**2.1 A brief overview of history of aesthetics**

Scenic beauty of the landscape or in a broader sense environmental aesthetics has been an area of concern for assessing visual quality of landscapes and landscape preferences. Although the involvement of aesthetics in environmental psychology and landscape assessment studies does not date back very far, it has been a subject for philosophy since ancient times. The word "aesthetic" is derived from *aisthanesthai*, Greek word for "to perceive" and *aistheta*, which means "perceptible objects" in Greek. The term "aesthetics" was first coined by Alexander Baumgarten, a German philosopher, in 1735. Before that, "beauty" was the focus of the aesthetical debates of philosophers.

The question of "what is beauty" has been central to theories of aesthetics since classical Greek times (Porteous, 1996). According to Socrates, (469-399 B.C.) there is a mutual connection between beauty, truth and symmetry (Hofstadter, 1979 in Barak-Erez & Shapira, 1999). He believed that beauty was desirable for youth and he linked beauty to being good and morality (Lothian, 1999). For Plato (427-347 B.C.), there is an "essential universe", the perfect universe; and there is the "perceived universe" where we perceive the reality through our senses as imperfect copies. Plato believed the beauty was an "idea" and the beauty we perceived in the "perceived universe" was not the real, original beauty, but just an imperfect copy. On the other hand, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) discusses beauty in context of mathematics. He believed that beauty was associated with size and order, and there were three components of beauty; integrity (*integras*), consonance (*consonantia*), and clarity (*claritas*). Beauty was accepted as a sign of God's existence after Christianity emerged and during medieval times.

With Renaissance, approaches towards aesthetics in ancient Roman and Greek times returned back with the movement *Classicism*. In this period, beauty was associated with order, symmetry, proportion and balance. In the end of 17th century, modern aesthetics emerged in Britain and Germany. For John Locke (1632-1704); "*beauty consists of a certain composition of color and figure causing delight in the beholder*" (Carson, 2002) and therefore, it was a subjective quality. Likewise, British philosophers David Hume and Edmund Burke believed that aesthetics was a subjective concept. According to Hume (1711-1776), people decide whether an object was beautiful or not by their feelings. Burke (1729-1797) identified

Landscapes are aesthetic objects. There isn't a universally accepted theory for landscape aesthetics. According to Maulan *et al*. (2006) neglect of scenic or preferred landscapes during development stage is one of the problems. Bourassa (1990) argues that landscape aesthetics is beyond the traditional theories of aesthetics. Based on Scruton's approach, he states that people experience and respond to the whole scene, therefore "*it is not relevant to speak of the aesthetics of individual objects in the landscape (e.g. buildings) without asking how those objects contribute to the wholes (landscapes) of which they are only parts*". For Bourassa (1988) there are two principles for landscape aesthetics, namely biological and cultural. The biological principle states that "*aesthetic pleasure in landscape derives from the dialectic of refuge and prospect*". On the other hand, "*aesthetic pleasure derives from a landscape that contributes to cultural identity and stability*". As a product of either natural processes or human intervention, natural and cultural landscapes involve intrinsic (objective) and artistic (subjective) aesthetic values. Thus, theories of aesthetics may provide a basis for landscape scenic beauty assessments. Brief history of aesthetics in philosophical context is given below.

Scenic beauty of the landscape or in a broader sense environmental aesthetics has been an area of concern for assessing visual quality of landscapes and landscape preferences. Although the involvement of aesthetics in environmental psychology and landscape assessment studies does not date back very far, it has been a subject for philosophy since ancient times. The word "aesthetic" is derived from *aisthanesthai*, Greek word for "to perceive" and *aistheta*, which means "perceptible objects" in Greek. The term "aesthetics" was first coined by Alexander Baumgarten, a German philosopher, in 1735. Before that,

