**4.3. Changes at local scale in three study cases: Shrub encroachment, agricultural abandonment and urban development**

As we had mentioned above three areas have been selected for a more detailed analyse (1:12,500 scale). The results obtained are showed below:

#### *4.3.1. Cerceda: Open woodland and shrub encroachment*

236 Cartography – A Tool for Spatial Analysis

**Figure 5.** Categories or degrees of dynamism

(b); Torrelodones, urban development (c).

located the third, very dynamic area (Fuencarral), over sedimentary materials, with

**Figure 6.** Orthophotographies. Cerceda, scrub encroachment (a); Fuencarral, agricultural abandonment

significant changes in agricultural uses (Figure 1 and Figures 5 and 6).

In Cerceda (Figure 7), there was no difference in R (u) so the number and type of land uses are the same along time. However, there had been some changes in the land use's relative abundance as showed diversity H´(u) and evenness E(u) values (Table 5). The changes in land uses over time have transformed the territory. One of them is dominant, the increase of understory density (Figure 8). These changes in surface are associated to pastures abandonment and the decrease of sheep and goat livestock. Woodland encroachment generated a mixed forest of *Juniperus*, *Quercus* and *Cistus*, with different densities: high density (1975: 15%; 2009: 30%) and medium density (1975: 25%; 2009: 40%). In particular the increase of open woodland areas is associated to intensification with beef cattle or bucking bulls. This intensification is determinant in the phytostructure of medium understory density in open woodland (30%, 1975 / 50%, 2009).

**Figure 7.** *Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. oxycedrus* and *Quercus ilex* subsp *ballota* open woodlands and farms in Cerceda.


**Table 6.** Values of Richness R(u), Diversity H'(u) and Evenness E(u) of land uses in Cerceda, Fuencarral and Torrelodones

Cartography of Landscape Dynamics in Central Spain 239

**1975 2009** 

1975 2009

13 11

**TOTAL 56 62** 

2009. So the exchange of matter and energy between patches it wasn't modify (Table 6). Finally, territorial connectivity presented the highest values of the three cases. This is an area with few transformations by anthropic uses and that maintains the same vegetation

**Figure 9.** Relative frequency profile of land uses of each year in Cerceda. The codes and the land uses

1 2 3 4 5 7 8 11 20 23

**Code Land use Number of patches** 

20 Agricultural and livestock settlements 6 13 1 *Q. ilex* subps. *ballota* Dehesa (high density of scattered trees) 4 5

scattered trees) 8 11 3 *Fraxinus angustifolia* Dehesa 2 2 23 Motorways 1 1

and *Cistus laurifolius* (high density woodland) 4 4

and *Cistus laurifolius* (intermediate density woodland) 3 3

7 Riparian forest 2 9 8 Shrubby riparian vegetation 7 1

**Table 7.** Fragmentation value of each land use measured as number of patches in Cerceda. This

<sup>2</sup>*Q. ilex* subps. *ballota* Dehesa (intermediate density of

<sup>4</sup>*Juniperus oxycedrus* subsp. *oxycedrus*, *Q. ilex* subps. *ballota*

<sup>5</sup>*Juniperus oxycedrus* subsp. *oxycedrus, Q. ilex* subps. *ballota* 

<sup>11</sup>Pastures with scattered *Q. ilex* subps. *ballota* y *J. oxycedrus* 

parameter has been calculated in 1975 and 2009.

types in both dates (Figure 8).

are the same for Table 6

0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00

trees

**Figure 8.** Land uses (1975-2009) and ecological connectivity in Cerceda

Fragmentation measured as total number of patches was significantly higher in 2009 than in 1975. The territory showed no changes and conserved the same permeability in 1975 and in 2009. So the exchange of matter and energy between patches it wasn't modify (Table 6). Finally, territorial connectivity presented the highest values of the three cases. This is an area with few transformations by anthropic uses and that maintains the same vegetation types in both dates (Figure 8).

238 Cartography – A Tool for Spatial Analysis

**Figure 8.** Land uses (1975-2009) and ecological connectivity in Cerceda

Fragmentation measured as total number of patches was significantly higher in 2009 than in 1975. The territory showed no changes and conserved the same permeability in 1975 and in



**Table 7.** Fragmentation value of each land use measured as number of patches in Cerceda. This parameter has been calculated in 1975 and 2009.

