**1. Introduction**

150 Landscape Planning

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Is the XXI century an age of changes or is it a change of age? We must assume that new and more complex challenges are as necessary as deep culture and paradigmatic modifications. Growing complexity and the present-day territorial degradation has made it necessary that we transform the dominant science paradigm to face the sustainability problems. A new science is essential to improve the understanding of ourselves and our environmental life [1-4].

The evolution of new technology, about ten thousand years ago, gave birth to the artificialization of nature and agriculture. The way said artificialization and management of the natural resources was determined basically by the factors and cultural tendencies. Culture can be defined as a learned system that produces an action and the way we relate with the world [5]. It is a set of subordinated suppositions and beliefs shared by a group or society, influencing their behavior [6].

The cultural landscape concept has emerged as a systemic transdisciplinary study object. To understand the present context it is basic to understand the cultural landscape concept, representing an expression of cultural activities in a territory, and as such, it is a key factor for the sustainability study [7]. Cultural landscape is a XXI century integrative concept.

Depredating conditions and trends of ecological-territorial systems and their effects on planetary life require an urgent change of the present dominant artificialization style and cultural landscape construction. We are part of the unique and interdepending web of life [8]. Complementary couplings of our construction cultural landscape style and nature organization result in healthy and sustainable cultural landscapes [9].

Starting from a historical ecological-territorial footprint and facing the relationship between agriculture, rurality and cultural landscape, the main objective of this work is to state the fundamentals to understand, develop, and construct a sustainable model adaptive of our age.

Agriculture and Rurality as Constructor of Sustainable Cultural Landscape 153

definition is consistent and complements, as well as, integrates the above ones; it combines Nature and its artificialization with land management, organized around rural properties. In

On the other hand, agriculture can be defined as an economic activity related to the sustainable production of crops and its transformation into elements which can be consumed by man. Many people perform this activity as a way to live [20]. This definition expresses the policy approach of the farmers' associations and some of the Ministries of Agriculture, who tend to consider agriculture as a mere business, when it should be seen as

In recent decades, agriculture has been looked upon only as an agribusiness, which takes away much of its significance and meaning, leaving it only as a minor branch of the economy [21]. In Chile, in general this began mainly during the second half of last century and continues today. Agriculture has been restricted to crops, economy and enterprise, overlooking its farm dimension and in many cases causing the degradation of the natural resources of the country [11, 22, 23] Unlike this, the traditional large farm (hacienda) for the first 300 years after the conquest and colonization of America was the major territorial, social, economic, and management unit, later complemented with other styles of farm in all

In the early Christian age, at the time of Columella [26, the original paper written during the 1st century aD], there was talk of *re-rustic*, referring mainly to the rurality, which is complemented by the urbanity that takes place in small towns and villages in the territories of Babylon, Greece and Rome [27, 12]. It was necessary to supply the cities with abundant food; thus, it was necessary to develop specialized farms with efficient production processes. The English word farming derives from here, differentiating it from cropping and husbandry (analogous to agriculture in Castilian). Farming can be defined as the arrangement, management and administration, of rural lands, which achievement center on the territory articulated by technological activities related to agriculture *sensu lato* [11, 28]. Ecology is incorporated formally and rigorously since the twenties, adding the ecosystem in the year 1935 [29], and becoming generally known between the sixties and seventies. It is difficult to argue that modern agriculture can develop sustainably without incorporating the ecology as a fundamental paradigm. This due to the agricultural matrix land generated from the artificialization of the natural ecosystem forming rural properties, and due to expansion

of the agricultural frontier as generalized as a worldwide phenomenon [1, 2, 23, 30].

