**10. Principles of and indications for blood transfusion in ruminants and camelids**

Eleven blood groups have been classified in cattle. The greatest clinical relevance is in groups B and J. The B group is extremely complex, thus closely matched transfusions are very difficult. Newborn calves do not have the J antigen. During the first six months of life they generally acquire it. Cows can be sensitized to erythrocyte antigens by vaccinations of blood origin like some anaplasmosis and babesiosis vaccines. As a result of this neonatal isoerythrolysis in subsequent calves occur. [1].

Seven blood groups have been classified in sheep. The B group in these animals is resemble to the B group in cattle, and the R group is resemble to the J group in cattle. For example, antigens are soluble and soluble antigens passively absorbed to erythrocytes. In the goat, five blood groups are identified which resemble to those of sheep [1].

Principles of Blood Transfusion 341

used in this situation. Blood can be collected into bottles or bags using citrate anticoagulant

Blood samples can be taken from the jugular vein in sheep. A 500 ml transfer bag system including a needle can use for the storage. These bags include 70 ml of CPDA-1-stabiliser. Then the blood should be put into four 150 ml transfer bags. These bags can be stored on a horizontal shaker. It shows the best preservation of platelet function. Also it can be used for

Platelet count and aggregability of CPDA-1-stabilised ovine blood is kept most covenient at room temperature. It provides adequate haemostatic function for ex vivo experiments for one working day. In ovine blood functional loss and high percentage of platelets within aggregates can be observed at refrigerator temperature. This should be considered in blood

In order to monitor transfusion reactions blood should first be transported slowly. Ruminant blood type discordance result in primarily complement-mediated hemolysis. Volume overload should not be given. Also in neonates and small ruminants volume should

Intestinal absorption of antibodies declines sharply within the first 24 hours postpartum. For treatment of crias with failure of passive transfer (FPT) IV or intraperitoneal administration of 20–40 mL/kg of camelid plasma is recommended. In compromised neonates requiring fluid resuscitation IV administration of plasma is generally preferred. It is used for the correction of FPT and colloid support. In foals during extensive plasma volume expansion careful monitoring is needed to prevent cardiopulmonary complications. Following IV plasma administration the cardiovascular and pulmonary effects of plasma volume expansion have not been specifically worked out in camelids. But in several species (i.e sheep and cat) plasma volume overexpansion depending on excessive IV fluid administration has been associated with reduced lung function and pulmonary edema formation in clinical and experimental settings. In addition according to measures in presumed hypovolemic human patients administration of colloids can induce a greater

Measurable plasma volume expansion and a concurrent reduction in pulmonary functional residual capacity (FRC) is caused by IV administration of 30 mL/kg camelid plasma to neonatal crias. In healthy neonatal crias administration of this quantity of plasma seems to be safe. But with underlying cardiopulmonary or systemic disease changes in lung volume

Adverse effects of transfusing blood stored for prolonged periods in lamps is encountered more often in patients with reduced vascular nitric oxide levels because of endothelial dysfunction. These patients can benefit from transfusion of fresh PRBC if available. Also

(e.g CPDA-1) in equine transfusions [104].

the storage experiment consecutively [132].

**10.1. Administration and adverse reactions** 

reduction in lung function than crystalloids [130, 133-137].

associated with plasma administration could create risks for crias (131).

transfusion in sheep [132].

carefully be given [104].

Blood group A–O expression is affected by 16 porcine blood groups and the S gene. Carbohydrate antigens like AO blood group antigens and minor histocompatibility antigens can be important targets for the immune response to transplanted organs or tissues. These antigens remain an unknown and untested variable in many transplant studies using pigs. Depending, on work performed in some Europian country pig blood groups developed and expanded largely. The source of blood typing reagents is especially from isoimmune sera. Most antibodies behave as agglutinins and a few as hemolysins. Internationally sixteen genetic systems are recognized [2, 122-124].

In two domestic South American camelids, Ilama and alpaca, our knowledge is little about group variation. Six blood groups factors were identified (e.g A, B, C, D, E and F) . from isoand heteroimmune sera constituted for these animals [2].

