**4. Iberian whaling and transatlantic whales**

Whales have for long being of great interest for people. Whales figured in ancient legends and visual representations as terrifying sea monsters, and inspired poets and artists with their strange grace and immense size. Over the years, an entire whale mythology thrived, inspired by the mystery surrounding these creatures' habits [33]. Whales have mainly been hunted throughout the centuries for their economically valuable oil, meat, bones and baleen. Scientifically, the interest in the ecology of whales and their preservation are in fact relatively very recent. It was not until the 18th century that the whale was designated as a mammal rather than a fish, while cetology, as a scientific discipline and a branch of zoology, dates back only to the 1960s [33]. Historically, studies about whaling can be found since the early 20th century [e.g. 34] to the present day [e.g. 35].

214 New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals

(www.efecorreia-artstudio.com).

coordinated actions will allow their survival [30, 32].

**4. Iberian whaling and transatlantic whales** 

**Figure 3.** Graphic representation of early modern populations, from the beginning of the 15th century, in the West coast of Africa, Madeira and Azores and their probable decline over the centuries. Image

their numbers by 70%, compromising the recovery of the species in the Atlantic. Scientists were unable to determine whether the deaths were due to a virus or toxic algae, however the mass mortality had a significant effect on total numbers for species' abundance. In Madeira, from a surviving population of just six to eight animals, at the end of the 20th century, monk seal numbers have increased to an estimated twenty-four individuals. This was due to a special conservation effort from the Portuguese government, beginning in May 1990, which established a marine reserve and severe legislation protecting monk seals [31].

Presently, only these two breeding populations are known in the Atlantic, the one in Cape Blanc peninsula, with approximately 120 seals in a colonial structure, [32] and a smaller group in the *Desertas* Islands at the Madeira archipelago, with approximately 25 seals. Sightings are now rare in other areas within the historical range considered here, and only an immediate and significant reduction in anthropogenic pressures and range-wide

Whales have for long being of great interest for people. Whales figured in ancient legends and visual representations as terrifying sea monsters, and inspired poets and artists with their strange grace and immense size. Over the years, an entire whale mythology thrived, inspired by the mystery surrounding these creatures' habits [33]. Whales have mainly been hunted throughout the centuries for their economically valuable oil, meat, bones and baleen.

credits of Mediterranean monk seal illustration: authorship and © by Fernando Correia

Next is given an overview of two different perspectives for the starting of a similar maritime activity in two relative similar regions and by the same period. One based on transfer of technology from Europe to Portuguese South America, based on already known hunting techniques, and the other based mainly on local native knowledge in English North American colonies. It will be possible to understand that it was the implementation of the Basque whaling technique that allowed the early establishment of a continued and lucrative industrial activity in Brazil, since the beginning of the 17th century, in opposition to what happened in North America.

The Basques were the first western people to intentionally hunt large whales, establishing the characteristics of the industry for the following hundreds of years [36, 37]. The hunting procedure encompassed pursuits in small open boats and captures with hand harpoons and lances. This procedure began being used in 1050s and was used for many centuries [35, 38- 40]. In mainland Portugal, the first references to whales date back to the 12th century, in the form of local records related to stranding, scavenging of whale remains or whaling related activities [10, 41]. The Portuguese history of cetaceans and humans has been documented in reports, descriptions, tales, legal documents, laws and regulations and tithes.

The Biscay right whale (*Eubalaena glacialis*) was the main targeted species in the Basque country [42], [37, 43]. Initially, The Basques expanded their whaling captures locally and regionally from the shores of the Bay of Biscay, to the south of France and north of Spain [36]. As shown by Aguilar [40], Basque historical sources indicate that whaling started in the Basque French country and continued south and west over the years, through a transfer process of information and technology. Basque navigators had shown the way on whaling enterprises and, for a long time, Basque whalers and pilots were employed on many ships, transmitting the experience gained during their activity [37]. Later, the Basques established permanent or semi-permanent shore stations for whale processing across the Atlantic Ocean, encompassing also the provinces of Santander, Asturias and Galicia [37, 40, 42, 44, 45]. For Basque whaling in European shores, many of the sources specify black whales as the target species. This is consistent with knowledge about the distribution and migration patterns of North Atlantic right whales, in medieval Basque times and early modern whaling. By the 16th century Basque whalers were regularly migrating and conducting expeditions to northern European seas and across the Atlantic to North America [46, 47]. They depleted right whale and bowhead populations in the Strait of Belle Isle, between Labrador and Newfoundland, by killing tens of thousands of whales from 1530 to 1620. And later, between 1660 and 1701, they were hunting whales in the western Arctic, reducing stocks considerably and affecting the whales' migratory patterns [3]. In later periods, especially after the 16th century, Dutch, British and other non-Basque entrepreneurs and

