**2.3 Corridors and connectivity**

Habitat loss and isolation, results of spatial processes such as fragmentation, dissection, perforation, shrinkage and attrition, necessitate the establishment of connections within the landscape. In the face of these challenges, it is ever more fundamental to preserve the integrity of landscape corridors, such as wildlife corridors and river systems can as well be thought as barriers to wildlife movement, as in the example of roadways, railroad and canals (Dramstad et al., 1996). Pattern and scale can be used to assess the integrity of a landscape (Table 3).


Table 3. Catagorize of corridors and connectivity

Ecological Landscape Planning, with a Focus on the Coastal Zone 237

in an assessment study should follow three steps: integration of data (i.e. biophysical, biological, land use, and socio-economic data) (Fig. 1.), relationships between different

Fig. 1. A simple model of the relationships among regional biophysical, biological, land-use

Planning, particularly environmental planning, is a profession primarily related with the use of resources. Its prominence has increased within the last three decades due to the growing awareness about scarce natural resources and the ecological and cultural values at risk, in the face of wide-ranging problems, such as desertification, impacts of sectors such as industry and tourism, and filling wetlands (Marsh, 2005). Thus, key ecological principles are diversified, too, and they constitute a series of guidelines that demonstrate how these ecological principles are used in the decisions about land use and management (Dale et al.,

Implement land use and land management practices that are compatible with the natural potential of

2001) and consider various contexts in fulfilling multi-faceted goals (Table 5).

Examine the impacts of local decisions in a regional context,

Preserve rare landscape elements, critical habitats, ans associated species,

Retain large contiguous or connected areas tht contain critical habitats,

Avoid or compensate for effects of development on ecological processes,

Table 5. Checklist of factors to be considered in making a land-use decision.

Avoid land uses that deplete natural resources over a broad area,

Minimize the introduction and spread of nonnative species,

Plan for long term change and unexpected events,

and socio-economic systems

the area.

analytical and planning activities, and depiction of spatial boundaries.

#### **2.4 Mosaics**

As abovementioned, the connectivity of the corridors within a landscape is an indicator of its ecological condition. These corridors often form networks of connectivity, circuitry, and mesh size and are useful for planners to assist movements across a land mosaic (Dramstad et al., 1996) (Table 4).


Table 4. Networks, fragmentation and pattern, and scale

#### **3. Ecological landscape planning**

The conservation movement emerged in as early as the 19th century, as a response to the negative effects of development on the land. Despite its long history, it was not until the 1960s when landscape planner Ian L. McHarg started to advocate for an 'integrated landscape planning' approach indicating the application of the concept in planning to establish a balance between human activity on land cover and the environment (Marsh, 2005). The influence of McHarg was significant in the adoption of an ecological perspective in land use planning, which started to take into consideration the carrying capacity of the environment.

Ecological planning developed in the mid-19th century as part of landscape planning, which seeks to safeguard the land and looks for the optimum development of ecologic-biological diversity, structural and visual diversity of the landscape (Ayaşlgil, 1997, as cited in Tozar & Ayaşlgil, 2008). It creates and preserves an optimum landscape pattern in terms of ecology, structure and visual aspects by protecting natural resources and seeks to balance and reduce the adverse effects of different land uses by different sectors to a minimum level (Tozar & Ayaşlgil, 2008). In doing so, ecological landscape planning prioritizes the complex biophysical and sociocultural relationships taking place within a bioregion (Smart Communities Network, 2004). Moreover, another aspect of ecology-based planning is the emphasis it places on not only natural factors but also social and cultural processes that should be involved in the decisions taken about the land use (Cengiz, 2009; Dale & Haeuber, 2001; Markhzoumi & Pungetti 1999).

A planning methodology should consider the injuring activities in an area, their impact on ecology, and types of use affected by these activities (Bierhals et al., 1974, as cited in Altan, 1982). The Integrated Ecological Assessment (IEA) is a useful method in understanding factors related to ecosystems, factors related to human activity on land cover, and the synthesis of these factors (Bourgeron et al., 2001). Considering the scope of the IEA, its use

As abovementioned, the connectivity of the corridors within a landscape is an indicator of its ecological condition. These corridors often form networks of connectivity, circuitry, and mesh size and are useful for planners to assist movements across a land mosaic (Dramstad

> Loss of total versus interior habitat Fractal patches Suburbanization, exotics, and protected areas

The conservation movement emerged in as early as the 19th century, as a response to the negative effects of development on the land. Despite its long history, it was not until the 1960s when landscape planner Ian L. McHarg started to advocate for an 'integrated landscape planning' approach indicating the application of the concept in planning to establish a balance between human activity on land cover and the environment (Marsh, 2005). The influence of McHarg was significant in the adoption of an ecological perspective in land use planning,

