**Some Peculiarities of Horse Breeding**

Marcilio Dias Silveira da Mota and Luciana Correia de Almeida Regitano

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50519

## **1. Introduction**

32 Livestock Production

[24] Weigel DJ, Cassell BG, Hoeschelle I, Pearson RE. 1995. Multiple-trait prediction of transmitting abilities for herd life and estimation of economic weights using relative net

income adjusted for opportunity cost. Journal of Dairy Science 1995; 78: 639-647. [25] Weller JI. Economic Aspects of Animal Breeding. Chapman & Hall, London; 1994.

> There are approximately 60 million horses in the world, most of them living in America, Asia and some European countries. Currently China has the largest herd (around 8 million), followed by the United States (7 million), Mexico (a little more than 6 million) and Brazil (a little less than 6 million). Together, these four countries have close to 45% of the world's equine population [1].

> The horse population's growth rate has been either constant or decreasing in most of the countries, with only some regions in Central America, Asia and Europe keeping positive growth rates (Figure 1). From 2003 to 2007, Puerto Rico presented the highest growth rate (45.4%), while the biggest Decrease was in Benin, Africa (-12.9%) (Figure 2).

**Figure 1.** Growth rate of horse population in the world from 1997 to 2007 (Source [1])

© 2012 da Mota and de Almeida Regitano, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2012 da Mota and de Almeida Regitano, licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Some Peculiarities of Horse Breeding 35

compensate traits that differed from the ideal. This meant basically to look for stallions on

Only decades later, after Darwin's evolution theory introduced the concept of selection is that the improvement of native populations emerged to counterbalance the situation, and effectively replace the desire to keep local types. Later, and gradually, the management of purebred animals predominated over crossbreeding, ending in the Thoroughbred Studbook's creation (first worldwide). It was a very important step for the use of animal production techniques in the 19th century [4]. According to the author, these techniques required precise identification procedures records of races held at different times and places in order to relate them to the same horse. The Stud Book, from the animal lineage certification, not only made it possible to relate the own horse performance information, but also their relatives. This fact prepared the way for the pedigree selection and progeny

In addition, until the beginning of last century, horses were the focuses of experimental tests of inheritage theories. In this sense, historically the main concepts introduced by the horses, especially by the Thoroughbred breed, were [4]: performance selection in a purebred, introducing of a precise method for identifying an animal and its relatives, thinking about

Currently, although research in several countries are published every year in the literature involving some kinds of horse breeding study, few of them have ongoing consistent selection program. It means, in a way that most of research results in this area don't

In most cases, this fact occurs because the breeders don't show interest in using the research results and not because of the research quality. The studies, depending on the availability and quality of information, usually do not consider the breeders' interests. Thus, in most countries there is wide gap between research institutes / universities and breeder associations. This gap is particularly due to the fact that more than in other species, horse breeders consider other breeders as potential competitors and give little importance to joint

On the other hand, closer relation in Japan, Canada and some European countries, have allowed major advances in horse breeding. In Germany, for example, a country that stands out for jumping and dressage competitions and export of horses, the opinion, awareness and cooperation among breeders gave associations set guidelines that would meet not only their needs, and those of the research institutes / universities, but also the interest of the country. So the Breeders' Associations, supported by these institutions, publishes annually a Sire Handbook containing productive traits considered of general interest. This liaison has been very productive, resulting in19 gold, 8 silver and 12 bronze medals only in the last two

Olympics1, besides over 50 medals in some recent world championships [5].

the male and female roles in the herd and the widespread use of planned matings.

generate practical application and therefore it adds little to the species' development.

distant lands or regions.

actions needed in breeding programs.

1 taking into account dressage disciplines, jumping and eventing.

tests.

**Figure 2.** Countries with higher and lower equine population growth rates from 2003 to 2007

The world's export trade of live horses is concentrated in Europe and America, together representing 84% (58% and 26% respectively) of 2.1 billion dollars moved around yearly [2]. According to this source, the United States were the main exporter (148,472 animals, representing 48.8% of the world trade), raising around 474 million, in average \$ 3,200 per animal.

Similar to the exportation, the world trade of live horses in relation to imports is highly supported by Europe (49.8% of the world trade), followed by Asia (26%) and Mexico (82,854), Canada (63,240) and Italy (46,333) are the main importers in number of animals, although the highest global expenditure in this aspect occurred in the United Kingdom (U.S. \$ 498 million), UAE (\$ 236 million) and Ireland (U.S. \$ 233 million), representing together 46% of annual turnover - [2].

## **2. Horse breeding**

The expression "improvement of equine species," according to [3] dates back to the French articles about horses and donkeys in the*"Histoire Naturelle"* by Buffon in 1753. Despite the strong creationist dogmas of that time, these articles anticipated evolutionist ideas, while they described the concept of race degeneration due to the influence of location or climate. Adopted by the French Veterinary schools, it was believed that in order to return to an ideal type of creation, it would be necessary to mate mares and stallions with opposite types, to compensate traits that differed from the ideal. This meant basically to look for stallions on distant lands or regions.

34 Livestock Production

animal.

46% of annual turnover - [2].

