**5.7. Carolus Linnaeus**

24 New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals

 *Balaena major* (Ray, p. 15) *Balaena macrocephala* (Ray, p. 16)

 *Delphinus* (*Phocaena*) (Art. Syn. 104) *Delphinus* (*Delphin*) (Art. Syn. 105) *Delphinus* (*Orca*) (Art. Syn. 106)

*Balaena vulgaris* (Ray p. 6, 16)

*Balaena tripinnis* (Ray 16)

*Balaena minor* (Ray p. 15)

*Balaena edentula* Fin-Fish (Ray p. 6, 10)

*Monoceros pisces* (Will. 42, Ray 11, Charleton 168)

*Manatus* (Rondelet p. 490, Gessner p. 213, Charleton 169, Aldrovandi 7

Artedi established the basic classification of fishes that lasted for about 200 years and separated cetaceans into a totally different order than fishes; he apparently knew that they were different, but still tradition was difficult to break and thus he included them into his ichthyological treatise. He also established the basic branching of animal groups into Class, Maniples (Families), Genera, and Species, a system that was to be closely followed by Linnaeus (Wheeler 1987, Broberg 1987). His work set the foundations for what Linnaeus would culminate as the definitely recognition of cetaceans as distinct group within

*Balenae* (*Balaena tripinnis*) (Ray 17)

*Balaena major* (Ray p. 17, Will. P. 41)

28, Jonston 223)

"siren" as follows:

Order: Plagiuri

*Physeter* 

*Delphinus* 

*Balaena* 

*Monodon* 

*Catodon* 

*Trichechus* 

*Homo marinus* 

*Siren* 

mammals.

Artedi separated actual fishes from cetaceans (which he called "plagiuri") based on the plane of the caudal fin. He described 7 genera and 14 species including the manatee and the

Linnaeus (or Linné)21 had as a father a country person who loved plants. Linnaeus followed a medical career but was actually more interested in botany than in anything else. Linnaeus met Artedi in 1729 and their interests were complementary: Artedi, a zoologist interested mostly on fishes, and Linnaeus, interested in botany. He would later edit Artedi's book in ichthyology that was published in 1738. What Linnaeus learned from Artedi set the basis for a better classification not only of plants but also animals in general.

Even some of Linnaeus students were developing a better understanding of cetaceans as being really close to "viviparous quadrupeds." That was the case of Pehr Löfling22, one of Linnaeus' students who came very close to making major contributions to the true nature of dolphins and manatees based on his observations of these animals in South America. In his description of Amazon freshwater dolphin or boto, Löfling was clear about when writing that whales and dolphins were different from fishes: "Pisces per pulmonibus spirantibus." However, his early death and the fact that his manuscripts were never published prevented him from gaining recognition in the scientific community (Romero *et al.* 1997).

With all of this background, the botanist Linnaeus was ready to revolutionize biological classification and in the 10th Edition (1758) of his fundamental work *Systema Naturae*, he introduced the term Mammalia, and included *Cete* among them. For Linnaeus, mammals were united by having hair, being viviparous, and producing milk. He coined the term *cetacea* and separated them from fishes and grouped them with the rest of the viviparous quadrupeds based on the following characteristics: two-chamber heart, breathing by lungs, hollow ears, internal fertilization, and production of milk.

Thus, Linnaeus revolutionized the science of systematics by developing a fully natural system of classification, using consistently the binomial nomenclature, and designing species with Latinized names (genus and species). He developed a hierarchy (class, order, genus, species) as proposed by Artedi, with species defined as similar individuals bound together by reproduction, which also set the basis of the biological species concept. The use of telegraphic speech-like (very short sentences) diagnosis for species descriptions and the standardization of synonymies (same species with different names) in order to reach a taxonomic consensus made his classification even more useful since from now on one could find clarity on what a particular species was tracing its description to other authors. He also doubled the number of species described by Ray. Thus, despite the fact that he was not a zoologist *per se* nor was involved in dissection of animals, he was far from a compiler in that he applied critical thinking to the way he ordered nature.

<sup>21</sup> *b*. 23 May 1707, Stenbrohult, Småland, Sweden; *d*. 10 January 1778, Uppsala, Sweden.

