**5.2 Precipitation rate**

It is defined as water amount given per unit time in irrigation area (Connelan. 2002). It is generally expressed as mm/h. Main factors which affect precipitation rate are sprinkler flow, distance between sprinkler and distance between laterals. The average precipitation rate is calculated with the following equation.

$$\text{Pr} = 1000^{\circ} \text{q/} \text{S}^{\circ} \text{L} \tag{11}$$

Where.

Pr:The average precipitation rate. mm/h 1000: a constant which converts meters to mm. q:the total flow applied to the area by the sprinklers. m3/h S:the spacing between the sprinkler along lateral. m L: The spacing between rows of sprinkler. m

The flow rate of sprinkler heads automatically changes in case of their making irrigation in different angles. For example, when sprinkler angle decrease from 360° to 180° degree, flow rate increases doubled. Therefore in the system where heads having different angle values are used, the average precipitation rate is calculated by means of the following formula.

$$\text{Pr} \equiv 360000 \,\text{\textdegree q/} \not\text{\textquotesingle} \text{L} \tag{12}$$

Where.

Pr: Average precipitation rate of sprinkler. mm/h 360000:a constant related sprinkler's angel. q: flow rate of sprinkler. m3/h ɸ: Working angel of sprinkler. 0

Irrigation 315

Two different head loss are occurred in duration of water`s reaching from resource to plant in delivery of water in an irrigation system. One of them is friction head loss. Friction head loss occurs due to friction within pipes and it is related to length, dimension and coefficient of roughness of pipes. Friction losses are calculated by means of formula of Darcy-Weisbach

hf=λ(L/D)(v2/2g) (17)

Second local head losses occurring in system is called as geodetic and changes depending on

Flow in pipes is defined as functions of dimension of pipes and velocity of flow. While determining dimension of pipe in irrigation system investment costs can be minimized through choosing the possible smallest dimension of pipe. However keep in mind that reducing dimension of pipe shall increase the velocity as seen in following formula. Increase

Q=A\*V (19)

hl: kf\*V2/2g (18)

type of equipment used. Local head losses are calculated by means of formula below.

Operation unit is considered a number between Nmin and Nmax in planning step.

Nmax: maximum number of station

Ta: irrigation duration, h SA: irrigation interval, day.

**5.6 Hydraulic calculation** 

hf:friction head loss m λ:friction coefficient L: length of line (m)

v: velocity of fluid (m/s)

hl: local head losses, m

V: velocity of fluid, m/s

g: acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

D:Inner diameter of pipe work (m)

g: acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

kf: friction coefficient of irrigation equipment

**5.7 Matching water flow and pressure with pipe size** 

of velocity means increase of loss of frictions occurring in pipes.

below.

Where.

Where.

Where.

Q:system flow (m3/h) A: line cross-section area: m2 V: velocity of flow. m/s

Tg: achievable irrigation duration per day, h/day

Precipitation rate requires considering soil infiltration rate in order to prevent runoff and deep seepage to be determined.

### **5.3 Irrigation duration**

Irrigation duration refers to required time for each irrigation. This duration is a function of net water application depth, precipitation rate of sprinkler and irrigation efficiency. Irrigation duration is calculated by the following formula

$$\text{Ta} \Leftarrow \text{dn} / (\text{Pr}^\text{\*} \text{Ea}) \tag{13}$$

Where.

Ta: Irrigation duration. h. dn: net water application depth. mm Pr: Precipitation rate. mm/h Ea: Application efficiency. % (80% can be taken for sprinkler)

### **5.4 Lateral flow**

Lateral flow changes according to the number of sprinkler which is planned to be placed on the lateral and their flow rate. Lateral flow which they need to carry increases similarly as number of heads and flow rate are increased. The lateral flow inlet is determined by equation 14.

$$\mathbb{Q}\models \mathsf{qs}^\*\mathsf{ns}\tag{14}$$

Where. Ql: lateral flow. l/s qs: sprinkler flow. l/s ns: the number of sprinkler on lateral

Sprinkler heads having wetting area in shape of circular, semi-circle and quarter circle on the same lateral are often used depending on geometrical shapes of irrigation area. In case of using heads having different flow rate on a lateral, heads which have the same flow rate are grouped and number of heads are multiplied and the total flow rate of lateral is defined.