The question of "what is beauty" has been central to theories of aesthetics since classical Greek times (Porteous, 1996). According to Socrates, (469-399 B.C.) there is a mutual connection between beauty, truth and symmetry (Hofstadter, 1979 in Barak-Erez & Shapira, 1999). He believed that beauty was desirable for youth and he linked beauty to being good and morality (Lothian, 1999). For Plato (427-347 B.C.), there is an "essential universe", the perfect universe; and there is the "perceived universe" where we perceive the reality through our senses as imperfect copies. Plato believed the beauty was an "idea" and the beauty we perceived in the "perceived universe" was not the real, original beauty, but just an imperfect copy. On the other hand, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) discusses beauty in context of mathematics. He believed that beauty was associated with size and order, and there were three components of beauty; integrity (*integras*), consonance (*consonantia*), and clarity (*claritas*). Beauty was accepted as a sign of God's existence after Christianity emerged and

With Renaissance, approaches towards aesthetics in ancient Roman and Greek times returned back with the movement *Classicism*. In this period, beauty was associated with order, symmetry, proportion and balance. In the end of 17th century, modern aesthetics emerged in Britain and Germany. For John Locke (1632-1704); "*beauty consists of a certain composition of color and figure causing delight in the beholder*" (Carson, 2002) and therefore, it was a subjective quality. Likewise, British philosophers David Hume and Edmund Burke believed that aesthetics was a subjective concept. According to Hume (1711-1776), people decide whether an object was beautiful or not by their feelings. Burke (1729-1797) identified

**2.1 A brief overview of history of aesthetics** 

during medieval times.

"beauty" was the focus of the aesthetical debates of philosophers.

beauty as a "*social quality*" and linked beauty with the feeling of affection, particularly toward the other sex. According to him, the feeling of the beautiful is grounded in our social nature (Vandenabeele, 2012). On the contrary, German philosopher Immanuel Kant's (1724- 2804) approach to aesthetic judgment was based on logic and deduction (Lothian, 1999). He believed aesthetic judgments were based on the feeling of pleasure and they were disinterested. Daniels (2008) explains disinterestedness as *"... a genuine aesthetic judgment does not include any extrinsic considerations toward the object of judgment itself, such as political or utilitarian concerns*". Therefore, Kant claimed that aesthetic judgments were both subjective and universal. However, German philosophers Friedrich Schiller and Wilhelm Hegel rejected Kant's subjective approach on aesthetics (Lothian, 1999). Schiller (1759- 1805) claimed that beauty was the property of the object, thus aesthetic experience was rather objective. On the other hand, Hegel (1770-1831) believed that aesthetics was concerned with the beauty of art and beauty of art is higher than the beauty of nature. Like Schiller, for Hegel beauty was the property of the object. According to Baumgarten (1714-1762), who coined the term aesthetics, beauty is not connected to the feeling of pleasure or delight, indeed beauty is an intellectual category and perfection of sensitive cognition is a precondition for beauty (Gross, 2002). In 19th century, romanticism focused on nature as an aesthetic resource. In this period, landscape was viewed in objectivist terms and considered as having intrinsic qualities (Lothian, 1999). However, nature lost its importance as an aesthetic object by the end of 19th century and during the 20th century art has become the main concern for aesthetic debates.

George Santayana, Benedetto Croce, John Dewey and Susanne Langer are amongst the modern era philosophers on aesthetics. Spanish-American philosopher George Santayana (1863-1952) believed that beauty was a subjective concept, rather than objective. He defined beauty as the pleasure derived from perception of an object (Lothian, 1999). Croce (1866- 1952) interprets aesthetics as an experience. For Croce, intuition is basis for the sense of beauty. Dewey's (1859-1952) aesthetics is based on experience as well. In contrast to Kant's disinterestedness principle, Dewey's aesthetics require involvement and engagement (Lothian, 1999). While Dewey suggested that aesthetic experience was a biological response, Langer (1895-1985) strongly rejected this idea (Bourassa, 1988). Langer's aesthetics is based on the concept of semblance. According to Langer, semblance of a thing is an aesthetic symbolic form which constitutes its direct aesthetic quality (Kruse, 2007).