**2. Horse breeding** 

**Figure 2.** Countries with higher and lower equine population growth rates from 2003 to 2007

The world's export trade of live horses is concentrated in Europe and America, together representing 84% (58% and 26% respectively) of 2.1 billion dollars moved around yearly [2]. According to this source, the United States were the main exporter (148,472 animals, representing 48.8% of the world trade), raising around 474 million, in average \$ 3,200 per

Similar to the exportation, the world trade of live horses in relation to imports is highly supported by Europe (49.8% of the world trade), followed by Asia (26%) and Mexico (82,854), Canada (63,240) and Italy (46,333) are the main importers in number of animals, although the highest global expenditure in this aspect occurred in the United Kingdom (U.S. \$ 498 million), UAE (\$ 236 million) and Ireland (U.S. \$ 233 million), representing together

The expression "improvement of equine species," according to [3] dates back to the French articles about horses and donkeys in the*"Histoire Naturelle"* by Buffon in 1753. Despite the strong creationist dogmas of that time, these articles anticipated evolutionist ideas, while they described the concept of race degeneration due to the influence of location or climate. Adopted by the French Veterinary schools, it was believed that in order to return to an ideal type of creation, it would be necessary to mate mares and stallions with opposite types, to Only decades later, after Darwin's evolution theory introduced the concept of selection is that the improvement of native populations emerged to counterbalance the situation, and effectively replace the desire to keep local types. Later, and gradually, the management of purebred animals predominated over crossbreeding, ending in the Thoroughbred Studbook's creation (first worldwide). It was a very important step for the use of animal production techniques in the 19th century [4]. According to the author, these techniques required precise identification procedures records of races held at different times and places in order to relate them to the same horse. The Stud Book, from the animal lineage certification, not only made it possible to relate the own horse performance information, but also their relatives. This fact prepared the way for the pedigree selection and progeny tests.

In addition, until the beginning of last century, horses were the focuses of experimental tests of inheritage theories. In this sense, historically the main concepts introduced by the horses, especially by the Thoroughbred breed, were [4]: performance selection in a purebred, introducing of a precise method for identifying an animal and its relatives, thinking about the male and female roles in the herd and the widespread use of planned matings.

Currently, although research in several countries are published every year in the literature involving some kinds of horse breeding study, few of them have ongoing consistent selection program. It means, in a way that most of research results in this area don't generate practical application and therefore it adds little to the species' development.

In most cases, this fact occurs because the breeders don't show interest in using the research results and not because of the research quality. The studies, depending on the availability and quality of information, usually do not consider the breeders' interests. Thus, in most countries there is wide gap between research institutes / universities and breeder associations. This gap is particularly due to the fact that more than in other species, horse breeders consider other breeders as potential competitors and give little importance to joint actions needed in breeding programs.

On the other hand, closer relation in Japan, Canada and some European countries, have allowed major advances in horse breeding. In Germany, for example, a country that stands out for jumping and dressage competitions and export of horses, the opinion, awareness and cooperation among breeders gave associations set guidelines that would meet not only their needs, and those of the research institutes / universities, but also the interest of the country. So the Breeders' Associations, supported by these institutions, publishes annually a Sire Handbook containing productive traits considered of general interest. This liaison has been very productive, resulting in19 gold, 8 silver and 12 bronze medals only in the last two Olympics1, besides over 50 medals in some recent world championships [5].

<sup>1</sup> taking into account dressage disciplines, jumping and eventing.

## **3. Some advantages and difficulties in horse breeding**

Comparing to other farm animal species, there are some advantages and difficulties specifically related to researches on horse breeding, when quantitative genetics principles are used.

Some Peculiarities of Horse Breeding 37

**3.1. Inherent to the species** 

the functional performance of the animals [8].

Since the early ancestors emerged from 55 to 60 million years ago, horses are adapting in order to develop a reproduction model that ensures survivability in the wild, adopting different reproductive strategies to ensure that their progeny are born in the appropriate time of year [7]. However, domestication has strongly influenced reproductive performance, with selection pressure on fertility being either small or null, and mating usually dictated by

Thus, considering that reproductive traits usually have low heritability estimate [8], and have been selected on horses by an indirect way, genetic alterations in order to enhance characteristics of this nature are evidently neither fast nor simple, especially in a species with a long generation interval such as the equine's (see item "High ranges of generation

Hence, horses have low reproductive performance when compared to other farm animal species. The birth rate ranges from 59% [9, 8] to 74% [10, 7] the higher percentages being usually found in tests involving a small number of mares. Table 1 illustrates the result of 42,750 matings done with 7,278 Thoroughbred mares. It was observed that birthrates for males and females were 49.26% and 50.74**%**, respectively, whereas abortion and stillborn foals were 1.41% and 2.02%, respectively. It was also recorded that 9.07% of coverings were classified as empty, whereas 23.7% of matings did not show any latter records to track

This relatively low fertility is described in different races, countries and purposes, and may be related to hormonal dysfunction, genital infections in mares, parasitic infestations and inadequate handling practices before the breeding season [11]. These factors are even more imposing in the case of animals used in sports, since they have very different handling from those that are exclusively used in breeding [12]. Furthermore, maintenance of older mares and stallions due to their progeny's superior sporting performance can decrease the rate of

Occurrence Number of observations and %

Male (29.35%)

Female 12,927 (30.23%) Abortion 603 (1.41%) Empty 3,878 (9.07%) Without information 9,864 (7.23%) Stillborn 866 (2.02%) Not mated 1,945 ( 4.54%) Mated with another breed 135 (0.31%)


and delivery")**.**

success.

Source: [8]

**Table 1.** Occurrences after mating

The advantages are fundamentally the amount of performance information and pedigree extension.


Traditionally, horse breeders associations consider the "pedigree" as a key factor to select their animals, so that in most of them, herd control is efficient. This fact goes back to the world's first Stud Book opening in 1791 (General Stud Book) for Thoroughbred animals. It was the basis for the other *Stud*Books, not only for horses, but also for all other domestic species.

Most of the breeds that were studied based on breeding, it is possible to track the animal's genealogy back to the fourth or fifth generation (depending on when the breeders' association's started), so that genetic evaluations in this aspect are efficient.