Ecological planning developed in the mid-19th century as part of landscape planning, which seeks to safeguard the land and looks for the optimum development of ecologic-biological diversity, structural and visual diversity of the landscape (Ayaşlgil, 1997, as cited in Tozar & Ayaşlgil, 2008). It creates and preserves an optimum landscape pattern in terms of ecology, structure and visual aspects by protecting natural resources and seeks to balance and reduce the adverse effects of different land uses by different sectors to a minimum level (Tozar & Ayaşlgil, 2008). In doing so, ecological landscape planning prioritizes the complex biophysical and sociocultural relationships taking place within a bioregion (Smart Communities Network, 2004). Moreover, another aspect of ecology-based planning is the emphasis it places on not only natural factors but also social and cultural processes that should be involved in the decisions taken about the land use (Cengiz, 2009; Dale & Haeuber,

A planning methodology should consider the injuring activities in an area, their impact on ecology, and types of use affected by these activities (Bierhals et al., 1974, as cited in Altan, 1982). The Integrated Ecological Assessment (IEA) is a useful method in understanding factors related to ecosystems, factors related to human activity on land cover, and the synthesis of these factors (Bourgeron et al., 2001). Considering the scope of the IEA, its use

which started to take into consideration the carrying capacity of the environment.

 Grain size of mosaics Animal perceptions of scale of fragmentation Specialists and generalists Mosaic patterns for multihabitat species

Networks Fragmentation and Pattern Scale

**2.4 Mosaics** 

et al., 1996) (Table 4).

 Network connectivity and circuitry Loops and alternatives

Intersection effect

patch

patch

Corridor density and mesh size

Species in a small connected

Dispersal and small connected

**3. Ecological landscape planning** 

2001; Markhzoumi & Pungetti 1999).

Table 4. Networks, fragmentation and pattern, and scale

in an assessment study should follow three steps: integration of data (i.e. biophysical, biological, land use, and socio-economic data) (Fig. 1.), relationships between different analytical and planning activities, and depiction of spatial boundaries.

Fig. 1. A simple model of the relationships among regional biophysical, biological, land-use and socio-economic systems

Planning, particularly environmental planning, is a profession primarily related with the use of resources. Its prominence has increased within the last three decades due to the growing awareness about scarce natural resources and the ecological and cultural values at risk, in the face of wide-ranging problems, such as desertification, impacts of sectors such as industry and tourism, and filling wetlands (Marsh, 2005). Thus, key ecological principles are diversified, too, and they constitute a series of guidelines that demonstrate how these ecological principles are used in the decisions about land use and management (Dale et al., 2001) and consider various contexts in fulfilling multi-faceted goals (Table 5).

Examine the impacts of local decisions in a regional context, Plan for long term change and unexpected events, Preserve rare landscape elements, critical habitats, ans associated species, Avoid land uses that deplete natural resources over a broad area, Retain large contiguous or connected areas tht contain critical habitats, Minimize the introduction and spread of nonnative species, Avoid or compensate for effects of development on ecological processes, Implement land use and land management practices that are compatible with the natural potential of the area.

Table 5. Checklist of factors to be considered in making a land-use decision.

Ecological Landscape Planning, with a Focus on the Coastal Zone 239

Conservation Service capability system, the physiographic-unit method, the resourcepattern method, and the suitability method. Landscape suitability approach II brought about some refinements and new approaches in both theory and method. The suitability of the landscape is determined by the dialectical balance between the economic, social and biophysical factors. The methods of LSA II are landscape classification method, landscaperesource survey method, allocation-evaluation method, strategic suitability method, Australian approach to regional land use planning, Steiner method and Golany method

In the last three decades, the growing social consciousness about the negative effects of human activity on the nature and the increasing number of environmental laws worldwide necessitated the development of nature protection methods. Consequently, significant theoretical developments took place in LSA. The variations of LSA are among the most common methods used in ecologic planning. The LSA methods are applied in two basic

 The area is divided into identical cells (similar features and same dimensions), and The suitability of each cell could be analysed according to different criteria and

Lenz & Stary (1995) point out the need to use clear concepts in planning processes. The Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques are useful in this respect as they allow for multi-disciplinary approaches and complex data to be used in landscape planning in a comprehensible way (Cengiz, 2009; Cengiz et al., 2011; Ozyavuz & Yazgan, 2010; Tixerant et al., 2010). While generic classifications that lacked in depth and detail were used widely in forming landscape typologies (Antrop, 2000, as cited in Van Eetvelde & Antrop, 2007), recent practices make it possible to obtain detailed landscape typologies, such as zoning which demonstrates different uses in the selected areas (Clark, 1996) and the typologies based on GIS techniques like overlay and spatial analysis. A landscape classification depends on aspects such as the aim of classification, the way of defining the landscape through typology or chorology, the method chosen between holistic and parametric methods, the data quality and

