**1. Introduction**

The 16th century maritime Atlantic journeys were one of the most ground breaking and prolific sources of scientific knowledge in nautical cartography, geography and ethnography, and also in the natural sciences [1]. The European pioneering exploration of Africa and Brazil resulted in writer and naturalist records of the new, exotic and useful, originating natural history studies in Europe based on observations in zoology, botany and tropical medicine [2]. Since then, explorers, travellers and traders have brought animals and natural objects to Europe. Previously, however, coastal inhabitants all over the world used near shore habitats and resources, altering marine ecosystems and their dynamics [3].

The marine environmental history refers to the mutual interactions between humans and the marine natural world [4], ambitioning to understand how humans have integrated the sea into their living style through the changes brought by time [5]. The environmental historical approach offers a multidisciplinary and long term research approach to anthropogenic interactions with marine life, albeit being largely incomplete when compared to its terrestrial counterparts [3]. Most of the available literature pertains to the study of invertebrates [6] and fish [7, 8], while historical research on the presence of cetaceans over time remains largely incomplete, particularly for the Northeast Atlantic [9]. Marine mammals are very useful tools to evaluate marine environmental changes as they are easily identified in historiography (particularly in letters, journey diaries, natural history treaties), making it possible to relate their presence records with their environmental conditions [10]. Marine mammals are of relatively large proportions that require surface visits to breathe, features that enhanced the awareness and interest in different human cultures around the

© 2012 Brito, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

world. Marine mammals were historically targets of hunting with economic purposes. During the 16th and 17th centuries, tortoiseshell, shark teeth, marine mammals' blubber and baleen, seal skin, ambergris [11], narwhal tusks, pearls and coral [12], and a host of other products were trade commodities of considerable value. Some exotic marine animals and products, especially if they were rare and difficult to catch and possess, were of particular interest and priceless to European royalty, scientists, and collectors. This was because of their perceived economical and spiritual values, but also due to their applications with mundane (medicine, food, condiments, aphrodisiacs), symbolic, talismanic or superstitious purposes. [13]. The transaction process, the local natural ecosystems on which they acted and perceptions towards the marine environment changed [3] [5]. Remains of seals, whales and dolphins are currently found at museums, universities, and even private collections [2].

Portuguese Sealing and Whaling Activities as Contributions

to Understand Early Northeast Atlantic Environmental History of Marine Mammals 209

requires collection of the various sources and subsequent interpretation. There are several advantages in using historical data to extract biological information. Usually, in a historical source it is possible to find abundant and novel information on unspoiled populations, and on species (or groups) occurrence and distribution. This information can then be used as an indicator of past biodiversity, enabling the study of baseline levels and changes in cetaceans' presence and importance, as well as making the connection of biology with history,

In the present work, inter-cultural trade of exotic marine animals has a well-documented history that changed dramatically with the European Overseas Expansion. From the 16th century onwards many animals were brought to Europe mainly by the Portuguese, starting a new period in natural history [2]. The Portuguese reports correspond mainly to descriptions based on empirical knowledge accumulated in successive maritime routes, where the occurrence of species or animal groups was recorded. Navigators associated the

**Figure 1.** Representation of whaling in Portuguese shores and the encounter of Portuguese navigators with sea wolves upon arrival at the island of Madeira. This image represents a clear manifestation of the 16th century Portuguese intention of domination over the seas and everything found in it, including all marine animals with economic value. It corresponds to a *fresco* from 2000 in the ceiling of the Church of Ponta Delgada, Madeira, representing all air, land and sea animals, with symbols related to the

Portuguese Atlantic Discoveries. Photographed in 2009 by the author.

presence of frequent animal to specific location so as to estimate their position.

economics and culture.

The present work contemplates a large timeframe from early modern to modern times and is based on Portuguese sources. Aspects of marine environmental history will be addressed engaging with elements from the history of science and framing Portuguese maritime history within an Atlantic history. Atlantic history is an analytic construction and a specific category of historical analysis that helps to organize the study of the emergence of this ocean basin as a site for several and distinct forms of commercial exchange [14]. In order to approach the Atlantic history, a novel approach was chosen in this work, based on the exploitation patterns, trading features and scientific knowledge of Atlantic marine mammals collected in various sources over the years, all aspects still to be covered. Seals and whales are historically linked to local communities that exploited their body parts. This commerce was affected by changing markets, evolving technologies, scientific studies, regulations regarding access, and contradictory opinions regarding sustainability. Records on this commerce represent a valuable source of information about the characteristics and fluctuations of the exploitation market and indirectly about the condition of its inherent marine environment. Studies on whaling must include historical and an economics insight so as to provide a comprehensive interpretation of the natural resources shifts. By historically approaching marine mammals as a case study has a great potential to enhance our understanding of the interactions between the human culture and nature in the early modern and modern world.