In most of the breeds, especially the ones for some kinds of performance, the possibility of measuring both genders generates a greater information and knowledge volume about the behavior of traits in the population, what enables more efficient genetic evaluations. Racing, jumping, dressage, barrel, performances2 are examples of this kind.

On the other hand, even in breeds (or strains within a breed) where the breeding economic interest is the production of animals only for the conformation, not for performance, both genders can be evaluated.


In horses it is possible to get repeated performance in relatively short time periods in a large portion of the population, while that doesn't happen with some domestic species, where economic important traits aren't repeated in the animal life (weight at weaning, weight at the year), or require a relatively long time to repeat (milk production, weight of the fleece).

In this sense, considering that the average number of starts per horse in Thoroughbred race season 2007/2008 was 6.5 [6], in a year is possible to get reasonable performance information (position, awards, time) about the horses. Although this average represents a new performance every two months, there are animals that race every 15 days, or even during the same week.

On the other hand, certain difficulties related to equine species and others due to various issues have been some of the major problems when research on horse breeding is done*.* 

<sup>2</sup> meets three classical disciplines: dressage, cross country and jumping. It is a form held in three days.

## **3.1. Inherent to the species**


36 Livestock Production

are used.

extension.

species.

genders can be evaluated.

the same week.

**3. Some advantages and difficulties in horse breeding** 


Comparing to other farm animal species, there are some advantages and difficulties specifically related to researches on horse breeding, when quantitative genetics principles

The advantages are fundamentally the amount of performance information and pedigree

Traditionally, horse breeders associations consider the "pedigree" as a key factor to select their animals, so that in most of them, herd control is efficient. This fact goes back to the world's first Stud Book opening in 1791 (General Stud Book) for Thoroughbred animals. It was the basis for the other *Stud*Books, not only for horses, but also for all other domestic

Most of the breeds that were studied based on breeding, it is possible to track the animal's genealogy back to the fourth or fifth generation (depending on when the breeders'

In most of the breeds, especially the ones for some kinds of performance, the possibility of measuring both genders generates a greater information and knowledge volume about the behavior of traits in the population, what enables more efficient genetic evaluations. Racing,

On the other hand, even in breeds (or strains within a breed) where the breeding economic interest is the production of animals only for the conformation, not for performance, both


In horses it is possible to get repeated performance in relatively short time periods in a large portion of the population, while that doesn't happen with some domestic species, where economic important traits aren't repeated in the animal life (weight at weaning, weight at the year), or require a relatively long time to repeat (milk production, weight of the fleece).

In this sense, considering that the average number of starts per horse in Thoroughbred race season 2007/2008 was 6.5 [6], in a year is possible to get reasonable performance information (position, awards, time) about the horses. Although this average represents a new performance every two months, there are animals that race every 15 days, or even during

On the other hand, certain difficulties related to equine species and others due to various issues have been some of the major problems when research on horse breeding is done*.* 

2 meets three classical disciplines: dressage, cross country and jumping. It is a form held in three days.

association's started), so that genetic evaluations in this aspect are efficient. - Economic important traits can generally be measured in both genders.

jumping, dressage, barrel, performances2 are examples of this kind.

Since the early ancestors emerged from 55 to 60 million years ago, horses are adapting in order to develop a reproduction model that ensures survivability in the wild, adopting different reproductive strategies to ensure that their progeny are born in the appropriate time of year [7]. However, domestication has strongly influenced reproductive performance, with selection pressure on fertility being either small or null, and mating usually dictated by the functional performance of the animals [8].

Thus, considering that reproductive traits usually have low heritability estimate [8], and have been selected on horses by an indirect way, genetic alterations in order to enhance characteristics of this nature are evidently neither fast nor simple, especially in a species with a long generation interval such as the equine's (see item "High ranges of generation and delivery")**.**

Hence, horses have low reproductive performance when compared to other farm animal species. The birth rate ranges from 59% [9, 8] to 74% [10, 7] the higher percentages being usually found in tests involving a small number of mares. Table 1 illustrates the result of 42,750 matings done with 7,278 Thoroughbred mares. It was observed that birthrates for males and females were 49.26% and 50.74**%**, respectively, whereas abortion and stillborn foals were 1.41% and 2.02%, respectively. It was also recorded that 9.07% of coverings were classified as empty, whereas 23.7% of matings did not show any latter records to track success.


Source: [8]

**Table 1.** Occurrences after mating

This relatively low fertility is described in different races, countries and purposes, and may be related to hormonal dysfunction, genital infections in mares, parasitic infestations and inadequate handling practices before the breeding season [11]. These factors are even more imposing in the case of animals used in sports, since they have very different handling from those that are exclusively used in breeding [12]. Furthermore, maintenance of older mares and stallions due to their progeny's superior sporting performance can decrease the rate of conception in the herd, as the rate decreases progressively with increasing age [13]. Table 2 describes this aspect, illustrating the conception and apparent fertility rates (defined by [14] as the ratio of the total number of mares that conceived by the total number of mated mares and as mares that delivered living foals by the number of mated mares, respectively) according to parturition order.

Some Peculiarities of Horse Breeding 39

 **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ 98.1%\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_**

24.1%

**Figure 3.** Percentage of Thoroughbred foal births by month in Brazil

0

5

10

**Frequency (%)**

15

20

25

With that objective, the breeding season, that usually lasts for 4 to 5 months, usually starts in August 15th in the southern hemisphere (or February 15th in the northern hemisphere). However, the percentage of mares that naturally ovulate in this period is quite low, since mares are seasonal poliestric, with the onset of the natural breeding season in spring,

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

In this sense, [15] found in Thoroughbred horses raised in Ireland (Northern Hemisphere), that the change of the beginning of the breeding season from February 15th to April 15th (hence delaying the beginning of the racing year by the same amount - January 1 to March 1), would better accommodate the natural reproductive cycle of females and could potentially increase the pregnancy rate by approximately 10% (Figure 4). Similar gains were likely to occur in countries in the southern hemisphere if the beginning of the breeding season changed from August 15th to October 15th, consecutively postponing the beginning of the racing year from July 1st to September 1st. Following this guidance, Australia postponed the beginning of the national racing year to August 1st (breeding season between September and December), mitigating the problem, although [13] considers the best

Figure 5 helps to understand the idea suggested by [13], as it represents the photoperiod in the southern hemisphere according to the latitude. It is observed that photoperiods are longer between October and February and higher percentages of ovulating mares are

associated with increases in photoperiod, temperature and food availability [7]

breeding season in that country to be between November and February.

expected, favoring successful coverings.