#### *4.3.2. Fuencarral: Road infrastructures and urban pressure vs. agricultural abandonment*

Cartography of Landscape Dynamics in Central Spain 241

**Figure 11.** Land uses (1975-2009) and ecological connectivity in Fuencarral

In the Fuencarral area (Figure 10) still stand the Richness R (u) at both dates (13). The values had certain variations in the H´(u) (1975: 2.05; 2009: 2.97) and E (u) (1975: 0.55; 2009: 0.80). These values showed an increase of landscape heterogeneity. It was also decisive the transformation of an agricultural environment with productive small and medium land parcels in 1975 (Figure 11) in an area characterized for high density of road infrastructures and the abandonment of traditional land uses in 2009 (Figure 12). Furthermore, percentage occupied for wastelands with fruit trees of *Ficus carica, Amygdalus communis* and *Vitis vitifera*  and *Triticum/Hordeum* spp. is significant (1975: >50%; 2009: 10%). In 2009 traditional Mediterranean mosaic of land uses disappeared (fruit trees, dry farming crops, wastelands and scrublands) and was replaced by dry farming crops or wastelands with low-productivity. Shrub lands and wastelands had increased their surface area in 2009 especially in wastelands with *Retama sphaerocarpa* (20%) and shrub lands (5%). In many cases is difficult to distinguish between dry farming crops and wastelands on ortophotography. However wasteland's surface took a progressive reduced and transformed in non productive areas. In 2009 riparian forest area increased while in 1975 was fragmented (Table 7).

We analyzed that total patches number has been decreased between 1975 and 2009. Due to agricultural abandonment a homogeneous landscape was generated. Particularly this type of landscape maintains a great diversity of land uses, wastelands and habitats well preserved that have and interesting role such as ecological and territorial connectors [61]. In this area the connectivity at edges has decreased due to increase of road infrastructure and urban development.

**Figure 10.** Countryside with fruit trees and crops in Fuencarral

was fragmented (Table 7).

urban development.

**Figure 10.** Countryside with fruit trees and crops in Fuencarral

*4.3.2. Fuencarral: Road infrastructures and urban pressure vs. agricultural abandonment* 

In the Fuencarral area (Figure 10) still stand the Richness R (u) at both dates (13). The values had certain variations in the H´(u) (1975: 2.05; 2009: 2.97) and E (u) (1975: 0.55; 2009: 0.80). These values showed an increase of landscape heterogeneity. It was also decisive the transformation of an agricultural environment with productive small and medium land parcels in 1975 (Figure 11) in an area characterized for high density of road infrastructures and the abandonment of traditional land uses in 2009 (Figure 12). Furthermore, percentage occupied for wastelands with fruit trees of *Ficus carica, Amygdalus communis* and *Vitis vitifera*  and *Triticum/Hordeum* spp. is significant (1975: >50%; 2009: 10%). In 2009 traditional Mediterranean mosaic of land uses disappeared (fruit trees, dry farming crops, wastelands and scrublands) and was replaced by dry farming crops or wastelands with low-productivity. Shrub lands and wastelands had increased their surface area in 2009 especially in wastelands with *Retama sphaerocarpa* (20%) and shrub lands (5%). In many cases is difficult to distinguish between dry farming crops and wastelands on ortophotography. However wasteland's surface took a progressive reduced and transformed in non productive areas. In 2009 riparian forest area increased while in 1975

We analyzed that total patches number has been decreased between 1975 and 2009. Due to agricultural abandonment a homogeneous landscape was generated. Particularly this type of landscape maintains a great diversity of land uses, wastelands and habitats well preserved that have and interesting role such as ecological and territorial connectors [61]. In this area the connectivity at edges has decreased due to increase of road infrastructure and

**Figure 11.** Land uses (1975-2009) and ecological connectivity in Fuencarral

Cartography of Landscape Dynamics in Central Spain 243

landscape. The R (u) (1975: 12; 2009: 10) and E (u) (1975: 0.78; 2009: 0.75) values were almost unchanged (Table 5 and figure 15). The most important changes (Figure 14) were located in urban areas consolidated between both dates (2009: > 30%; 1975: 15%). The surface of mixture arborescens or shrubby woodlands with high density (*Juniperus*, *Cistus*, *Quercus*) decreased (1975: 20%; 2009: < 10%) and were replacement with urban areas. Into intermediate density woodlands the process is the contrary with a slight increase (2009: 30%). In this example values corresponded to disturbed areas near of urban areas or changes

