Preface

The umbrella term Social Sciences and Humanities refers to a plurality of fields outside the Natural or Physical Sciences. Disciplines as different as anthropology, archaeology, architecture, art, cultural studies, economics, education, geography and environmental studies, history, law, languages and linguistics, political science, philosophy, psychology, sociology or translation studies, all share the concern for human relations and socio-cultural practices.

In the ancient world, the alliance between political and religious power had guaranteed the interdisciplinary dialogue between the Natural Sciences, the Social Sciences and the Humanities, all closely associated to institutional control. The move towards anthropocentric approaches took place at different times in different regions of the world, alongside the socio-cultural, political, economical and technological forces that shaped each territory, from the establishment of the first learning centers and universities, to the discovery of new ways of looking at worlds beyond our own by means of the telescope. But our world not only changed at the pace humans marked through their changing practices and innovations. Environmental issues, such as the fact that papyrus could not be used in the wet climates of Northern Europe, shaped the way human technologies were used and where. From Chinese paper and the printing press, to contemporary digital communication and networked society, the complexity of human life is such that knowledge divisions are there to set the foundations for groundbreaking innovations across all fields. To say that the growth of the Social Sciences took place mostly in the 18th Century, coinciding with political and economic reforms, sometimes in the form of violent revolutions, that sought national and territorial cohesion in Europe, would be to cast aside similar changes in other parts of the world.

There are many difficulties involved in writing an introduction to a series of volumes that seek to provide an overall picture of human society and cultural habits across differing disciplines, various nations, distinct methodologies and, in some cases, diverse time spans. The volumes oscillate between 'positive' approaches to knowledge, based sense experience and statistical analysis, focused on deduction and description, and interpretative positions, more inductive and prescriptive. Specialization and interdisciplinarity walk hand in hand in a dialogue that seeks to speak across the bio-physical, the socio-cultural and the artistic, under the common desire to understand humanity more clearly and direct our actions in more effective ways by means of theoretical discussions, innovative ideas, the encouragement of public debates, and interaction across societal structures.

Preface XI

the application of Luhmann's system theory to the study of past, while maintaining the viewpoint of the historical actor recognizable. And what is an actor without a

The term community refers to human groups within a society. It may apply to ethnic groups, concentrations relative to gender, people sharing similar interests in the Web, territorial groupings, such as people sharing the same living space, or state divisions from regions to nations. The concept 'imagined community' was coined by Benedict Anderson to refer to people's perceptions of their position (physical, ideological, etc.) within a given human group. Communities are not just about face-to-face interactions. Their members hold in their minds a mental image of their affinity (ideals, similar interests, nationhood, etc.). Common cultural memories are created by means of artistic representations and media. They contribute to the 'imagined community' by converting 'private' citizens into their 'public' audience. Cultural issues, perceptions, and foci give identity to the community, whether a village, a city, or a nation. Works by artists, poets, novelists, visual artists, etc., help unveil the distinctiveness in the way communities are viewed. The term mindscape, used to refer to human communities, refers to structures for thinking about human spaces built on conceptualizations of shared space. A number of chapters in this volume are dedicated to the study of communities, since practical outcomes of such an analysis may further our understanding of human dynamics such as 1) how the relationship between urban scenery may affect people's sense of belonging; 2) how after urban change and migratory movements, civic memory may still retain remembrances representative of the community; 3) how the dynamics of change whether environmental, technological, or cultural should ensure social justice and sustainable communities; and 4) how urban issues may affect conflict resolution between individual and communal demands such as mobility, equity, etc. An example of the workings of artistic and intellectual achievements in the struggle to systematize cultural continuity can be found in the rhetoric of every nation. In The Significance of Intermediality in the Immortalization of the French Republican Nation (1789-1799) Montserrat Martínez García (Complutense University Madrid) shows the importance of the legitimization of literary, historical and critical discourses into the idea of common nationhood taking as starting point the French nation, a pioneer model to the development of nationalism in the Western world. Anjan Sen (National Tagore Scholar, India) and Asunción López-Varela (Complutense University, Madrid Spain) review fiction narrative and poetry with an eye on human communities. They find that urban Western and Eastern mindscapes (the chapter studies the cases of Europe and India) oscillate between utopian ideas of garden cities and critical views of industrial environments. Between the lines of their paper emerge the varied meanings of 'modernity', not just as cultural ideologies, but also as political actions seeking to

redefine the economic landscapes of our global world.