Use of GIS in landscape planning brings substantial advantages. Content and technical requirements and standards are necessary which enable reciprocal data exchange so that the data of other sectoral administrations can be used for landscape planning and so that the results of landscape planning can be incorporated in the information systems and planning of other technical disciplines. Consideration of the relevant existing standards (e.g. ISO standard 19115 for documentation using metadata) in GIS-assisted landscape planning makes it easier, or indeed makes it possible in the first place, to forward and make use of the data and information acquired within the scope of landscape planning in a relatively uncomplicated way. In addition, it would be important to increase the use of standard methods, classifications and structuring in order to merge information from different landscape planning, e.g. within the scope of an SEA or Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). The use of GIS supports the integration of landscape planning content during the

(Tozar & Ayaşlgil, 2008).

stages (Tozar & Ayaşlgil, 2008). In these stages,

techniques for each type of land use.

**3.2 GIS and remote sensing usage in planning** 

the hierarchical scales (Van Eetvelde & Antrop, 2007).

planning process is made easier (Haaren et al., 2008):

Landscape planning is undergoing change due to new requirements. Its previous main task of controlling spatial uses and the development of nature and the landscape has extended. Implementation of the European requirements for the Natura 2000 network, for the Water Framework Directive (WFD), the Floods Directive as well as the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) can be made considerably easier and can be coordinated with the help of landscape planning.

*"As general, coordinating planning, within the scope of landscape planning, existing nature conservation concepts are merged and the nature conservation sub-objectives are coordinated with each other and possible alternative objectives and measures are named. The landscape planning plans are therefore also the suitable instrument for cross-sectionally oriented coordination of nature conservation and landscape management issues with other interests and claims* "(Fig. 2) (Haaren et al., 2008).

Fig. 2. Coordination and cross-sectional orientation in landscape planning in Germany (Haaren et al., 2008).

#### **3.1 Ecological landscape planning methods**

Ecological planning methods are examined under two main headings: Landscape Suitability Approach I (LSA I) and Landscape Suitability Approach II (LSA II). The five methods of the LSA-I that uses natural landscape characteristics in determining the suitability of a piece of land for a certain land use are as follows: the Gestalt method, the Natural Resources

Landscape planning is undergoing change due to new requirements. Its previous main task of controlling spatial uses and the development of nature and the landscape has extended. Implementation of the European requirements for the Natura 2000 network, for the Water Framework Directive (WFD), the Floods Directive as well as the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) can be made considerably easier and can be coordinated with the help of

*"As general, coordinating planning, within the scope of landscape planning, existing nature conservation concepts are merged and the nature conservation sub-objectives are coordinated with each other and possible alternative objectives and measures are named. The landscape planning plans are therefore also the suitable instrument for cross-sectionally oriented coordination of nature conservation and landscape management issues with other interests and* 

Fig. 2. Coordination and cross-sectional orientation in landscape planning in Germany

Ecological planning methods are examined under two main headings: Landscape Suitability Approach I (LSA I) and Landscape Suitability Approach II (LSA II). The five methods of the LSA-I that uses natural landscape characteristics in determining the suitability of a piece of land for a certain land use are as follows: the Gestalt method, the Natural Resources

landscape planning.

(Haaren et al., 2008).

**3.1 Ecological landscape planning methods** 

*claims* "(Fig. 2) (Haaren et al., 2008).

Conservation Service capability system, the physiographic-unit method, the resourcepattern method, and the suitability method. Landscape suitability approach II brought about some refinements and new approaches in both theory and method. The suitability of the landscape is determined by the dialectical balance between the economic, social and biophysical factors. The methods of LSA II are landscape classification method, landscaperesource survey method, allocation-evaluation method, strategic suitability method, Australian approach to regional land use planning, Steiner method and Golany method (Tozar & Ayaşlgil, 2008).

In the last three decades, the growing social consciousness about the negative effects of human activity on the nature and the increasing number of environmental laws worldwide necessitated the development of nature protection methods. Consequently, significant theoretical developments took place in LSA. The variations of LSA are among the most common methods used in ecologic planning. The LSA methods are applied in two basic stages (Tozar & Ayaşlgil, 2008). In these stages,


#### **3.2 GIS and remote sensing usage in planning**

Lenz & Stary (1995) point out the need to use clear concepts in planning processes. The Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques are useful in this respect as they allow for multi-disciplinary approaches and complex data to be used in landscape planning in a comprehensible way (Cengiz, 2009; Cengiz et al., 2011; Ozyavuz & Yazgan, 2010; Tixerant et al., 2010). While generic classifications that lacked in depth and detail were used widely in forming landscape typologies (Antrop, 2000, as cited in Van Eetvelde & Antrop, 2007), recent practices make it possible to obtain detailed landscape typologies, such as zoning which demonstrates different uses in the selected areas (Clark, 1996) and the typologies based on GIS techniques like overlay and spatial analysis. A landscape classification depends on aspects such as the aim of classification, the way of defining the landscape through typology or chorology, the method chosen between holistic and parametric methods, the data quality and the hierarchical scales (Van Eetvelde & Antrop, 2007).