Although philosophical theories of aesthetics may seem relatively relevant to landscape assessment, landscape planners and designers need to understand the fundamentals of aesthetic theories of art and nature in order to develop valid and efficient approaches towards evaluation of landscape aesthetics in context of landscape planning and design. According to Berleant (1992), the idea of environment possesses deep philosophical assumptions about our world and ourselves, thus the study of aesthetics and environment can provide mutual benefit in this changing world.

#### **2.2 Theories on perception and preferences**

#### **2.2.1 The biophilia hypothesis**

The biophilia hypothesis was developed by Edward O. Wilson, biologist in Harvard University, in 1984. The biophilia hypothesis proclaims that human beings have an inherent

Landscape Perception 257

elements) (Ungar, 1999). The arousal potential of the stimulus results in hedonic response in the observer. Berlyne (1972) hypothesized that there is an inverted U-shaped relation between collative properties and hedonic response; increase in arousal also increases pleasure up to a point, however beyond a certain point hedonic response will lessen (Galanter, 2010; Nasar, 1988a). Thus medium degree of arousal potential has a positive effect on preference, while low or high degrees of arousal potential cause negative response

Wohlwill's studies on environmental aesthetics are based on Berlyne's theory. Both Berlyne and Wohwill regarded arousal and hedonic value as an important aspect of aesthetic response (Nasar, 1988b) Similar to Berlyne, he proposed that there was an optimal level of information in a landscape and too much information was stressful while too little information was boring (Mok *et al.*, 2006). He also extended Berlyne's arousal theory and hypothesized (1974) that there is an adaptation level where environmental stimulation is at optimal degree for an observer and larger changes in the adaptation level produce negative response (Bell *et al.*, 2001; Ungar, 1999). Adaptation level depends on an individual's past experiences, thus it differs from person to person and furthermore changes in time if

Rachel and Stephen Kaplan of University of Michigan are leading researchers in the field of environmental psychology. They have many published works on human-environment relationship. Kaplans' information processing theory (1979) is amongst the most influential and well-known theories on landscape preferences. Information is the fundamental concept of their approach. Information has been central to human experience and survival throughout the evolution of human being (Kaplan *et al.*, 1998). Not only we need to gain information to make sense out of the environment, but an individual also values environments with promising information for exploration (Kaplan *et al.*, 1998; S. Kaplan, 1975). Understanding of an environment aids an individual to know what is going around and feel secure. On the other hand, people want to explore by seeking more information and look for new challenges (Kaplan *et al.*, 1998). Furthermore information is important to people's ability to function well in the environment (Maulan *et al.*, 2006). Aesthetics reflects

We gather information from our environment through our senses, mostly through visual sense. Kaplans' theory suggests that information is derived through the contents and the organization of the environment. Organization of an environment is an important variable in perception since it affects the degree of making sense. S. Kaplan (1975) states that acquisition of knowledge should be related to environmental preference. Results of their studies show that scenes with large expanses of undifferentiated land covers, dense vegetation and obstructed views are low in preference (Kaplan *et al.*, 1998). They suggest that if visual organization of spaces is homogenous within an environment, then it suggests that nothing is going on. Besides, there is little to focus on and sameness causes difficulty in keeping interest in the environment. On the other hand although dense vegetation has a rich content, it lacks of clear focus which confuses one. People also are discomforted when the view is blocked, they feel insecure because it is hard to tell what to expect. On the contrary scenes with spaced trees and smooth ground have been found to be high in preference. They

exposed to a different level of stimulation (Bell *et al.*, 2001).

the functional potential of things and spaces (S. Kaplan, 1988a).