By 2050, the world population is expected to increase to a total of 9 billion, while the population living in urban areas is projected to grow to a total of 6.3 billion. It is

community?

InTech collection on Social Sciences and Humanities is unique and groundbreaking in its combination of questions and answers from very diverse fields and disciplines. It is also a point of connection between East and West, North and South, developed and less developed countries. It includes chapters compiled by institutional research agencies, established scholars, alongside work by younger researches, all of which point to fruitful alternative routes for further exploration and good practice, seeking to identify current impasses in times of crisis, and to create opportunities and avenues for future change. Key underlying principles are the support innovation and sustainability across the world, the fostering of collaboration amidst the Sciences (both Natural and Social) and the Humanities, and the private and the public sectors of society. The chapters collected address societal challenges across diverse cultures and environments.

Oftentimes the pathways to discovery are laid on shaky ground in order to open up possibilities despite the risks involved. InTech collection Social Sciences and Humanities: Theories and Application is doing just that.

The second volume of InTech collection Social Sciences and Humanities focuses on *Social Sciences and Cultural Studies: Issues of Language, Public Opinion, Education and Welfare* and opens with Prof. Jeffrey Foss' (Univ. Victoria, Canada) provoking inquiry into the distinct condition of the 'social' in the boundary between the humanities and the physical sciences. Ross uses a metaphor, the myth of Private John Smith, a reality, a fiction, an ordinary man, a British spy, someone who could have been many things of zero probability, those things and happen all the time and are unpredictable.

Sylvain K. Cibangu (University of Colorado, Denver, USA) focuses his study on the recently published posthumous work by Karl Popper, including Popper's correspondence with the philosopher Rudolf Carnap. Controversial and influential, Popper's ideas of three worlds, the physical one (world 1, exterior and cosmic world), the world of mental states and subjective knowledge (world 2), and he world of social and recorded knowledge (world 3), pave the way to the classification of sciences. Against the widespread belief that the social sciences represent a weak form of science, Popper supplied a strong sense of the social sciences as being fully scientific, objective, and empirical. The paper shows that scientific objectivity is located within an interdisciplinary, inter-subjective critical dialogue.

The tension between the perspectives of the *present past* and the *past present* remains an important ingredient issues of unpredictability and in modern historiography. Prof. Jaap den Hollander (University of Groningen, Netherlands) discusses two important concepts in the social theory of the German sociologist Niclas Luhmann: autopoiesis and second order observation. As auctorial narrators, historians can profit a lot from the application of Luhmann's system theory to the study of past, while maintaining the viewpoint of the historical actor recognizable. And what is an actor without a community?

X Preface

environments.

desire to understand humanity more clearly and direct our actions in more effective ways by means of theoretical discussions, innovative ideas, the encouragement of

InTech collection on Social Sciences and Humanities is unique and groundbreaking in its combination of questions and answers from very diverse fields and disciplines. It is also a point of connection between East and West, North and South, developed and less developed countries. It includes chapters compiled by institutional research agencies, established scholars, alongside work by younger researches, all of which point to fruitful alternative routes for further exploration and good practice, seeking to identify current impasses in times of crisis, and to create opportunities and avenues for future change. Key underlying principles are the support innovation and sustainability across the world, the fostering of collaboration amidst the Sciences (both Natural and Social) and the Humanities, and the private and the public sectors of society. The chapters collected address societal challenges across diverse cultures and