Use of GIS in landscape planning brings substantial advantages. Content and technical requirements and standards are necessary which enable reciprocal data exchange so that the data of other sectoral administrations can be used for landscape planning and so that the results of landscape planning can be incorporated in the information systems and planning of other technical disciplines. Consideration of the relevant existing standards (e.g. ISO standard 19115 for documentation using metadata) in GIS-assisted landscape planning makes it easier, or indeed makes it possible in the first place, to forward and make use of the data and information acquired within the scope of landscape planning in a relatively uncomplicated way. In addition, it would be important to increase the use of standard methods, classifications and structuring in order to merge information from different landscape planning, e.g. within the scope of an SEA or Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). The use of GIS supports the integration of landscape planning content during the planning process is made easier (Haaren et al., 2008):

Ecological Landscape Planning, with a Focus on the Coastal Zone 241

Ecological features and natural resources found in coastal zones, which penetrate from the coastline into the land to a certain degree, have an influence on human life and make it possible for them to benefit from coastal zones in different ways. Among the natural



In addition to their natural structures and biological diversities, coasts are an ecosystem in which nature is connected to cultural texture and different types of flora/fauna communities with different characteristics are enabled to live, reproduce and grow. Establishing a strong link between land and sea resources, coastal ecosystems play a key role in regulating the life quality of living creatures. The circle in coastal ecosystems is closely intertwined with and depends heavily on the natural structure of coastal zones, their geological features, their micro-climatic impacts, their hydrologic features, their flora and fauna, their soil structure, human activities, cultural structures and the way human beings use water. Coastal zones are dynamic compositions that can be different depending on the quality and intensity of human activities on them. One of the most significant factors in landscape, population growth has rapidly caused human beings to diversify their demands on coastal resources, which, in turn, has led to an increase in use pressure on unit

Three fundamental living environments (water, air and land) today are irreversibly polluted and destroyed as a result of rapid structuring and industrialization, population growth, insufficient awareness of environment, uncontrolled human activities and poor land use planning decisions. Ecological balance is becoming more and more upset, which leads to environmental pressure on natural ecosystems about the continuance of biological environments and sustainability of resources. Their distinctive ecological properties and cultural values make coastal areas delicate landscapes (Lindgren, 2010; Scialabba, 1998; Cicin-Sain & Knetch, 1998). Besides, their high landscape value enables multi-faceted spatial solutions to be developed. An example of these solutions would be cultural use for touristic and recreational purposes (Marin et al., 2009; Scialabba, 1998). Coastal destruction is the most common form of natural deterioration. Fill areas that are formed in these regions cause destruction of the fauna through filling of the sea. Therefore, after the construction of fortifications, designs should be developed to be reestablish the balance between the sea and the flora, considering the natural species of that region (Cengiz et al., 2012). It is essential that ecological planning approaches based on the balance between protection and use should be developed in order to minimize environmental pressures on coastal zones and to

resources in coastal zones are (Arslan, 1988):

instructional and social activities,




currents,



area.

sustain these delicate areas.


*"Remote sensing—by satellites such as LANDSAT (USA) and SPOT (France)—is very helpful in planning process. The high spatial resolution of multiband radiometers on LANDSAT and SPOT, well proved for land survey, also works moderately well for shallow-water survey (where waters are clear and cloud cover is low). Remote data have their best use in coastal zone planning and management when coupled to digital mapping and GIS technology (*Salm, et al, 2000*)."* 

*"Remote Sensing Platforms: Light reflectance-based remote sensing technologies can generally be grouped according to the resolution (pixel size) of the resulting data. This resolution is affected by both the altitude of the platform from which data are collected and the design of the instrument or camera. Low-resolution satellite platforms such as NASA's SeaWIFS (Sea Viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor) and NOAA's AVHRR (Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer) produce images where each pixel represents an area of 1 to 10 sq. km. Moderate-resolution satellite platforms such as LandSat, SPOT, and human-occupied spacecraft (e.g., the Space Shuttle or International Space Station) produce images where each pixel represents an area of 10 - 30 sq. meters. Instruments mounted on fixed wing aircraft and helicopter platforms produce images where each pixel represents an area of 1 - 5 sq. meters. Classified remote sensing platforms from the National Technical Means (NTM) Programme produce images where each pixel represents an area of less than 1 sq. meter (*Salm, et al, 2000*)."* 