**2.2.4 Information processing theory** 

(Martindale, 1996).

need for affiliation with natural environments and other forms of life. Wilson suggests that preferences for natural environments have a biological foundation as a result of human's evolutionary process. Since human beings spent most of their evolutionary history in natural environments as hunters and gatherers, they have a hereditary inclination towards establishing an emotional bond with nature and other livings. Ulrich (1993) explains the proposition for biophilia as that during evolution certain rewards or advantages associated with natural settings were crucial for survival and humans acquired, and then retained, positive responses to unthreatening natural settings. He states that human's positive responses to natural settings in terms of such as liking, restoration and enhanced cognitive functioning might be influenced by biologically prepared learning. On the other hand, McVay (1993) questions whether biophilia hypothesis can influence our attitudes towards our world in a more environmental friendly manner. He emphasizes the need for realization of our evolutionary based need for affiliation with nature by everyone who shares the responsibility of human future.

#### **2.2.2 Prospect-refuge theory**

British geographer Appleton's prospect-refuge theory stems from his habitat theory which proposes that human beings experience pleasure and satisfaction with landscapes that responds to their biological needs (Porteous, 1996). Appleton's habitat theory basically depends on Darwin's habitat theory, but with an aesthetical dimension. For Appleton, aesthetic satisfaction is "a spontaneous reaction to landscape as a habitat" (Porteous, 1996). On the other hand, prospect-refuge theory is about preferences for landscapes which provide "prospect" and "refuge" opportunities. Prospect-refuge theory is based on human's urge to feel safe and to survive. During our evolutionary past as hunters and gatherers, a broader sight of view and opportunities to hide when in danger were essential for survival. Thus, Appleton believes that we intrinsically tend to prefer environments where we can observe and hide. However, ironically, the places with prospect and refuge opportunities are also favorable for potential offender (Fisher & Nasar, 1992). The offender may hide from, wait for and attack to his victim in environments which offer prospect and refuge. Fisher and Nasar (1992) suggested that places with low prospect and high refuge lead to feelings of fear and unsafety. Although Appleton's theory is concerned with natural environments, physical organization of a space is clearly linked to the feeling of safety. Therefore, same principles can be adapted to design in urban environments.

#### **2.2.3 Berlyne's and Wohlwill's approaches to environmental aesthetics**

Exploratory behavior, physiological arousal and experimental aesthetics were amongst the main interest areas of psychologist David E. Berlyne (1924-1976). He developed a psychobiological approach towards aesthetics. According to Berlyne, environmental perception is a process of exploratory behavior and information transmission which are triggered by the amount of conflict or uncertainty in the environment (Chang, 2009). Berlyne's theoretical framework involves two main concepts; arousal potential and hedonic response. He identified four factors, which he called "collative properties" that determined the arousal potential of a stimulus; (i) complexity (diversity of the elements in the environment), (ii) novelty (presence of novel elements), (iii) incongruity (extent of any apparent 'mis-match' between elements), and (iv)surprisingness (presence of unexpected

need for affiliation with natural environments and other forms of life. Wilson suggests that preferences for natural environments have a biological foundation as a result of human's evolutionary process. Since human beings spent most of their evolutionary history in natural environments as hunters and gatherers, they have a hereditary inclination towards establishing an emotional bond with nature and other livings. Ulrich (1993) explains the proposition for biophilia as that during evolution certain rewards or advantages associated with natural settings were crucial for survival and humans acquired, and then retained, positive responses to unthreatening natural settings. He states that human's positive responses to natural settings in terms of such as liking, restoration and enhanced cognitive functioning might be influenced by biologically prepared learning. On the other hand, McVay (1993) questions whether biophilia hypothesis can influence our attitudes towards our world in a more environmental friendly manner. He emphasizes the need for realization of our evolutionary based need for affiliation with nature by everyone who shares the