As for fragmentation, although patches number decreased in 2009, the territory was more anthropic concentrating such growth in this sector analyzed in conjunction with the boundary of the PNA (Table 8 and Figure 14). This produced a boundary effect preventing the exchange of matter and energy in that direction and causing isolation of the territory whose consequences have been already indicated by several authors: loss of diversity and of species, less permeability, worst energy flow, etc. [62-64]. Such an example it was the large increase of road infrastructures in 2009 more greater than 1975. This is especially significant with N-VI, nowadays a highway that introduced fragmentation and negatives effects over territory (Figure 14). The connectivity of the territory is also affected overtime, showing a loss of permeability that results in a lower exchange of individuals between populations, lower the persistence of local and regional populations, increasing the rate of extinction and reducing the rate of colonization. Landscape connectivity favours not only movements of animal species, but also of plant and material and energy flows [65-67]. Therefore shows a loss of connectivity and increased fragmentation with the passage of time which is located predominantly in the edge of the ENP. This causes a barrier effect in that direction forcing the processes and natural movements to move into the space where connectivity is

in livestock production (beef cattle into extensive o semi-extensive pastoral system).

maintained higher and less fragmentation.

**Figure 13.** Single-family housing at the western edge of PNA (Torrelodones)

**Figure 12.** Relative frequency profile of land uses of each year in Fuencarral. The codes and the land uses are the same for Table 7.


**Table 8.** Fragmentation value of each land use measured as number of patches in Fuencarral. This parameter has been calculated in 1975 and 2009.

#### *4.3.3. Torrelodones: Urban development in a PNA*

Urban development was the more significant process in Torrelodones area (Figure 3) The H´(u) values (1975: 2.81; 2009: 2.49) are remarkable and these, added homogeneity to landscape. The R (u) (1975: 12; 2009: 10) and E (u) (1975: 0.78; 2009: 0.75) values were almost unchanged (Table 5 and figure 15). The most important changes (Figure 14) were located in urban areas consolidated between both dates (2009: > 30%; 1975: 15%). The surface of mixture arborescens or shrubby woodlands with high density (*Juniperus*, *Cistus*, *Quercus*) decreased (1975: 20%; 2009: < 10%) and were replacement with urban areas. Into intermediate density woodlands the process is the contrary with a slight increase (2009: 30%). In this example values corresponded to disturbed areas near of urban areas or changes in livestock production (beef cattle into extensive o semi-extensive pastoral system).

242 Cartography – A Tool for Spatial Analysis

uses are the same for Table 7.

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

parameter has been calculated in 1975 and 2009.

*4.3.3. Torrelodones: Urban development in a PNA* 

**Figure 12.** Relative frequency profile of land uses of each year in Fuencarral. The codes and the land

6 7 8 9 10 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 20 21 23

**Code Land use Number of patches** 

20 Agricultural and livestock settlements 36 29 15 Irrigated crops 0 1 14 Dry farming crops 13 6 6 Reforestation 14 13 13 Wasteland 3 10 12 Wasteland with fruit trees 5 9 18 Dump 2 8 12 Fruit trees, dry farming crops and wasteland 22 0 17 Fruits crops 15 0 23 Motorways 2 1 9 *Retama sphaerocarpa* shrubland 6 2 10 Wasteland with *Retama sphaerocarpa* 0 3 7 Riparian forest 4 1 8 Shrubby riparian vegetation 1 2 21 Urban area 2 8

**Table 8.** Fragmentation value of each land use measured as number of patches in Fuencarral. This

Urban development was the more significant process in Torrelodones area (Figure 3) The H´(u) values (1975: 2.81; 2009: 2.49) are remarkable and these, added homogeneity to

**1975 2009** 

1975 2009

**TOTAL 125 96** 

As for fragmentation, although patches number decreased in 2009, the territory was more anthropic concentrating such growth in this sector analyzed in conjunction with the boundary of the PNA (Table 8 and Figure 14). This produced a boundary effect preventing the exchange of matter and energy in that direction and causing isolation of the territory whose consequences have been already indicated by several authors: loss of diversity and of species, less permeability, worst energy flow, etc. [62-64]. Such an example it was the large increase of road infrastructures in 2009 more greater than 1975. This is especially significant with N-VI, nowadays a highway that introduced fragmentation and negatives effects over territory (Figure 14). The connectivity of the territory is also affected overtime, showing a loss of permeability that results in a lower exchange of individuals between populations, lower the persistence of local and regional populations, increasing the rate of extinction and reducing the rate of colonization. Landscape connectivity favours not only movements of animal species, but also of plant and material and energy flows [65-67]. Therefore shows a loss of connectivity and increased fragmentation with the passage of time which is located predominantly in the edge of the ENP. This causes a barrier effect in that direction forcing the processes and natural movements to move into the space where connectivity is maintained higher and less fragmentation.