Oftentimes the pathways to discovery are laid on shaky ground in order to open up possibilities despite the risks involved. InTech collection Social Sciences and

The second volume of InTech collection Social Sciences and Humanities focuses on *Social Sciences and Cultural Studies: Issues of Language, Public Opinion, Education and Welfare* and opens with Prof. Jeffrey Foss' (Univ. Victoria, Canada) provoking inquiry into the distinct condition of the 'social' in the boundary between the humanities and the physical sciences. Ross uses a metaphor, the myth of Private John Smith, a reality, a fiction, an ordinary man, a British spy, someone who could have been many things

Sylvain K. Cibangu (University of Colorado, Denver, USA) focuses his study on the recently published posthumous work by Karl Popper, including Popper's correspondence with the philosopher Rudolf Carnap. Controversial and influential, Popper's ideas of three worlds, the physical one (world 1, exterior and cosmic world), the world of mental states and subjective knowledge (world 2), and he world of social and recorded knowledge (world 3), pave the way to the classification of sciences. Against the widespread belief that the social sciences represent a weak form of science, Popper supplied a strong sense of the social sciences as being fully scientific, objective, and empirical. The paper shows that scientific objectivity is located within an

The tension between the perspectives of the *present past* and the *past present* remains an important ingredient issues of unpredictability and in modern historiography. Prof. Jaap den Hollander (University of Groningen, Netherlands) discusses two important concepts in the social theory of the German sociologist Niclas Luhmann: autopoiesis and second order observation. As auctorial narrators, historians can profit a lot from

of zero probability, those things and happen all the time and are unpredictable.

public debates, and interaction across societal structures.

Humanities: Theories and Application is doing just that.

interdisciplinary, inter-subjective critical dialogue.

The term community refers to human groups within a society. It may apply to ethnic groups, concentrations relative to gender, people sharing similar interests in the Web, territorial groupings, such as people sharing the same living space, or state divisions from regions to nations. The concept 'imagined community' was coined by Benedict Anderson to refer to people's perceptions of their position (physical, ideological, etc.) within a given human group. Communities are not just about face-to-face interactions. Their members hold in their minds a mental image of their affinity (ideals, similar interests, nationhood, etc.). Common cultural memories are created by means of artistic representations and media. They contribute to the 'imagined community' by converting 'private' citizens into their 'public' audience. Cultural issues, perceptions, and foci give identity to the community, whether a village, a city, or a nation. Works by artists, poets, novelists, visual artists, etc., help unveil the distinctiveness in the way communities are viewed. The term mindscape, used to refer to human communities, refers to structures for thinking about human spaces built on conceptualizations of shared space. A number of chapters in this volume are dedicated to the study of communities, since practical outcomes of such an analysis may further our understanding of human dynamics such as 1) how the relationship between urban scenery may affect people's sense of belonging; 2) how after urban change and migratory movements, civic memory may still retain remembrances representative of the community; 3) how the dynamics of change whether environmental, technological, or cultural should ensure social justice and sustainable communities; and 4) how urban issues may affect conflict resolution between individual and communal demands such as mobility, equity, etc. An example of the workings of artistic and intellectual achievements in the struggle to systematize cultural continuity can be found in the rhetoric of every nation. In The Significance of Intermediality in the Immortalization of the French Republican Nation (1789-1799) Montserrat Martínez García (Complutense University Madrid) shows the importance of the legitimization of literary, historical and critical discourses into the idea of common nationhood taking as starting point the French nation, a pioneer model to the development of nationalism in the Western world. Anjan Sen (National Tagore Scholar, India) and Asunción López-Varela (Complutense University, Madrid Spain) review fiction narrative and poetry with an eye on human communities. They find that urban Western and Eastern mindscapes (the chapter studies the cases of Europe and India) oscillate between utopian ideas of garden cities and critical views of industrial environments. Between the lines of their paper emerge the varied meanings of 'modernity', not just as cultural ideologies, but also as political actions seeking to redefine the economic landscapes of our global world.