British geographer Appleton's prospect-refuge theory stems from his habitat theory which proposes that human beings experience pleasure and satisfaction with landscapes that responds to their biological needs (Porteous, 1996). Appleton's habitat theory basically depends on Darwin's habitat theory, but with an aesthetical dimension. For Appleton, aesthetic satisfaction is "a spontaneous reaction to landscape as a habitat" (Porteous, 1996). On the other hand, prospect-refuge theory is about preferences for landscapes which provide "prospect" and "refuge" opportunities. Prospect-refuge theory is based on human's urge to feel safe and to survive. During our evolutionary past as hunters and gatherers, a broader sight of view and opportunities to hide when in danger were essential for survival. Thus, Appleton believes that we intrinsically tend to prefer environments where we can observe and hide. However, ironically, the places with prospect and refuge opportunities are also favorable for potential offender (Fisher & Nasar, 1992). The offender may hide from, wait for and attack to his victim in environments which offer prospect and refuge. Fisher and Nasar (1992) suggested that places with low prospect and high refuge lead to feelings of fear and unsafety. Although Appleton's theory is concerned with natural environments, physical organization of a space is clearly linked to the feeling of safety. Therefore, same

responsibility of human future.

**2.2.2 Prospect-refuge theory** 

principles can be adapted to design in urban environments.

**2.2.3 Berlyne's and Wohlwill's approaches to environmental aesthetics** 

Exploratory behavior, physiological arousal and experimental aesthetics were amongst the main interest areas of psychologist David E. Berlyne (1924-1976). He developed a psychobiological approach towards aesthetics. According to Berlyne, environmental perception is a process of exploratory behavior and information transmission which are triggered by the amount of conflict or uncertainty in the environment (Chang, 2009). Berlyne's theoretical framework involves two main concepts; arousal potential and hedonic response. He identified four factors, which he called "collative properties" that determined the arousal potential of a stimulus; (i) complexity (diversity of the elements in the environment), (ii) novelty (presence of novel elements), (iii) incongruity (extent of any apparent 'mis-match' between elements), and (iv)surprisingness (presence of unexpected elements) (Ungar, 1999). The arousal potential of the stimulus results in hedonic response in the observer. Berlyne (1972) hypothesized that there is an inverted U-shaped relation between collative properties and hedonic response; increase in arousal also increases pleasure up to a point, however beyond a certain point hedonic response will lessen (Galanter, 2010; Nasar, 1988a). Thus medium degree of arousal potential has a positive effect on preference, while low or high degrees of arousal potential cause negative response (Martindale, 1996).

Wohlwill's studies on environmental aesthetics are based on Berlyne's theory. Both Berlyne and Wohwill regarded arousal and hedonic value as an important aspect of aesthetic response (Nasar, 1988b) Similar to Berlyne, he proposed that there was an optimal level of information in a landscape and too much information was stressful while too little information was boring (Mok *et al.*, 2006). He also extended Berlyne's arousal theory and hypothesized (1974) that there is an adaptation level where environmental stimulation is at optimal degree for an observer and larger changes in the adaptation level produce negative response (Bell *et al.*, 2001; Ungar, 1999). Adaptation level depends on an individual's past experiences, thus it differs from person to person and furthermore changes in time if exposed to a different level of stimulation (Bell *et al.*, 2001).

#### **2.2.4 Information processing theory**

Rachel and Stephen Kaplan of University of Michigan are leading researchers in the field of environmental psychology. They have many published works on human-environment relationship. Kaplans' information processing theory (1979) is amongst the most influential and well-known theories on landscape preferences. Information is the fundamental concept of their approach. Information has been central to human experience and survival throughout the evolution of human being (Kaplan *et al.*, 1998). Not only we need to gain information to make sense out of the environment, but an individual also values environments with promising information for exploration (Kaplan *et al.*, 1998; S. Kaplan, 1975). Understanding of an environment aids an individual to know what is going around and feel secure. On the other hand, people want to explore by seeking more information and look for new challenges (Kaplan *et al.*, 1998). Furthermore information is important to people's ability to function well in the environment (Maulan *et al.*, 2006). Aesthetics reflects the functional potential of things and spaces (S. Kaplan, 1988a).