**Figure 13.** Single-family housing at the western edge of PNA (Torrelodones)

Cartography of Landscape Dynamics in Central Spain 245

**1975 2009** 

1975 2009

10 15

**TOTAL 148 104** 

**Figure 15.** Relative frequency profile of land uses of each year in Torrelodones. The codes and the land

1 2 4 5 7 8 11 18 19 20 21 22

**Code Land use Number of patches** 

20 Agricultural and livestock settlements 15 5

19 Reservoir 1 1 22 Areas under urban development 6 0 18 Dump 1 0

scattered trees) 8 4

density of scattered trees) 16 17

*Cistus laurifolius* (high density woodland) 12 7

*Cistus laurifolius* (intermadiate density woodland) 8 4

7 Riparian forest 6 6 8 Shrubby riparian vegetation 4 5 21 Urban area 9 12

**Table 9.** Fragmentation value of each land use measured as number of patches in Torrelodones. This

<sup>1</sup>*Quercus ilex* subsp. *ballota* Dehesa (high density of

<sup>2</sup>*Quercus ilex* subsp. *ballota* Dehesa (intermediate

<sup>4</sup>*Juniperus oxycedrus* , *Quercus ilex* subsp. *ballota* and

<sup>5</sup>*Juniperus oxycedrus, Quercus ilex* subsp. *ballota* and

*oxycedrus* subsp. *oxycedrus* trees

parameter has been calculated in 1975 and 2009.

<sup>11</sup>Pastures with scattered *Quercus ilex* subsp. *ballota* y *J.* 

uses are the same for Table 8.

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00

**Figure 14.** Land uses (1975-2009) and ecological connectivity in Torrelodones

**Figure 14.** Land uses (1975-2009) and ecological connectivity in Torrelodones

**Figure 15.** Relative frequency profile of land uses of each year in Torrelodones. The codes and the land uses are the same for Table 8.


**Table 9.** Fragmentation value of each land use measured as number of patches in Torrelodones. This parameter has been calculated in 1975 and 2009.

#### **5. Conclusions**

This paper shows the multiscalar and multidisciplinary methods applied in landscape analysis using ecological, geographical and cartographical techniques. At PNA scale the comparative analysis of the vegetation and land use maps enabled us to identify five main change dynamics in the territory: urban development, scrub encroachment, forest encroachment, agricultural abandonment and new crops. Most of these dynamics were consequence of the abandonment of traditional activities or the increase in urbanised areas.

Cartography of Landscape Dynamics in Central Spain 247

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For a detailed scale three study cases were chosen. In Cerceda open woodland and shrub encroachment were more significant dynamics. Fragmentation measured was significantly higher in 2009 than in 1975 and conserved the same permeability. This is an area with few transformations by anthropic uses and that maintains the same vegetation types in both dates. The increase of road infrastructures, urban pressure and agricultural abandonment generated a homogeneous landscape in Fuencarral. This type maintains (2009) a great diversity of land uses, wastelands and habitats well preserved that have and interesting role such as ecological and territorial connectors. The most important changes in Torrelodones were located in urban areas consolidated between 1975 and 2009. At northwest edge N-VI highway introduced fragmentation and negatives effects with loss of permeability and connectivity.

## **Author details**

N. López-Estébanez and F. Allende *Department of Geography, Autónoma University of Madrid, Francisco Tomás y Valiente, Madrid, Spain* 

P. Fernández-Sañudo and M.J. Roldán Martín *Environmental Research Centre of Madrid Region, Madrid-Colmenar Viejo, Soto de Viñuelas, Tres Cantos, Spain* 

P. De Las Heras *Department of Ecology, Complutense University of Madrid, Faculty of Biology, José Antonio Novais s/n, Madrid, Spain* 

## **Acknowledgement**

This research was partially funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia (projects CSO2009-12225-C05-02 and CSO2009-14116-C03-0102956-BOS).