<sup>22</sup> *b*. 1729, Valbo, Sweden; *d*. 22 February 1756, Guayana, Venezuela.

This progress is even more remarkable when considering that Linnaeus was far from an evolutionist. For him species were fixed except for small variations due to climatic/local conditions. Yet, Linnaeus was, without question, the founder of systematics and the one who laid the foundations for the naturalists to become specialists and, therefore, opened the door for the first group of marine mammal specialists, now that these creatures were not longer considered "fishes." It was not until Linnaeus that the science of taxonomy made the strides that have lead us to where we are today in our understanding of the natural world. Linnaeus understood biological principles and placed animals in groups based on homologies rather than using environment to drive classification, and this was what allowed him to recognized cetaceans as a distinct group within mammals.

When Whales Became Mammals:

The Scientific Journey of Cetaceans From Fish to Mammals in the History of Science 27

Aldrovandi, U. 1613. U. Aldrovandi … de Piscibus libri V et de Cetis lib. Uncus. Bononiae,

Alves, W.L. 2010. Ulisse Aldrovandi's Opera Omnia: collecting natural wonders. Thesis: Departmental Honors in Art History, Wheaton College, Norton, MA. 179 pp.

Artedi, P. 1738. *Ichthyologia sive opera omnia piscibus scilicet: Bibliotheca ichthyologica. Philosophia ichthyologica. Genera piscium. Synonymia specierum. Descriptiones specierum. Omnia in hoc genere perfectiora, quam antea ulla. Posthuma vindicavit, recognovit, coaptavit &* 

Barnes, J. 1995. Life and work, pp. 1-26, *In*: J. Barnes (Ed.). *The Cambridge Companion to* 

Bay, J.C. 1916. Gesner, the father of bibliography. *Papers of the Bibliographical Society of* 

Belon, P. 1551. L'histoire naturelle des estranges poissons marins : avec la vraie peincture & description du daulphin, & de plusieurs autres de son espece. De l'imprimerie de

Belon, P. 1551. La nature et la diversité des poisons. Avec leurs pourtraicts representez au

Booth, E. 2005. 'A subtle and mysterious machine'. The medical world of Walter Charleton

Broberg, G. 1987. Petrus Artedi in his Swedish context. Proc. V Congr. Europ. Ichthyol.,

Charleton, W. 1668. *Onomasticon zoicon plerorumque Animalium Differentias et Nomina Propria pluribus Linguis exponens. Cui accedunt Mantissa Anatomica et quaedam de Variis Fossilium* 

Gudger, E.W. 1934. The five great naturalists of the sixteenth century: Belon, Rondelet, Salviani, Gesner, and Aldrovandi: a chapter in the history of ichthyology. Isis 22:21-40. Fischer, H. 1966. Conrad Gessner (1516-1565) as bibliographer and encyclopedist. The

Gessner, C. 1558. Historiae Animalium. Liber IIII qui est de Piscium & Aquatilium natura…

Charleton, W. 1677. *Exercitationes de Differentiis & Nominibus Animalium*. Oxford. 343 pp. Collins, S. 1685. *A Systeme of Anatomy* treating of the body of man, beasts, birds, fish, insects and plants. Illustrated with many schemes, consisting of variety of elegant figures, drawn from the life, and engraven in seventy four Folio copper plates and after every part of man's body hath been anatomically described, its diseases, cases and cures are

Delaunay, P. 1926. Pierre Belon naturaliste. Le Mans: Imprimerie Mannoyer.

Ellwood, C.A. 1938. *A history of social philosophy*. New York: Prentice Hall.

*edidit Carolus Linnaeus, Med. Doct. & Ac. Imper. N.C.* Wishoff, Leiden.

*Aristotle*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

**7. References** 

732 pp.

*America* 10:53-88.

Regnaud Chaudiere. Paris.

Stockholm 1985, pp. 11-15.

plus près naturel. Ch. Estienne: Paris.

*Generibus*. Jacobum Allestry, London. 363 pp.

Dulieu, L. 1966. Guillaume Rondelet. *Clio Medica*. 1:89-111.

(1619-1707). Dordrecht: Springer.

concisely exhibited. London, 2 vol.

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Tiguri
