**5.4. Samuel Collins**

18 New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals

tadpoles turn into frogs (Booth 2005, p. 1).

**5.3. Edward Tyson** 

Charleton was a follower of epicurean atomism (materialism) (Kargon 1964) and an eclectic (Lewis 2001), whose interest in natural history was more or less theological because, as he said, men were obligated into "naming & looking into the nature of all Creatures" (Boot 2005, p. 119). In other words, just as Ray and Willoughby did later, natural science was the search a divine pattern in nature, part of the research agenda of the Royal Society – to which Charleton belonged (Rolleston 1940, Sharpe 1973). His publications showed him more as a compiler than as an innovator. His major contribution to science was the discovery that

He published two books dealing with animal classification: *Onomasticon zoicon* (1668) and *Exercitationes de Differentiis & Nominibus Animalium* (1677) works that listed the names of all known animals (including some fossils) in the western world in several languages with a somewhat taxonomy discussion, including remarks about these animals habits and habitats that contained anatomical descriptions of two animals that he had dissected. As Belon did over a century before, he divided "fishes" as either "with blood" (vertebrates) and "without blood" (invertebrates). He grouped under "Cetaceos" not only actual cetaceans but also the sawfish, seals, walruses, manatees, hippopotamus and the mythical "scolopendra cetacea." The actual cetaceans described were *Balaena vulgaris* (probably the right whale), *Physeter, & Physalus* (probably the fin whale but also other species), *Cetus dentatus* (the sperm whale), *Pustes* (indeterminate species, maybe the beluga), *Orca* (the killer whale), *Monoceros* (the narwhal), *Delphinus* (probably a composite of delphinidae), and *Phocaena* (the porpoise).

Tyson15 was born into an affluent merchant family. He performed numerous dissections as a college student, obtained his medical degree at Oxford University and was a lecturer of Anatomy at the Barber-Surgeons Hall in London. Tyson was the first of the comparative anatomists in the modern sense. He did extensive dissections and was the first to use a microscope as part of his anatomical studies. His description of the highly convoluted cetacean brain as well as his recognition of the many homologies with "viviparous quadrupeds", rather than the fishes that they externally resembled, constituted a major

In *Phocaena, or, The anatomy of a porpess dissected at Gresham Colledge, with a preliminary discourse concerning anatomy and natural history of animals* (1680), he noted that "What we have here is a signal Example of the same between Land-Quadrupeds and Fishes; for if we view a *Porpess* on the outside, there is nothing more than a fish; for if we view a *Porpess* on the inside, there is nothing less. (...) It is viviparous, does give suck, and hath all its Organs so contrieved according to the standard of them in Land-Quadrupeds; that one would almost think of it to be such, but it lives in the Sea, and hath but two fore-fins." Adding later "The structure of the viscera and inward parts have so great an Analogy [*sic*] and resemblance to those of Quadrupeds, that we find them here almost the same. The greatest

<sup>15</sup> *b*. 20 January 1651 Clevedon, near Bristol, Somerset, England; *d*. 1 August 1708, London, England.

landmark contribution to the history of biology (Kruger 2003).

A contemporary of Tyson was Samuel Collins16. The son of the rector of Rotherfield, Sussex, who got his education at Cambridge, Collins travelled to several universities in France, Italy and the Netherlands finally getting his medical degree at the University of Padua, later becoming physician of Charles II. He taught anatomy at the Royal College of Physicians17. Collins published *A Systeme of Anatomy* (London 1685), which was the earliest attempts to illustrate the brains of a broad variety of mammals, birds, teleosts, and elasmobranchs in a remarkable two-volume folio edition of 1,263 pages. It included 73 full-page illustrations of very high quality. There he described a female porpoise. However, it seems that he had used Tyson's previous descriptions and unfortunately says nothing about the brain of this cetacean. Had he had examined the brain of the porpoise he would have noted the great similarities of this organ with those among the "viviparous quadrupeds." Collins did not discuss the similarities between the other internal organs of the porpoise and those called mammals today either. He acknowledged Tyson' previous contributions in this matter.