By 2050, the world population is expected to increase to a total of 9 billion, while the population living in urban areas is projected to grow to a total of 6.3 billion. It is inevitable that this rapid increase of urban population will bring enormous economic, social and environmental pressures, resulting in a need for governments to take urgent measures. Against this backdrop, the United Nations Centre for Regional Development (UNCRD) is refocusing its work towards sustainable urban development. The UNU Institute of Advanced Studies (UNU-IAS) is also taking an active role in the sustainable urban development dialogue. Although urban growth rates are slowing down in most regions of the developing world, levels of urbanization are expected to rise, within the least urbanized regions of Asia and Africa, transforming these largely rural societies to predominantly urban regions. In sharp contrast, the phenomenon of shrinking urban populations can be observed in cities in the developing world. Some issues to attend to include: greening the local economy; creating a green job work force; providing sustainable urban transport options; developing resource efficient buildings; implementing ICT solutions for smart and connected cities; and fostering waste minimization through a recycling-based society.

Preface XIII

and trigger an overthrow of the regime. The backlash hypothesis prevails under two scenarios: under the first scenario, the government is strong and represses harshly and civil society actors protest despite the strength of the government. As the examples of China and Burma reveal, these protests are often violent and trigger subsequent periods of relative calm. Under the second scenario, the government represses harshly despite being weak. This scenario can lead to very volatile situations because the protesters have a lot to gain from protesting and the government has a lot to lose. Such situations might spur protests and violent reactions, which can easily spiral into a civil war. The empirical examples of Sudan, Somalia, or the Democratic Republic of Congo fit this scheme. Which of the two theories actually holds depends on the dynamic cost-

Alongside citizenship participation and protest, equality is a crucial aspect in the equilibrium of human communities. Ethnic and gender equality are still pending subjects in many parts of the world. Critical research and teaching on gender/sex, gendered hegemonies, gender relations, gender identity and social categories remains in the contemporary agenda as a means of challenging traditional categories of class, ethnicity and sexuality and essentialist perceptions of gender. For this reason, Prof. Xiana Sotelo (Univ. Francisco de Vitoria, Madrid Spain) explores Intersectional Analysis and Gender Theory in relation to the Social Sciences, offering a review of Intersectional proposals in the Anglo-American environment and hoping to provide some light to similar problems in other cultural environments. Similarly, Prof. Maya Zalbidea (Univ. Camilo José Cela, Madrid Spain) focuses her attention on cyberfeminism and online awareness of gender issues. Her paper introduces, both in the Spanish context and abroad, research on the role of women in the Information Society, on their visuality and participation as equal rights citizens. The chapter proposes a reading on the evolution and development of differences among women in a parallel movement towards intersectional analysis, presented in the previous

Equality concerns not only gender issues, but also the involvement of other minority groups in the cultural construction of social affairs. Social realities in many parts of the world offer manifestations of public separatism or irredentism in various forms, dictated by mostly by ethnic motivations. Despite the increasing tendency to overcome the national-state boundaries and to move towards supranational associations like the European Union, demonstrations of ethnic (peaceful or less peaceful) otherness appear daily in the media. This situation naturally provokes interest in human groups that live in foreign ethnical environments. Prof. Katrine Fangen (University of Oslo) looks at social exclusion and inclusion of young immigrants and underlines its multidimensional aspects –educational, labor market exclusion, spatial exclusion, relational exclusion and finally, socio-political exclusion. The chapter also shows the relationship between education and access to the labor market for young immigrants (particularly from African descent) in Sweden. For first-generation immigrants, lack of fluency in the dominant language and knowledge about the local system contributes to

benefit calculation of the state and civil society.

chapter.