In ruminants and camelids indications for WB and plasma transfusion are similar to horses. Chronic anemia may be a more common problem in ruminants. Gastrointestinal parasites, particularly Haemonchus contains, and ectoparasites (e.g. Haematopinus spp. and Linognathus spp.) are causes of chronic blood loss anemia, and iron-deficiency anemia. These can affect neonatal calves [104, 121, 125].

Studies with camelids and bovines has showed that the neonatal intestine can only successfully absorb colostral immunoglobulins for 12–24 hours postpartum. Passive transfer (FPT) is failed in 19% to 24% of neonatal camelids. A common indication for plasma transfusion in neonatal calves and crias is failure of transfer of passive immunity. Hyperimmune serum products are existing for subcutaneous and intramuscular dosing in ruminants. These are products with antibodies against E. coli, Pasturella, Aercanobacter pyogenes, Salmonella typhimurium and Clostridium [104, 126-129].

An integral component of neonatal camelid care is IV plasma transfusion. It is used for the purpose of antibody supplementation and fluid resuscitation in critical illness. Neonates are immunocompetent at birth but due to initial postpartum absorption of colostrum for passive acquisition of immunoglobulins (especially IgG) they are severely hypogammaglobulinemic [130, 131].

In cattle, the first blood transfusion should usually be safe, regardless of the donor. Jnegative donor is ideal. Because agglutination reactions do not develop, routine crossmatching is not useful in ruminants. First transfusions are usually safe to apply without a blood cross-match but crossmatching is recommended when more than 48-72 hours have passed away since the first blood transfusion. Blood donors should not have disease like bovine leukosis virus, anaplasmosis, and bovine viral diarrhea virus [104].

Total blood volume estimated in cattle is 80 mL/kg. From the donor animal up to 20-25% of total blood volume can be removed. Usually needle cannulation or jugular catheterization used in this situation. Blood can be collected into bottles or bags using citrate anticoagulant (e.g CPDA-1) in equine transfusions [104].

Blood samples can be taken from the jugular vein in sheep. A 500 ml transfer bag system including a needle can use for the storage. These bags include 70 ml of CPDA-1-stabiliser. Then the blood should be put into four 150 ml transfer bags. These bags can be stored on a horizontal shaker. It shows the best preservation of platelet function. Also it can be used for the storage experiment consecutively [132].

Platelet count and aggregability of CPDA-1-stabilised ovine blood is kept most covenient at room temperature. It provides adequate haemostatic function for ex vivo experiments for one working day. In ovine blood functional loss and high percentage of platelets within aggregates can be observed at refrigerator temperature. This should be considered in blood transfusion in sheep [132].

## **10.1. Administration and adverse reactions**

340 Blood Cell – An Overview of Studies in Hematology

genetic systems are recognized [2, 122-124].

These can affect neonatal calves [104, 121, 125].

[130, 131].

and heteroimmune sera constituted for these animals [2].

pyogenes, Salmonella typhimurium and Clostridium [104, 126-129].

Seven blood groups have been classified in sheep. The B group in these animals is resemble to the B group in cattle, and the R group is resemble to the J group in cattle. For example, antigens are soluble and soluble antigens passively absorbed to erythrocytes. In the goat,

Blood group A–O expression is affected by 16 porcine blood groups and the S gene. Carbohydrate antigens like AO blood group antigens and minor histocompatibility antigens can be important targets for the immune response to transplanted organs or tissues. These antigens remain an unknown and untested variable in many transplant studies using pigs. Depending, on work performed in some Europian country pig blood groups developed and expanded largely. The source of blood typing reagents is especially from isoimmune sera. Most antibodies behave as agglutinins and a few as hemolysins. Internationally sixteen

In two domestic South American camelids, Ilama and alpaca, our knowledge is little about group variation. Six blood groups factors were identified (e.g A, B, C, D, E and F) . from iso-

In ruminants and camelids indications for WB and plasma transfusion are similar to horses. Chronic anemia may be a more common problem in ruminants. Gastrointestinal parasites, particularly Haemonchus contains, and ectoparasites (e.g. Haematopinus spp. and Linognathus spp.) are causes of chronic blood loss anemia, and iron-deficiency anemia.

