**2. Definition**

A lot of different terms are used in the context of spatial planning in the literature. Often spatial planning, physical planning, conservation planning, environmental planning, landscape planning, landscape design and a lot of other terms are used (Steinitz, 2010; Flaxman, 2010; Opdam et al., 2002; von Haaren, 2004; Jessel & Tobias, 2002; Kaule, 1991; Gontier, 2007; Weiers et al., 2004). But the common sense is the analyzing, evaluation, modeling, designing or the planning of measures (Opdam et al., 2002; Harms et al., 1993; Flaxman, 2010; Gontier et al., 2010) to achieve a more sustainable land management (McHarg, 1969; BfN, 2002). They deal with different scales (spatial, temporal) and pursue different goals (e.g. select conservation sites, design alternative futures, reduce environmental impact; improve urban development in a sustainable way). Therefore it's necessary to describe some of these terms that will be used in this article especially because some of them are specific German instruments. In all planning tasks you have to deal with spatial datasets (e.g. presence of species, habitats, soil types, land use, water bodies) and create in the planning process new datasets based on this information. Existing evaluation models will be used or new ones will be created using different scientific methods. New visions or alternative futures will be designed and have to be discussed with the public and explained to decision-makers using appropriate media and techniques. And at the end the results must be implemented (e.g. urban development plans, conservation agencies). Planning is not science, which means there are often different ways for the same direction. Scientific models and methods (e.g. landscape ecology) must be used to get the best results but in the end the decision is made by politicians in discussion with the public. Therefore it's necessary to work with as much as possible transparency (Steinitz, 2010; von Haaren, 2004) to produce convincing results with great acceptance (von Haaren, 2004). GIS tools and methods offer capabilities that are helpful in the whole planning process (Blaschke, 1997; Pietsch & Buhmann, 1999; Lang & Blaschke, 2007; a.o.).

#### **2.1 Landscape design**

Landscapes have been designed for thousands of years by human beings with impact from local to global scale (e.g. climate change, degradation). On the one hand intensive land use had and has a great environmental impact (e.g. fragmentation, biodiversity loss, soil erosion, water contamination) on the other hand specific land use types occurred that are now representative for specific regions (e.g. farmland in the Alps) and that are habitats for endangered species (plants and animals).

While societal and environmental issues are changing six basic questions must be asked in any situation of design (Steinitz, 1990, 2010) (see Fig. 1). Taking this framework into account the technology we are using might help to develop the necessary models and methodologies to manage landscapes in the complex world and to help the decision-makers in a confident way to design sustainable landscapes (Steinitz, 2010).

working steps will be described and useful methods (e.g. habitat suitability analysis) will be explained. The needs for standardization and existing information management will be discussed and future improvements realizing the GeoDesign framework will be shown.

A lot of different terms are used in the context of spatial planning in the literature. Often spatial planning, physical planning, conservation planning, environmental planning, landscape planning, landscape design and a lot of other terms are used (Steinitz, 2010; Flaxman, 2010; Opdam et al., 2002; von Haaren, 2004; Jessel & Tobias, 2002; Kaule, 1991; Gontier, 2007; Weiers et al., 2004). But the common sense is the analyzing, evaluation, modeling, designing or the planning of measures (Opdam et al., 2002; Harms et al., 1993; Flaxman, 2010; Gontier et al., 2010) to achieve a more sustainable land management (McHarg, 1969; BfN, 2002). They deal with different scales (spatial, temporal) and pursue different goals (e.g. select conservation sites, design alternative futures, reduce environmental impact; improve urban development in a sustainable way). Therefore it's necessary to describe some of these terms that will be used in this article especially because some of them are specific German instruments. In all planning tasks you have to deal with spatial datasets (e.g. presence of species, habitats, soil types, land use, water bodies) and create in the planning process new datasets based on this information. Existing evaluation models will be used or new ones will be created using different scientific methods. New visions or alternative futures will be designed and have to be discussed with the public and explained to decision-makers using appropriate media and techniques. And at the end the results must be implemented (e.g. urban development plans, conservation agencies). Planning is not science, which means there are often different ways for the same direction. Scientific models and methods (e.g. landscape ecology) must be used to get the best results but in the end the decision is made by politicians in discussion with the public. Therefore it's necessary to work with as much as possible transparency (Steinitz, 2010; von Haaren, 2004) to produce convincing results with great acceptance (von Haaren, 2004). GIS tools and methods offer capabilities that are helpful in the whole planning process (Blaschke, 1997; Pietsch & Buhmann, 1999; Lang