We gather information from our environment through our senses, mostly through visual sense. Kaplans' theory suggests that information is derived through the contents and the organization of the environment. Organization of an environment is an important variable in perception since it affects the degree of making sense. S. Kaplan (1975) states that acquisition of knowledge should be related to environmental preference. Results of their studies show that scenes with large expanses of undifferentiated land covers, dense vegetation and obstructed views are low in preference (Kaplan *et al.*, 1998). They suggest that if visual organization of spaces is homogenous within an environment, then it suggests that nothing is going on. Besides, there is little to focus on and sameness causes difficulty in keeping interest in the environment. On the other hand although dense vegetation has a rich content, it lacks of clear focus which confuses one. People also are discomforted when the view is blocked, they feel insecure because it is hard to tell what to expect. On the contrary scenes with spaced trees and smooth ground have been found to be high in preference. They

Landscape Perception 259

design and management. However, handling and managing information can also be stressful for people. According to Kaplan *et al.* (1998), our capacity for directed attention is limited, and mental fatigue occurs if one is forced to receive and manage information above his capacity. Mental fatigue may cause difficulties in or loss of concentration, impulsive actions, anger and irritability. Hence, the designers should be aware of the risks of creating

Psychologist James J. Gibson has developed his "Theory of Affordances" based on an ecological approach towards visual perception. In his work "The Theory of Affordances" (originally published in 1979, 1986) he describes the environment *as the surfaces that separate substances from medium in which the animal lives*. He continues that the environment offers and provides affordances to the animal. The term "affordances" has been first coined by Gibson, himself. An affordance can be described as a possible action which properties of an object allow or suggest for the observer. For example, a bench affords sitting. Affordances are perceived directly and they are relative to the observer. Gibson states that although the needs of observer can change, the affordance of an object does not change. Gibson's theory is rather different from the conventional perception theories. His theory has received criticism, mainly

Gestalt theory was developed by German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler in the early 20th century. The German word *die Gestalt* means "form" or "shape" and Gestalt theory of perception can be summarized as that people tend to perceive things as wholes rather than separate parts. It proposes "laws of organization in perceptual forms" (Wertheimer, 1938) which have been applied by various design disciplines. Basically, people perceive visual stimuli as organized or grouped patterns. Gestalt principles related

*Figure-ground relationship*: As Köhler (1938) states "*figure perception is represented in the optic field by differences of potential along the entire outline or border of the figure*". Thus, contrast plays an important role in distinguishing figure from the ground. The most famous example that demonstrates figure-ground relationship is probably the Danish psychologist Edgar Rubin's "Rubin's vase" (Figure 2). The figure-ground relationship is related to legibility in spatial

for being unclear and underestimating the complexity of perception process.

Fig. 2. Figure-ground relationship in Rubin's vase (Baluch & Itti, 2011).

settings that offers too many information.

**2.2.5 Gibson's Theory of Affordances** 

**2.2.6 Gestalt principles of visual perception** 

to spatial design are briefly explained below.

design.

explain that in contrast to large expanses and obstructed views; such combinations of settings provide a clear focus and invite entry.

Based on their results, the Kaplans developed a preference matrix which comprises of four informational factors which affect preferences of landscape (Figure 2). These factors are; coherence, complexity, legibility and mystery. Coherence and complexity of a setting can be understood as soon as when one enters or views the setting, thus they happen in the picture plane (2D) and they are perceived immediately. In contrast, to perceive legibility and mystery degrees of a setting requires time, an involvement with the environment. Hence, they are inferred factors and this inference about the third dimension occurs in longer (a few milliseconds longer) and unconsciously.


Table 1. Kaplans' preference matrix (Kaplan *et al.*, 1998).

*Coherence*: Coherence of a setting is about the order and organization of its elements. If a place is coherent, then people can easily make sense out of the setting. Kaplan *et al.* (1998) suggest that coherence can be achieved through repeat of themes and unifying textures; however limited degree of contrast is also helpful. Coherence is similar to gestalt principles of organization that states elements are perceived in groups rather than parts (S. Kaplan, 1975).

*Complexity*: Complexity refers to the degree of diversity of landscape elements. The more complex an environment is, the more information it involves. According to Kaplans' theory, greater variety in a setting would encourage exploration. They argue that coherence and complexity shouldn't be confused since a highly coherent setting can still also be very complex.