 

which aim is to make agriculture" [31, 32]. Formally, the farm (P) consists of [15]:

a: Set of operators of artificialization for a state of artificialization "a"

Σn: State of the ecosystem to time n=0, previous to time n=1 Σ<sup>0</sup> → Σ1: Change of the state of the ecosystem from Σ0 to Σ<sup>1</sup>

Symbolically, the artificialization (A) of nature, or agriculture, can be represented as [15]:

0 1 (: ) *A*

From an operational point of view, the farm can be defined as "an organized unit of decision making, an area of renewable natural resources, connected internally and limited externally,

*a a* (1)

all these definitions the ecosystem is essential and a priority.

a central component for integral rural development.

its forms [24, 25].

where:

#### **2. Agriculture from nature**

#### **2.1 Nature**

Nature is the set of all entities and forces that constitute the territory. It is the natural world without mankind or civilization [10]. The natural world is the background matrix where humans have evolved during a long period of time, leading to rurality and urbanity as a complement to wildland [11, 12]. Since the presocratic time of Anaxagoras, it is stated that nothing is born or dies, but that everything emerges from preexisting entities and elements; just as it happens in Nature, which when artificialized, is transformed into a cultural landscape. Natural resources are the supply source of our civilization and act as the life support for our domain of existence [13]. This is the reason why the resources should be sustainably managed and maintained, turning the agricultural activities into a main component. Complementary, ecosystem is a concept that allows placing and integrating the various disciplines that transform the agronomic sciences into a transdisciplinary dialog. Recently, cultural landscape emerges as a strong concept. It develops from the territorial stakeholders in a certain cultural context integrating the various sustainability and development dimensions. All of this arises from a social-cultural coevolutionary process with nature, and from the stakeholders with their surroundings.

Territory may be conceived as a "land or aquatic volume or area belonging to a farm, county, province, region or nation" [14]. The territory is used by society, originating from the interaction of three main components: nature, society and technology. Nature comes before man, what grants it a different evolutionary meaning. Man develops culture as a way to establish a relationship with the world, gradually organizing growing and complex structures integrating ethnics, politics and labor, among others, generating as a result the social structure. From the resulting integration of nature with social structure emerges technology as an articulating component for both. This process gives birth to a territorial system which in time becomes an integral unit [14, 15].

Cataldi, an italian mathematician and designer during the XVI-XVII centuries, states that man modifies nature until finally transforming it into a cultural landscape. As a result, he generates a sustainable or unsustainable system depending on the behavior of the people, and ultimately, on the type of activities carried out by the stakeholders.

#### **2.2 Agriculture: Definitions and formulation**

Agriculture *sensu lato* can be defined in various ways. Lawes [16] and Prado [17], defined it as a process of artificialization and decision taking about nature, with some specific human purposes, such as producing food, fiber, leather, wood or landscape beauty. It is, therefore, a process of transformation with a given objective, involving nature, stakeholders and technology. In this context, agriculture *sensu lato* includes numerous activities related to multiple land use for production purposes (vegetable garden, forestry, aquaculture, livestock, etc.), protection (of soils, fauna, banks, landscapes, etc.) and recreation (agrotourism, camping, sports, entertainment, and so on).

During the seventies, when hard productivity technologies were being enforced, agriculture was defined as putting a harness to solar energy through plants for human purposes [18]. An earlier definition, 1814, describes it as science of managing farmland [19]. The latter definition is consistent and complements, as well as, integrates the above ones; it combines Nature and its artificialization with land management, organized around rural properties. In all these definitions the ecosystem is essential and a priority.

On the other hand, agriculture can be defined as an economic activity related to the sustainable production of crops and its transformation into elements which can be consumed by man. Many people perform this activity as a way to live [20]. This definition expresses the policy approach of the farmers' associations and some of the Ministries of Agriculture, who tend to consider agriculture as a mere business, when it should be seen as a central component for integral rural development.

In recent decades, agriculture has been looked upon only as an agribusiness, which takes away much of its significance and meaning, leaving it only as a minor branch of the economy [21]. In Chile, in general this began mainly during the second half of last century and continues today. Agriculture has been restricted to crops, economy and enterprise, overlooking its farm dimension and in many cases causing the degradation of the natural resources of the country [11, 22, 23] Unlike this, the traditional large farm (hacienda) for the first 300 years after the conquest and colonization of America was the major territorial, social, economic, and management unit, later complemented with other styles of farm in all its forms [24, 25].