Source: [8]

**Table 2.** Number of observations (N), conception rates and apparent fertility according to the parturition order of Thoroughbred mares.

Additionally, in some breeds (Thoroughbred, Quarter Horse, Standardbred, etc.), the existence of the so-called Racing Year3 also contributes to the decrease in reproductive rates. This is because, in certain competitions, animals are usually grouped according to, among other parameters (awards, past performance, gender, etc.), the horse's age defined by the racing year. Thus, breeders try to get the products born closer to the beginning of the equestrian year (July 1st - southern hemisphere or January 1st - northern hemisphere) in order to seize a competitive advantage (better developed, mature and trained horses) in relation to the animals born later that year [15]. Figure 3 shows the concentration of births of Thoroughbred foals in Brazil, a country located in the southern hemisphere.

<sup>3</sup> In the southern hemisphere, an interval of 12 months between July 1st and June 31st. In northern hemisphere countries, begins on January 1st and ends in December 31st.

**Figure 3.** Percentage of Thoroughbred foal births by month in Brazil

Source: [8]

parturition order of Thoroughbred mares.

begins on January 1st and ends in December 31st.

according to parturition order.

conception in the herd, as the rate decreases progressively with increasing age [13]. Table 2 describes this aspect, illustrating the conception and apparent fertility rates (defined by [14] as the ratio of the total number of mares that conceived by the total number of mated mares and as mares that delivered living foals by the number of mated mares, respectively)

Parturition Order N Conception rate (%) Apparent fertility rate (%)

1 5.531 75 71 2 4.534 73 68 3 3.655 71 68 4 2.794 69 67 5 2.155 67 65 6 1.560 64 61 7 1.070 62 59 8 777 59 56 9 513 56 54 10 329 54 52 11 171 48 47 12 92 48 46 > 13 79 41 38

**Table 2.** Number of observations (N), conception rates and apparent fertility according to the

Thoroughbred foals in Brazil, a country located in the southern hemisphere.

Additionally, in some breeds (Thoroughbred, Quarter Horse, Standardbred, etc.), the existence of the so-called Racing Year3 also contributes to the decrease in reproductive rates. This is because, in certain competitions, animals are usually grouped according to, among other parameters (awards, past performance, gender, etc.), the horse's age defined by the racing year. Thus, breeders try to get the products born closer to the beginning of the equestrian year (July 1st - southern hemisphere or January 1st - northern hemisphere) in order to seize a competitive advantage (better developed, mature and trained horses) in relation to the animals born later that year [15]. Figure 3 shows the concentration of births of

3 In the southern hemisphere, an interval of 12 months between July 1st and June 31st. In northern hemisphere countries,

With that objective, the breeding season, that usually lasts for 4 to 5 months, usually starts in August 15th in the southern hemisphere (or February 15th in the northern hemisphere). However, the percentage of mares that naturally ovulate in this period is quite low, since mares are seasonal poliestric, with the onset of the natural breeding season in spring, associated with increases in photoperiod, temperature and food availability [7]

In this sense, [15] found in Thoroughbred horses raised in Ireland (Northern Hemisphere), that the change of the beginning of the breeding season from February 15th to April 15th (hence delaying the beginning of the racing year by the same amount - January 1 to March 1), would better accommodate the natural reproductive cycle of females and could potentially increase the pregnancy rate by approximately 10% (Figure 4). Similar gains were likely to occur in countries in the southern hemisphere if the beginning of the breeding season changed from August 15th to October 15th, consecutively postponing the beginning of the racing year from July 1st to September 1st. Following this guidance, Australia postponed the beginning of the national racing year to August 1st (breeding season between September and December), mitigating the problem, although [13] considers the best breeding season in that country to be between November and February.

Figure 5 helps to understand the idea suggested by [13], as it represents the photoperiod in the southern hemisphere according to the latitude. It is observed that photoperiods are longer between October and February and higher percentages of ovulating mares are expected, favoring successful coverings.

Some Peculiarities of Horse Breeding 41

**Breed Generation Interval (years) Reference**  Andalusian 10.1 [17] Thoroughbred 7.10 [18] Icelandic Toeler 9.7 [14] Friesian 9.6 [19] Hanoverian 8.4 [20] Mangalarga 9.5 [21] Arabian 9.7 [22] Lusitano 10.5 [23] Mangalarga Marchador 8.9 [24]

The parturition interval is the amount of time between two consecutive parturitions, including the time from the parturition until the appearance of the first heat, from the first heat to the conception and finally the duration of pregnancy. It is an important component when estimating the herds' reproductive efficiency, with great influence on the economic return and breeding, due to its effects on the generation interval and selection intensity to be

Among the domestic species, the mare has the capacity to provide fertile estrus a few days after birth, the so called foal heat. The main advantage of this phenomenon seems to be the maintenance of a 12 months foaling interval [25]. According to these authors, due to the enrollment of horses in sport activities, there is great pressure in order to have as many pregnant mares as possible in the breeding season. In this sense, efforts are made to cover mares in the foal heat. Considering the average pregnancy lasting around 11 months (see topics below) and the possibility of new pregnancy in the close postpartum days, a 12 months foaling interval would be obtained [25]. Thus, most breeders seek to take the opportunity of the foal heat, being aware that during this heat mares ovulate quickly, conception rates are lower and early embryonic mortality rate is

There is a great variation among the equine foaling intervals, depending on the breed and breeding purposes, although most studies point values greater than 365 days (Table 4).