#### **5.5 Operation unit**

Unit which is constituted from heads making irrigation in irrigation area is called as operating unit. Maximum operating unit is calculated by means of following formula.

$$\text{Nmax} = (\text{Tg/Ta})^{\text{a}} \text{SA} \tag{15}$$

Minimum operating unit is also calculated by means of following formula.

$$\text{Nmin} \equiv \text{Eq/Q} \tag{16}$$

Where. q:sprinkler flow m3/h Q:system flow m3/h

Precipitation rate requires considering soil infiltration rate in order to prevent runoff and

Irrigation duration refers to required time for each irrigation. This duration is a function of net water application depth, precipitation rate of sprinkler and irrigation efficiency.

Ta=dn/(Pr\*Ea) (13)

Lateral flow changes according to the number of sprinkler which is planned to be placed on the lateral and their flow rate. Lateral flow which they need to carry increases similarly as number of heads and flow rate are increased. The lateral flow inlet is determined by

Ql=qs\*ns (14)

Sprinkler heads having wetting area in shape of circular, semi-circle and quarter circle on the same lateral are often used depending on geometrical shapes of irrigation area. In case of using heads having different flow rate on a lateral, heads which have the same flow rate are grouped and number of heads are multiplied and the total flow rate of lateral is defined.

Unit which is constituted from heads making irrigation in irrigation area is called as operating unit. Maximum operating unit is calculated by means of following formula.

Nmax=(Tg/Ta)\*SA (15)

Nmin=Σq/Q (16)

Minimum operating unit is also calculated by means of following formula.

deep seepage to be determined.

Irrigation duration is calculated by the following formula

Ea: Application efficiency. % (80% can be taken for sprinkler)

**5.3 Irrigation duration** 

Ta: Irrigation duration. h.

**5.4 Lateral flow** 

equation 14.

Ql: lateral flow. l/s qs: sprinkler flow. l/s

**5.5 Operation unit** 

q:sprinkler flow m3/h Q:system flow m3/h

Where.

Where.

Pr: Precipitation rate. mm/h

dn: net water application depth. mm

ns: the number of sprinkler on lateral

Where.

Nmax: maximum number of station Tg: achievable irrigation duration per day, h/day Ta: irrigation duration, h SA: irrigation interval, day. Operation unit is considered a number between Nmin and Nmax in planning step.

#### **5.6 Hydraulic calculation**

Two different head loss are occurred in duration of water`s reaching from resource to plant in delivery of water in an irrigation system. One of them is friction head loss. Friction head loss occurs due to friction within pipes and it is related to length, dimension and coefficient of roughness of pipes. Friction losses are calculated by means of formula of Darcy-Weisbach below.

$$\text{hf} \! = \lambda (\text{L} / \text{D}) (\text{v} \text{2} / 2 \text{g}) \tag{17}$$

Where.

hf:friction head loss m λ:friction coefficient L: length of line (m) D:Inner diameter of pipe work (m) v: velocity of fluid (m/s) g: acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

Second local head losses occurring in system is called as geodetic and changes depending on type of equipment used. Local head losses are calculated by means of formula below.

$$\text{lh!: } \text{kf\*V2/2g} \tag{18}$$

Where. hl: local head losses, m kf: friction coefficient of irrigation equipment V: velocity of fluid, m/s g: acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

#### **5.7 Matching water flow and pressure with pipe size**

Flow in pipes is defined as functions of dimension of pipes and velocity of flow. While determining dimension of pipe in irrigation system investment costs can be minimized through choosing the possible smallest dimension of pipe. However keep in mind that reducing dimension of pipe shall increase the velocity as seen in following formula. Increase of velocity means increase of loss of frictions occurring in pipes.

$$\mathbf{Q} \triangleq \mathbf{A}^\* \mathbf{V} \tag{19}$$

Where. Q:system flow (m3/h) A: line cross-section area: m2 V: velocity of flow. m/s

Irrigation 317

system units completely according to requirements in project step provides system performance being in high level. Drip and micro sprinkler irrigation methods should be considered as an alternative method in where sprinkler irrigation system is inadequate or

Allen. R.G. Pareira. L.S. Raes. D. Smith.M. 1998. Crop Evapotranspiration. Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements. *FAO Irrigation and drainage paper 56*. Rome. Anonymous (2009). *Sprinkler Irrigation Systems*. Minister of Agriculture and Rural Areas

Anonymous. (2010). *Sprinkler Irrigation Systems and Design.* Arl Plastic Indistury. Istanbul.

ASCE. (1978). Describing irrigation efficiency and uniformity. *J. lrrig. and Drain. Engr*. 104(1).