In the early Christian age, at the time of Columella [26, the original paper written during the 1st century aD], there was talk of *re-rustic*, referring mainly to the rurality, which is complemented by the urbanity that takes place in small towns and villages in the territories of Babylon, Greece and Rome [27, 12]. It was necessary to supply the cities with abundant food; thus, it was necessary to develop specialized farms with efficient production processes. The English word farming derives from here, differentiating it from cropping and husbandry (analogous to agriculture in Castilian). Farming can be defined as the arrangement, management and administration, of rural lands, which achievement center on the territory articulated by technological activities related to agriculture *sensu lato* [11, 28].

Ecology is incorporated formally and rigorously since the twenties, adding the ecosystem in the year 1935 [29], and becoming generally known between the sixties and seventies. It is difficult to argue that modern agriculture can develop sustainably without incorporating the ecology as a fundamental paradigm. This due to the agricultural matrix land generated from the artificialization of the natural ecosystem forming rural properties, and due to expansion of the agricultural frontier as generalized as a worldwide phenomenon [1, 2, 23, 30].

Symbolically, the artificialization (A) of nature, or agriculture, can be represented as [15]:

$$A = \left(\pi\_a \not\!\!/ \pi\_a \;:\; \Sigma\_0 \to \Sigma\_1\right) \tag{1}$$

where:

152 Landscape Planning

Nature is the set of all entities and forces that constitute the territory. It is the natural world without mankind or civilization [10]. The natural world is the background matrix where humans have evolved during a long period of time, leading to rurality and urbanity as a complement to wildland [11, 12]. Since the presocratic time of Anaxagoras, it is stated that nothing is born or dies, but that everything emerges from preexisting entities and elements; just as it happens in Nature, which when artificialized, is transformed into a cultural landscape. Natural resources are the supply source of our civilization and act as the life support for our domain of existence [13]. This is the reason why the resources should be sustainably managed and maintained, turning the agricultural activities into a main component. Complementary, ecosystem is a concept that allows placing and integrating the various disciplines that transform the agronomic sciences into a transdisciplinary dialog. Recently, cultural landscape emerges as a strong concept. It develops from the territorial stakeholders in a certain cultural context integrating the various sustainability and development dimensions. All of this arises from a social-cultural coevolutionary process

Territory may be conceived as a "land or aquatic volume or area belonging to a farm, county, province, region or nation" [14]. The territory is used by society, originating from the interaction of three main components: nature, society and technology. Nature comes before man, what grants it a different evolutionary meaning. Man develops culture as a way to establish a relationship with the world, gradually organizing growing and complex structures integrating ethnics, politics and labor, among others, generating as a result the social structure. From the resulting integration of nature with social structure emerges technology as an articulating component for both. This process gives birth to a territorial

Cataldi, an italian mathematician and designer during the XVI-XVII centuries, states that man modifies nature until finally transforming it into a cultural landscape. As a result, he generates a sustainable or unsustainable system depending on the behavior of the people,

Agriculture *sensu lato* can be defined in various ways. Lawes [16] and Prado [17], defined it as a process of artificialization and decision taking about nature, with some specific human purposes, such as producing food, fiber, leather, wood or landscape beauty. It is, therefore, a process of transformation with a given objective, involving nature, stakeholders and technology. In this context, agriculture *sensu lato* includes numerous activities related to multiple land use for production purposes (vegetable garden, forestry, aquaculture, livestock, etc.), protection (of soils, fauna, banks, landscapes, etc.) and recreation

During the seventies, when hard productivity technologies were being enforced, agriculture was defined as putting a harness to solar energy through plants for human purposes [18]. An earlier definition, 1814, describes it as science of managing farmland [19]. The latter

with nature, and from the stakeholders with their surroundings.

system which in time becomes an integral unit [14, 15].