Landscapes have been designed for thousands of years by human beings with impact from local to global scale (e.g. climate change, degradation). On the one hand intensive land use had and has a great environmental impact (e.g. fragmentation, biodiversity loss, soil erosion, water contamination) on the other hand specific land use types occurred that are now representative for specific regions (e.g. farmland in the Alps) and that are habitats for

While societal and environmental issues are changing six basic questions must be asked in any situation of design (Steinitz, 1990, 2010) (see Fig. 1). Taking this framework into account the technology we are using might help to develop the necessary models and methodologies to manage landscapes in the complex world and to help the decision-makers in a confident

**2. Definition** 

& Blaschke, 2007; a.o.).

**2.1 Landscape design** 

endangered species (plants and animals).

way to design sustainable landscapes (Steinitz, 2010).

Fig. 1. "Steinitz Framework" (Steinitz, 1990, 2010)

It is mentioned that there is not one answer which are the best models and what are the spatial-analytic needs for designers or planners (Ervin, 2011). It depends on scale and complexity. The more detailed the planning task is the simpler the models may be and the experience of the planner or designer may be sufficient. For a large scale, the complexity is increasing and appropriate methods must be decided. Two basic strategies exist. The first one is to design the future state and then ask: "By what scenario might it be achieved" (Steinitz, 2010). The second one is to design a scenario and then ask: "In what future might it result?" (Steinitz, 2010).

Steinitz (2010) defined seven basic ways of designing that can be adapted using GIS technologies (at least in part) but that are not dependent upon them. They are accepted and often used in a specific way or in various combinations. They are:


GIS in Landscape Planning 59

cultural heritage (Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety 1998; Riedel & Lange, 2001; Busse et al., 2005; Köppel et al., 2004; Georgi & Peters, 2003; Georgi, 2003; Umweltbundesamt, 2008; Höhn, 2008; Jessel et al., 2009; Hendler, 2009; Wiegleb, 2009). Therefore the fundamental components of an EIA and SEA although there


Fig. 2. Combinations of SEA and planning process (Commission for Environmental

In Germany mitigation and landscape envelope planning have a special role in the whole spectrum of environmental planning and nature conservancy. It is an instrument that is always tied in with the formal legal planning process such as e.g. road planning, zoning of areas for wind energy or solar panels (Riedel & Lange, 2001; Schultze & Buhmann, 2008; Köppel et al. 2004). Landscape envelope and mitigation planning is that instrument that optimizes the ecological balance of the overall project and to describe the compensation measures (BMV 1998). In the logical sequence of work steps Landscape envelope and mitigation planning uses the results of an EIA and is the legally binding part of the planning

Based on the Habitats Directive and the Birds Directive sites had been selected according to EU standards to create the NATURA 2000 network. If any plan or project either itself or in combination with other plans or projects might have significance impact on a given site an impact assessment is required (Köppel et al., 2004; European Commission Environment DG,


are variations around the world are:




al., 2004).

assessment, 2006)

2002).

(Köppel et al., 2004; Schultze & Buhmann, 2008).

