**3. The Mediterranean monk seals in the Atlantic**

The Mediterranean monk seal (*Monachus monachus*) is distributed across different countries but is also currently the most endangered pinniped, largely due to its small and isolated populations. The monk seal current distribution is severely contracted and fragmented due to Human pressures, however historic records indicate that it inhabited the entire Mediterranean Basin and the south-eastern North Atlantic, from the Azores islands to near the equator. In Portuguese territory, the Mediterranean monk seal persists to present days and was historically present both in the Azores and Madeira archipelagos, which was only very recently recognized [19]. The seal species displays a high site-fidelity, tends to occupy only a restricted part of the suitable habitat and, presently in the Atlantic, it can only be found in colonial aggregations [20, 21]. Similarly to the other two monk seal species, the living Hawaiian monk seal, *M. schauinslandi* and the extinct Caribbean monk seal *M. tropicalis*, the Mediterranean monk seal has been greatly impacted by human activities and has been exploited since ancient times. These seals have been hunted in the Mediterranean Sea for their oil and furs as early as since the classical Greek period [22, 23].

In the Atlantic, early captures began as soon as they were discovered by the Portuguese in the newly found Atlantic islands and in the then recently explored West African coast. Around 1420, new fauna and flora found during the maritime journeys were typically seen with scepticism and surprise, even though occasionally some animals appeared familiar to what was known in Europe [24] and their presence was normally recorded in explorer diaries.

The first new marine animal the Portuguese came across with was the Mediterranean monk seal, called sea wolf ('*lobo marinho*'), which was present in Madeira and in the West coast of Africa [26]. Early reports of monk seals show that, as for other sea animals, seals were interpreted as strange, monstrous and frightening beings [24]. In the case of sea wolves, however, shortly after acknowledging their docile characteristics, they started to be considered as an alternative and wealthy food source and resources. They were indeed the first product to be obtained and traded from the new Atlantic space to Europe [25].

When the first seals were recognized in Madeira in 1420, these animals were found in the form of a group of strange and calm animals with vocalizations very similar to those of wolves. Considering the medieval spirit, it is likely that men believed that all terrestrial animals had their equivalent on the ocean, and as such they named the seals sea wolves. Despite the initial surprise of finding such sea creatures, the subsequent encounters triggered a continuous period of intense captures [26]. Despite more than a century of continuous exploitation since the first capture, these animals are still present in the Madeira island by 1580 to 1590 [25]. Even though the number of sea wolves in the Azores was smaller than in Madeira in 1420, there are several reports and descriptions also testifying their historical presence in that archipelago during the 15th century [26, 27]. For example in the São Miguel (Azores) island: *'While fishing here with some fishermen from Ponta Delgada city, who ate every night at shore or better on the stone or over the sandbank, a big sea wolf appeared which looked like a calf. He leaned against the rocks and they gave him lots of fish bones of what the fishermen were eating. … and sometimes the fishermen, who have seen this sea wolf, also known as white mesh because he brought a piece of mesh behind his ear'* [27].

210 New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals

diaries.

Portuguese sources for the 16th and 17th centuries Atlantic in the form of letters, chronicles, and scientific treaties, as well as illustrated broadsheets, leaflets, maps, images, paintings, objects and products were compiled and reviewed here (see Figure 1). The present research includes historical sources and accounts from the period between late 15th century and early 19th century, and will present two distinct case-studies for the Atlantic Ocean: (1) first encounter and posterior hunting of monk seals in the Atlantic; and (2) medieval and early

The Mediterranean monk seal (*Monachus monachus*) is distributed across different countries but is also currently the most endangered pinniped, largely due to its small and isolated populations. The monk seal current distribution is severely contracted and fragmented due to Human pressures, however historic records indicate that it inhabited the entire Mediterranean Basin and the south-eastern North Atlantic, from the Azores islands to near the equator. In Portuguese territory, the Mediterranean monk seal persists to present days and was historically present both in the Azores and Madeira archipelagos, which was only very recently recognized [19]. The seal species displays a high site-fidelity, tends to occupy only a restricted part of the suitable habitat and, presently in the Atlantic, it can only be found in colonial aggregations [20, 21]. Similarly to the other two monk seal species, the living Hawaiian monk seal, *M. schauinslandi* and the extinct Caribbean monk seal *M. tropicalis*, the Mediterranean monk seal has been greatly impacted by human activities and has been exploited since ancient times. These seals have been hunted in the Mediterranean

