruments, analyzers) and intangible means (strategies, calibration procedures, advances in basic science) to facilitate the development of new analytical methods or improvement of existing ones. This, however, is

*1. A sound balance between metrological and problem solving approaches for each information demand.* The situation in each case depends strongly on the specific type of information and its characteristics (see Figure 8). With routine information, the challenge is to adopt welldefined quality compromises, which usually involves selecting and adapting analytical processes to fitness for purpose. Obtaining information of a higher scientific–technical level (e.g. that for materials used in R&D&I processes) calls for a high metrological quality level,

*2- Information required from objects/systems far from the ordinary macroscopic dimensions.* These target objects or systems are directly inaccessible to humans because of their location or size.

*Analyzing the nanoworld* is a real challenge for today's and tomorrow Analytical Chemistry. Extracting accurate information from nanostructured matter requires adopting a multidisciplinary approach. Nanotechnological information can be of three types according to nature; all are needed to properly describe and characterize nanomatter. Figure 13 shows the most salient types of physical, chemical and biological information that can be extracted from the nanoworld. Nanometrology, both physical and chemical, is still at an incipient stage of development. There is a current trend to using powerful hybrid instruments affording the almost simultaneous extraction of nanoinformation by using physical (e.g. atomic force microscopy, AFM) and chemical techniques (Raman and FTIR spectroscopies,

*The extraction of accurate information from objects and systems in outer space* is a challenge at the other end of the "usual" range. This peculiar type of analysis uses miniaturized instruments requiring little maintenance and energy support. There are three different choices in this context, namely: (*a*) remote spectrometric analyses from spacecrafts with, for example, miniaturized X-ray spectrometers [20] or miniaturized mass spectrometers for the analysis of cosmic dust [21]; (*b*) analyses implemented by robots operating on the

beyond the scope of this section, which is concerned with general trends in this context.

as well as for exhaustive sample processing and sophisticated laboratory equipment.

The size of such objects can fall at two very distant ends: nanomatter and outer space.

differences in analytical excellence between metrology and problem solving.

**5. Major challenges** 

electrochemistry).

2. *Referential information* corresponds to the highest quality level that can be achieved in practice, with the information about a certified reference material (CRM) as the most typical example. Referential information is usually obtained in interlaboratory exercises where nonroutine laboratories analyze the same sample under the supervision of a renown organization (e.g. NIST in USA). Certified reference materials and their associated values are essential with a view to assuring quality in analytical methods and their results. The main problem here is their limited availability. In fact, only 3–5% of current needs for CRMs in (bio)chemical analysis have been met, in clear contrast with up to 90–95% in Metrology in Physics. Under these conditions, analysts are very often compelled to use alternative strategies to validate new analytical methods (e.g. standard addition procedures involving pure analytes).

3. *Routine information* is that produced by control laboratories or on-site systems operating outside the laboratory and largely used to control the quality of foodstuffs, industrial products or the environment.

*4. Required information* is that demanded by clients to make grounded, timely decisions and constitutes the third basic analytical standard (see Figure 4), which is frequently disregarded despite its high relevance to the major aims and objectives of Analytical Chemistry (see Figure 3).

5. *Perceived information*, which can be of a similar, higher or lower quality than that actually required by the client. Ideally, a client's perceived and required information should coincide. In some cases, the information delivered falls short of that required and can thus be deemed of low quality. Such is the case, for example, with the toxicological characterization of seawater by potential mercury contamination. The total mercury concentration is inadequate for this purpose because the toxicity of mercury species differs with their nature (inorganic, organometallic). It is therefore necessary to provide discriminate information for each potentially toxic mercury species.

The sides of the tetrahedron of Figure 12 represent the relationships between the different types of analytical information [19]. There are two contradictory relationships (forces) arising from delivered analytical information of great significance to Analytical Chemistry, namely: (1) the relationship between required and delivered information (2–4 in Figure 12), which represents problem solving and is related to the second aim of the discipline (see Figure 3); and (2) that between routinely delivered information and referential information (3–4 in Figure 12), which coincide at the highest metrological quality level —the first aim of Analytical Chemistry (Figure 3). One other significant distinction is that between required and perceived information on the client's side. Analytically, the most convenient situation is that where both types of information coincide in their level of quality —even though it is desirable that the client's perception surpass the actual requirements.

There are thus two contradictory facets of Analytical Chemistry that coincide with the its two aims, namely: a high level of metrological quality and fulfilling the client's information needs (see Figure 3). Analytical Chemistry is located at their interfaces [4]. There are some apparent conflicts, however, including (1) contradictory relationships of capital and basic analytical properties with productivity-related properties (see Figure 6); (2) failing to include required information among basic standards (see Figure 4); and (3) conceptual differences in analytical excellence between metrology and problem solving.