But there is a great relationship between the factors scale, decision models, process models and the way of designing (Flaxman, 2010, Steinitz, 2010). It is a difference between doing a design at small scale or even larger and larger. Therefore increasingly research is needed focused around the following six themes:


#### **2.2 T**h**e "German" situation**

In Germany environmental planning and landscape planning can be distinguished (von Haaren, 2004; Klöppel et al., 2004; Jessel & Tobias, 2002; Riedel & Lange, 2001). They are the fundamentals for sustainable planning and the basics for decision-makers to take landscape functions into consideration (BfN, 2002).

#### **2.2.1 Environmental planning**

There are a lot of policies influencing the landscape. These are e.g. the European Landscape Convention, the Environmental Impact Assessment Act, the Strategic Environmental Impact Assessment Act or the Habitat Directive (Köppel et al., 2004; Umweltbundesamt, 2008). This leads to the recognition of the value of landscapes in law and the requirement of public participation processes (Steinitz, 2010; von Haaren, 2004; a.o.).

In contrast to Environmental impact assessment (EIA) on the project level, Strategic Environmental Impact Assessment (SEA) covers a wider range of activities, a wider area or sometimes a longer time span and identifies and evaluates the environmental consequences of proposed policies, plans or programs to ensure that the consequences are addressed at the earliest possible stage of the decision-making process (European Commission Environment DG, 2001; Gontier, 2007; Köppel et. al., 2004; Gontier et al., 2010). For this reason the focus of implementing sustainability aspects into the decision-making process is more effective and more sustainable-driven than being reactive on the EIA-level.

There exist three combinations of SEA and planning process (see Fig. 2).

The objectives of the intervention and environmental impact assessment provisions are to ensure that individual projects, plans or programs are performed with as little impact on the environment and nature as possible. This does not entail a separate procedure in its own right but rather takes place as part of the regular planning, permit and approval procedures e.g. of a road planning project or the urban development planning process (Heins & Pietsch, 2010; Köppel et al., 2004). The intervention provisions require registration and assessment of the effects that the planned project or plan can be expected to have on the functional capacity of the ecosystem and appearance of landscapes. In addition, the EIA and SEA is also concerned with the effects that such measures can have on human health and on cultural heritage (Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety 1998; Riedel & Lange, 2001; Busse et al., 2005; Köppel et al., 2004; Georgi & Peters, 2003; Georgi, 2003; Umweltbundesamt, 2008; Höhn, 2008; Jessel et al., 2009; Hendler, 2009; Wiegleb, 2009). Therefore the fundamental components of an EIA and SEA although there are variations around the world are:


58 Landscape Planning

But there is a great relationship between the factors scale, decision models, process models and the way of designing (Flaxman, 2010, Steinitz, 2010). It is a difference between doing a design at small scale or even larger and larger. Therefore increasingly research is needed



In Germany environmental planning and landscape planning can be distinguished (von Haaren, 2004; Klöppel et al., 2004; Jessel & Tobias, 2002; Riedel & Lange, 2001). They are the fundamentals for sustainable planning and the basics for decision-makers to take landscape

There are a lot of policies influencing the landscape. These are e.g. the European Landscape Convention, the Environmental Impact Assessment Act, the Strategic Environmental Impact Assessment Act or the Habitat Directive (Köppel et al., 2004; Umweltbundesamt, 2008). This leads to the recognition of the value of landscapes in law and the requirement of public

In contrast to Environmental impact assessment (EIA) on the project level, Strategic Environmental Impact Assessment (SEA) covers a wider range of activities, a wider area or sometimes a longer time span and identifies and evaluates the environmental consequences of proposed policies, plans or programs to ensure that the consequences are addressed at the earliest possible stage of the decision-making process (European Commission Environment DG, 2001; Gontier, 2007; Köppel et. al., 2004; Gontier et al., 2010). For this reason the focus of implementing sustainability aspects into the decision-making process is

The objectives of the intervention and environmental impact assessment provisions are to ensure that individual projects, plans or programs are performed with as little impact on the environment and nature as possible. This does not entail a separate procedure in its own right but rather takes place as part of the regular planning, permit and approval procedures e.g. of a road planning project or the urban development planning process (Heins & Pietsch, 2010; Köppel et al., 2004). The intervention provisions require registration and assessment of the effects that the planned project or plan can be expected to have on the functional capacity of the ecosystem and appearance of landscapes. In addition, the EIA and SEA is also concerned with the effects that such measures can have on human health and on

more effective and more sustainable-driven than being reactive on the EIA-level.