**Breed Foaling interval (days) Reference**  Halflinger 468 [26] Thoroughbred 490 [8] Marwari 535 [27] Kathiawari 567 [27] Mangalarga Marchador 548 [24] Arabian 387 [7]

**Table 3.** Generation intervals from a few equine breeds

**Table 4.** Foaling intervals in some equine breeds

applied.

higher [8].

**Figure 4.** Percentage of mares ovulating by month in the northern hemisphere (adapted from [15])

**Figure 5.** Photoperiods for different degrees south latitude (adapted from [16])


Generation interval represents the time needed to replace the next generation, and the shorter it is, the greater the expected annual gene change rate. Thus, considering that in horses this interval varies from 8 to 12 years, overall genetic changes due to selection tend to be slower when compared to cattle (4-6 years), sheep (3-5 years) pigs (1.5 to 2 years) and birds (1 to 1.5 years). Sportive breeds, in which reproductive technologies are not permitted, typically show higher ranges as the superior performance animals, especially females, usually start into reproduction after the end of their competitive life.

The generation intervals of some equine breeds are described in Table 3.


**Table 3.** Generation intervals from a few equine breeds

0

20

40

60

Ovulation Mares (%)

80

100

**Figure 4.** Percentage of mares ovulating by month in the northern hemisphere (adapted from [15])

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Month

**Figure 5.** Photoperiods for different degrees south latitude (adapted from [16])

usually start into reproduction after the end of their competitive life.

The generation intervals of some equine breeds are described in Table 3.

Generation interval represents the time needed to replace the next generation, and the shorter it is, the greater the expected annual gene change rate. Thus, considering that in horses this interval varies from 8 to 12 years, overall genetic changes due to selection tend to be slower when compared to cattle (4-6 years), sheep (3-5 years) pigs (1.5 to 2 years) and birds (1 to 1.5 years). Sportive breeds, in which reproductive technologies are not permitted, typically show higher ranges as the superior performance animals, especially females,

Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb M ar Apr Ma y Jun


The parturition interval is the amount of time between two consecutive parturitions, including the time from the parturition until the appearance of the first heat, from the first heat to the conception and finally the duration of pregnancy. It is an important component when estimating the herds' reproductive efficiency, with great influence on the economic return and breeding, due to its effects on the generation interval and selection intensity to be applied.

Among the domestic species, the mare has the capacity to provide fertile estrus a few days after birth, the so called foal heat. The main advantage of this phenomenon seems to be the maintenance of a 12 months foaling interval [25]. According to these authors, due to the enrollment of horses in sport activities, there is great pressure in order to have as many pregnant mares as possible in the breeding season. In this sense, efforts are made to cover mares in the foal heat. Considering the average pregnancy lasting around 11 months (see topics below) and the possibility of new pregnancy in the close postpartum days, a 12 months foaling interval would be obtained [25]. Thus, most breeders seek to take the opportunity of the foal heat, being aware that during this heat mares ovulate quickly, conception rates are lower and early embryonic mortality rate is higher [8].

There is a great variation among the equine foaling intervals, depending on the breed and breeding purposes, although most studies point values greater than 365 days (Table 4).


**Table 4.** Foaling intervals in some equine breeds


Although the duration of a pregnancy isn't directly associated with a breeding farm's production costs, its study may be extremely important in the preparation of breeding plans. Some Peculiarities of Horse Breeding 43

**3.2. Other aspects** 

breeding programs [5].



Europe only 711 transfers were done in horses [39].


feature of economic importance [40].

Breeders and Owners Horse Racing - Stud Book.

*authorized in advance by the Brazilian Stud Book "* 

countries and monitor their actual benefit for the horse population.

Although reproductive technologies (artificial insemination and embryo transfer) make possible different practical advantages such as lower disease and injury transmission, longterm storage of genetic material, easier transportation, earlier onset of reproduction in females and, in the case of embryo transfer, reproduction during the sports career, in the context of animal breeding they are usually considered additional tools to optimize

The commercial impact of these techniques in horses varies greatly. For example, in Thoroughbred horses meant for racing, the use of artificial insemination4 is officially banned worldwide, while in several sportive breeds, especially in Europe, the percentage of inseminated animals exceeds 80% (French Saddle Horse - 84%, Hanoverian - 91% Holsteiner

On the other hand, according to the International Embryo Transfer Society (IETS) the higher number of embryo transfers occur in the United States, Argentina and Brazil, in order of importance, countries which together represent over 90% of the activities in this area worldwide. In 2005, 5,700 embryos were transferred in Brazil, none frozen, while across

In this context, it is observed that, although several countries present a prominent role in the worldwide scenario with respect to the use of these reproductive biotechniques, especially embryo transfer, there are few studies about their impact (generation interval, accuracy, selective intensity, inbreeding) on horses breeding programs. Research in this subject would be important to understand the direction that has been given to these tools in different

A fundamental requirement for any breeding scheme aiming the improvement of quantitative traits is the establishment of the breeding objectives, involving the relative values of genetic change for all desirable features included in the breeding program. Typically, these values are expressed in monetary terms as weights to be applied to each

However, few scientific studies have been performed in order to obtain economic weights for traits involved in horse selection programs, were a combination of empirical experience, some biological factors and intuition of designers prevail. There are a few reasons for that.

