**4. Landscape design in urban environment**

In this section landscape design is discussed in urban context. From a wider perspective, urban landscape is a part of urban matrix. Therefore design of urban landscapes should be considered as an integral part of urban design. Urban landscape design is clearly not urban design, but a crucial part of it. Hence, factors influencing urban design also influence the form and functioning of urban landscapes. It is advised that points stressed out in the previous heading "Urban design and urban life quality" should also be kept in mind while reading this section.

Design is a creative process influenced by designer's experiences, values, beliefs and vision. Hence it is mostly subjective, so is landscape design. Landscape design is the art of creating and designing aesthetic and functional outdoor environments. Because every landscape is unique, it is hard to define a universal guideline for design process. Nevertheless designing sustainable and liveable environments requires understanding of some basic principles which will guide the designer. Here, I will explain some of the principles which I believe are essential for urban landscape design.

#### *Adaptability and sustainability*

Urban landscape is as dynamic as urban life. It constantly changes. The design product is never finished due to both ever changing structure of urban realm and the living materials used in urban landscape design. Modern urban environments grow and expand so fast that efficient use of land becomes a necessity. Thus, any design should be capable of adaptation to changes through the time and space while maintaining identity. Adaptability and flexibility degree of a design product determines its lifetime. Therefore designing urban landscape requires a far-sighted approach. In landscape design adaptability can be achieved through selecting appropriate design elements (e.g. plants, water elements and construction material) that fit for site conditions (e.g. climate, soil and water resources) and creating multiuse or flexible outdoor facilities for activities for different groups in the community. On the other hand, if everything is designed to be flexible in order to achieve adaptability, then the design will fall apart without any sense of meaning or character. Hence some parts should be left permanent to provide a backbone for the design. Creating large open spaces is the easiest way to create flexibility in landscape design.

Adaptability is one of the key elements in achieving sustainability as it is about longevity. The concept of sustainability has been briefly explained in previous sections. Besides its strong relationship with life quality, ecological sustainability is fundamental to survival of all living organisms on the earth. Urban ecology, a relatively very new area of ecology, seeks to understand and explain ecological mechanisms within an urban environment. Embracing urban ecology in urban design and management is necessary to create sustainable environments. McHarg's outstanding work "Design with Nature" (1969) has triggered ecological perspective in landscape planning and design. His overlay method of site

 Green spaces can help energy saving. Right selection and planting of plants can provide cooler environments in summer and warmer environments in winter thus reduce air

 Urban landscapes can enhance tourism in cities by attracting people. Park Güell in Barcelona, Spain is a perfect example of how a park can become a global tourism

In this section landscape design is discussed in urban context. From a wider perspective, urban landscape is a part of urban matrix. Therefore design of urban landscapes should be considered as an integral part of urban design. Urban landscape design is clearly not urban design, but a crucial part of it. Hence, factors influencing urban design also influence the form and functioning of urban landscapes. It is advised that points stressed out in the previous heading "Urban design and urban life quality" should also be kept in mind while reading this section. Design is a creative process influenced by designer's experiences, values, beliefs and vision. Hence it is mostly subjective, so is landscape design. Landscape design is the art of creating and designing aesthetic and functional outdoor environments. Because every landscape is unique, it is hard to define a universal guideline for design process. Nevertheless designing sustainable and liveable environments requires understanding of some basic principles which will guide the designer. Here, I will explain some of the principles which I believe are

Urban landscape is as dynamic as urban life. It constantly changes. The design product is never finished due to both ever changing structure of urban realm and the living materials used in urban landscape design. Modern urban environments grow and expand so fast that efficient use of land becomes a necessity. Thus, any design should be capable of adaptation to changes through the time and space while maintaining identity. Adaptability and flexibility degree of a design product determines its lifetime. Therefore designing urban landscape requires a far-sighted approach. In landscape design adaptability can be achieved through selecting appropriate design elements (e.g. plants, water elements and construction material) that fit for site conditions (e.g. climate, soil and water resources) and creating multiuse or flexible outdoor facilities for activities for different groups in the community. On the other hand, if everything is designed to be flexible in order to achieve adaptability, then the design will fall apart without any sense of meaning or character. Hence some parts should be left permanent to provide a backbone for the design. Creating large open spaces is