#### **4. Coastal zone planning**

### **4.1 Coastal zone**

Unlike lakesides and river sides, sea coasts enjoy a special status due to being a zone of transition between the land and sea, two great compositions in the world. This status has turned sea coasts into a resource that should be utilized in terms of certain uses and functions. These uses or functions include (Arslan, 1988):


Ecological features and natural resources found in coastal zones, which penetrate from the coastline into the land to a certain degree, have an influence on human life and make it possible for them to benefit from coastal zones in different ways. Among the natural resources in coastal zones are (Arslan, 1988):


240 Landscape Planning

 The plan produced is no longer a comprehensive data packet which remains unchanged until it is updated. The use of GIS enables the plans to be updated as needed with little effort. Independent of this, the nature conservation concept must be evaluated at

 The data on which landscape planning is based can be directly evaluated for pending planning tasks and if necessary linked with other information. This makes it easier to use landscape planning for other planning, because the planning authorities can specifically retrieve the contents of landscape planning according to their

*"Remote sensing—by satellites such as LANDSAT (USA) and SPOT (France)—is very helpful in planning process. The high spatial resolution of multiband radiometers on LANDSAT and SPOT, well proved for land survey, also works moderately well for shallow-water survey (where waters are clear and cloud cover is low). Remote data have their best use in coastal zone planning and management when coupled to digital mapping and GIS technology (*Salm, et al,

*"Remote Sensing Platforms: Light reflectance-based remote sensing technologies can generally be grouped according to the resolution (pixel size) of the resulting data. This resolution is affected by both the altitude of the platform from which data are collected and the design of the instrument or camera. Low-resolution satellite platforms such as NASA's SeaWIFS (Sea Viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor) and NOAA's AVHRR (Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer) produce images where each pixel represents an area of 1 to 10 sq. km. Moderate-resolution satellite platforms such as LandSat, SPOT, and human-occupied spacecraft (e.g., the Space Shuttle or International Space Station) produce images where each pixel represents an area of 10 - 30 sq. meters. Instruments mounted on fixed wing aircraft and helicopter platforms produce images where each pixel represents an area of 1 - 5 sq. meters. Classified remote sensing platforms from the National Technical Means (NTM) Programme produce images where each pixel represents an area of less than 1 sq. meter (*Salm, et al,

Unlike lakesides and river sides, sea coasts enjoy a special status due to being a zone of transition between the land and sea, two great compositions in the world. This status has turned sea coasts into a resource that should be utilized in terms of certain uses and




suitable intervals and changed if necessary.

requirements.

2000*)."* 

2000*)."* 

**4.1 Coastal zone** 

resources.

**4. Coastal zone planning** 

transport and land transport,

functions. These uses or functions include (Arslan, 1988):


positive influences of the sea and beach on climate, - Establishing favorable environments for agricultural uses,


In addition to their natural structures and biological diversities, coasts are an ecosystem in which nature is connected to cultural texture and different types of flora/fauna communities with different characteristics are enabled to live, reproduce and grow. Establishing a strong link between land and sea resources, coastal ecosystems play a key role in regulating the life quality of living creatures. The circle in coastal ecosystems is closely intertwined with and depends heavily on the natural structure of coastal zones, their geological features, their micro-climatic impacts, their hydrologic features, their flora and fauna, their soil structure, human activities, cultural structures and the way human beings use water. Coastal zones are dynamic compositions that can be different depending on the quality and intensity of human activities on them. One of the most significant factors in landscape, population growth has rapidly caused human beings to diversify their demands on coastal resources, which, in turn, has led to an increase in use pressure on unit area.

Three fundamental living environments (water, air and land) today are irreversibly polluted and destroyed as a result of rapid structuring and industrialization, population growth, insufficient awareness of environment, uncontrolled human activities and poor land use planning decisions. Ecological balance is becoming more and more upset, which leads to environmental pressure on natural ecosystems about the continuance of biological environments and sustainability of resources. Their distinctive ecological properties and cultural values make coastal areas delicate landscapes (Lindgren, 2010; Scialabba, 1998; Cicin-Sain & Knetch, 1998). Besides, their high landscape value enables multi-faceted spatial solutions to be developed. An example of these solutions would be cultural use for touristic and recreational purposes (Marin et al., 2009; Scialabba, 1998). Coastal destruction is the most common form of natural deterioration. Fill areas that are formed in these regions cause destruction of the fauna through filling of the sea. Therefore, after the construction of fortifications, designs should be developed to be reestablish the balance between the sea and the flora, considering the natural species of that region (Cengiz et al., 2012). It is essential that ecological planning approaches based on the balance between protection and use should be developed in order to minimize environmental pressures on coastal zones and to sustain these delicate areas.

