**9. References**


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**Chapter 3** 

© 2013 Benítez, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Sexual Dimorphism Using Geometric** 

Comparison of anatomical characters between organisms has been a core element in comparative biology for centuries. Historically, taxonomic classification and understanding of biological diversity have been based mainly on morphological descriptions [1]. In the early twentieth century, comparative biology entered a transition from the description field and quantitative science, where morphological analysis had a similar revolution of quantification [2]. Based on this quantitative mathematical revolution, the study of morphology has had an important emphasis by developing statistical shape analysis. This made possible the combination of multivariate statistical methods and new ways to

In geometric morphometrics (GM), the shape is defined as "any geometric information that remains when the effects of translation, scaling and rotation are removed from an object"[5]. According to [6,7] two techniques have been described: Landmark and Outline methods. Landmark geometric morphometrics is currently the most used tool in sexual dimorphism studies, where equivalent and homologous specific points are fixed in the biological structure being studied. Whereas outliner GM reduces contour shape in a structure by means of points built and located in its boundaries [8-10]. These tools allow studying organism shape and also size, providing sound graphic analyses to quantify and visualize

One of the most interesting sources of phenotypic variation in animals and plants has been sexual dimorphism, the study of which continues to be an important area of research in evolutionary biology. Sexual differences in morphological characters are a common phenomenon in many animal taxa, and their most conspicuous aspect is body size [11]. The direction of these differences, that is whether males or females are larger, varies from one group to another [12]. Most of the morphological variations of insects are due to effects

morphometric variation within and between organism samples.

**Morphometric Approach** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Hugo A. Benítez

**1. Introduction** 

visualize a structure [3,4].

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55195

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1467803900000220