whalers were also involved in the whaling trade from European ports and their overseas territories [for a review see 46 and 47].

Portuguese Sealing and Whaling Activities as Contributions

to Understand Early Northeast Atlantic Environmental History of Marine Mammals 217

exploit this resource in North America [11]. He writes that the purpose of his 1614 New England journey was to hunt whales. This explorer, aware of the Basques expertise in whale hunting, asked in 1616 for permission to accompany their whaling expeditions to the North

Since that time, settlers have tried to exploit this potentially profitable resource, although no records exist on the procedures and techniques used. Probably they have conducted a rather simple and primitive method of whaling, as shore-based whaling was not yet developed in West North Atlantic. In the Bermudas, for instance, the first whaling season only occurred in 1663, and only from that time onward did the operations intensified. Initially captures focused on the humpback whale (in 1700, 200 individuals captured), but as soon as these species became rare by the mid-18th century, captures were re-directed towards sperm whales [11]. Again, from the Bermudas example, it was only when the settlers from different European nationalities were permanently fixed in the overseas territories that it was

The beginning of whaling in the overseas regions was mostly supported on Basque expertise [36]. The Basque whaling model using small open boats and hand harpoons is particularly relevant in a context of globalization of techniques and ways of handling captured animals,

Hence, the historical information discussed here provides insight on the environmental history of whales and the importance of certain maritime extractive activities across the Atlantic. The interest on implementation of whaling overseas is indicative of the abundance and distribution

**Figure 4.** Oil painting (private collection) by an anonymous author, dated from 1876, showing a scene of sperm whale hunting in the Azores, with the subtitle: *"On the 30th of March of the year 1876, thanks to* 

*the Lord, this whale on my harpoon was struck"*. Photographed in 2005 by Cristina Picanço.

of whales in those regions and of its value as local and global marine resources.

Sea, a goal he did not accomplish.

possible to develop a whaling activity.

their remains and products.

The whaling activity was much more reduced in mainland Portugal. In the 20th century, there were two periods when short-lived enterprises operated whaling stations and used modern, Norwegian-type, whaling technology [48]. Also for the 20th century, besides the important presence of land based whaling in the archipelagos of Madeira and Azores (Figure 4) no other significant whaling episodes were historically recognized for Portugal. In previous works by the author [41, 48] a total of 38 historical sources recovered date from the 13th century, suggesting that Portuguese whaling began earlier than in the previously thought 20th century. There was a peak of whale-related events in the 13th and 14th centuries, contemporary to those found for the French and Spanish Basque countries, suggesting whaling started approximately at the same time in the both North and South Europe. Hence, it is now considered that whaling was not introduced in Portugal by the Basques, who instead spread westward from the French Labourd (11th century), via the Golf of Biscay, to Asturias, and southward to Galicia (14th century). The Portuguese whale captures is thus thought to have originated independently of Basque influence. The Portuguese sources do not clarify the species captured, numbers of whales taken, nor to the whaling technology used, but the activity was sufficiently well organized and developed to warrant the levying of tithes in the feudal system of 13th century Portugal [41].