Ayyildiz. M. (1990). *Irrigation Water Quality and Salinity Problems*. University of Ankara

Barrett. J. Vinchesi. B. Dobson. R. & Roche. P. (2003). *Golf Course Irrigation: Environmental* 

Cardenas-Lailhacar. B. Dukes. M. D. & Miller. G. D. (2008). Sensor Based automation of

Christiansen. J.E. 1941. The uniformity of application of water by sprinkler system. *Agric.* 

Cockerham. S. T. & Leinauer. B. (2011). *Turfgrass Water Conservation. (2nd Edition.).* University

Connellan. G. (2002). *Efficient Irrigation: A Reference Manual for Turf and Landscape.* Irrigation

Dines. N. & Brown. K. (2001). *Landscape Architect's Portable Handbook. McGraw-Hill.* New

Doorenboos J. & Pruit. W. O. (1977). Crop Water Requirements. *FAO Irrigation and Drainage* 

Gungor. Y. Erozel. A. Z. & Yildirim. O. (2010). *Irrigation (4th Edition.).* University of Ankara

Harmancioglu N. Alparslan N. & Boeele E. (2001). *Irrigation. Health and the Environment: A* 

Ingels. J. E. (2003). *Landscaping Principles and Practices(6th Edition.).* Thomson Delmar

Irrigation Association.( 2003.) *Certified golf irrigation auditor*. Falls Church. VA: Irrigation

Melby. P. (1995). *Simplified Irrigation Design: Professional Designer and Installer Version. (2nd*

Novotny. V. Ahern. J. & Brown. P. (2010). *Water Centric Sustainable Communities Planning. Retrofitting and Building The Next Environment*. John Wiley & Sons. USA

*Review of Literature from Turkey (Working paper)*. International Water Management

irrigation on bermudagrass. during wet weather conditions. *J. Irrig. and Drain.* 

*Design and Management Practices*. John Wiley & Sons. NY. USA.

of California Agriculture & Natural Resource. CA.USA.

Best Management Training Program. Melbourne. Australia.

Agricultural Production Directorate of Operation of Adana and Education Center.

ineffective.

**7. References** 

Adana. Turkey.

*Eng.* 22: 89-92.

York. NY. USA.

*Paper No 24*. Rome.

Learning. NY.USA.

Association.

Agriculture Faculty. Ankara. Turkey.

Agriculture Faculty. Ankara. Turkey.

*Edition.).* John Wiley & Sons. NY.USA.

Institute. Colombo Sri Lanka

*Engr.* 134 (2008). pp 120- 138.

Turkey.

35-41.

Possible minimum dimension of head should be chosen according to limitations of friction loss which are allowed. While choosing dimension of main pipe it is required not to exceed 15% of pressure of pumper. Pressure difference between starting and ending point in lateral shouldn`t be over 20%. Also total head losses in system shouldn`t exceed half of orifice pressure.

#### **5.8 Total dynamic head of the system and power requirement**

Pressure which is necessary for irrigation system is generally carried out through a pump installed at the beginning of system excluding the situations in which adequate elevation is not available between resource and irrigation area. Pump should be chosen at power which provides optimum pressure in the last head in the line which is called as critical line and has head losses at excessive rate in this system. Total dynamic height of pump in a system is calculated by means of following formula;

$$\mathbf{H}\mathbf{t} \mathbf{\overline{r}} \mathbf{s} \mathbf{s} + \mathbf{h}\mathbf{h} + \mathbf{h}\mathbf{e} + \mathbf{h}\mathbf{s}\mathbf{s}\mathbf{c}\tag{20}$$

Where.

Ht: total dynamic head of pump, m

hs: sprinkler operation pressure, m.

hh: total head losses, m.

he: elevation difference between highest point in irrigated area and pump, m

hsuc: suction line height if there is elevation difference between pump and water supply suction line height should be considered.

Also engine power of pump is required to be determined. Pumping Energy which is appropriate for system is determined by means of following formula.

$$\text{Np} = \text{Ht}^\* \text{Q} / 75^\* \,\mu 1 \mu 2 \tag{21}$$

Where. Np:Pump power, HP Ht: Total head loss, m. Q:system capacity, l/s µ1: pump efficieny, %

µ2: driver efficieny, %

Pumps which provide necessary pumping power are included in system by help of catalogues of relevant firms.

#### **6. Conclusion**

Irrigation is one of the main factors on plant growth and quality. Irrigation is applied in areas where evapotranspiration is not met by rain especially in semi-arid or arid climate. Pressurized irrigation methods are used generally in landscape irrigation.