Studies with camelids and bovines has showed that the neonatal intestine can only successfully absorb colostral immunoglobulins for 12–24 hours postpartum. Passive transfer (FPT) is failed in 19% to 24% of neonatal camelids. A common indication for plasma transfusion in neonatal calves and crias is failure of transfer of passive immunity. Hyperimmune serum products are existing for subcutaneous and intramuscular dosing in ruminants. These are products with antibodies against E. coli, Pasturella, Aercanobacter

An integral component of neonatal camelid care is IV plasma transfusion. It is used for the purpose of antibody supplementation and fluid resuscitation in critical illness. Neonates are immunocompetent at birth but due to initial postpartum absorption of colostrum for passive acquisition of immunoglobulins (especially IgG) they are severely hypogammaglobulinemic

In cattle, the first blood transfusion should usually be safe, regardless of the donor. Jnegative donor is ideal. Because agglutination reactions do not develop, routine crossmatching is not useful in ruminants. First transfusions are usually safe to apply without a blood cross-match but crossmatching is recommended when more than 48-72 hours have passed away since the first blood transfusion. Blood donors should not have disease like bovine leukosis virus, anaplasmosis, and bovine viral diarrhea virus [104].

Total blood volume estimated in cattle is 80 mL/kg. From the donor animal up to 20-25% of total blood volume can be removed. Usually needle cannulation or jugular catheterization

five blood groups are identified which resemble to those of sheep [1].

In order to monitor transfusion reactions blood should first be transported slowly. Ruminant blood type discordance result in primarily complement-mediated hemolysis. Volume overload should not be given. Also in neonates and small ruminants volume should carefully be given [104].

Intestinal absorption of antibodies declines sharply within the first 24 hours postpartum. For treatment of crias with failure of passive transfer (FPT) IV or intraperitoneal administration of 20–40 mL/kg of camelid plasma is recommended. In compromised neonates requiring fluid resuscitation IV administration of plasma is generally preferred. It is used for the correction of FPT and colloid support. In foals during extensive plasma volume expansion careful monitoring is needed to prevent cardiopulmonary complications. Following IV plasma administration the cardiovascular and pulmonary effects of plasma volume expansion have not been specifically worked out in camelids. But in several species (i.e sheep and cat) plasma volume overexpansion depending on excessive IV fluid administration has been associated with reduced lung function and pulmonary edema formation in clinical and experimental settings. In addition according to measures in presumed hypovolemic human patients administration of colloids can induce a greater reduction in lung function than crystalloids [130, 133-137].

Measurable plasma volume expansion and a concurrent reduction in pulmonary functional residual capacity (FRC) is caused by IV administration of 30 mL/kg camelid plasma to neonatal crias. In healthy neonatal crias administration of this quantity of plasma seems to be safe. But with underlying cardiopulmonary or systemic disease changes in lung volume associated with plasma administration could create risks for crias (131).

Adverse effects of transfusing blood stored for prolonged periods in lamps is encountered more often in patients with reduced vascular nitric oxide levels because of endothelial dysfunction. These patients can benefit from transfusion of fresh PRBC if available. Also inhaled nitric oxide supplementation can prevent pulmonary hypertension associated with transfusion of stored PRBC [138].

Principles of Blood Transfusion 343

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In previously untransfused pigs, hemolytic transfusion reactions do not appear to develop. But there have been two reports about adverse reactions in pigs undergoing liver transplants by the use of A–O incompatible transfusions. Pulmonary hypertension and decreased fibrinogen with an associated increase in fibrin degradation products occured in pigs that received A–O incompatible transfusions [139]. In a study, two pigs that administered A–O incompatible blood transfusions during liver transplants died because of disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), bleeding and progressive hypotension [140].