(agrotourism, camping, sports, entertainment, and so on).

**2.2 Agriculture: Definitions and formulation** 

and ultimately, on the type of activities carried out by the stakeholders.

**2. Agriculture from nature** 

**2.1 Nature** 

a: Set of operators of artificialization for a state of artificialization "a" Σn: State of the ecosystem to time n=0, previous to time n=1 Σ<sup>0</sup> → Σ1: Change of the state of the ecosystem from Σ0 to Σ<sup>1</sup>

From an operational point of view, the farm can be defined as "an organized unit of decision making, an area of renewable natural resources, connected internally and limited externally, which aim is to make agriculture" [31, 32]. Formally, the farm (P) consists of [15]:

$$P = f\left(\mathbf{S}, \Sigma, \mathbf{dp}, \mathbf{o}\_{\mathbf{u}}\right) \tag{2}$$

where:


#### **2.3 Ontology and epistemology**

Ontology refers to the nature of the reality or phenomenon under study. In this case, it is the agriculture, rurality and cultural landscape in the context of integral and sustainable development based on local and global landscape design, situated in a systemic theory [33], ecological theory [29, 34], as well as the information theory [35, 36], the complex systems theory [8, 37, 38], and cognitive theory [3, 13, 39, 40]. The adaptive flexibility of the cultural landscape is related to the information content of the system [41]. Information and diversity, from the operational point of view, can be considered equal.

Despite the enormous technical advances modern agriculture has undergone, the late twentieth century lacked a unifying theory integrating all the above issues, as well as its thematic and conceptual context. A theoretical framework was needed to locate and frame the agricultural engineering in a holistic, systemic, integrated, and transdisciplinary context, in view of the advance of science and engineering paradigms by the end of the century [13, 42-44]. This theoretical framework arises for agriculture and for several other disciplines from general systems theory, holism, ecology, and new paradigms emerging in recent decades.

The final rationality of stakeholders, as cognitive agents, is to maintain the structural coupling with its domain of existence [13, 39, 40]. In this context, mutual determinations that keep this co evolutionary coupling between the stakeholders and their scenario are of an emotional nature [4]. The stakeholders experience an emotion when confronted with the phenomenon they perceive, determining the action which will generate the landscape, which in turn feeds their perception [8].

According to Röling [13], the cognitive support of collective decision making is sized into four components: value, theory, context and action (Figure 1). According to Lawes´ [16] definition of agriculture, value must be based on ecological rationality given by principles, laws and ecosystem structure, with any style of agriculture. In the theoretical model the value must be constructivist, so it must be generated within an epistemological framework for dialogue and collective subjectivity. Action should be deliberate and collective according to the culture of the stakeholders, associated with their perception and cognition. Finally, the context of agriculture should focus on man as the greatest driving force of the cultural landscape and determining their own future. However, the territorial problems as well as degradation of ecosystems and natural resources, show the lack of an instrument which lets us handle this force [2].

The four dimensions of cognitive support of collective decision making are considerably modified if instead of using the definition of Lawes, we use a definition that increases an agriculture focused on production. The prevailing definition of agriculture determines the paradigm that governs the actions on the cultural landscape and its sustainability.

Agriculture and Rurality as Constructor of Sustainable Cultural Landscape 155

**Ecological Rationality**

*(Value)*

**Deliberate,**

Fig. 1. Decision taking as a function of Lawes definition of agriculture as artificialization of

*(Context)*

*(Theory) (Action)*

**and determining their own future**

**Man as the greatest driving force of the cultural landscape**

**Collective Constructivism**

Land cropping and the following appearance of the rural cultural open landscape1, occurs only starting around 10.000 years ago. This is the starting point of the process of landscape hominization [45, 46] and the homind frontier expansion. Each society relates differently to nature and its surroundings, arranging the territory according to its culture, setting the

The nature artificialization process, and the expansion of the hominid frontier is intended to conquer niches and improve anthropogenic canalization of goods and services, requiring the