Adaptability is one of the key elements in achieving sustainability as it is about longevity. The concept of sustainability has been briefly explained in previous sections. Besides its strong relationship with life quality, ecological sustainability is fundamental to survival of all living organisms on the earth. Urban ecology, a relatively very new area of ecology, seeks to understand and explain ecological mechanisms within an urban environment. Embracing urban ecology in urban design and management is necessary to create sustainable environments. McHarg's outstanding work "Design with Nature" (1969) has triggered ecological perspective in landscape planning and design. His overlay method of site

conditioning expenses.

essential for urban landscape design.

the easiest way to create flexibility in landscape design.

*Adaptability and sustainability* 

**4. Landscape design in urban environment** 

destination.

analysis (suitability analysis) aims to define potentials and constraints of an environment for land use planning. Although he has been criticized for neglecting cities and social dimensions, he promoted integration of the natural processes into planning and design. The suitability analysis of McHarg still constitutes a basis for contemporary landscape planning and design. Assessing the relationships between each component of an environment enables designers and planners to recognize the true potential of a site for various land uses. Neglecting natural values in design causes high costs of construction and maintenance (Memlük, 2009).

Ecological sustainability is a tough yet crucial challenge in landscape design. It is often hard for the designer to integrate his artistic desires with the ecological facts. Yet, ecological mechanisms can help and guide the landscape architect through the design, because landscape design mostly depends on natural resources. In their study, Cadenasso and Pickett (2008) presented and discussed five urban ecology principles in context of urban landscape design. Table 1 shows the summary of their work.


Table 1. Ecological principles and design applications (adapted from Cadenasso and Pickett, 2008).

Urban Landscape Design 289

The affect and meanings including memories and associations, as well as connotations

Loss of identity and character in modern urban environments is one of the main challenges for designers today. Furthermore it causes loss of community attachment and community identity. Changes in land-use, globalization, decentralization, environmental pollution and changing socioeconomic structure are amongst the reasons for the loss of identity and character. Hence, solutions need to be developed first at planning scale. On the other hand, urban design can help with renewing and creating places with coherence, character and

As summarized above, the concepts of coherence and legibility are strongly linked to identity, character and sense of place. Therefore coherence and legibility should be adopted as important design principles in urban landscape design in order to create meaningful places which people enjoy to experience. Some key points in enhancing coherence and

 Coherence of landscape elements might be visual, functional or ecological. Hence, both natural and cultural landscape elements should be assessed in terms of coherence. Both history and cultural values of a place should be considered in attempt to achieve

 Local architectural styles and materials should be taken into account in landscape design in order to provide integrity and coherence and preserve local identity. Visual quality of a landscape is important for reading and understanding the place. The

Placing sculptures or other ornamental features can enhance the visual quality of the

Landscape construction materials should be selected to support or enhance visual

 Designed environments should support perceived safety. Open spaces offer people a sense of security since they have a wider perspective of a place to see what is going on around them, however people also needs to find a "niche" for themselves to have some

Spatial definition also helps people to feel more secure. Knowing boundaries increases

For ecological coherence, green networks throughout and around the city should be

 Time is another variable of coherence. Forms, textures and colors of an urban landscape vary through time. Therefore changes through time and alternatives for the future

 Coherence between user needs and expectations, and proposed activities should be evaluated. Participation of local people in design process may help to create more

The physical characteristics of the environment,

The social interactions associated with the place.

legibility in urban landscape design are given below;

entrances and exits of a place should be visually clear.

confidence. Hence, edges should be clear and visible.

should be taken into account in design process.

coherence overall and between different landscape elements.

coherence and strengthening identity.

Human scale is essential in legibility.

privacy or to hide if they feel insecure.

created and connected to each other.

coherent design alternatives.

and denotations;

meaning.

environment.