There exist three combinations of SEA and planning process (see Fig. 2).

focused around the following six themes:

demand, WebGIS) (Steinitz, 2010).

functions into consideration (BfN, 2002).

modeling)

**2.2 T**h**e "German" situation** 

**2.2.1 Environmental planning** 


participation processes (Steinitz, 2010; von Haaren, 2004; a.o.).



Fig. 2. Combinations of SEA and planning process (Commission for Environmental assessment, 2006)

In Germany mitigation and landscape envelope planning have a special role in the whole spectrum of environmental planning and nature conservancy. It is an instrument that is always tied in with the formal legal planning process such as e.g. road planning, zoning of areas for wind energy or solar panels (Riedel & Lange, 2001; Schultze & Buhmann, 2008; Köppel et al. 2004). Landscape envelope and mitigation planning is that instrument that optimizes the ecological balance of the overall project and to describe the compensation measures (BMV 1998). In the logical sequence of work steps Landscape envelope and mitigation planning uses the results of an EIA and is the legally binding part of the planning (Köppel et al., 2004; Schultze & Buhmann, 2008).

Based on the Habitats Directive and the Birds Directive sites had been selected according to EU standards to create the NATURA 2000 network. If any plan or project either itself or in combination with other plans or projects might have significance impact on a given site an impact assessment is required (Köppel et al., 2004; European Commission Environment DG, 2002).

GIS in Landscape Planning 61

In the different steps of the planning process a lot of information are needed to analyze and evaluate the current state of nature and the landscape, the functional capacity of the natural environment, the scenic qualities of the landscape, the development potential and the existing and foreseeable problems and conflicts with other uses (e.g. agriculture, traffic, housing) (Riedel & Lange, 2001; Jessel & Tobias, 2002; BfN, 2002; von Haaren, 2004;. a.o.). Based on that information a guiding vision and a set of objectives and measures have to be developed together with all stakeholders. Scenarios and visualizations are helpful to explain the details and the timescale for implementation (Lange, 1994; Ervin & Hasbrouck, 2001; Lange, 2002; Appleton & Lovett, 2003; Bishop & Lange, 2005; Paar, 2006; Warren-Kretzschmar & Tiedtke, 2005; Sheppard et al. 2008; Schroth, 2010; Schwarz-v. Raumer, 2011). At the end of the planning process the implementation and review (sometimes updates) are

Environmental and landscape planning in Germany differs in scope and aims. Landscape planning makes important contributions at all levels and full-coverage while environmental planning deals with specific scales (spatial and temporal) and territories (Köppel et al., 2004; Lambrecht et al., 2007; Riedel & Lange, 2001; von Haaren, 2004). The results of the landscape planning process can be used in the evaluation process of an EIA or SEA to analyze the negative effects caused by a project, plan or program. Otherwise the results of an SEA might be used in the following EIA or results of an EIA must be used in the following envelope and mitigation planning (Lambrecht et al., 2007; Schultze & Buhmann, 2008; Heins & Pietsch, 2010). That implies the necessity to realize an efficient information management and minimum standards to provide data and information in the right way at all work steps in the planning process (Pietsch & Heins, 2008; Heins & Pietsch, 2010; Schauerte-Lücke, 2008). Taking all frameworks in consideration information about the current state of nature and landscape, landscape functions, negative impacts or foreseeable conflicts must be evaluated and measures must be planned. Therefore different spatial information using scientific methods must be analyzed using e.g. GIS. Because the requirements are similar the following remarks will be limited to the landscape planning process while they may be

Information technologies especially GIS can help to improve the landscape planning process and to capture the results in existing information systems for future use or as part of environmental information or decision support systems (Arnold et al., 2005; Pietsch & Buhmann, 1999; Blaschke, 1997; Lang & Blaschke, 2007; Gontier et al., 2007) (see Fig. 4).