## **2. Integrating natural and social sciences sources**

Environmental history is an interdisciplinary field of History that receives inputs from different areas of human, social and natural sciences. Reliable data on historical occurrences provides relevant information on how communities, populations and species have shifted over long timelines [15, 16] and allows establishing baseline datasets [17]. Of paramount importance and more precisely, historical accounts on marine mammals may be extremely useful to add new data to their occurrence and distribution in poorly studied regions [17], and to compare past information with recent data [18]. The historical relationships between humans and marine mammals, such as sealing, whaling, use and trade of goods, strandings and naturalist sightings, have been regularly documented throughout time though various sources. However, for some regions such as for the Atlantic Ocean, data is still sparse and requires collection of the various sources and subsequent interpretation. There are several advantages in using historical data to extract biological information. Usually, in a historical source it is possible to find abundant and novel information on unspoiled populations, and on species (or groups) occurrence and distribution. This information can then be used as an indicator of past biodiversity, enabling the study of baseline levels and changes in cetaceans' presence and importance, as well as making the connection of biology with history, economics and culture.

208 New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals

modern and modern world.

**2. Integrating natural and social sciences sources** 

Environmental history is an interdisciplinary field of History that receives inputs from different areas of human, social and natural sciences. Reliable data on historical occurrences provides relevant information on how communities, populations and species have shifted over long timelines [15, 16] and allows establishing baseline datasets [17]. Of paramount importance and more precisely, historical accounts on marine mammals may be extremely useful to add new data to their occurrence and distribution in poorly studied regions [17], and to compare past information with recent data [18]. The historical relationships between humans and marine mammals, such as sealing, whaling, use and trade of goods, strandings and naturalist sightings, have been regularly documented throughout time though various sources. However, for some regions such as for the Atlantic Ocean, data is still sparse and

world. Marine mammals were historically targets of hunting with economic purposes. During the 16th and 17th centuries, tortoiseshell, shark teeth, marine mammals' blubber and baleen, seal skin, ambergris [11], narwhal tusks, pearls and coral [12], and a host of other products were trade commodities of considerable value. Some exotic marine animals and products, especially if they were rare and difficult to catch and possess, were of particular interest and priceless to European royalty, scientists, and collectors. This was because of their perceived economical and spiritual values, but also due to their applications with mundane (medicine, food, condiments, aphrodisiacs), symbolic, talismanic or superstitious purposes. [13]. The transaction process, the local natural ecosystems on which they acted and perceptions towards the marine environment changed [3] [5]. Remains of seals, whales and dolphins are currently found at museums, universities, and even private collections [2]. The present work contemplates a large timeframe from early modern to modern times and is based on Portuguese sources. Aspects of marine environmental history will be addressed engaging with elements from the history of science and framing Portuguese maritime history within an Atlantic history. Atlantic history is an analytic construction and a specific category of historical analysis that helps to organize the study of the emergence of this ocean basin as a site for several and distinct forms of commercial exchange [14]. In order to approach the Atlantic history, a novel approach was chosen in this work, based on the exploitation patterns, trading features and scientific knowledge of Atlantic marine mammals collected in various sources over the years, all aspects still to be covered. Seals and whales are historically linked to local communities that exploited their body parts. This commerce was affected by changing markets, evolving technologies, scientific studies, regulations regarding access, and contradictory opinions regarding sustainability. Records on this commerce represent a valuable source of information about the characteristics and fluctuations of the exploitation market and indirectly about the condition of its inherent marine environment. Studies on whaling must include historical and an economics insight so as to provide a comprehensive interpretation of the natural resources shifts. By historically approaching marine mammals as a case study has a great potential to enhance our understanding of the interactions between the human culture and nature in the early

In the present work, inter-cultural trade of exotic marine animals has a well-documented history that changed dramatically with the European Overseas Expansion. From the 16th century onwards many animals were brought to Europe mainly by the Portuguese, starting a new period in natural history [2]. The Portuguese reports correspond mainly to descriptions based on empirical knowledge accumulated in successive maritime routes, where the occurrence of species or animal groups was recorded. Navigators associated the presence of frequent animal to specific location so as to estimate their position.