<sup>16</sup> *b*. 1618, Rotherfield, Sussex, England; *d*. 11 April 1710, Westminster, Middlesex, England.

<sup>17</sup> Biographical information obtained from: http://munksroll.rcplondon.ac.uk/Biography/Details/950 and accessed on 2 April 2012.

In addition to Tyson, Collins's anatomy draws largely upon the works of Thomas Willis. In the opening Epistle-Dedicatory to James II he claimed that various chapters "are illustrated by the Dissection of other Animals (which I have performed with Care and Diligence, speaking the wonderous Works of the Glorious Maker) rendering the Parts of Man's Body more clear and more intelligible." In volume two of his huge work he described numerous folio copper plates containing the most extensive comparative anatomy of the brain then existing, an expansive account of the functional significance of his findings, as well as practical clinical commentary.

When Whales Became Mammals:

The Scientific Journey of Cetaceans From Fish to Mammals in the History of Science 21

century. His approach was based on direct observation, collaboration with other

*Historia Piscium* is divided into two parts that were printed separatedly: the first is the narrative and the second, titled *Ichthyographia*, were the illustrations. Many libraries today have both bound together. As sources Ray used authors mentioned earlier in this chapter: Rondelet, Salviani, Gessner, Aldrovandi and Belon, among others. Yet, far from merely compiling information from them, Ray insisted in very comprehensive descriptions of species and discarded all monsters and mythical creatures mentioned by his predecessors. Ray not only removed narratives of marine invertebrates but also other aquatic animals such as the crocodile and the hippopotamus. He divided his subject matter into three groups: cetaceans, cartilaginous fishes, and bony fishes. He recognized that when it comes to reproduction and internal anatomy cetaceans are identical to the "viviparous quadrupeds." Still, he kept cetaceans within the "piscium" despite the fact that he was well aware that

In his narrative of species Ray moved away from in the practical aspects related to these animals. Aspects such as usage for medical purposes were very common among previous authors because of their medical background. Yet, Ray was very keen at compiling names on the belief that a universal language could be construct based on the knowledge of nature. As Kusukawa (2000) has argued convincingly, Ray believed that there was a need for "a construction of a universal language based on a table that properly expressed the natural order and relations between things." Hence a precise description and classification was the route to achieve that goal. The final product counted not only on the intellectual support of the Royal Society's members who provided constructive criticism and moral support but also their financial support. The cost of publishing *Historia Piscium* was not only very high, mostly because of the expense of the illustrations (187 plates), but also the 500 copies printed

sold poorly. As a consequence the Society could not print Isaac Newton's *Principia*.

Ray's third publication related to marine mammals was *Synopsis Methodica Animalium Quadrupedum et Serpentini Generis* (1693). By then he was totally convinced that cetaceans were not fishes: "For except as to the place on which they live, the external form of the body, the hairless skin and progressive swimming motion, they have almost nothing in common with fishes, but remaining characters agree with the viviparous quadrupeds." He placed today's terrestrial mammals (including the manatee) among the 'hairy animals' very close to

In *Synopsis* Ray included a section called *Pisces Cetacei seu Belluae marinae* where he expressed that these animals breath and give birth like the "oviparous quadrupeds." He grouped them into two categories according to the presence of teeth much as we do today separating odontocetes from mysticetes. Ras was the first in doing so. The species he cited were *Balaena vulgaris* (Rondelet), *Balaena* (Fin-Fish), *Physeter* or *Balaena physeteris*, *Orca* (Rondelet & Belon), *Cete* (Sperm whale), Pot Walfish, *Albus piscis cetaceus* (white fish), *Monoceros cetaceo* (*Narhual islandis*), *Delphino antiquorum* (dolphin, from Rondelet), *Phocaeno*

(Rondelet & Belon), dissecting a specimen of the latter in 1669.

researchers, and critical reading of previous authors.

they were biologically distinct from fishes.

the *Cetaceum genus* (cetaceans).