In the Atlantic, early captures began as soon as they were discovered by the Portuguese in the newly found Atlantic islands and in the then recently explored West African coast. Around 1420, new fauna and flora found during the maritime journeys were typically seen with scepticism and surprise, even though occasionally some animals appeared familiar to what was known in Europe [24] and their presence was normally recorded in explorer

The first new marine animal the Portuguese came across with was the Mediterranean monk seal, called sea wolf ('*lobo marinho*'), which was present in Madeira and in the West coast of Africa [26]. Early reports of monk seals show that, as for other sea animals, seals were interpreted as strange, monstrous and frightening beings [24]. In the case of sea wolves, however, shortly after acknowledging their docile characteristics, they started to be considered as an alternative and wealthy food source and resources. They were indeed the

When the first seals were recognized in Madeira in 1420, these animals were found in the form of a group of strange and calm animals with vocalizations very similar to those of wolves. Considering the medieval spirit, it is likely that men believed that all terrestrial animals had their equivalent on the ocean, and as such they named the seals sea wolves. Despite the initial surprise of finding such sea creatures, the subsequent encounters

first product to be obtained and traded from the new Atlantic space to Europe [25].

modern whaling in the Iberian Peninsula and shifting of this activity to the Atlantic.

Sea for their oil and furs as early as since the classical Greek period [22, 23].

**3. The Mediterranean monk seals in the Atlantic** 

Portuguese navigators found once again sea wolves on the West African coast, in the 15th century, where they were also very easily captured [25, 28]. These quiet animals were encountered in large groups and the following account from 1436 is most probably the first description for this species on the Atlantic coasts: *'… he saw at the brook entrance a big crowd of sea wolves (according to some they were up to five thousand), he killed as many as he could and took their entire hide to the ship. It was a great slaughter … and this happened in the year of 1436*'. The abundance and economic value of sea wolves justified the risks and the delays in exploiting these animals in the *Rio do Ouro*'s coast [28].

The discovery of the multiple usages of their oil, fur and meat made the sea wolves very economically important. Their hides, after tanning, were used to manufacture clothes and shoes, and their fat was mostly used to manufacture soaps. In many soap-works, the quantities of fat were so high that it surpassed the quantity of olive oil used in this kind of product, being their oil frequently used [25, 28]. Machado [25] refers in his work that according to a list of imported products, sea wolves' hides were also quite solicited in European markets. The commercial value of sea wolves' products was extremely high [27]: '*As before, in Rio do Ouro, the Moors gave sea wolves' hides to Gomes Pires and promised him that they were going to search for gold and slaves if he came back there*'. Sea wolves were in fact a target of commercial marine exploiters, looking to obtain and trade their hides and oil.

To understand historical trends of presence and abundance, as well as the chronology of decline of sea wolves, we can estimate numbers for Madeira's population prior to the Portuguese exploitation of these resources judging by the capture levels and declining reports. This was achieved considering from published bibliography the historical known size of Africa's West coast population (population in *Rio do Ouro* was of five thousand individuals, according to the historical description by Zurara). In the present work, it was calculated that for Madeira in the early 15th century, i.e., prior to human arrival and exploitation, there was an estimated population size of almost 2000 monk seals. Sources and estimates show a historic baseline for the number of seals in both populations, prior to its exploitation, which allowed obtaining historical trends in a 580 years' time span (Figure 2 and 3). A chronology of decline was obtained reporting since the 15th century, and the trend of decline shows a reduction to half of its population during the first one hundred years and a smoother reduction over the last four centuries, until near extinction in present days. These events reflect heavy and intense exploitation of a marine resource preventing the natural recovery of the populations.

After the first encounter with sea wolves in *Rio do Ouro* in 1436, at least six trips were made to the African coast until 1447, with the exclusive purpose of capturing sea wolves. According to the chronicles, only one ship returned to the kingdom with no cargo [28]. The commercial value of sea wolves' products was extremely high and, at least in the Azores and Madeira, these resulted in a severe reduction in the population size. In the Azores, where probably only a small population lived, sea wolves were rapidly exterminated. In Madeira and for *Rio do Ouro* early takes resulted in a severe depletion during the subsequent couple of decades after the first encounter, which continued declining over the centuries, even though more smoothly [25,26, 28].

Portuguese Sealing and Whaling Activities as Contributions

to Understand Early Northeast Atlantic Environmental History of Marine Mammals 213

**Figure 2.** Map indicating the Mediterranean monk seal presence in some Atlantic locations in the 15th century and number of possibly pristine populations (known for the West African coast and the Azores,

from historical sources, and estimated for Madeira).

