**2.1. The course of the experiments**

## *2.1.1. Type experiment I – Prague subway*

The measurement of nanoparticles was conducted inside a Prague subway train travelling on the C line during its regular operation with passengers and from the terminal station Letňany to the terminal station Háje and back. The measuring technology was situated in the 2nd (or the 4th) car of the train, on a seat in the outer part of the car.

## *2.1.2. Type experiment II – City bus*

The measurement of nanoparticles was conducted in Prague in a city bus on line No. 189, travelling from the terminal station Sídliště Lhotka to the terminal station Kačerov, and after a break the bus travelled back to the station Sídliště Lhotka. The traffic level was 2-3 (i.e. partly traffic jams). The bus model was a Karosa B941 with a Liaz ML 636 engine. In the course of the measurement the occupancy rate of the bus fluctuated and reached a maximum of 60% of the bus capacity. The measuring technology was situated on a back seat.

## *2.1.3. Type experiment III – Car*

The measurement of nanoparticles was conducted in a car that travelled essentially the same route as in experiment II and used various ventilation regimes. The car was a Skoda Octavia 1.6 with a gasoline engine, and the measuring technology was situated at the back of the car on the floor; there were 3 people travelling in the car.

## *2.1.4. Type experiment IV – Office building*

In this case the measurement of nanoparticles was conducted in an office building in the center of Prague, situated at the corner of Dlážděná Street and the Senovážné Náměstí square. The measurements were conducted in several rooms in various locations on the building's layout, at various vertical levels, and for various types of operations.

## *2.1.5. Type experiment V – Simulated fires*

416 Atmospheric Aerosols – Regional Characteristics – Chemistry and Physics

impact on human health (toxicity) and the environment.

**nanoparticles at selected anthropogenic sources** 

the 2nd (or the 4th) car of the train, on a seat in the outer part of the car.

**2.1. The course of the experiments** 

*2.1.2. Type experiment II – City bus* 

*2.1.3. Type experiment III – Car* 

on the floor; there were 3 people travelling in the car.

*2.1.4. Type experiment IV – Office building* 

seat.

*2.1.1. Type experiment I – Prague subway* 

busiest subway station in Prague, in a cabinet-maker workshop during processing of exotic

Nonetheless, the results of the above-mentioned experiments should be viewed as results obtained at a particular time and place. The conclusions may be associated only with the specific situation. It is nearly impossible to obtain reproducible results, which is one of the main obstacles to the standardization of nanoparticle quantity in connection with their

**2. Part I - Results of quantity and distribution measurements of aerosol** 

The measurement of nanoparticles was conducted inside a Prague subway train travelling on the C line during its regular operation with passengers and from the terminal station Letňany to the terminal station Háje and back. The measuring technology was situated in

The measurement of nanoparticles was conducted in Prague in a city bus on line No. 189, travelling from the terminal station Sídliště Lhotka to the terminal station Kačerov, and after a break the bus travelled back to the station Sídliště Lhotka. The traffic level was 2-3 (i.e. partly traffic jams). The bus model was a Karosa B941 with a Liaz ML 636 engine. In the course of the measurement the occupancy rate of the bus fluctuated and reached a maximum of 60% of the bus capacity. The measuring technology was situated on a back

The measurement of nanoparticles was conducted in a car that travelled essentially the same route as in experiment II and used various ventilation regimes. The car was a Skoda Octavia 1.6 with a gasoline engine, and the measuring technology was situated at the back of the car

In this case the measurement of nanoparticles was conducted in an office building in the center of Prague, situated at the corner of Dlážděná Street and the Senovážné Náměstí square. The measurements were conducted in several rooms in various locations on the

building's layout, at various vertical levels, and for various types of operations.

woods, and in steelworks processing raw iron using the converter method.

The measurements of nanoparticles were conducted at simulated fires with various compositions of burning components in an open area.

Compositions of the burning pile were:


The measuring technology for experiment V was situated 5 m from the fire edge. The aerosol samples were taken 0.5 m above ground level.

## *2.1.6. Type experiment VI – Diesel engines*

Measurements of nanoparticles were performed for a Diesel engine and for a modern, environment-friendly Diesel engine.


## *2.1.7. Type experiment VII – Entertainment pyrotechnics*

The measurements of nanoparticles were conducted at a simulated fireworks event that used various entertainment pyrotechnics available (mega cracker, fire hornet, sparklers, Bengal light, mega California, fire fountains, etc.) on a free area (street, square, etc.). The measuring technology was situated 12 m from the area where the entertainment pyrotechnics was gradually ignited.

## *2.1.8. Type experiment VIII – Welding in a workshop*

The measurements of nanoparticles were conducted in a non-ventilated maintenance workshop (ca. 70 m3). The welded product was a steel T-section 25 x 350 mm, welded with electrodes E-B 121, E 7018, SF 026126. The measuring device was situated 2.5 m from the welding location.

After the welding was completed (ca. 5 min.) the workshop was left without any activities, then the coagulation and sedimentation of particles was measured.