Ecological Landscape Planning, with a Focus on the Coastal Zone 243

*contain as many diverse habitats as possible (*Salm et al., 2000*)."* 

**4.3 Emergence of coastal zone planning in the U.S.A and Europe** 


governed by these laws and regulations. These plans consist of such stages as:

*conservation zones (*Salm et al., 2000*)."* 

included such precautions as (Kiemstedt, 1998):

development in coastal zones (Anonymous, 1993).



al., 2000*)."* 

*minimum level and managed for a high level of protection. In accordance with both conservation objectives and replenishing depleted stocks, areas should be allocated for a breeding population of the key species and their support systems. Core zones should be designed so that they will* 

*"Defining the use zones. Dedicated zones in a protected area are sites with special conservation value and can tolerate different types of uses by human beings. It is useful to map different neighboring habitats and to ensure that the protected area boundary has as many of these as possible. There should be harmony between the types and locations of required zones and the range of activities. Areas among and around these zones can be considered as general* 

*"Defining buffer zones. It is sometimes necessary to have a buffer zone which allows for a more liberal but still controlled range of uses. Such zones are set up in order to protect the area from encroachment and other activities that might have an impact on ecosystems. Buffer zones are a significant way of keeping external influences out of MPAs, for currents can carry nutrients, pollutants and sediments over great distances. The way an external buffer and the MPA is managed is different, the latter requiring cooperation of authorities outside of the MPA (*Salm et

Ecological planning in European countries today is supported by laws and regulations and integrated into the hierarchy of planning. In The Federal Republic of Germany between 1950 and 1970, for instance, attempts to rapid industrialization for developmental purposes led to irreversible damage to natural environment. In response to this, the Nature Conservation Act and relevant regulations were accepted in 1970s so that natural resources would be enabled to continue their ecological and biological functions. These laws and regulations

Those who are responsible for making and implementing decisions with physical plans are

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (1992) discussed, among other things, the protection and rational use of coastal zones and emphasized the importance of holistic coastal management. Similarly, it was emphasized, in the 787th meeting of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development in July 23, 1992, that strategic planning and holistic approach to coastal issues should be developed and a reasonable balance should be established between carrying capacity and tourism

Accordingly, the guidelines to be considered in coastal planning should focus on (Clark, 1996):


#### **4.2 Boundaries and zoning in coastal zone**

"*One of the major problems in attempts to conserve coastal and marine ecosystems is determining their boundaries to use them in the protected area design. Protected area boundaries used to be dependent mainly on three variables, namely geological features, political districts or costs. If ecological boundaries cannot be identified in an appropriate manner, the result will be inappropriate boundaries and zoning of the protected area. There is no consensus on the ideal size and design of Marine Protected Area (MPA), some being in favor of "disaggregation" whereas others favoring "aggregation". Although the method of disaggregation is suitable for terrestrial protected areas, they are not equally effective when it comes to underwater areas. The best approach to the latter group of areas seems to be "aggregation" coupled with an effective use zoning scheme (*Salm et al., 2000*).*"

*"The requirements of local residents, tourism development and the conservation values and needs within an MPA often conflict with each other. It is possible to make tourism in MPAs harmonious with conversation of most areas. Even so, the construction of tourist facilities around places bordering the MPA might lead to certain damage. MPAs are often designed so that they allow for controlled and sustainable uses within their boundaries. However, the MPA should have certain zones allocated for certain appropriate uses. The method of zoning is commonly used to make sure that the most sensitive and ecologically valuable areas are free of people and the impact of visitors is limited* (Salm et al., 2000).*"* 

*"One activity might be more suitable for a habitat than others. Therefore, areas should be zoned in a way that i) damaging activities are kept out of sensitive habitats, ii) intensive use is permitted only in certain sites, and iii) conflicts are prevented through a separation of incompatible activities (*Salm et al., 2000*)."* 

#### **Zoning methodology**

Activities in management zones are designed in reference to the objectives of the reserve. The intensity of management changes from one zone to another.

*"Defining the core zones, or sanctuaries. "Core zones" are defined as habitats with high conversation values vulnerable to disturbances. Such areas can be used by humans only at a* 

Accordingly, the guidelines to be considered in coastal planning should focus on (Clark,



"*One of the major problems in attempts to conserve coastal and marine ecosystems is determining their boundaries to use them in the protected area design. Protected area boundaries used to be dependent mainly on three variables, namely geological features, political districts or costs. If ecological boundaries cannot be identified in an appropriate manner, the result will be inappropriate boundaries and zoning of the protected area. There is no consensus on the ideal size and design of Marine Protected Area (MPA), some being in favor of "disaggregation" whereas others favoring "aggregation". Although the method of disaggregation is suitable for terrestrial protected areas, they are not equally effective when it comes to underwater areas. The best approach to the latter group of areas seems to be "aggregation" coupled with an effective use* 

