**2. Visual landscape perception**

In landscape planning and environmental impact assessment studies, evaluation of visual landscape character is often based on assessment of physical characteristics of landscapes (such as topography, land cover etc.) and is done by experts. On the other hand public or user preferences are generally neglected. This section aims to present and provide understanding of psychophysical and cognitive dimensions of visual landscape perception for landscape designers and planners.

Although we receive spatial information through many of our senses (seeing, hearing, smelling and feeling) sight is assumed to be the most valued sense. More than 80% of our sensory input is through sight (Porteous, 1996). Hence, most of the environmental perception, and likewise landscape assessment studies, focus on visual dimension of the perception process. Assessment of landscape character is fundamental to decision making process in landscape planning. Landscape assessment is a tool for determination of landscape quality and provides a systematic analysis and classification for sustainable management of landscapes. Within this context, the criteria for landscape perception studies are mostly scenic beauty or preference (Palmer, 2003).

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beauty as a "*social quality*" and linked beauty with the feeling of affection, particularly toward the other sex. According to him, the feeling of the beautiful is grounded in our social nature (Vandenabeele, 2012). On the contrary, German philosopher Immanuel Kant's (1724- 2804) approach to aesthetic judgment was based on logic and deduction (Lothian, 1999). He believed aesthetic judgments were based on the feeling of pleasure and they were disinterested. Daniels (2008) explains disinterestedness as *"... a genuine aesthetic judgment does not include any extrinsic considerations toward the object of judgment itself, such as political or utilitarian concerns*". Therefore, Kant claimed that aesthetic judgments were both subjective and universal. However, German philosophers Friedrich Schiller and Wilhelm Hegel rejected Kant's subjective approach on aesthetics (Lothian, 1999). Schiller (1759- 1805) claimed that beauty was the property of the object, thus aesthetic experience was rather objective. On the other hand, Hegel (1770-1831) believed that aesthetics was concerned with the beauty of art and beauty of art is higher than the beauty of nature. Like Schiller, for Hegel beauty was the property of the object. According to Baumgarten (1714-1762), who coined the term aesthetics, beauty is not connected to the feeling of pleasure or delight, indeed beauty is an intellectual category and perfection of sensitive cognition is a precondition for beauty (Gross, 2002). In 19th century, romanticism focused on nature as an aesthetic resource. In this period, landscape was viewed in objectivist terms and considered as having intrinsic qualities (Lothian, 1999). However, nature lost its importance as an aesthetic object by the end of 19th century and during the 20th century art has become the

George Santayana, Benedetto Croce, John Dewey and Susanne Langer are amongst the modern era philosophers on aesthetics. Spanish-American philosopher George Santayana (1863-1952) believed that beauty was a subjective concept, rather than objective. He defined beauty as the pleasure derived from perception of an object (Lothian, 1999). Croce (1866- 1952) interprets aesthetics as an experience. For Croce, intuition is basis for the sense of beauty. Dewey's (1859-1952) aesthetics is based on experience as well. In contrast to Kant's disinterestedness principle, Dewey's aesthetics require involvement and engagement (Lothian, 1999). While Dewey suggested that aesthetic experience was a biological response, Langer (1895-1985) strongly rejected this idea (Bourassa, 1988). Langer's aesthetics is based on the concept of semblance. According to Langer, semblance of a thing is an aesthetic

Although philosophical theories of aesthetics may seem relatively relevant to landscape assessment, landscape planners and designers need to understand the fundamentals of aesthetic theories of art and nature in order to develop valid and efficient approaches towards evaluation of landscape aesthetics in context of landscape planning and design. According to Berleant (1992), the idea of environment possesses deep philosophical assumptions about our world and ourselves, thus the study of aesthetics and environment

The biophilia hypothesis was developed by Edward O. Wilson, biologist in Harvard University, in 1984. The biophilia hypothesis proclaims that human beings have an inherent

symbolic form which constitutes its direct aesthetic quality (Kruse, 2007).

can provide mutual benefit in this changing world.

**2.2 Theories on perception and preferences** 

**2.2.1 The biophilia hypothesis** 

main concern for aesthetic debates.

Landscapes are aesthetic objects. There isn't a universally accepted theory for landscape aesthetics. According to Maulan *et al*. (2006) neglect of scenic or preferred landscapes during development stage is one of the problems. Bourassa (1990) argues that landscape aesthetics is beyond the traditional theories of aesthetics. Based on Scruton's approach, he states that people experience and respond to the whole scene, therefore "*it is not relevant to speak of the aesthetics of individual objects in the landscape (e.g. buildings) without asking how those objects contribute to the wholes (landscapes) of which they are only parts*". For Bourassa (1988) there are two principles for landscape aesthetics, namely biological and cultural. The biological principle states that "*aesthetic pleasure in landscape derives from the dialectic of refuge and prospect*". On the other hand, "*aesthetic pleasure derives from a landscape that contributes to cultural identity and stability*". As a product of either natural processes or human intervention, natural and cultural landscapes involve intrinsic (objective) and artistic (subjective) aesthetic values. Thus, theories of aesthetics may provide a basis for landscape scenic beauty assessments. Brief history of aesthetics in philosophical context is given below.