4 Indeed, in exceptional cases may occur insemination as set forth in Article 25 of the Rules of the Association of

*"The fecundation of mares can only be made by direct sexual contact, not admitting artificial insemination, but may exceptionally be authorized by the Brazilian Stud Book, by virtue of proven physical impairment of the player, the use of immediate reinforcement with fresh semen collected during the coverage. This procedure, when authorized, will be held only by a veterinarian* 

The gestation period can be defined as the time between fertilization of egg and the fetus' delivery. According to [28], the average duration of a mare's pregnancy is typically 340 days, ranging from 300 to 400 days. This wide time range until the birth of the foals indicates that mares may be highly susceptible to both internal and external factors afecting the duration of the pregnancy [29]. The ages of mare and stallion, year and month of birth, breeding season, foal sex, breed and nutritional status are factors that should be considered in the study of the pregnancy's duration [28].

Studies focusing the stallion used on coverings also deserve special attention when studying the pregnancy period in mares. The pregnancy's duration for females mated with specific stallions may be a criterion when choosing the stallion. This is because when a mare is bred late in a breeding season, yet the owner wants to mate her during this season, choosing a stallion associated with shorter pregnancy durations may be profitable [28].

Working with horses in the northern hemisphere [30] observed that the mating season was the most important factor affecting the duration of pregnancy in mares. According to these authors, the pregnancies that derived from mating during the period from December to May were 10.4 days longer than those derived from mating from June to November.

Studying Arab mares in Egypt, [31] observed that pregnancies with longer durations were the ones that ended in the winter, suggesting that the mares seem to be able to adapt the length of the gestation so the births happen in spring, which may be important for the survival of the species in the wild.


**Table 5.** Gestation periods in some equine breeds

Regardless of the discrepancy between studies and breeds, mares have a relatively long gestation period compared to other domestic species such as cattle (270-290 days), goats (145- 151 days), sheep (144-152 days), pigs (112-115 days) and buffalo (298-317 days). Furthermore, as a uniparous species, twins (or multiple) are rare in mares, incidence varying from 0.5 to 1.6% of parturitions [38], so that the annual availability of animals for selection is comparatively small.

#### **3.2. Other aspects**

42 Livestock Production

in the study of the pregnancy's duration [28].

survival of the species in the wild.

**Table 5.** Gestation periods in some equine breeds


Although the duration of a pregnancy isn't directly associated with a breeding farm's production costs, its study may be extremely important in the preparation of breeding plans. The gestation period can be defined as the time between fertilization of egg and the fetus' delivery. According to [28], the average duration of a mare's pregnancy is typically 340 days, ranging from 300 to 400 days. This wide time range until the birth of the foals indicates that mares may be highly susceptible to both internal and external factors afecting the duration of the pregnancy [29]. The ages of mare and stallion, year and month of birth, breeding season, foal sex, breed and nutritional status are factors that should be considered

Studies focusing the stallion used on coverings also deserve special attention when studying the pregnancy period in mares. The pregnancy's duration for females mated with specific stallions may be a criterion when choosing the stallion. This is because when a mare is bred late in a breeding season, yet the owner wants to mate her during this season, choosing a

Working with horses in the northern hemisphere [30] observed that the mating season was the most important factor affecting the duration of pregnancy in mares. According to these authors, the pregnancies that derived from mating during the period from December to May

Studying Arab mares in Egypt, [31] observed that pregnancies with longer durations were the ones that ended in the winter, suggesting that the mares seem to be able to adapt the length of the gestation so the births happen in spring, which may be important for the

Regardless of the discrepancy between studies and breeds, mares have a relatively long gestation period compared to other domestic species such as cattle (270-290 days), goats (145- 151 days), sheep (144-152 days), pigs (112-115 days) and buffalo (298-317 days). Furthermore, as a uniparous species, twins (or multiple) are rare in mares, incidence varying from 0.5 to 1.6% of parturitions [38], so that the annual availability of animals for selection is comparatively small.

stallion associated with shorter pregnancy durations may be profitable [28].

were 10.4 days longer than those derived from mating from June to November.

**Breed Gestation period (days) Reference**  Carthusian 332 [32] Thoroughbred/Quarter Horse 341 [33] Andalusian 336 [34] Standardbred 349 [35] Mangalarga Marchador 327 [24] Arabian 334 [7] Criollo 335 [36] Freiberger 336 [37]

#### - Use of reproductive technologies

Although reproductive technologies (artificial insemination and embryo transfer) make possible different practical advantages such as lower disease and injury transmission, longterm storage of genetic material, easier transportation, earlier onset of reproduction in females and, in the case of embryo transfer, reproduction during the sports career, in the context of animal breeding they are usually considered additional tools to optimize breeding programs [5].

The commercial impact of these techniques in horses varies greatly. For example, in Thoroughbred horses meant for racing, the use of artificial insemination4 is officially banned worldwide, while in several sportive breeds, especially in Europe, the percentage of inseminated animals exceeds 80% (French Saddle Horse - 84%, Hanoverian - 91% Holsteiner - 95%, Belgian and Dutch Warmblood - over 95%) [5].

On the other hand, according to the International Embryo Transfer Society (IETS) the higher number of embryo transfers occur in the United States, Argentina and Brazil, in order of importance, countries which together represent over 90% of the activities in this area worldwide. In 2005, 5,700 embryos were transferred in Brazil, none frozen, while across Europe only 711 transfers were done in horses [39].

In this context, it is observed that, although several countries present a prominent role in the worldwide scenario with respect to the use of these reproductive biotechniques, especially embryo transfer, there are few studies about their impact (generation interval, accuracy, selective intensity, inbreeding) on horses breeding programs. Research in this subject would be important to understand the direction that has been given to these tools in different countries and monitor their actual benefit for the horse population.