GIS can be used in the different working steps of the landscape planning process. At the beginning data capturing in all planning tasks is necessary. This can be done by fieldwork, using existing thematic datasets (e.g. via Web Services) or by converting from existing databases or other monitoring systems (e.g. remote sensing). Checking the data quality is one of the most important tasks in the first step, to appreciate the necessity of data conversion, field work or usability of the existing material. After analyzing the existing situation for the defined scope the evaluation of potential of development, environmental functions, ecosystem services, scenic qualities, conflicts, previous and future impacts must

the most important tasks (BfN 2002).

assigned to the other planning tasks.

**3. Capabilities of using GIS in landscape planning** 

**2.3 Conclusions** 

The key issue to identify the significance impact is an assessment that covers:


The impact assessment should lead to alternative solutions, compensatory measures and to preserve the overall coherence of the NATURA 2000 network (European Commission, 2007). For specific information about the procedure, the exceptional circumstances when a plan or project might still be allowed to go ahead in spite of a negative assessment see European Commission Environment DG (2002).

#### **2.2.2 Landscape planning**

In Germany, landscape planning, based on the Federal Nature Conservation Act, is the planning instrument for nature conservation and landscape management as opposed to other planning instruments and administrative procedures (The Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety 1998; Bfn 2002). It makes important contributions to the conservation of natural resources at all levels (local, district or entire regional state) and for full-coverage, sustainable conservation and long-term development of nature and landscapes in the built and non-built environment (see Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Tasks and contents of landscape planning in logical sequence of work steps (BfN 2002)



The impact assessment should lead to alternative solutions, compensatory measures and to preserve the overall coherence of the NATURA 2000 network (European Commission, 2007). For specific information about the procedure, the exceptional circumstances when a plan or project might still be allowed to go ahead in spite of a negative assessment see European

In Germany, landscape planning, based on the Federal Nature Conservation Act, is the planning instrument for nature conservation and landscape management as opposed to other planning instruments and administrative procedures (The Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety 1998; Bfn 2002). It makes important contributions to the conservation of natural resources at all levels (local, district or entire regional state) and for full-coverage, sustainable conservation and long-term development

Fig. 3. Tasks and contents of landscape planning in logical sequence of work steps (BfN 2002)

of nature and landscapes in the built and non-built environment (see Fig. 3).

The key issue to identify the significance impact is an assessment that covers:

species (Bundesamt für Naturschutz, 2012).

Commission Environment DG (2002).

**2.2.2 Landscape planning** 

Article 4 (2) of the Birds Directive, including their habitats and locations.

In the different steps of the planning process a lot of information are needed to analyze and evaluate the current state of nature and the landscape, the functional capacity of the natural environment, the scenic qualities of the landscape, the development potential and the existing and foreseeable problems and conflicts with other uses (e.g. agriculture, traffic, housing) (Riedel & Lange, 2001; Jessel & Tobias, 2002; BfN, 2002; von Haaren, 2004;. a.o.). Based on that information a guiding vision and a set of objectives and measures have to be developed together with all stakeholders. Scenarios and visualizations are helpful to explain the details and the timescale for implementation (Lange, 1994; Ervin & Hasbrouck, 2001; Lange, 2002; Appleton & Lovett, 2003; Bishop & Lange, 2005; Paar, 2006; Warren-Kretzschmar & Tiedtke, 2005; Sheppard et al. 2008; Schroth, 2010; Schwarz-v. Raumer, 2011). At the end of the planning process the implementation and review (sometimes updates) are the most important tasks (BfN 2002).