In the 13th century, several whale products started to be utilized in Portuguese fishing villages [49]. The exploitation of large whales and small cetaceans in the near shore waters of mainland Portugal seems to have originated in the medieval times. However, a comprehensive study is still missing for Portugal shores. For instance, whaling and the presence of whales in the Basque shores has originated typical iconography and culture in that region over the centuries [36, 50]. Such historical pattern has not been observed in mainland Portugal and it is one important aspect to be considered in the future to understand on the species exploited and the intensity of this exploitation. During the 15th and 16th centuries, whaling expanded from the Portuguese shores, through the Atlantic Islands to overseas countries, particularly to Brazil. In Brazil and since the early 17th century, Portuguese settlers started a shore whaling business but a Basque crew was recruited for the first couple of seasons [51]. Since that time, and for two centuries, a structured shore based whaling enterprise developed in the coastal waters of Brazil, mainly devoted to the hunting of humpback whales during the calving season [51].

Hence, historical records allow to understand that Portugal together with the French and Spanish Basque Country were important whaling locations where a whale culture was developed and spread [41]. Portuguese whalers always conducted a land-based type of whaling while the Basques conducted a typical offshore whaling when moving into the Atlantic away from their Iberian shores (Figure 5).

For the West North Atlantic, a certain type of native whaling was referred for the North America by the 16th century. Following the descriptions by Acosta [52], the natives seemed to capture near shore whales with sticks and ropes. Additionally to the native resource exploitation, John Smith seems to have been the first European trying to systematically exploit this resource in North America [11]. He writes that the purpose of his 1614 New England journey was to hunt whales. This explorer, aware of the Basques expertise in whale hunting, asked in 1616 for permission to accompany their whaling expeditions to the North Sea, a goal he did not accomplish.

216 New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals

territories [for a review see 46 and 47].

of tithes in the feudal system of 13th century Portugal [41].

whalers were also involved in the whaling trade from European ports and their overseas

The whaling activity was much more reduced in mainland Portugal. In the 20th century, there were two periods when short-lived enterprises operated whaling stations and used modern, Norwegian-type, whaling technology [48]. Also for the 20th century, besides the important presence of land based whaling in the archipelagos of Madeira and Azores (Figure 4) no other significant whaling episodes were historically recognized for Portugal. In previous works by the author [41, 48] a total of 38 historical sources recovered date from the 13th century, suggesting that Portuguese whaling began earlier than in the previously thought 20th century. There was a peak of whale-related events in the 13th and 14th centuries, contemporary to those found for the French and Spanish Basque countries, suggesting whaling started approximately at the same time in the both North and South Europe. Hence, it is now considered that whaling was not introduced in Portugal by the Basques, who instead spread westward from the French Labourd (11th century), via the Golf of Biscay, to Asturias, and southward to Galicia (14th century). The Portuguese whale captures is thus thought to have originated independently of Basque influence. The Portuguese sources do not clarify the species captured, numbers of whales taken, nor to the whaling technology used, but the activity was sufficiently well organized and developed to warrant the levying

In the 13th century, several whale products started to be utilized in Portuguese fishing villages [49]. The exploitation of large whales and small cetaceans in the near shore waters of mainland Portugal seems to have originated in the medieval times. However, a comprehensive study is still missing for Portugal shores. For instance, whaling and the presence of whales in the Basque shores has originated typical iconography and culture in that region over the centuries [36, 50]. Such historical pattern has not been observed in mainland Portugal and it is one important aspect to be considered in the future to understand on the species exploited and the intensity of this exploitation. During the 15th and 16th centuries, whaling expanded from the Portuguese shores, through the Atlantic Islands to overseas countries, particularly to Brazil. In Brazil and since the early 17th century, Portuguese settlers started a shore whaling business but a Basque crew was recruited for the first couple of seasons [51]. Since that time, and for two centuries, a structured shore based whaling enterprise developed in the coastal waters of Brazil, mainly

Hence, historical records allow to understand that Portugal together with the French and Spanish Basque Country were important whaling locations where a whale culture was developed and spread [41]. Portuguese whalers always conducted a land-based type of whaling while the Basques conducted a typical offshore whaling when moving into the

For the West North Atlantic, a certain type of native whaling was referred for the North America by the 16th century. Following the descriptions by Acosta [52], the natives seemed to capture near shore whales with sticks and ropes. Additionally to the native resource exploitation, John Smith seems to have been the first European trying to systematically

devoted to the hunting of humpback whales during the calving season [51].

Atlantic away from their Iberian shores (Figure 5).