As example of the hominid frontier expansion and creation of a cultural landscape, Gastó [47] reports what happened in the range lands of the North American west. After the arrival of settlers there was degradation of the soil and vegetable covering, and as a consequence of this, large stretches of land were abandoned due to low productivity. These settlers didn´t have the necessary knowledge to open up, order, manage and administer the territory. Faced with this, the Government, got involved and establishes the National Park Service (1873), National Forest (1890), Native American Reservations, Wild Life Shelters and the Land Grant College. At the same time, and in order to improve the public land management, the Government set up the Forest Service (1905), Bureau of Land management-BOM (1935), and the Soil Conservation Service (1905). Meanwhile settlers were converting private land into great ranches. The American Society of Range Land Management was created in the 1940´s, with the intention of developing a science based on principles differing from those of agronomy. Currently one of the most important aspects is

1 Rural, etymologically means wasteland, opened by and for mankind. This is within the expansion of

the hominid frontier, the place where man can live and generate rurality.

nature [adapted from 13].

**3. Rurality, territory and cultural landscape** 

bases of the different cultural landscapes.

**3.1 Hominid frontier expansion and cultural landscape** 

extraction and insertion of elements into the ecosystem.

 *P* = ƒ (S, Σ, ф, σa) (2)

Ontology refers to the nature of the reality or phenomenon under study. In this case, it is the agriculture, rurality and cultural landscape in the context of integral and sustainable development based on local and global landscape design, situated in a systemic theory [33], ecological theory [29, 34], as well as the information theory [35, 36], the complex systems theory [8, 37, 38], and cognitive theory [3, 13, 39, 40]. The adaptive flexibility of the cultural landscape is related to the information content of the system [41]. Information and diversity,

Despite the enormous technical advances modern agriculture has undergone, the late twentieth century lacked a unifying theory integrating all the above issues, as well as its thematic and conceptual context. A theoretical framework was needed to locate and frame the agricultural engineering in a holistic, systemic, integrated, and transdisciplinary context, in view of the advance of science and engineering paradigms by the end of the century [13, 42-44]. This theoretical framework arises for agriculture and for several other disciplines from general systems theory, holism, ecology, and new paradigms emerging in recent

The final rationality of stakeholders, as cognitive agents, is to maintain the structural coupling with its domain of existence [13, 39, 40]. In this context, mutual determinations that keep this co evolutionary coupling between the stakeholders and their scenario are of an emotional nature [4]. The stakeholders experience an emotion when confronted with the phenomenon they perceive, determining the action which will generate the landscape,

According to Röling [13], the cognitive support of collective decision making is sized into four components: value, theory, context and action (Figure 1). According to Lawes´ [16] definition of agriculture, value must be based on ecological rationality given by principles, laws and ecosystem structure, with any style of agriculture. In the theoretical model the value must be constructivist, so it must be generated within an epistemological framework for dialogue and collective subjectivity. Action should be deliberate and collective according to the culture of the stakeholders, associated with their perception and cognition. Finally, the context of agriculture should focus on man as the greatest driving force of the cultural landscape and determining their own future. However, the territorial problems as well as degradation of ecosystems and natural resources, show the lack of an instrument which lets

The four dimensions of cognitive support of collective decision making are considerably modified if instead of using the definition of Lawes, we use a definition that increases an agriculture focused on production. The prevailing definition of agriculture determines the

paradigm that governs the actions on the cultural landscape and its sustainability.

where:

decades.

S: Space-time, L3 x T (length3 x time)

**2.3 Ontology and epistemology** 

which in turn feeds their perception [8].

us handle this force [2].

Σ: Spatio-temporal units of renewable natural resources Ф: Inter or intra flow of matter, energy or information σa: Answer or output as a function of artificialization

from the operational point of view, can be considered equal.

Fig. 1. Decision taking as a function of Lawes definition of agriculture as artificialization of nature [adapted from 13].