Sustainability is a fundamental issue and the object of the chapter by Prof. Carlo Sessa (Institute of Studies for the Integration of Systems of Rome), who presents the AWARE initiative. Funded by the European Union, the research program offers a method for participatory citizenship involvement in areas related to sustainability, and has been applied in three pilot EU funded projects: sustainability in cities (www.raise-eu.org), urban transport (www.move-together-exhibition.net) and coastal water management (www.aware-eu.net). Similarly, Robert García (Executive Director) and Seth Strongin (Policy Research Manager) report on citizenship participation in urban greening in Los Angeles, California. They offer practice examples related to 'The City Project', where community driven organizing and legal campaigns have helped create and maintain parks in segregated and low-income neighborhoods. Each case study presents quantitative and qualitative evidence that the use of civil rights and environmental law influence investment of public resources to create and maintain new parks is a successful and replicable model for other cities. Ecological security in China is the object of the chapter by Prof. Zhuowei Hu, Prof. Hongqi Liu and Prof. Lai Wei (Capital Normal University, Ministry of Education and Ministry of Civil Affairs), who study the environmental impact a major project, Beijing-Tianjin Inter-city High-speed Railway. The authors explore geologic hazards such as landslide and soil erosion, permanent land use in roadbeds, stations, bridges, road access, and so on. The paper collects remote sensing data in order to meet the project requirements and monitor applications.

Protest is an instrument of citizenship participation that remains largely underresearched. The proposal to study protest using game theory, presented here by Prof. Daniel Stockemer (University of Ottawa) is highly innovative. He shows the conditions under which the inverted U relationship (when a weak regime engages in moderate degrees of repression and the civil society actors decide to protest) and the backlash repressive hypothesis occur, and how both further weaken the government and trigger an overthrow of the regime. The backlash hypothesis prevails under two scenarios: under the first scenario, the government is strong and represses harshly and civil society actors protest despite the strength of the government. As the examples of China and Burma reveal, these protests are often violent and trigger subsequent periods of relative calm. Under the second scenario, the government represses harshly despite being weak. This scenario can lead to very volatile situations because the protesters have a lot to gain from protesting and the government has a lot to lose. Such situations might spur protests and violent reactions, which can easily spiral into a civil war. The empirical examples of Sudan, Somalia, or the Democratic Republic of Congo fit this scheme. Which of the two theories actually holds depends on the dynamic costbenefit calculation of the state and civil society.

XII Preface

society.

applications.

inevitable that this rapid increase of urban population will bring enormous economic, social and environmental pressures, resulting in a need for governments to take urgent measures. Against this backdrop, the United Nations Centre for Regional Development (UNCRD) is refocusing its work towards sustainable urban development. The UNU Institute of Advanced Studies (UNU-IAS) is also taking an active role in the sustainable urban development dialogue. Although urban growth rates are slowing down in most regions of the developing world, levels of urbanization are expected to rise, within the least urbanized regions of Asia and Africa, transforming these largely rural societies to predominantly urban regions. In sharp contrast, the phenomenon of shrinking urban populations can be observed in cities in the developing world. Some issues to attend to include: greening the local economy; creating a green job work force; providing sustainable urban transport options; developing resource efficient buildings; implementing ICT solutions for smart and connected cities; and fostering waste minimization through a recycling-based

Sustainability is a fundamental issue and the object of the chapter by Prof. Carlo Sessa (Institute of Studies for the Integration of Systems of Rome), who presents the AWARE initiative. Funded by the European Union, the research program offers a method for participatory citizenship involvement in areas related to sustainability, and has been applied in three pilot EU funded projects: sustainability in cities (www.raise-eu.org), urban transport (www.move-together-exhibition.net) and coastal water management (www.aware-eu.net). Similarly, Robert García (Executive Director) and Seth Strongin (Policy Research Manager) report on citizenship participation in urban greening in Los Angeles, California. They offer practice examples related to 'The City Project', where community driven organizing and legal campaigns have helped create and maintain parks in segregated and low-income neighborhoods. Each case study presents quantitative and qualitative evidence that the use of civil rights and environmental law influence investment of public resources to create and maintain new parks is a successful and replicable model for other cities. Ecological security in China is the object of the chapter by Prof. Zhuowei Hu, Prof. Hongqi Liu and Prof. Lai Wei (Capital Normal University, Ministry of Education and Ministry of Civil Affairs), who study the environmental impact a major project, Beijing-Tianjin Inter-city High-speed Railway. The authors explore geologic hazards such as landslide and soil erosion, permanent land use in roadbeds, stations, bridges, road access, and so on. The paper collects remote sensing data in order to meet the project requirements and monitor