Since that time, settlers have tried to exploit this potentially profitable resource, although no records exist on the procedures and techniques used. Probably they have conducted a rather simple and primitive method of whaling, as shore-based whaling was not yet developed in West North Atlantic. In the Bermudas, for instance, the first whaling season only occurred in 1663, and only from that time onward did the operations intensified. Initially captures focused on the humpback whale (in 1700, 200 individuals captured), but as soon as these species became rare by the mid-18th century, captures were re-directed towards sperm whales [11]. Again, from the Bermudas example, it was only when the settlers from different European nationalities were permanently fixed in the overseas territories that it was possible to develop a whaling activity.

The beginning of whaling in the overseas regions was mostly supported on Basque expertise [36]. The Basque whaling model using small open boats and hand harpoons is particularly relevant in a context of globalization of techniques and ways of handling captured animals, their remains and products.

Hence, the historical information discussed here provides insight on the environmental history of whales and the importance of certain maritime extractive activities across the Atlantic. The interest on implementation of whaling overseas is indicative of the abundance and distribution of whales in those regions and of its value as local and global marine resources.

**Figure 4.** Oil painting (private collection) by an anonymous author, dated from 1876, showing a scene of sperm whale hunting in the Azores, with the subtitle: *"On the 30th of March of the year 1876, thanks to the Lord, this whale on my harpoon was struck"*. Photographed in 2005 by Cristina Picanço.

Portuguese Sealing and Whaling Activities as Contributions

to Understand Early Northeast Atlantic Environmental History of Marine Mammals 219

Revolution provided the combination of sudden increases in manpower accompanied by new tools and technology which caused overfishing, produced changes in the environment, and cause shifts in ecosystem services and global cycles. The impacts of anthropogenic actions have accelerated in the last decades and are ubiquitous, fast and intense, and exceed the ability of the natural world´s adaptation potential. However, the history of human interactions with marine environments remains largely unstudied. The marine environmental history is, now, a useful tool to understand the past ecological and cultural Human driven transformations in

Marine mammals (either whales, dolphins, and seals, or even manatees and dugongs) represent good case studies for the single-species approach to marine environmental history. The two case-studies presented in this chapter are an example of the valuable outcomes of an interdisciplinary analysis to recreate the environmental history of marine mammals. This history can then be used to frame present traditions as well as population levels of mammals. The future of marine environmental historians, dedicated to the study of marine mammals, will greatly benefit from focusing on the research of the relation of people with species, with special interest in specific economic and/or cultural isolated situations, such as African and Brazilian manatees, or cetaceans' historical presence around oceanic islands. For instance, historically in some Atlantic cultures, cetaceans were considered "a different kind of fish", as their recognisable natural behaviour and some morphological characteristics are distinct from fish [53]. Studies related to local perceptions changing over time can also provide inputs to the environmental history of marine mammals and contribute for the implementation of long-term and continuous scientific research, interactive environmental education plans and conservation measures. This type of research may include different kinds of historical sources, such as written, iconographic or material sources, and all types of accounts from the period since the late 15th century. European reports of Atlantic (or other oceanic basins) journeys contain information about natural elements and marine mega fauna and represent invaluable sources of research. For a later period (from late 19th century onwards), scientific articles, newspapers, illustrations, maps, non-published scientific reports and some other grey literature, such as unpublished thesis, may also be used. Good history begins with good sources [3], but good marine environmental history needs also to

*CHAM (Centre for Overseas History), Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas, Universidade Nova* 

This research was supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), through a post-doctoral fellowship (SFRH/BPD/63433/2009) and a project

*Escola de Mar, Edifício ICAT, Campus da FCUL, Campo Grande, Lisbon, Portugal* 

oceans worldwide at small and large spatial and temporal scales.

be framed into interdisciplinary boundaries.

*de Lisboa and Universidade dos Açores, Lisbon, Portugal* 

**Author details** 

**Acknowledgement** 

Cristina Brito

**Figure 5.** Geographical migration of Basque and Portuguese early modern whaling through the Atlantic (map) and temporal migration (graph) showing the years of the beginning and end of the activity in each area. Data compiled from Aguilar (1986), Reeves & Smith (2006) and Brito (2011).