**Figure 1.** Representation of whaling in Portuguese shores and the encounter of Portuguese navigators with sea wolves upon arrival at the island of Madeira. This image represents a clear manifestation of the 16th century Portuguese intention of domination over the seas and everything found in it, including all marine animals with economic value. It corresponds to a *fresco* from 2000 in the ceiling of the Church of Ponta Delgada, Madeira, representing all air, land and sea animals, with symbols related to the Portuguese Atlantic Discoveries. Photographed in 2009 by the author.

Portuguese sources for the 16th and 17th centuries Atlantic in the form of letters, chronicles, and scientific treaties, as well as illustrated broadsheets, leaflets, maps, images, paintings, objects and products were compiled and reviewed here (see Figure 1). The present research includes historical sources and accounts from the period between late 15th century and early 19th century, and will present two distinct case-studies for the Atlantic Ocean: (1) first encounter and posterior hunting of monk seals in the Atlantic; and (2) medieval and early modern whaling in the Iberian Peninsula and shifting of this activity to the Atlantic.

Portuguese Sealing and Whaling Activities as Contributions

to Understand Early Northeast Atlantic Environmental History of Marine Mammals 211

triggered a continuous period of intense captures [26]. Despite more than a century of continuous exploitation since the first capture, these animals are still present in the Madeira island by 1580 to 1590 [25]. Even though the number of sea wolves in the Azores was smaller than in Madeira in 1420, there are several reports and descriptions also testifying their historical presence in that archipelago during the 15th century [26, 27]. For example in the São Miguel (Azores) island: *'While fishing here with some fishermen from Ponta Delgada city, who ate every night at shore or better on the stone or over the sandbank, a big sea wolf appeared which looked like a calf. He leaned against the rocks and they gave him lots of fish bones of what the fishermen were eating. … and sometimes the fishermen, who have seen this sea wolf, also known as* 

Portuguese navigators found once again sea wolves on the West African coast, in the 15th century, where they were also very easily captured [25, 28]. These quiet animals were encountered in large groups and the following account from 1436 is most probably the first description for this species on the Atlantic coasts: *'… he saw at the brook entrance a big crowd of sea wolves (according to some they were up to five thousand), he killed as many as he could and took their entire hide to the ship. It was a great slaughter … and this happened in the year of 1436*'. The abundance and economic value of sea wolves justified the risks and the delays in exploiting

The discovery of the multiple usages of their oil, fur and meat made the sea wolves very economically important. Their hides, after tanning, were used to manufacture clothes and shoes, and their fat was mostly used to manufacture soaps. In many soap-works, the quantities of fat were so high that it surpassed the quantity of olive oil used in this kind of product, being their oil frequently used [25, 28]. Machado [25] refers in his work that according to a list of imported products, sea wolves' hides were also quite solicited in European markets. The commercial value of sea wolves' products was extremely high [27]: '*As before, in Rio do Ouro, the Moors gave sea wolves' hides to Gomes Pires and promised him that they were going to search for gold and slaves if he came back there*'. Sea wolves were in fact a target of commercial marine exploiters, looking to obtain and trade their hides and oil.

To understand historical trends of presence and abundance, as well as the chronology of decline of sea wolves, we can estimate numbers for Madeira's population prior to the Portuguese exploitation of these resources judging by the capture levels and declining reports. This was achieved considering from published bibliography the historical known size of Africa's West coast population (population in *Rio do Ouro* was of five thousand individuals, according to the historical description by Zurara). In the present work, it was calculated that for Madeira in the early 15th century, i.e., prior to human arrival and exploitation, there was an estimated population size of almost 2000 monk seals. Sources and estimates show a historic baseline for the number of seals in both populations, prior to its exploitation, which allowed obtaining historical trends in a 580 years' time span (Figure 2 and 3). A chronology of decline was obtained reporting since the 15th century, and the trend of decline shows a reduction to half of its population during the first one hundred years and a smoother reduction over the last four centuries, until near extinction in present days. These events reflect heavy and intense exploitation of a marine resource preventing the

*white mesh because he brought a piece of mesh behind his ear'* [27].

these animals in the *Rio do Ouro*'s coast [28].

natural recovery of the populations.