The most common method between pressured irrigation methods is sprinkler irrigation method. Sprinkler irrigation method is preferred by reasons such as providing high corresponding water distribution, its use easily in any kind of soil and area where plants are grown, its low labor costs and fertilization proceeding`s being easily applied . Determining

Possible minimum dimension of head should be chosen according to limitations of friction loss which are allowed. While choosing dimension of main pipe it is required not to exceed 15% of pressure of pumper. Pressure difference between starting and ending point in lateral shouldn`t be over 20%. Also total head losses in system shouldn`t exceed half of orifice

Pressure which is necessary for irrigation system is generally carried out through a pump installed at the beginning of system excluding the situations in which adequate elevation is not available between resource and irrigation area. Pump should be chosen at power which provides optimum pressure in the last head in the line which is called as critical line and has head losses at excessive rate in this system. Total dynamic height of pump in a system is

Ht=hs+hh+he+hsuc (20)

hsuc: suction line height if there is elevation difference between pump and water supply

Also engine power of pump is required to be determined. Pumping Energy which is

Pumps which provide necessary pumping power are included in system by help of

Irrigation is one of the main factors on plant growth and quality. Irrigation is applied in areas where evapotranspiration is not met by rain especially in semi-arid or arid climate.

The most common method between pressured irrigation methods is sprinkler irrigation method. Sprinkler irrigation method is preferred by reasons such as providing high corresponding water distribution, its use easily in any kind of soil and area where plants are grown, its low labor costs and fertilization proceeding`s being easily applied . Determining

Pressurized irrigation methods are used generally in landscape irrigation.

Np=Ht\*Q/75\* µ1µ2 (21)

he: elevation difference between highest point in irrigated area and pump, m

appropriate for system is determined by means of following formula.

**5.8 Total dynamic head of the system and power requirement** 

calculated by means of following formula;

Ht: total dynamic head of pump, m hs: sprinkler operation pressure, m.

suction line height should be considered.

hh: total head losses, m.

Np:Pump power, HP Ht: Total head loss, m. Q:system capacity, l/s µ1: pump efficieny, % µ2: driver efficieny, %

catalogues of relevant firms.

**6. Conclusion** 

pressure.

Where.

Where.

system units completely according to requirements in project step provides system performance being in high level. Drip and micro sprinkler irrigation methods should be considered as an alternative method in where sprinkler irrigation system is inadequate or ineffective.

#### **7. References**


**1. Introduction** 

works have been started.

demands of modern life.

**15** 

*Turkey* 

**Private Plantation Techniques** 

The visual value of a town increases directly proportional to the density of her open and green spaces. Vertically and horizontally formed greenery is an indispensable part of urban design. However, with the advanced technology during the 20 th century, wide construction areas, highways, agricultural and industrial zones have developed in an unplanned manner, and natural resources were abused in an unsystematic way. Unfortunately, the number of natural elements in towns has decreased rapidly in recent years, and with the help of uncoordinated urbanization, the situation has turned for the worse for green areas. If we were to analyze this fact with figures, the example of Ankara, Turkey would prove to be more than enough. In physiological terms, according to oxygen exchange and leaf surface calculation, there is a theoretical need of 25–40 m² green area per person in an urban area. But in Ankara, this figure was 5.1 m² in 1950, 2.8 m² in 1965, and 1.8 m² in 1979. However, the urgency of the matter has been realized during recent years, and inner urban greenery

Improving the environmental conditions of the indoor and outdoor places where humans live, and also to arrange them to become suitable for living, has become a foremost priority. Today, extreme urbanization has become ever fast growing, and inner urban tree planting techniques are changing and improving accordingly too. Nowadays, it is necessary to make use of all new developments in technology and find ways to meet the ever increasing

The first time when large plants were uprooted and transferred to somewhere else was during the Munich Olympic games in Germany. Back then, a whole new Olympic village was created with immense greenery. At that time, this transplantation process was realized with much more labour force and time, also simpler techniques were used. However, the same could be done today with much time effort and time spent, through the use of modern techniques. A very important aspect of landscaping works is the time needed until it reaches an effective power, or in other words, the dimension of time. Trees and landscaping elements need on average 30–40 years to reach an effective power in terms of physics, visual, climactic etc. aspects. Therefore, it is very important to foresee the needs of the future, and do the landscaping planning accordingly. This is a difficult and compulsory responsibility to do. However when a planning is done, people of today believe that reaching a necessary green area needs to be done as rapidly as other advancements.

Ömer Lütfü Çorbac1 and Murat Ertekin2 *1Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture 2Bartn University, Faculty of Forestry* 