## *2.1.9. Type experiment IX – Shooting products*

The measurements of nanoparticles in shooting products were conducted for weapons used by the Czech Republic Police (handgun CZ 75 D COMPACT, machine gun H&K MP5 KA4, shotgun Beneli M2, revolver King Cobra) at an open shooting range under real conditions. The gun muzzle was situated 0.5 – 0.7 m from the measuring device; the sample collection point and the gun muzzle were situated at the same height (Figure 2).

Experiences with Anthropogenic Aerosol Spread in the Environment 419












health and the environment (for comparison see Figures 4 and 5).

arterial road with busy traffic (ventilation shafts); see Figure 3 A) and 3 B).

been considered a more likely factor.

the highway D1 (location Kačerov).

arterial road (stations Pankrác – Florenc).

building surroundings (ca. units .103 N/cm3).

comparable with those on the city bus).

and the floor altitude.

maintenance workshop.

the reduction of ventilation and a pollen dust filter.

abundantly ascertained by the measurement on the city bus.

**Figure 1.** Tested Diesel engine type ZETOR

**Figure 2.** Measurement of handgun shooting

## **2.2. Results of the measurements and discussion**

We have formulated the following conclusions from the obtained results:


418 Atmospheric Aerosols – Regional Characteristics – Chemistry and Physics

point and the gun muzzle were situated at the same height (Figure 2).

The measurements of nanoparticles in shooting products were conducted for weapons used by the Czech Republic Police (handgun CZ 75 D COMPACT, machine gun H&K MP5 KA4, shotgun Beneli M2, revolver King Cobra) at an open shooting range under real conditions. The gun muzzle was situated 0.5 – 0.7 m from the measuring device; the sample collection

*2.1.9. Type experiment IX – Shooting products* 

**Figure 1.** Tested Diesel engine type ZETOR

**Figure 2.** Measurement of handgun shooting

**2.2. Results of the measurements and discussion** 

We have formulated the following conclusions from the obtained results:


Experiences with Anthropogenic Aerosol Spread in the Environment 421

**Figure 4.** Distribution of particles measured at the Diesel engine made by ZETOR, exp. VI.a)

**Figure 5.** Distribution of aerosol particles measured at the exhaust pipe FORD TRANSIT exp. VI.b)

3 in Figure 7.


420 Atmospheric Aerosols – Regional Characteristics – Chemistry and Physics

**Figure 3. A)** Graphic rendering of the number of nanoparticles in a subway car

**Figure 3. B)** Graphic rendering of the depending on the location and number of passengers


**Number of passangers in one car**

Háje

Opatov

Chodov

Roztyly

Kačerov

trip direction

Budějovická

Pankrác

P. Povstání

Vyšehrad

**Average number of nanoparticles in the range** 

**7 min. x 103 [N/cm3]**

Háje

 **b) I4**

Opatov

Chodov

Roztyly

Kačerov

**I5**

Budějovická

**Figure 3. A)** Graphic rendering of the number of nanoparticles in a subway car

Pankrác

P. Povstání

Vyšehrad

I.P.Pavlova

Muzeum

**Subway stations on the line "C"**

Hl. Nádraží

Florenc

**I6 I7**

Vltavská

N. Holešovice

Kobylisy

Ládví

Střížkov

Prosek

Letňany

**Figure 3. B)** Graphic rendering of the depending on the location and number of passengers

agglomeration and adsorption of nanoparticles on microparticles, etc.).

before the engine was heated to the operating temperature (see Figure 4).

technology, specifically the vehicles, Diesel aggregates, etc. (see Figure 6).


I.P.Pavlova

Muzeum

**Subway stations on the line "C"**

Hl. Nádraží

Florenc

Vltavská

N. Holešovice

Kobylisy

Ládví

Střížkov

Prosek

Letňany



**Figure 4.** Distribution of particles measured at the Diesel engine made by ZETOR, exp. VI.a)

**Figure 5.** Distribution of aerosol particles measured at the exhaust pipe FORD TRANSIT exp. VI.b)


Experiences with Anthropogenic Aerosol Spread in the Environment 423

Total volume of particles

Total surface of particles

Total weight of particles

**Table 1.** The physical values of nanoparticles measured during entertainment pyrotechnics

Concentration of particles/cm3

 µg/m3 nm3/cm3 nm2/cm3 Background 1 1530 6.44 5.37 x 109 1.18 x 108

pyrotechnics 2 212000 1.27 x 103 1.06 x 1012 2.77 x 1010

pyrotechnics 3 124000 1.79 x 103 1.49 x 1012 2.56 x 1010

pyrotechnics 4 3290 15.5 1.3 x 1010 2.77 x 108

10 100 1000 **Průměr částic [nm]**

**Spectrum No. 2 (spectrum identification see Table 1)**

10 100 1000 **Průměr částic [nm]**

**Spectrum No. 3 (spectrum identification see Table 1)**

Spectrum identification

**koncentrace částic/cm3**

**koncentrace částic/cm3**

**Figure 7.** Spectra describing distribution of nanoparticles during entertainment pyrotechnics experiments. (Axis y: concentration of particles/cm3; axis x: diameter of particles [nm])

experiments

No

Application of

Application of

**Figure 6.** Distribution of particles exp. V.a


The presented results of the performed experiments have only the character of basic measurements. It is very difficult to measure the number of nanoparticles, and the results are influenced by many factors (e.g. air flow, temperature, humidity, distance from the source etc.), as explained in the introductory section. It is practically impossible to get reproducible results of measurements, and this is one of the main problems of standardization of nanoparticles in respect to their impact on human health (toxicity) and the environment [3]. For these reasons, the conclusions provided herein may be associated only with the specific situations.

