**6. Pressures for the globalization in social sciences and humanities**

The impact of globalization has intensified over the last decade. Faced with the robust socioeconomic development in East Asia and other regions, as well as substantial regional integration in Europe and ASEAN, Japanese society itself is at the crossroads. At the same time, experiencing a struggle for recovery from the disasters in March, 2011, Japanese universities have become more seriously committed to the networking and collaborative efforts both internally and internationally.

How to improve the quality of university education and research is still a highly controversial question, especially within the humanities and social sciences. In terms of pedagogical practice, a long tradition of teacher-centred instruction is now transformed into more student-centred learning styles. The University of Tokyo invited Michael Sandel from Harvard University to demonstrate interactive lectures, and the NHK, the public broadcast company, broadcast the lectures on TV in a series.

The government has also tried to promote the good practices of teaching improvement and faculty development activities through various incentive funds. 'Faculty developers', new professionals who are engaged in the teaching improvement activities, launched their own network in collaboration with their international community.

Market mechanisms may also have a strong influence in quality improvement in the social sciences. Students choose universities, at least in part, based on prestige, quality of services, rankings, and other similar status indicators. Employers have some preferences as to graduates of certain institutions, and the rankings of those employers are also provided to

scale international peer review, based both in Japanese and English, was implemented. This addition of bilingual peer review did not lead to any project in humanities and social sciences being selected. From 2011, a new funding program called 'Leading Doctoral Programme' started to support launching internationally competitive doctoral programs. However, the assessment procedure was implemented only in Japanese, and only one of the 21 selected programmes was from the social sciences: 'The Program for Cross-Border Legal

Within the National University Corporation Evaluation Plan, NIAD-UE assessed the quality-level and quality-improvement of research activities, and the final result was published in 2011. Each faculty or school of national universities was required to submit a 'report on excellent research achievements which represent schools and faculties' and a 'report on strategically-focused research achievements in the field' to committees of NIAD-UE. Committees organised by respective fields then analysed and assessed the reports, and implemented site visits if necessary. When deciding ratings, the original missions and purposes of each university are to be respected and taken into consideration. Attached to the Certified Evaluation scheme, NIAD-UE started optional services for the quality assessment

Especially in regards to the quality assessment of research activities, there is a widespread suspicion that reported research performance will be utilized for financial allocation. Although the research performance indicators did not have a significant impact on the financial allocation by the MEXT in the end (Yonezawa, 2011), the published assessment result became useful information in setting up a management and financial strategy at the university level.

The impact of globalization has intensified over the last decade. Faced with the robust socioeconomic development in East Asia and other regions, as well as substantial regional integration in Europe and ASEAN, Japanese society itself is at the crossroads. At the same time, experiencing a struggle for recovery from the disasters in March, 2011, Japanese universities have become more seriously committed to the networking and collaborative

How to improve the quality of university education and research is still a highly controversial question, especially within the humanities and social sciences. In terms of pedagogical practice, a long tradition of teacher-centred instruction is now transformed into more student-centred learning styles. The University of Tokyo invited Michael Sandel from Harvard University to demonstrate interactive lectures, and the NHK, the public broadcast

The government has also tried to promote the good practices of teaching improvement and faculty development activities through various incentive funds. 'Faculty developers', new professionals who are engaged in the teaching improvement activities, launched their own

Market mechanisms may also have a strong influence in quality improvement in the social sciences. Students choose universities, at least in part, based on prestige, quality of services, rankings, and other similar status indicators. Employers have some preferences as to graduates of certain institutions, and the rankings of those employers are also provided to

**6. Pressures for the globalization in social sciences and humanities** 

of research activities mainly of local-public and private universities.

Institution Design' of Nagoya University.

efforts both internally and internationally.

company, broadcast the lectures on TV in a series.

network in collaboration with their international community.

the media. Particularly for less prestigious private universities facing applicant shortages, the impact of market mechanisms is significant (Doi, 2007; Yonezawa & Kim, 2008). However, as many observers have already pointed out, unpopular private universities are aiming solely to fill student seats, regardless of readiness for higher learning. This almost corrupt educational environment illustrates that market competition does not always assure the quality of university education (Kinmonth, 2005).

Here, the issue of university education became more widely recognized as an issue of human resource development. In 2007, the Ministry of Economics, Trade, and Industry (METI) published a report to request university education to provide basic skills necessary for the working life among the graduates (METI, 2007). In 2010, the METI developed another report to stress the necessity of fostering 'global human resources' (Global Human Resource Development Committee of the Industry-Academia Partnership for Human Resource Development, 2010). In their definition, global human resources should have (1) fundamental competencies for working persons, (2) communication ability in a foreign language (particularly in English, which is widely used globally), and (3) ability to understand and take advantage of different cultures. Following the report, *Keidanren* (Japan Business Federation) and the MEXT also published a proposal and report with similar themes (Keidanren, 2011, Sangaku Renkei niyoru Global Jinzai Ikusei Suishin Kaigi, 2011).

At the same time, the government, as well as universities, became aware of the importance of student exchange, as well as internalization at home through accepting international students. In 2008, the Japanese government started a plan to invite 300,000 international students by 2020. In 2010, the new government, led by the Democratic Party Japan (DPJ), added the policy plan to send 300,000 Japanese students abroad for fostering global human resources (Prime Minister of Japan and his Cabinet, 2010).

In 2009, 13 top comprehensive universities were selected in a project, 'Global 30', for supporting internationally viable university education (Yonezawa 2011). They launched degree programs in the English language both at undergraduate and graduate levels. They are also encouraged to hire international faculty members for promoting quality education in the English language for students coming from all over the world. Nagoya University, one of the selected top national universities offers such programs in social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. Interestingly, the social sciences program is most popular among the international applicants, probably because the attractiveness to study in Japan is much more connected with the attractiveness of Japanese society itself, at least at the undergraduate level.