The activities afforded by the place,

Some strategies for ecologically sensitive urban landscape design are:


#### *Coherence and legibility*

Coherence of a landscape refers to the organization of landscape components; it is the degree of consistency between the components. According to Salingaros (2000) geometrical assembly of elements determines the coherence of an urban environment and connectivity at all scales leads to coherence. He also stresses that coherence is essential for vital urban living environments. Coherence and legibility are strongly related to understanding of a place and feeling of safety. Thus, level of an environment's coherence affects its legibility by its users. More coherent and legible an environment is, more people make sense of it, and more they feel safe.

Legibility in urban design was introduced by Kevin Lynch in his work "Image of the City" (1960) where he analyzed post-war North American cities' built environments. Lynch defines legibility as "...the ease with which [a city's] parts may be recognized and can be organized into a coherent pattern". According to Lynch, legibility is a key basis for sense of place. A sense of place evokes the feeling of "belonging" which makes a place psychologically comfortable. For a designer, it is important to turn empty "space" into a "place "with a meaning to experience. Although place identity is different from sense of place, character and identity of a place are two main aspects of sense of place. Therefore, giving character and identity to a designed place is essential for creating meaningful places for people. Antrop (2005b) states that coherence of particular properties defines identity and changes in coherence causes loss of identity or transforms the identity to a new one. According to Relph (1976) physical setting, activities and the meanings are three basic elements of place identity (in Turner &Turner, 2006). The degree of coherence of the first two components influence the meaning interpreted by the user, and as a result sense of place. Sense of place is unique to both individual and place since it results from the interaction of both. Turner and Turner (2006) identified the components of sense of place as:

Minimize energy use and promote use of renewable energy resources. Reduce energy

 Reduce water and fertilizer use by selecting native and drought tolerant plant species. Reduce water runoff by decreasing the amount of hard surfaces and proper drainage

Provide collection and storage of rainwater in order to use it for maintenance of green

 Support pedestrian and bicycle circulation within the city. People should move easily and freely within a city. Cities should not be designed for vehicle traffic. Connected urban open and green space systems could create a environmentally and people

 Choose plants suitable for local climate and site conditions. Selecting right plant species will increase the survival chance of plants in harsh urban environment, success of

Coherence of a landscape refers to the organization of landscape components; it is the degree of consistency between the components. According to Salingaros (2000) geometrical assembly of elements determines the coherence of an urban environment and connectivity at all scales leads to coherence. He also stresses that coherence is essential for vital urban living environments. Coherence and legibility are strongly related to understanding of a place and feeling of safety. Thus, level of an environment's coherence affects its legibility by its users. More coherent and legible an environment is, more people make sense of it, and

Legibility in urban design was introduced by Kevin Lynch in his work "Image of the City" (1960) where he analyzed post-war North American cities' built environments. Lynch defines legibility as "...the ease with which [a city's] parts may be recognized and can be organized into a coherent pattern". According to Lynch, legibility is a key basis for sense of place. A sense of place evokes the feeling of "belonging" which makes a place psychologically comfortable. For a designer, it is important to turn empty "space" into a "place "with a meaning to experience. Although place identity is different from sense of place, character and identity of a place are two main aspects of sense of place. Therefore, giving character and identity to a designed place is essential for creating meaningful places for people. Antrop (2005b) states that coherence of particular properties defines identity and changes in coherence causes loss of identity or transforms the identity to a new one. According to Relph (1976) physical setting, activities and the meanings are three basic elements of place identity (in Turner &Turner, 2006). The degree of coherence of the first two components influence the meaning interpreted by the user, and as a result sense of place. Sense of place is unique to both individual and place since it results from the interaction of both. Turner and Turner (2006) identified the components of sense of place

Some strategies for ecologically sensitive urban landscape design are: Support and preserve biotic diversity and create habitat corridors.

costs by using solar and wind energy systems. Protect and improve quality of water resources.

design.

spaces.

*Coherence and legibility* 

more they feel safe.

as:

Conserve aquifer recharge zones.

friendly transportation routes.

design and decrease maintenance costs.