A fundamental requirement for any breeding scheme aiming the improvement of quantitative traits is the establishment of the breeding objectives, involving the relative values of genetic change for all desirable features included in the breeding program. Typically, these values are expressed in monetary terms as weights to be applied to each feature of economic importance [40].

However, few scientific studies have been performed in order to obtain economic weights for traits involved in horse selection programs, were a combination of empirical experience, some biological factors and intuition of designers prevail. There are a few reasons for that.

<sup>4</sup> Indeed, in exceptional cases may occur insemination as set forth in Article 25 of the Rules of the Association of Breeders and Owners Horse Racing - Stud Book.

*<sup>&</sup>quot;The fecundation of mares can only be made by direct sexual contact, not admitting artificial insemination, but may exceptionally be authorized by the Brazilian Stud Book, by virtue of proven physical impairment of the player, the use of immediate reinforcement with fresh semen collected during the coverage. This procedure, when authorized, will be held only by a veterinarian authorized in advance by the Brazilian Stud Book "* 

It's often very difficult to determine, in horses, the value of one unit of expression for a given trait in relation to the animal's total value. Economically quantifying units for traits such as speed, dressage, jumping, etc., is far more complex than attributing values to liters of milk, kilos of meat or wool.

Some Peculiarities of Horse Breeding 45

[3] Mulliez J (1983) Les chevaux du royaume. Ed Montalba, 385p.

Thoroughbred horse breeding. Ann. Zootech. 45:41-51.

Jaboticabal, 45 p.

92-98.

Science, 82:982–986.

[4] Langlois B (1996) A consideration of the genetic aspects of some current practices in

[5] Bruns EW (2008) Horse Breeding in Germany. In: Horse breeding and genetics course, class notes. Graduation Program on Animal Breeding and Genetics, Unesp/FCAV,

[6] IFHA (2012) International Federation of Horseracing Authorities, Statistical

[7] Cilek S (2009) The Survey of reproductive success in Arabian horse breeding from 1976-2007 at Anadolu State Farm in Turkey. Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances 8:389-396. [8] Taveira R Z, Mota MDS (2007) Genetic and quantitative evaluation of breeding traits in

[9] Mota MDS (2005) Avaliação populacional da raça Mangalarga. In: Reunião do Conselho Técnico da Associação Brasileira de Criadores do Cavalo Mangalarga, Ribeirão Preto 63p. [10] Zúccari CESN, Nunes DB, Costa e Silva EV (2004) Harém Pantaneiro sob monta natural a campo na Região do Rio Negro, Pantanal, MS. In: Anais, IV Simpósio sobre Recursos

[11] Sullivan J J, Turner PC, Self LC, Gutteridge HB, Bartlett DE (1975) Survey of reproductive efficiency in the Quarter-Horse and Thoroughbred. J. Reprod. Fert. Suppl. 23: 315-318. [12] Jackson RS (1971) Equine infertility. Preliminary report on a survey of courses taken by

[13] Bailey CJ (1998) Wastage in the Australian Thoroughbred Racing Industry. Rural

[14] Hugason K, Arnason TH, Jónmundsson JV (1985) A note on the fertility and some demographical parameters of Icelandic toelter horses. Livest. Prod. Sci. 12: 161-167. [15] Cunningham EP (1991) The Genetics of Thoroughbred Horses. Scientific American 264:

[16] Diven D (2000) Keys to the low cost/calf program. Missouri forage and grassland

http://agebb.missouri.edu/mfgc/2000mtg/lowcost.htm. Acessed 2011 November 22. [17] Valera M, Molina A, Gutiérrez JP, Gómez J, Goyache F (2005) Pedigree analysis in the Andalusian horse: Population structure, genetic variability and influence of the

[18] Taveira RZ, Mota MDS, Oliveira HN (2004) Population parameter in Brazilian

[19] Sevinga M, Vrijenhoek T, Hesselink JW, Barkema HW, Groen AF (2004) Effect of inbreeding on the incidence of retained placenta in Friesian horses. Journal of Animal

[20] [20] Hamann H, Distl O (2008) Genetic variability in Hanoverian Warmblood horses

[21] Mota MDS, Almeida Prado RS, Sobreiro J (2006) Caracterização da população de

[22] Moureaux S, Verrier E, Ricard A, Meriaux JC (1996) Genetic variability within French race and riding horse breeds from genealogical data and blood marker polymorphism.

Information, Available: www.IFHAOnline.org. Acessed 2012 May 5.

Thoroughbred mares. Revista Eletrónica de Veterinaria 8:1-11.

Naturais e Sócio-econômicos do Pantanal. Corumbá, 1-4.

Industries Research & Development Corporation, No 98/52, 67p.

council Annual meeting, Lake Ozark, Missouri, 2000. Available:

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using pedigree analysis. Journal of Animal Science 86:1503-13.

cavalos Mangalarga no Brasil. Archivos de Zootecnia, 55: 31-37.

Thoroughbred. J. Anim. Breed. Genet. 121: 384-391.

Genetics Selection and Evolution 28: 83–102.

the A.A.E.P. Newsletter Am. Ass. Equine Pract.

The long period of time between mating and expressig the traits of interest in the progeny, besides the difficulties in determining an appropriate function for profitability, provide part of this deficiency. Moreover, according to recent authors, another problem arises from the fact that not always the relative economic weights are linear in a breeding program. Thus, the amount of increase in the genotype for certain character can be strongly dependent on the values of other genetic traits. For example, in horses with outstanding ability to jump, the additional genetic values affecting their training capability is almost neglected, whereas in animals with a low ability to jump, a genotype corresponding to training characteristics can greatly increase its value.