Protest is an instrument of citizenship participation that remains largely underresearched. The proposal to study protest using game theory, presented here by Prof. Daniel Stockemer (University of Ottawa) is highly innovative. He shows the conditions under which the inverted U relationship (when a weak regime engages in moderate degrees of repression and the civil society actors decide to protest) and the backlash repressive hypothesis occur, and how both further weaken the government Alongside citizenship participation and protest, equality is a crucial aspect in the equilibrium of human communities. Ethnic and gender equality are still pending subjects in many parts of the world. Critical research and teaching on gender/sex, gendered hegemonies, gender relations, gender identity and social categories remains in the contemporary agenda as a means of challenging traditional categories of class, ethnicity and sexuality and essentialist perceptions of gender. For this reason, Prof. Xiana Sotelo (Univ. Francisco de Vitoria, Madrid Spain) explores Intersectional Analysis and Gender Theory in relation to the Social Sciences, offering a review of Intersectional proposals in the Anglo-American environment and hoping to provide some light to similar problems in other cultural environments. Similarly, Prof. Maya Zalbidea (Univ. Camilo José Cela, Madrid Spain) focuses her attention on cyberfeminism and online awareness of gender issues. Her paper introduces, both in the Spanish context and abroad, research on the role of women in the Information Society, on their visuality and participation as equal rights citizens. The chapter proposes a reading on the evolution and development of differences among women in a parallel movement towards intersectional analysis, presented in the previous chapter.

Equality concerns not only gender issues, but also the involvement of other minority groups in the cultural construction of social affairs. Social realities in many parts of the world offer manifestations of public separatism or irredentism in various forms, dictated by mostly by ethnic motivations. Despite the increasing tendency to overcome the national-state boundaries and to move towards supranational associations like the European Union, demonstrations of ethnic (peaceful or less peaceful) otherness appear daily in the media. This situation naturally provokes interest in human groups that live in foreign ethnical environments. Prof. Katrine Fangen (University of Oslo) looks at social exclusion and inclusion of young immigrants and underlines its multidimensional aspects –educational, labor market exclusion, spatial exclusion, relational exclusion and finally, socio-political exclusion. The chapter also shows the relationship between education and access to the labor market for young immigrants (particularly from African descent) in Sweden. For first-generation immigrants, lack of fluency in the dominant language and knowledge about the local system contributes to incomplete school certificates that restrict access to higher education. She extends her analysis beyond the borders of local communities into the different arenas in which processes of social exclusion occur, not restricting the focus to education or the labor market, but rather seeing inclusion and exclusion in both of these arenas, together with young people's belonging or non-belonging and participation or non-participation in local communities, gangs and peer groups, families, leisure activities as well as in civic and political organizations.