Loss of identity and character in modern urban environments is one of the main challenges for designers today. Furthermore it causes loss of community attachment and community identity. Changes in land-use, globalization, decentralization, environmental pollution and changing socioeconomic structure are amongst the reasons for the loss of identity and character. Hence, solutions need to be developed first at planning scale. On the other hand, urban design can help with renewing and creating places with coherence, character and meaning.

As summarized above, the concepts of coherence and legibility are strongly linked to identity, character and sense of place. Therefore coherence and legibility should be adopted as important design principles in urban landscape design in order to create meaningful places which people enjoy to experience. Some key points in enhancing coherence and legibility in urban landscape design are given below;


Urban Landscape Design 291

We design outdoor environments for public benefit. Hence, understanding public opinions on their living environments could be helpful in creating livable urban environments. On the other hand, designers should realize that it is impossible to please everyone and respond to everyone's needs and expectations. Therefore, community involvement should only be accepted as a tool to understand the possible effects of design

Implementation and maintenance costs should be taken into account during design process. Cost efficient design strategies should be adopted in order to maintain durability and longevity of the designed environment. Urban open and green spaces can be designed and managed to minimize expenses. For example, stored rainwater in ponds and lakes could be used in irrigation, or use of fertilizers can be minimized by decreasing amount of lawn areas. Solar energy panels could be used to store energy during daytime which could be turned into electricity for lighting at night time. Multifunctional spaces also reduce cost by letting various activities take place in one place. Selection of durable paving material and site furniture will also decrease the maintenance

In this section a square design project, which was submitted to a national urban design competition in 2011, will be briefly explained. The proposed project has been designed by a multi disciplinary team involving landscape architects, architects and urban planners. The competition was opened by the Municipality of the province Afyonkarahisar which is located in central Anatolia, Turkey. The aim of the competition was to promote design solutions for revitalization of the square, namely Cumhuriyet Square, which has lost its identity and function due to surrounding densely built

The square is located in the city center and surrounded with many historical structures which constitute a vital part of the city's identity. The city Afyonkarahisar has been home to many civilizations from the Hittite Empire to Phrygians, from Byzantines to Ottomans. Because it has a rich historical background, the built structures which have historical significance have been preserved in the design proposal. One of the biggest problems within the site is lack of open spaces. This also has a negative impact on pedestrian circulation within this historical site. Therefore, open spaces have been given importance in design process in order to promote pedestrian circulation and create a place for citizens to gather

The existing urbanization pattern has caused loss of connectivity between focal features of the city. The design proposal has aimed to link the square to other key locations of the city, such as the Afyonkarahisar Castle, Ulucamii (a historical mosque), the train station, and the university campus (Figure 2a). Architectural restoration has been suggested between these landmarks to strengthen the historical identity. The roads surrounding the square are the main traffic routes in the city. This prevents integration of the square into the urban form, thus an underground passageway for vehicle traffic has been created in the proposed

**5. A case study - Cumhuriyet Square, Afyonkarahisar (Turkey)** 

proposal on its future users.

costs in long term.

(Figure 1).

environment and vehicle traffic.

*Cost* 


#### *Equity and accessibility*

Urban environments are where people from various ethical, social, cultural, economic backgrounds, ages and gender live together. Segregation of urban communities leads to both spatially and socially divided urban environments. As a result, equity becomes an important issue in achieving sustainable community development. Thus, designing public spaces for everyone is crucial in today's communities for developing community identity and preventing social fragmentation. Urban landscape design helps to create accessible environments for everyone in the community in terms of public open space. Public open spaces are places where people from different backgrounds get together and experience the urban environment equally in democratic communities. Thus, the activities and opportunities offered in these places should serve the needs and expectations of different groups in the community. Open and green spaces should be distributed evenly throughout the city. Special design techniques are needed to be taken into account for accessibility of disadvantaged groups, such as disabled and elderly. Not only the activities but also the landscape material should be selected appropriately to ensure easy accessibility and safety. Children should also be amongst priority in landscape design. Encouraging children to spend their free time in urban open and green spaces is a completely different research area itself. It is an interdisciplinary subject involving many dimensions from child development to landscape design. On the other hand, there is a clear need for promoting children living in urban environments to get involved in outdoor activities for healthier lifestyles as well as developing sense of community. Therefore, urban landscape design should give importance to creating safe, enjoyable and creative environments for children, and of course for their parents where they feel safe to let their children out.