*"The requirements of local residents, tourism development and the conservation values and needs within an MPA often conflict with each other. It is possible to make tourism in MPAs harmonious with conversation of most areas. Even so, the construction of tourist facilities around places bordering the MPA might lead to certain damage. MPAs are often designed so that they allow for controlled and sustainable uses within their boundaries. However, the MPA should have certain zones allocated for certain appropriate uses. The method of zoning is commonly used to make sure that the most sensitive and ecologically valuable areas are free of* 

*"One activity might be more suitable for a habitat than others. Therefore, areas should be zoned in a way that i) damaging activities are kept out of sensitive habitats, ii) intensive use is permitted only in certain sites, and iii) conflicts are prevented through a separation of* 

Activities in management zones are designed in reference to the objectives of the reserve.

*"Defining the core zones, or sanctuaries. "Core zones" are defined as habitats with high conversation values vulnerable to disturbances. Such areas can be used by humans only at a* 


influence on the protection and development of coastal zones,

*people and the impact of visitors is limited* (Salm et al., 2000).*"* 

The intensity of management changes from one zone to another.

1996):

flows,



**4.2 Boundaries and zoning in coastal zone**

*zoning scheme (*Salm et al., 2000*).*"

*incompatible activities (*Salm et al., 2000*)."* 

**Zoning methodology** 

*minimum level and managed for a high level of protection. In accordance with both conservation objectives and replenishing depleted stocks, areas should be allocated for a breeding population of the key species and their support systems. Core zones should be designed so that they will contain as many diverse habitats as possible (*Salm et al., 2000*)."* 

*"Defining the use zones. Dedicated zones in a protected area are sites with special conservation value and can tolerate different types of uses by human beings. It is useful to map different neighboring habitats and to ensure that the protected area boundary has as many of these as possible. There should be harmony between the types and locations of required zones and the range of activities. Areas among and around these zones can be considered as general conservation zones (*Salm et al., 2000*)."* 

*"Defining buffer zones. It is sometimes necessary to have a buffer zone which allows for a more liberal but still controlled range of uses. Such zones are set up in order to protect the area from encroachment and other activities that might have an impact on ecosystems. Buffer zones are a significant way of keeping external influences out of MPAs, for currents can carry nutrients, pollutants and sediments over great distances. The way an external buffer and the MPA is managed is different, the latter requiring cooperation of authorities outside of the MPA (*Salm et al., 2000*)."* 

#### **4.3 Emergence of coastal zone planning in the U.S.A and Europe**

Ecological planning in European countries today is supported by laws and regulations and integrated into the hierarchy of planning. In The Federal Republic of Germany between 1950 and 1970, for instance, attempts to rapid industrialization for developmental purposes led to irreversible damage to natural environment. In response to this, the Nature Conservation Act and relevant regulations were accepted in 1970s so that natural resources would be enabled to continue their ecological and biological functions. These laws and regulations included such precautions as (Kiemstedt, 1998):


Those who are responsible for making and implementing decisions with physical plans are governed by these laws and regulations. These plans consist of such stages as:


The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (1992) discussed, among other things, the protection and rational use of coastal zones and emphasized the importance of holistic coastal management. Similarly, it was emphasized, in the 787th meeting of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development in July 23, 1992, that strategic planning and holistic approach to coastal issues should be developed and a reasonable balance should be established between carrying capacity and tourism development in coastal zones (Anonymous, 1993).

Ecological Landscape Planning, with a Focus on the Coastal Zone 245

The basic problem here was the increase in the number of holiday resorts established in the city, which had been developing as a holiday spot. The increases in the areas of employment, the number of annual tourists and the number of accommodations were regarded as an accomplishment; however, environmental quality was neglected. Among the



*"A major problem in land use and management is achieving a reconciliation among such conflicting goals as resource-extractive activities, infrastructure of human settlement, recreational activities, services provided by ecological systems, support of aesthetic, cultural and religious values and maintaining the compositional and structural complexity of ecological systems. The more different goals stakeholders have, the more difficult land use decisions can be. The process of planning and decision-making should consider the ecological, socio-cultural and economic values of the landscape so as to achieve a new spirit of reconciliation between landscape* 

*"It seems that the problems in ecological planning are brought about by disagreements between land use and environment. These disagreements are usually of five origins: i) initially poor land use decisions ii) environmental change iii) social change as well as technological change iv) violations of human values about the mistreatment of the environment v) geographic or spatial* 

The leading reasons for disruptions in the natural structure of the land in coastal zones are irrational settlement processes, irregular and unplanned recreational and touristic facilities, industrial uses, agricultural activities, fill areas and highways that are too near to coasts. The increase in the number of ecosystems ruined by planning decisions in planning attempts of several scales without a consideration into natural resources makes ecological planning obligatory. Ecological planning approaches are defined as reflections of practices on environmental values within the framework of principles of sensitive area use in the

of natural resources with a consideration into aesthetics and functionality.

indicators of the change in environmental quality were (Clark, 1996):


Planning and rehabilitation activities for the City of Cancún were focused on:





*conversation and changing demands* (Dale et al., 2001)."

amount of pressure.