Student exchanges, including double degree programs with foreign partner universities, are also becoming popular. In order to assure the quality of those joint education programs with foreign universities, the MEXT set up a guideline to recommend careful design of curricula through intensive discussion with partner universities (Central Council for Education Working Group on the Promotion of Globalizing Universities, 2010). At the same time, the MEXT launched a programme, 'Re-Inventing Japan Project', for promoting student exchange under partnership with universities in the US, China, South Korea, and other countries. This program is divided into Type A (partnership mainly with China, South Korea and South East Asian Countries) and Type B (partnership mainly with US and other western countries). Nine out of the 13 selected programs in Type A, and six out of the 12 selected programs in 2011 could be categorised as the programmes in the field of social sciences and humanities.

Japan's University Education in Social Sciences and Humanities Under Globalization 409

Eades, J. S. (2005). "The Japanese 21st COE center of excellence program: internationalization

Eades, J. S., Goodman, R. & Hada, Y. (2005), *The 'Big Bang' in Japanese Higher Education*.

Global Human Resource Development Committee of the Industry-Academia Partnership for

HEFCE. (2007). *Research Excellence Framework: Consultation on the assessment and funding of* 

Hirowatari, S. (2000). "Japan's national universities and dokuritsu gyousei houjin-ka". *Social* 

Honda, T. & Keii, T. (2004), "Shizen Kagaku Kei no Kenkyu Hyoka" [Research Assessment

Kaneko, M. (2002). "Hyoka Shugi no Kanpei" [A pitfall of evaluation-ism], *Kyoikugaku-*

Kawaguchi, A. (2006). *Daigaku Hyoka Bunka no Tenkai* [Evolution of Evaluation Culture at

Keidanren (2011). *Global Jinzai no Ikusai ni muketa Teigen [Proposals for Fostering Global Human* 

Kimura, T., Yonezawa, A. & Ohmori, F. (2004). "Quality assurance and recognition of

Kinmonth, E. H. (2005). "From selection to seduction: the impact of demographic change on

Kita, H. & Ida, Masaaki. (2003). "University evaluation and university information system",

Kitamura, K. (1997). "Policy issues in Japanese higher education", *Higher Education*, 34-2.

Kitamura, K. (2002). *Daigaku ha Umare Kawareru ka (Reborn of Universities or Not?)*, Tokyo:

Leydesdorff, L. (2001). *The Challenge of Scientometrics: the Development, Measurement, and Self-*

Liu, N. C. & Cheng, Y. (2006). "Academic rankings of world universities: methodologies and

METI (2007). *Shakaijin Kiso Ryoku Ikusei no Susume [Promotion for the Baskic Skill Development* 

MEXT Higher Education Bureau (2006), *OECD Thematic Review of Tertiary Education: Country* 

Morita, A. (1987). *Gakureki Muyoron* [Uselessness of Academic Diplomas]. Tokyo: Asahi

(http://www.mext.go.jp/b\_menu/toukei/chousa01/kyouin/1268573.htm)

(http://www.mext.go.jp/b\_menu/toukei/chousa01/kihon/1267995.htm)

*organization of Scientific Communications [2nd ed.]*, Macquarie Park: Universal Publishers.

problems", Sadlak, Jan and Liu Nian Cai eds. *The World-Class University and* 

*Education: The Cross-border Challenge*, Paris: OECD 119-130.

*Ranking: Aiming Beyond Status.* Bucharest: UNESCO-CEPES. McVeigh, B. J. (2002). *Japanese Higher Education as Myth*. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe.

qualifications in higher education: Japan", OECD, *Quality and Recognition in Higher* 

private higher education in Japan', in Eades, J.S., Roger Goodman and Yumiko Hada, 2005, *The 'Big Bang' in Japanese Higher Education*. Melbourne: Trans Pacific Press. 106-135.

*Industry-Academia-Government Collaboration*. Tokyo: METI [in Japanese].

*Japanese Higher Education*. Melbourne: Trans Pacific Press. 295-323.

Melbourne: Trans Pacific Press.

Hall, I. P. (1998). *Cartels of the Mind*. New York: North.

for Natural Science]. *Daigaku Ronshu*, 35: 403-418.

*higher education research post-2008*.

Universities], Tokyo: Gyosei.

*Resources]*. Tokyo: Keidanren.

*Research in University Evaluation* 3: 5-20.

*for Working Life]*. Tokyo: METI.

*Background Report of Japan*.

MEXT (2007). *School Teachers' Survey.* 

MEXT (2011). *School Basic Survey*.

Shimbun.

*Sciences Japan* 19: 3-7.

*Nenpo* 9: 71-94.

141-150.

Chuko Shinsho.

in action?". in Eades, J.S., Roger Goodman, & Yumiko Hada, 2005, *The 'Big Bang' in* 

Human Resource Development (2010). *Develop Global Human Resources through* 

It is obvious that social sciences and humanities in general have been in a disadvantageous position to partake in the money game in on-going quality assessment and assurance policies in higher education. However, the pressures of globalization, especially in terms of human resource development, are providing a great opportunity for social sciences and humanities to revitalize themselves, not least by internationalizing their profile.

Academics and experts in social sciences and humanities have a great responsibility for the future direction of Japanese higher education policy and the future destination of the social sciences and humanities in Japan. What social sciences and humanities can contribute to society should be demonstrated through autonomous peer initiative, including the formulation of a quality assessment scheme, which could serve as a good model for other fields. At the same time, both international communities and the Japanese general public are becoming intolerant of further delays in increasing international competitiveness.