Urban open and green spaces offer a unique opportunity for integration of different social groups and individuals. Hence, designers should seek ways to support social cohesion through space. Community involvement in planning and design schemes is necessary in order to have an idea of existing problems, needs, and expectations of different groups within the community.

#### *Community involvement*

Community involvement in urban planning and environmental impact assessment has gained widespread recognition in the last few decades. In urban design, community participation takes place mostly during decision making process in urban renewal projects. Involvement of community in design process increases their confidence in the project and their responsibility. Through information and knowledge exchange both local community and designers can be inspired. As a result, local community is more likely to support the project and to embrace the designed environment. This leads to satisfaction and long lasting use of the designed place. Therefore, community involvement should always be considered by the designer as an essential part of the design process.

We design outdoor environments for public benefit. Hence, understanding public opinions on their living environments could be helpful in creating livable urban environments. On the other hand, designers should realize that it is impossible to please everyone and respond to everyone's needs and expectations. Therefore, community involvement should only be accepted as a tool to understand the possible effects of design proposal on its future users.

#### *Cost*

290 Landscape Planning

 Diversity is essential for both healthy functional landscapes and creating more appealing environments for people. Diversity of landscape elements without coherence

Urban environments are where people from various ethical, social, cultural, economic backgrounds, ages and gender live together. Segregation of urban communities leads to both spatially and socially divided urban environments. As a result, equity becomes an important issue in achieving sustainable community development. Thus, designing public spaces for everyone is crucial in today's communities for developing community identity and preventing social fragmentation. Urban landscape design helps to create accessible environments for everyone in the community in terms of public open space. Public open spaces are places where people from different backgrounds get together and experience the urban environment equally in democratic communities. Thus, the activities and opportunities offered in these places should serve the needs and expectations of different groups in the community. Open and green spaces should be distributed evenly throughout the city. Special design techniques are needed to be taken into account for accessibility of disadvantaged groups, such as disabled and elderly. Not only the activities but also the landscape material should be selected appropriately to ensure easy accessibility and safety. Children should also be amongst priority in landscape design. Encouraging children to spend their free time in urban open and green spaces is a completely different research area itself. It is an interdisciplinary subject involving many dimensions from child development to landscape design. On the other hand, there is a clear need for promoting children living in urban environments to get involved in outdoor activities for healthier lifestyles as well as developing sense of community. Therefore, urban landscape design should give importance to creating safe, enjoyable and creative environments for children, and of course for their parents where they feel safe to

Urban open and green spaces offer a unique opportunity for integration of different social groups and individuals. Hence, designers should seek ways to support social cohesion through space. Community involvement in planning and design schemes is necessary in order to have an idea of existing problems, needs, and expectations of different groups

Community involvement in urban planning and environmental impact assessment has gained widespread recognition in the last few decades. In urban design, community participation takes place mostly during decision making process in urban renewal projects. Involvement of community in design process increases their confidence in the project and their responsibility. Through information and knowledge exchange both local community and designers can be inspired. As a result, local community is more likely to support the project and to embrace the designed environment. This leads to satisfaction and long lasting use of the designed place. Therefore, community involvement should always be considered

by the designer as an essential part of the design process.

Connectivity between different landscape elements enhances coherence.

may cause chaos.

*Equity and accessibility* 

let their children out.

within the community. *Community involvement*  Implementation and maintenance costs should be taken into account during design process. Cost efficient design strategies should be adopted in order to maintain durability and longevity of the designed environment. Urban open and green spaces can be designed and managed to minimize expenses. For example, stored rainwater in ponds and lakes could be used in irrigation, or use of fertilizers can be minimized by decreasing amount of lawn areas. Solar energy panels could be used to store energy during daytime which could be turned into electricity for lighting at night time. Multifunctional spaces also reduce cost by letting various activities take place in one place. Selection of durable paving material and site furniture will also decrease the maintenance costs in long term.