**5. Conclusion** 

*scale* (Marsh, 2005)."

In the U.S.A, where coastal areas were dominated by certain land uses such as business, industry, housing, tourism and recreation, coastal protection and planning attempts started in California in 1967. In 1972, the government accepted the Coastal Zone Management Act in order to protect, develop and utilize resources in coastal zones. According to popular opinion in the U.S.A, the state where the coastal zone project was first put into effect was California. The coastal zone of California is 1770 km in length, from the Mexican boundary to the southern-western boundary of Oregon. The propositions included in the project were (Arslan, 1988):


Cancún (Mexico) is a good example of threats brought about by coastal tourism and precautions taken. Cancún is located on the Yucatan peninsula, eastern Mexico, and a worldwide famous holiday spot. In 1970, the city was defined as a significant tourist attraction because of its climatic conditions, a 19 km-lenght white beach, population of coconut palms, clean water, rich water products, a 50 km²-lenght well-protected lagoon system, being the second largest coral reef barrier of the world that starts 30 m off the coast, having rich underground water resources and being an important archeological area. The distinguishing natural feature of Cancún is the Nichupte Lagoon System (Clark, 1996).

The basic problem here was the increase in the number of holiday resorts established in the city, which had been developing as a holiday spot. The increases in the areas of employment, the number of annual tourists and the number of accommodations were regarded as an accomplishment; however, environmental quality was neglected. Among the indicators of the change in environmental quality were (Clark, 1996):


Planning and rehabilitation activities for the City of Cancún were focused on:


#### **5. Conclusion**

244 Landscape Planning

In the U.S.A, where coastal areas were dominated by certain land uses such as business, industry, housing, tourism and recreation, coastal protection and planning attempts started in California in 1967. In 1972, the government accepted the Coastal Zone Management Act in order to protect, develop and utilize resources in coastal zones. According to popular opinion in the U.S.A, the state where the coastal zone project was first put into effect was California. The coastal zone of California is 1770 km in length, from the Mexican boundary to the southern-western boundary of Oregon. The propositions included in the project were








Cancún (Mexico) is a good example of threats brought about by coastal tourism and precautions taken. Cancún is located on the Yucatan peninsula, eastern Mexico, and a worldwide famous holiday spot. In 1970, the city was defined as a significant tourist attraction because of its climatic conditions, a 19 km-lenght white beach, population of coconut palms, clean water, rich water products, a 50 km²-lenght well-protected lagoon system, being the second largest coral reef barrier of the world that starts 30 m off the coast, having rich underground water resources and being an important archeological area. The distinguishing natural feature of Cancún is the Nichupte Lagoon System (Clark, 1996).

precautions are taken for protecting coastal features in all respects,


protect areas of historical, archeological, educational or scientific value,


geothermal resources and methane gases,

(Arslan, 1988):

waters as soon as possible,

natural structure,

management plans,

disrupted,

*"A major problem in land use and management is achieving a reconciliation among such conflicting goals as resource-extractive activities, infrastructure of human settlement, recreational activities, services provided by ecological systems, support of aesthetic, cultural and religious values and maintaining the compositional and structural complexity of ecological systems. The more different goals stakeholders have, the more difficult land use decisions can be. The process of planning and decision-making should consider the ecological, socio-cultural and economic values of the landscape so as to achieve a new spirit of reconciliation between landscape conversation and changing demands* (Dale et al., 2001)."

*"It seems that the problems in ecological planning are brought about by disagreements between land use and environment. These disagreements are usually of five origins: i) initially poor land use decisions ii) environmental change iii) social change as well as technological change iv) violations of human values about the mistreatment of the environment v) geographic or spatial scale* (Marsh, 2005)."

The leading reasons for disruptions in the natural structure of the land in coastal zones are irrational settlement processes, irregular and unplanned recreational and touristic facilities, industrial uses, agricultural activities, fill areas and highways that are too near to coasts. The increase in the number of ecosystems ruined by planning decisions in planning attempts of several scales without a consideration into natural resources makes ecological planning obligatory. Ecological planning approaches are defined as reflections of practices on environmental values within the framework of principles of sensitive area use in the

Ecological Landscape Planning, with a Focus on the Coastal Zone 247

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#### **6. References**


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