**4.5. Ulysses Aldrovandi**

14 New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals

**Figure 3.** Some of the "Cetis" described by Gessner (1558): (a) and (b) two examples of marine

Gessner was an uncritical compiler of information.

monsters; (c) a whale attacking a ship and another being flensed during whaling operations. Both show mysteces with teeth, which indicates that Gessner never saw these animals. This exemplifies that

Information included names of the animals in various languages (some times more than a dozen) comprising epithets and etymology (even inventing common names in other The last author who published anything of significance about marine mammals during the Renaissance was Aldrovandi12. He was born to a noble and wealthy family, which allowed him to initially dedicate his life to his own pursuits. He was educated in Bologna, Padua, and Rome, receiving degrees in law and medicine although he never practiced those professions. He was appointed as the first professor of natural history in the University of Bologna. Although he was a pious Catholic, because of what he read he was charged with heresy. After producing himself in Rome, he was acquitted. While in Rome he met Rondelet and accompanied him to the fish markets where he became interested in ichthyology (which included the study of marine mammals) collecting specimens for his own museum. He traveled extensively throughout Italy and made a collection of about 11,000 animal specimens for pedagogical purposes; most of them can be found today at the Bologna Museum to which he bequeathed not only his specimens but also his library and unpublished manuscripts as well (Alves 2010, pp. 56-82). He also conducted dissections (Impey and McGregor 1985). He was a true encyclopedist following the tradition of the University of Bologna at that time (Tugnoli Pattaro 1994). He wrote extensively but the quality of his animal descriptions and illustrations were poor from the scientific viewpoint

<sup>12</sup> *b*. 11 September 1522, Bologna, Italy; *d*. 4 May 1605, Bologna.

(Fig. 4). Aldrovandi was an uncritical compiler who included legends of mythical animals in his writings similar to the medieval bestiaries and in the tradition of Pliny.

When Whales Became Mammals:

The Scientific Journey of Cetaceans From Fish to Mammals in the History of Science 17

*Cetacea*. From the illustrations (Fig. 4) it is clear he never saw any of these animals with the exception of some of their skeletal parts. As an uncritical compiler of information he did not add anything new to the knowledge of these creatures and, yet, was cited by later authors.

In this period, observation and experimentation moved to the forefront of science. Classification was based on similarities and differences in characters. During this time English physicians travelled to Padua, Bologna and Paris to be trained in human dissection since the status of medicine in England was still poor. People involved in these kind of activities had a background in either medicine (or "physic" as it was called then) and/or theology (Kruger 2004). During this time the center of gravity of science moved from the

The first researcher of the biology of marine mammals in this period was Johann Jonston13. Although born in Poland, Jonston's father was Scottish and his mother German. He was educated in St Andrews, Frankfurt, Cambridge, and Leiden, receiving a medical degree from the last two institutions. He traveled extensively throughout Europe teaching, and despite offers for academic positions, he decided to make a living as an independent scholar (Miller 2008). He published *Historiae naturalis de Piscibum Partem* in 1657. Jonston was another encyclopedist who when it came to natural history was more a compiler than anything else, relying heavily on Gessner and Aldrovandi while adding some new information from New World creatures from George Marcgrave. Thus, he did not offer any significant critical view to his sources although his descriptions were briefer than those of his predecessors. He gave no hint of biological classification for marine mammals and also added further mistakes and legends (even 'monsters'). He slightly modified Aldrovandi's classification of fishes by

He dealt with cetaceans on pages 213-224 of his *Historiae* and included the same species as Aldrovandi: *Balaena*, *Physetere*, *Orca*, *Delphino*, *Phocaena* and the mythical *scolopendra cetacea*,

Charleton14 was the son of a church rector of modest means. He was educated at Oxford as a physician at that time when medical education in England emphasized scholastic approaches to knowledge and British colleges had inadequate anatomical staff and teaching facilities. The practical elements of practicing medicine were not acquired until after

Mediterranean world to northern Europe, mostly England.

adding 'pelagic' fishes. Yet his books were widely read and translated.

the sawfish, pinnipeds, and the manatee among the cetaceans.

assisting a more experienced practicing medical doctor.

<sup>13</sup> *b*. 15 September 1603, Szamotuly, Poland; *d*. 8 June 1675, Legnica, Poland.

<sup>14</sup> *b.* 2 February 1619, Shepton Mallet, Somerset, England; *d.* 24 April 1707, London, England.

**5. Modern science** 

**5.1. Johann Jonston** 

**5.2. Walter Charleton** 

**Figure 4.** Depiction of some marine animals by Aldrovandi (1613): Some show that he actually saw some of those skeletal pieces such as (a) a tooth possible from a sperm whale, (b) a baleen and the prominent tooth of a narwhal (*Monodon monoceros*), (c) a rib and a vertebra, possibly of a large whale, and (d) a scapula. In other cases he illustrated whales with human-like emotions (e); whales with feet (f); sawfishes with cetacean characteristics (g); and Pliny's "Scolopendra cetacea" (h), which perpetuated the notion that such animal existed. Overall he was a very uncritical compiler when it came to marine mammals.

He published *De piscibus libri V, et De cetis lib. vnus* (1613) where he defined "Pisces" as animals covered with scales and "aquatilis" as "anything else that lives in the water" while recognizing that cetaceans are air-breathing creatures. The species that he mentioned were the ones cited by his predecessors: *Balaena*, *Physeter*, *Orca*, *Delphino*, *Phocaena*, and *Tursione*, while including the *Manate Indorum*, *Phoca*, *Pristi* (the sawfish), and the mythical *Scolopendra*  *Cetacea*. From the illustrations (Fig. 4) it is clear he never saw any of these animals with the exception of some of their skeletal parts. As an uncritical compiler of information he did not add anything new to the knowledge of these creatures and, yet, was cited by later authors.