Experiences with Anthropogenic Aerosol Spread in the Environment 423


**Table 1.** The physical values of nanoparticles measured during entertainment pyrotechnics experiments

422 Atmospheric Aerosols – Regional Characteristics – Chemistry and Physics

**Figure 6.** Distribution of particles exp. V.a

backwards.

only with the specific situations.





The presented results of the performed experiments have only the character of basic measurements. It is very difficult to measure the number of nanoparticles, and the results are influenced by many factors (e.g. air flow, temperature, humidity, distance from the source etc.), as explained in the introductory section. It is practically impossible to get reproducible results of measurements, and this is one of the main problems of standardization of nanoparticles in respect to their impact on human health (toxicity) and the environment [3]. For these reasons, the conclusions provided herein may be associated

release of the products between the bullet and the muzzle.

welding, and they subsequently coagulated (see Figure 8).

in the workshop dropped to the level before the welding.

**Spectrum No. 2 (spectrum identification see Table 1)**

**Spectrum No. 3 (spectrum identification see Table 1)**

**Figure 7.** Spectra describing distribution of nanoparticles during entertainment pyrotechnics experiments. (Axis y: concentration of particles/cm3; axis x: diameter of particles [nm])



Experiences with Anthropogenic Aerosol Spread in the Environment 425

**Figure 9.** Rate of coagulation and deposition of nanoparticles in a workshop after welding plotted

**Figure 10.** Revolver type weapon (King Cobra), two magazines were shot out with 6 bullets each

It was fairly alarming to find out that particles smaller than 50 nm were essentially most frequently present at a fire, extinguishing, welding, at an outlet from the modern Diesel engine and from a non-heated classic Diesel engine, and in large quantities after shooting.

Results for the Diesel engines are in agreement with the discussion and with the statement [4] that the improved combustion in modern Diesel engines extremely reduces the fraction of large particles; however, this is counterbalanced by the generation of extremely small particles: "No smoke coming from the exhaust pipe is reassuring to the eye, but the problem

against time

is in just that which cannot be seen."

**Table 2.** The physical values of nanoparticles measured during welding experiments

**Spectrum No. 2 (spectrum identification see Table 2)**

**Spectrum No. 3 (spectrum identification see Table 2)**

**Figure 8.** Spectra describing distribution of nanoparticles during welding experiments. (Axis y: concentration of particles/cm3; axis x: diameter of particles [nm])

Spectrum identification

**koncentrace částic/cm3**

**koncentrace částic/cm3**

**Table 2.** The physical values of nanoparticles measured during welding experiments

Concentration of particles/cm3

 µg/m3 nm3/cm3 nm2/cm3 background 1 4620 14 1.17 x 1010 2.9 x 108 welding 2 256000 7240 6.03 x 1012 8.4 x 1010 coagulation 3 333000 9910 8.26 x 1012 1.21 x 1011 coagulation 4 166000 5580 4.65 x 1012 6.65 x 1010 coagulation 5 98800 3570 2.98 x 1012 4.18 x 1010 coagulation 6 68900 2680 2.24 x 1012 3.08 x 1010

Total weight of particles

Total volume of particles

Total surface of particles

**Figure 8.** Spectra describing distribution of nanoparticles during welding experiments. (Axis y:

**Spectrum No. 3 (spectrum identification see Table 2)**

10 100 1000 **Průměr částic [nm]**

**Spectrum No. 2 (spectrum identification see Table 2)**

10 100 1000 **Průměr částic [nm]**

concentration of particles/cm3; axis x: diameter of particles [nm])

**Figure 9.** Rate of coagulation and deposition of nanoparticles in a workshop after welding plotted against time

**Figure 10.** Revolver type weapon (King Cobra), two magazines were shot out with 6 bullets each

It was fairly alarming to find out that particles smaller than 50 nm were essentially most frequently present at a fire, extinguishing, welding, at an outlet from the modern Diesel engine and from a non-heated classic Diesel engine, and in large quantities after shooting.

Results for the Diesel engines are in agreement with the discussion and with the statement [4] that the improved combustion in modern Diesel engines extremely reduces the fraction of large particles; however, this is counterbalanced by the generation of extremely small particles: "No smoke coming from the exhaust pipe is reassuring to the eye, but the problem is in just that which cannot be seen."