*Legibility*: The concept of legibility is about orientation. Way-finding is important for an individual in terms of feeling secure and safe. It is about reading the environment and making sense out of it. Distinctiveness contributes to legibility of an environment. Hence, landmarks or focal points may increase the legibility of a setting. However, one has to experience the setting first, in order to realize what is distinctive and what is not. Spaciousness also supports legibility by increasing the individual's range of vision (S. Kaplan, 1975). S. Kaplan, (1975) points out that fine texture is also a legibility component; the finer the texture, the easier to distinguish figures from ground.

*Mystery*: Mystery is the component of preference related to exploration. It is about the setting's potential of promising information. Mystery requires an inferential process (S. Kaplan, 1975). Mystery motivates people for exploration in order to gain new information. There are various ways to create mystery in a landscape. Kaplan *et al.* (1998) suggest that a curved path or vegetation that partially obstructs the view can add mystery to an environment.

The Kaplans suggest that we prefer environments that involve all of the four components explained above. They also emphasize that information needs to be central in environmental

explain that in contrast to large expanses and obstructed views; such combinations of

Based on their results, the Kaplans developed a preference matrix which comprises of four informational factors which affect preferences of landscape (Figure 2). These factors are; coherence, complexity, legibility and mystery. Coherence and complexity of a setting can be understood as soon as when one enters or views the setting, thus they happen in the picture plane (2D) and they are perceived immediately. In contrast, to perceive legibility and mystery degrees of a setting requires time, an involvement with the environment. Hence, they are inferred factors and this inference about the third dimension occurs in longer (a few

> PREFERENCE MATRIX **Understanding Exploration**

*Coherence*: Coherence of a setting is about the order and organization of its elements. If a place is coherent, then people can easily make sense out of the setting. Kaplan *et al.* (1998) suggest that coherence can be achieved through repeat of themes and unifying textures; however limited degree of contrast is also helpful. Coherence is similar to gestalt principles of organization that states elements are perceived in groups rather than parts (S. Kaplan,

*Complexity*: Complexity refers to the degree of diversity of landscape elements. The more complex an environment is, the more information it involves. According to Kaplans' theory, greater variety in a setting would encourage exploration. They argue that coherence and complexity shouldn't be confused since a highly coherent setting can still also be very

*Legibility*: The concept of legibility is about orientation. Way-finding is important for an individual in terms of feeling secure and safe. It is about reading the environment and making sense out of it. Distinctiveness contributes to legibility of an environment. Hence, landmarks or focal points may increase the legibility of a setting. However, one has to experience the setting first, in order to realize what is distinctive and what is not. Spaciousness also supports legibility by increasing the individual's range of vision (S. Kaplan, 1975). S. Kaplan, (1975) points out that fine texture is also a legibility component;

*Mystery*: Mystery is the component of preference related to exploration. It is about the setting's potential of promising information. Mystery requires an inferential process (S. Kaplan, 1975). Mystery motivates people for exploration in order to gain new information. There are various ways to create mystery in a landscape. Kaplan *et al.* (1998) suggest that a curved path or vegetation that partially obstructs the view can add mystery to an

The Kaplans suggest that we prefer environments that involve all of the four components explained above. They also emphasize that information needs to be central in environmental

2-D Coherence Complexity 3-D Legibility Mystery

Table 1. Kaplans' preference matrix (Kaplan *et al.*, 1998).

the finer the texture, the easier to distinguish figures from ground.

settings provide a clear focus and invite entry.

milliseconds longer) and unconsciously.

1975).

complex.

environment.

design and management. However, handling and managing information can also be stressful for people. According to Kaplan *et al.* (1998), our capacity for directed attention is limited, and mental fatigue occurs if one is forced to receive and manage information above his capacity. Mental fatigue may cause difficulties in or loss of concentration, impulsive actions, anger and irritability. Hence, the designers should be aware of the risks of creating settings that offers too many information.