There are equine breeds that are commonly selected by breeder in only one direction, as is the case of the Thoroughbred, where the objective is basically to obtain animals with superior performance in races. In Quarter horses, in addition to races, performance in work tests and conformation may also be targets of breeders since the race is subdivided amongst these strains.

Moreover, in breeds in which animals are involved in a wide variety of uses (work on farms, horseback riding, trekking, exhibitions, equine therapy, equestrian tourism, unskilled riding sports, etc.) breeders seek very different traits, depending on the purpose of raising the animal, hindering the implementation of breeding programs that cover all segments. Brazilian breeds such as the Mangalarga and the Mangalarga Marchador fall into this category.

In these cases, studies involving quantitative and molecular aspects of traits that can meet the desire for the greater proportion of breeders can result in meaningful contributions to selection of reproductive, behavioral, immunological and other traits.

## **Author details**

Marcilio Dias Silveira da Mota *Department of Animal Breeding and Nutrition, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Sao Paulo State, Botucatu/SP, Brazil* 

Luciana Correia de Almeida Regitano *Animal Molecular Genetics, Embrapa Southeast Cattle, Sao Carlos/SP, Brazil* 

## **4. References**


[3] Mulliez J (1983) Les chevaux du royaume. Ed Montalba, 385p.

44 Livestock Production

of milk, kilos of meat or wool.

can greatly increase its value.

**Author details** 

**4. References** 

Marcilio Dias Silveira da Mota

*University of Sao Paulo State, Botucatu/SP, Brazil* 

Luciana Correia de Almeida Regitano


It's often very difficult to determine, in horses, the value of one unit of expression for a given trait in relation to the animal's total value. Economically quantifying units for traits such as speed, dressage, jumping, etc., is far more complex than attributing values to liters

The long period of time between mating and expressig the traits of interest in the progeny, besides the difficulties in determining an appropriate function for profitability, provide part of this deficiency. Moreover, according to recent authors, another problem arises from the fact that not always the relative economic weights are linear in a breeding program. Thus, the amount of increase in the genotype for certain character can be strongly dependent on the values of other genetic traits. For example, in horses with outstanding ability to jump, the additional genetic values affecting their training capability is almost neglected, whereas in animals with a low ability to jump, a genotype corresponding to training characteristics

There are equine breeds that are commonly selected by breeder in only one direction, as is the case of the Thoroughbred, where the objective is basically to obtain animals with superior performance in races. In Quarter horses, in addition to races, performance in work tests and conformation may also be targets of breeders since the race is subdivided amongst these strains. Moreover, in breeds in which animals are involved in a wide variety of uses (work on farms, horseback riding, trekking, exhibitions, equine therapy, equestrian tourism, unskilled riding sports, etc.) breeders seek very different traits, depending on the purpose of raising the animal, hindering the implementation of breeding programs that cover all segments. Brazilian breeds

In these cases, studies involving quantitative and molecular aspects of traits that can meet the desire for the greater proportion of breeders can result in meaningful contributions to

*Department of Animal Breeding and Nutrition, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science,* 

[1] GHILPA (2011) The Global Livestock Production and Health Atlas. Available:

[2] FAO (2011) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Available: http://faostat.fao.org/site/569/default.aspx#ancor. Acessed 2011 November 22.

such as the Mangalarga and the Mangalarga Marchador fall into this category.

selection of reproductive, behavioral, immunological and other traits.

*Animal Molecular Genetics, Embrapa Southeast Cattle, Sao Carlos/SP, Brazil* 

http://kids.fao.org/glipha/. Acessed 2011 November 20.


[23] Vicente AA, Carolino N, Gama LT (2012) Genetic diversity in the Lusitano horse breed assessed by pedigree analysis. Livestock Science – in press.

**Chapter 3** 

© 2012 Bell et al., licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2012 Bell et al., licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The dairy industry has made large advances in efficiencies over the past 60 years as a result of changes in breeding, nutrition and management practices [1]. To meet the growing demand for dairy products, which is projected to continue out to the year 2050 [2], milk production per cow has increased over the last thirty years primarily by genetic selection and better nutrition. Genetic selection has tended to focus on mostly production traits (kilograms milk, kilograms fat and protein) rather than fitness (lameness, mastitis, fertility and lifespan) traits, although most countries now include fitness traits in addition to production traits in modern breeding goals. The Holstein Friesian is a popular breed due to its high genetic potential to produce milk; however it is characterised by having a lower body condition score, and reduced fertility and survival compared to other breeds [3]. Even with these negative attributes, in tandem with efficiencies in production in recent decades have come reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and resource inputs per unit

The main GHGs attributed to livestock systems are methane and nitrous oxide emissions [6]. Due to the variability in lifespan of gases in the atmosphere and the ability of gases to reflect and trap radiant energy, the average potential of a GHG to warm the earth's near-surface air is expressed in carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2-eq.) emissions (its global warming potential). Methane and nitrous oxide are capable of trapping about 25 and 298 times more radiant energy respectively, over a 100-year time horizon, than one kilogram of carbon dioxide [6]. The dairy sector's total CO2-eq. emissions are estimated to be 4% of total global GHG emissions, of which, about half are methane and a third nitrous oxide emissions [2].

The main benefits of selection to improve production efficiencies are by increased productivity and gross efficiency (i.e. the ratio of yield of milk to resource input) by firstly, diluting the maintenance cost of animals in the system and secondly, less animals are

**Breeding Dairy Cows to Reduce** 

**Greenhouse Gas Emissions** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

product [1, 4, 5], while emissions per unit area have increased.

M.J. Bell, R.J. Eckard and J.E. Pryce

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50395

**1. Introduction** 


the horse. Cab Publising. pp. 473-497.

**Chapter 3** 