 In certain cases, comparing abundance of animals from historical reports with present day animals could be considered by some as conjectural. For instance, historical descriptions of Madeira are very clear and are supported by their presence nowadays. However, for the Azores, there was no proof of sea wolves presence in the islands for a very long time. However, Azorean historical descriptions are quite similar to descriptions for Madeira, in terms of time and historical context, and there are clear resemblances in the morphological characteristics and behaviours described. We know very little about the sea wolves' life in the Azores in the past five hundred years and, as other authors have referred, this probably very small population (or vagrant individuals) did not survive due to the intense human exploitation in the 15th century [19, 29].

According to estimates for *Rio do Ouro* in 1550, the abundance of seals was likely to be considerable, allowing for a strong exploitation activity, however, there are no historical accounts reporting this activity. Although based on theoretical evidence, calculations of captures and boat capacity suggest that the reported abrupt decline in seals population between 1420 and 1450 was due to intense hunting. Since then, numbers are likely to have oscillated relating to hunting peaks from foreign ships or even from local people. Natural growth cannot overcome intense and continuous capture events and natural populations decrease severely under an anthropogenic predatory pressure. Typically, a species or population that endures a drastic event of overexploitation follows a path to extinction if no conservative measures are taken. Historical sources show that, following the discovery and commercial exploitation of the large West African sea wolf herds in the 15th century, monk seal colonies remained relatively undisturbed until the twentieth century. At the end of the 20th century, the largest population of the species lived in West Africa. The mean numbers, in the period 1993–97, were estimated to be 317 individuals and the population was thought to be stationary or changing at a very slow rate [29, 30].

All the documental sources comprised in the present work, led to the conclusion that sea wolves were abundant in Portugal and in the West African coast, from *Rio do Ouro* to Cape Blanco, and that the African coast was visited by the Portuguese navigators with the intentional purpose of exploiting its natural resources. It's also clear that sea wolves had an enormous commercial importance, and because of that were repeatedly and intensively captured [25, 28].

At the end of the 20th century, two major events regarding Portuguese and African monk seal colonies occurred. In West Africa, in the spring of 1997, a severe mass mortality reduced

even though more smoothly [25,26, 28].

exploitation in the 15th century [19, 29].

to be stationary or changing at a very slow rate [29, 30].

captured [25, 28].

After the first encounter with sea wolves in *Rio do Ouro* in 1436, at least six trips were made to the African coast until 1447, with the exclusive purpose of capturing sea wolves. According to the chronicles, only one ship returned to the kingdom with no cargo [28]. The commercial value of sea wolves' products was extremely high and, at least in the Azores and Madeira, these resulted in a severe reduction in the population size. In the Azores, where probably only a small population lived, sea wolves were rapidly exterminated. In Madeira and for *Rio do Ouro* early takes resulted in a severe depletion during the subsequent couple of decades after the first encounter, which continued declining over the centuries,

 In certain cases, comparing abundance of animals from historical reports with present day animals could be considered by some as conjectural. For instance, historical descriptions of Madeira are very clear and are supported by their presence nowadays. However, for the Azores, there was no proof of sea wolves presence in the islands for a very long time. However, Azorean historical descriptions are quite similar to descriptions for Madeira, in terms of time and historical context, and there are clear resemblances in the morphological characteristics and behaviours described. We know very little about the sea wolves' life in the Azores in the past five hundred years and, as other authors have referred, this probably very small population (or vagrant individuals) did not survive due to the intense human

According to estimates for *Rio do Ouro* in 1550, the abundance of seals was likely to be considerable, allowing for a strong exploitation activity, however, there are no historical accounts reporting this activity. Although based on theoretical evidence, calculations of captures and boat capacity suggest that the reported abrupt decline in seals population between 1420 and 1450 was due to intense hunting. Since then, numbers are likely to have oscillated relating to hunting peaks from foreign ships or even from local people. Natural growth cannot overcome intense and continuous capture events and natural populations decrease severely under an anthropogenic predatory pressure. Typically, a species or population that endures a drastic event of overexploitation follows a path to extinction if no conservative measures are taken. Historical sources show that, following the discovery and commercial exploitation of the large West African sea wolf herds in the 15th century, monk seal colonies remained relatively undisturbed until the twentieth century. At the end of the 20th century, the largest population of the species lived in West Africa. The mean numbers, in the period 1993–97, were estimated to be 317 individuals and the population was thought

All the documental sources comprised in the present work, led to the conclusion that sea wolves were abundant in Portugal and in the West African coast, from *Rio do Ouro* to Cape Blanco, and that the African coast was visited by the Portuguese navigators with the intentional purpose of exploiting its natural resources. It's also clear that sea wolves had an enormous commercial importance, and because of that were repeatedly and intensively

At the end of the 20th century, two major events regarding Portuguese and African monk seal colonies occurred. In West Africa, in the spring of 1997, a severe mass mortality reduced **Figure 2.** Map indicating the Mediterranean monk seal presence in some Atlantic locations in the 15th century and number of possibly pristine populations (known for the West African coast and the Azores, from historical sources, and estimated for Madeira).

