**5. Application of rare earth elements**

The rare earth elements export reduction introduced by China in 2009 caused anxiety among many world economies including the largest ones as these in the USA or Japan. The USA from being self-reliant in domestically produced rare earth elements over past 15 years became 100% reliant on imports, primary from China. Japan-based firms and the Japanese government made a number of joint venture agreements and potential partnerships around the world to secure supplies of rare earth elements (Sumitomo Corp. and Kazakhstan National Mining Co.; Toyota Tsusho and Sojitz with Vietnam's Dong Pao to produce LREEs, Japan's JOGMEC had also decided to seek investments in Australia's Lynas Corporation).

As follows from the market analysis for several years the exploitation of rare earth elements has been on the same level but the demand for rare earth element compounds has been growing. The total demand for rare earth elements is expected to grow from 128,000 tons in 2011 to 170,000 tons by 2015 and to 255,000 tons in 2020 and a growth rate of about 7-10%/yr is estimated according to the data presented in Table 2. According to the Chinese Rare Earth Industry Association the global demand for rare earth elements may even reach 210,000 tons/yr. However, the Industrial Minerals Company of Australia (IMCOA) estimates that the demand will be 185,000 tons in 2015. China's output may reach 140,000 tons/yr in 2015 as China's annual demand is estimated to rise from 73,000 tons. Such great demand for rare earth elements results mainly from their potential application in many fields of human life (Bünzli et al., 2007).


**Table 2.** Probable total demand for REE in 2015.

Rare earth elements find application in many advanced materials such as high performance magnets (Nd2Fe14B and SmCo5, Sm2Co17) which revolutionized technology by miniaturization of hard disc drives, in fluorescent materials, chemical sensors, high temperature superconductors, magnetoptical discs and rechargeable nickel-metal hybride batteries (NiMH). The alloy used for the battery's positive pole consists of rare earth metals and this makes up 26%of the weight of the battery. Taking into account consumer products they are used in TVs, computer hard drives, plasma and LCD screens, laptop computers, cell phones, DVD players, cameras, electric motors and generators of hybrid cars (Nd-Fe-B magnets and La batteries). For example, in Toyota Prius, Chevy Volt, Nissan Leaf etc. motors and generators of hybrid auto use approximately 25-27 kilograms of rare earth elements and only Toyota plans to sell 1 million of these cars till the end of 2012. In cars, rare earth elements are also used in fuel injectors, airbags and seat belt sensors, anti-lock brakes, power steering and seat adjustment motors and even in the fuel and car catalytic converters (Kucharczyk & Zabrzeski, 2001). The next example, are new wind turbines that are 70% more efficient than the standard ones. However, each requires about two tons of rare earth magnets (Nd-Fe-B magnets). The wind power industry is experiencing explosive growth. The Chinese have spent \$150 billion and they plan to install 330 GW of the additional wind powers in the next 10 years. This would require about three times the world's total annual production and as follows from the World Wind Energy Report projects, the global wind power capacity will grow by almost four times in the next 10 years. Rare earth elements are also used in catalysts that can increase the capacity of refinery equipment up to 30% and gasoline production by 5% (in the USA that is additionally 18 million gallons of production per day), commercial air conditioners, medical magnetic resonance imaging equipment, for peptide preparation as well as microfertilizers that can increase certain crop yields by 15% etc (Chegwidden & Kingsnorth, 2002; Xu et al. 2002; O'Driscoll, 2003; Fricker, 2006; Li et al. 2010).

The main groups of rare earth elements application are presented in Fig. 7.

 **Figure 7.** The uses of REEs.

110 Ion Exchange Technologies

(Bünzli et al., 2007).

**Table 2.** Probable total demand for REE in 2015.

Metal smelting producers must have an output capacity of 1,500 tons/yr. Rare earth producers will be required to meet the environmental emission standards; otherwise, they will be shut down (China Ministry of Environmental Protection, 2011; Tse, 2011). Therefore, the countries, which are potential miners of rare earth elements start to search for their deposits and exploitation. For example, based on the released data from USGS (2010) there

The rare earth elements export reduction introduced by China in 2009 caused anxiety among many world economies including the largest ones as these in the USA or Japan. The USA from being self-reliant in domestically produced rare earth elements over past 15 years became 100% reliant on imports, primary from China. Japan-based firms and the Japanese government made a number of joint venture agreements and potential partnerships around the world to secure supplies of rare earth elements (Sumitomo Corp. and Kazakhstan National Mining Co.; Toyota Tsusho and Sojitz with Vietnam's Dong Pao to produce LREEs, Japan's JOGMEC had also decided to seek investments in Australia's Lynas Corporation).

As follows from the market analysis for several years the exploitation of rare earth elements has been on the same level but the demand for rare earth element compounds has been growing. The total demand for rare earth elements is expected to grow from 128,000 tons in 2011 to 170,000 tons by 2015 and to 255,000 tons in 2020 and a growth rate of about 7-10%/yr is estimated according to the data presented in Table 2. According to the Chinese Rare Earth Industry Association the global demand for rare earth elements may even reach 210,000 tons/yr. However, the Industrial Minerals Company of Australia (IMCOA) estimates that the demand will be 185,000 tons in 2015. China's output may reach 140,000 tons/yr in 2015 as China's annual demand is estimated to rise from 73,000 tons. Such great demand for rare earth elements results mainly from their potential application in many fields of human life

**[% p.a.]** 

Catalysts 0 25,500 Glass additive 0 10,000 Polishing powder 5-10 23-30,000 Metal alloys 4-8 36-40,000 Permanent magnets 10-15 40-45,000 Phosphors and pigments 4-8 13-15,000

> Ceramics 5-8 9-10,000 Other 8-12 12-14,000 **Total 7-10 170-190,000**

**Demand in 2015 [tones]** 

**Application Growth rate**

is an interesting situation concerning rare earth elements sources from Brazil.

**5. Application of rare earth elements** 