#### **6. References**

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[2] GIS (1997): FRAGSTATS\*ARC User's Manual. Available: www.innovativegis.com/ products/fragstatsarc

246 Cartography – A Tool for Spatial Analysis

This paper shows the multiscalar and multidisciplinary methods applied in landscape analysis using ecological, geographical and cartographical techniques. At PNA scale the comparative analysis of the vegetation and land use maps enabled us to identify five main change dynamics in the territory: urban development, scrub encroachment, forest encroachment, agricultural abandonment and new crops. Most of these dynamics were consequence of the abandonment of traditional activities or the increase in urbanised areas. For a detailed scale three study cases were chosen. In Cerceda open woodland and shrub encroachment were more significant dynamics. Fragmentation measured was significantly higher in 2009 than in 1975 and conserved the same permeability. This is an area with few transformations by anthropic uses and that maintains the same vegetation types in both dates. The increase of road infrastructures, urban pressure and agricultural abandonment generated a homogeneous landscape in Fuencarral. This type maintains (2009) a great diversity of land uses, wastelands and habitats well preserved that have and interesting role such as ecological and territorial connectors. The most important changes in Torrelodones were located in urban areas consolidated between 1975 and 2009. At northwest edge N-VI highway introduced fragmentation and negatives effects with loss of permeability and

**5. Conclusions** 

connectivity.

**Author details** 

P. De Las Heras

**6. References** 

**Acknowledgement** 

N. López-Estébanez and F. Allende

*Soto de Viñuelas, Tres Cantos, Spain* 

 *José Antonio Novais s/n, Madrid, Spain* 

*Francisco Tomás y Valiente, Madrid, Spain* 

P. Fernández-Sañudo and M.J. Roldán Martín

*Department of Geography, Autónoma University of Madrid,* 

Conservation, University of Massachusetts.

*Environmental Research Centre of Madrid Region, Madrid-Colmenar Viejo,* 

*Department of Ecology, Complutense University of Madrid, Faculty of Biology,* 

(projects CSO2009-12225-C05-02 and CSO2009-14116-C03-0102956-BOS).

This research was partially funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia

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**Chapter 11** 

© 2012 Isidoro et al., licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2012 Isidoro et al., licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**GIS-Based Models as Tools for** 

**Applications in the South of Portugal** 

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) simulate a given geographic space in a computational environment, allowing to store, map and analyse large amounts of georeferenced data (*e.g.*, Umbelino *et al.*, 2009). GIS were converted into a powerful tool in regional natural resources assessment, as it permits a speedy integration and representation of several biophysical attributes (*e.g.*, Bastian, 2000; Bocco *et al.*, 2001) from diverse origins

The integration of Digital Terrain Models (DTM) in GIS leads to the emergence of methodologies to represent and simulate the real-word, complementing the use of thematic environmental information (*e.g.*, Felicísimo, 1999). A DTM is a numerical representation of a variable obtained from a discrete set of points, with well-known cartographic coordinates, which distribution allows calculating, by interpolation, that variable for any arbitrary point (Fernandez, 2004). If the mesh of points is altitude-related, the DTM is designated as a Digital Elevation Model (DEM). From a DEM, it becomes easy to attain topographic-derivate models (*e.g.*, slopes, orientations, curvature and visibility, shadowed and exposed areas).

Many authors have used DEM processing techniques to automatically extract geographic features (*e.g.*, Herrington & Pellegrini, 2000; MacMillan *et al.*, 2000; Burrough *et al.*, 2001; Jordán *et al.*, 2007b; Zavala *et al.*, 2005a, 2007), hydrologic structures (*e.g.*, Flanagan *et al.*, 2000; Maidment, 2000), erosive processes (*e.g.*, Zavala *et al.*, 2005b), vegetation habitats (*e.g.*, Anaya-Romero, 2004; Anaya-Romero *et al.*, 2005; Jordán *et al.*, 2007a; Pino *et al.*, 2010),

such as, *e.g.*, topographic, cartographic, photogrametric, GPS and remote sensing.

Jorge M. G. P. Isidoro, Helena M. N. P. V. Fernandez, Fernando M. G. Martins and João L. M. P. de Lima

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/48218

**1. Introduction** 

among other uses.

**Environmental Issues:** 


**Chapter 11** 