Portuguese Sealing and Whaling Activities as Contributions

to Understand Early Northeast Atlantic Environmental History of Marine Mammals 215

Scientifically, the interest in the ecology of whales and their preservation are in fact relatively very recent. It was not until the 18th century that the whale was designated as a mammal rather than a fish, while cetology, as a scientific discipline and a branch of zoology, dates back only to the 1960s [33]. Historically, studies about whaling can be found since the

Next is given an overview of two different perspectives for the starting of a similar maritime activity in two relative similar regions and by the same period. One based on transfer of technology from Europe to Portuguese South America, based on already known hunting techniques, and the other based mainly on local native knowledge in English North American colonies. It will be possible to understand that it was the implementation of the Basque whaling technique that allowed the early establishment of a continued and lucrative industrial activity in Brazil, since the beginning of the 17th century, in opposition to what

The Basques were the first western people to intentionally hunt large whales, establishing the characteristics of the industry for the following hundreds of years [36, 37]. The hunting procedure encompassed pursuits in small open boats and captures with hand harpoons and lances. This procedure began being used in 1050s and was used for many centuries [35, 38- 40]. In mainland Portugal, the first references to whales date back to the 12th century, in the form of local records related to stranding, scavenging of whale remains or whaling related activities [10, 41]. The Portuguese history of cetaceans and humans has been documented in

The Biscay right whale (*Eubalaena glacialis*) was the main targeted species in the Basque country [42], [37, 43]. Initially, The Basques expanded their whaling captures locally and regionally from the shores of the Bay of Biscay, to the south of France and north of Spain [36]. As shown by Aguilar [40], Basque historical sources indicate that whaling started in the Basque French country and continued south and west over the years, through a transfer process of information and technology. Basque navigators had shown the way on whaling enterprises and, for a long time, Basque whalers and pilots were employed on many ships, transmitting the experience gained during their activity [37]. Later, the Basques established permanent or semi-permanent shore stations for whale processing across the Atlantic Ocean, encompassing also the provinces of Santander, Asturias and Galicia [37, 40, 42, 44, 45]. For Basque whaling in European shores, many of the sources specify black whales as the target species. This is consistent with knowledge about the distribution and migration patterns of North Atlantic right whales, in medieval Basque times and early modern whaling. By the 16th century Basque whalers were regularly migrating and conducting expeditions to northern European seas and across the Atlantic to North America [46, 47]. They depleted right whale and bowhead populations in the Strait of Belle Isle, between Labrador and Newfoundland, by killing tens of thousands of whales from 1530 to 1620. And later, between 1660 and 1701, they were hunting whales in the western Arctic, reducing stocks considerably and affecting the whales' migratory patterns [3]. In later periods, especially after the 16th century, Dutch, British and other non-Basque entrepreneurs and

reports, descriptions, tales, legal documents, laws and regulations and tithes.

early 20th century [e.g. 34] to the present day [e.g. 35].

happened in North America.

**Figure 3.** Graphic representation of early modern populations, from the beginning of the 15th century, in the West coast of Africa, Madeira and Azores and their probable decline over the centuries. Image credits of Mediterranean monk seal illustration: authorship and © by Fernando Correia (www.efecorreia-artstudio.com).

their numbers by 70%, compromising the recovery of the species in the Atlantic. Scientists were unable to determine whether the deaths were due to a virus or toxic algae, however the mass mortality had a significant effect on total numbers for species' abundance. In Madeira, from a surviving population of just six to eight animals, at the end of the 20th century, monk seal numbers have increased to an estimated twenty-four individuals. This was due to a special conservation effort from the Portuguese government, beginning in May 1990, which established a marine reserve and severe legislation protecting monk seals [31].

Presently, only these two breeding populations are known in the Atlantic, the one in Cape Blanc peninsula, with approximately 120 seals in a colonial structure, [32] and a smaller group in the *Desertas* Islands at the Madeira archipelago, with approximately 25 seals. Sightings are now rare in other areas within the historical range considered here, and only an immediate and significant reduction in anthropogenic pressures and range-wide coordinated actions will allow their survival [30, 32].