Preface XV

based on the dynamics of interpersonal and intercultural relationships in communities. Considerable research has been carried out in Finland regarding this issue, differentiating six areas for the study of security: 1) health, 2) community relations, 3) security systems, 4) cultural and humanistic issues, 5) territorial (national) security, 6) econological and environmental security. This chapter offers a qualitative study that confirms that young people describe insecurity in a three-dimensional way: by connecting it first to their inner feelings and emotions as an inner experience with basic security and balance, second, to their social relationships, and third, to external circumstances, including socio-economic resources, violence, and war. Their social relationships give special significance to parents, to other relatives, and to friends. The external circumstances cover international relationships and global circumstances. At the societal level, insecurity connects with security resources, social support, and a secure environment. The results provide evidence for developing the concept of insecurity as a multi-level experience, which has manifestations at a personal level as

If relationship is fundamental in building security, it is also important to study how a growing number of multicultural societies cope with cultural and linguistic diversification. There are over 6600 languages in the world and over 2000 only in Africa. Multilingualism is therefore a challenge to maintain equal opportunities, secure the implementation of policies and laws. And build trust. For this reason, UNESCO favours linguistic diversity and the maintenance of multilingualism. Several chapters address linguistic concerns in this volume. Prof. Beban Sammy Chumbow (University of Yaounde & Cameroon Academy of Sciences) presents the Tier Stratification Model of language planning in multilingual settings. The model, in accordance with UNESCO, seeks to capture the dialectic and dynamic relation that should exist at the private and public realms. Given the potential problem of dominance and tension in situations of language contact and the need for a harmonic relationship in a pluralistic state, certain "principles of functional complementarities" are rationalized as relevant factors in the mediation in an ideal language planning model that seeks to enhance national identity while maintaining pluralism and ethno-linguistic diversity. Prof. David John Farmer (Virginia Commonwealth University, USA) also concentrates on linguistic aspects and his contribution analyzes the relevance of epistemic pluralism within public policy. The chapter discusses the relevance of Ludwig Wittgenstein's language games in neuro-economics. The discussion on language and content technologies has a strong potential for innovation in all sectors, as chapters in this volume show. Prof. Farmer presents their applicability as quality-of life-indicators across social dimensions, including people's health, education, personal activities and environmental conditions. Two more contributions highlight the relationship between language, cognition and interpersonal relationships. Prof. Barbara Sicherl-Kafol (University of Ljubljana, Slovenia) and Prof. Olga Denac (University of Maribor, Slovenia) explore musical language and empathic awareness in cross-cultural environments. Their research involves several public organizations and universities in

well as in young people's orientation to more distant issues.

Prof. Mary J. Gallant (Rowan University, USA) addresses issues of international law and the politics of war and genocide through a revision of policies by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. The 1990s wars afford insight into the challenge of sustaining diversity and community. The role of international law is highlighted in terms of being a force for social order in the aftermath of great social upheaval. Leaving justice entirely to the victims is hardly likely to produce anything better than suspicion and bitterness. Where local courts are left to bring justice to victims and perpetrators, they tend to bring unhelpful harshness and there is the constant danger of politicization. The author recommends that future research examine the difficulties of multi-national efforts and effective action when war, atrocity and genocide threaten civilian lives.

Justice and citizenship is also the subject of the chapter by Prof. Diane Ketelle (Mills Liberal Arts College, California). In the context of San Quentin State Prison, the oldest, largest and only death-row prison in California, the author presents several examples of self-narratives written by imprisoned inmates in an attempt to come to terms with their past and future. The prison was built with a capacity to hold 3,302 inmates, but in recent years it has held over 5.000. Most of the inmates are African American, Latino or Native American, which points to a clear relation between ethnic minority groups in the USA, reduced exposure to education and reduced employment opportunities. The case is similar to those presented above in the European context. The writing workshop project, conducted by the author of this chapter, contributed to fortify the lives of inmates and develop their interrelational capacities along the lines of the emotional and the spiritual. They were able to read, write memoirs and poems, and participate in reading discussions, systematically creating a sense of bonding, community, hope and positive approaches to life.

One of the positive outcomes of close interpersonal relations in communities is a great sense of trust in others and less vulnerability in relationships. In certain environments, such as during armed conflict or in prisons, people may see each other as threats and enemies. Issues of security are becoming more and more important in our global world. Protection against terrorism and violence, for example, requires laws and political actions that alleviate insecurity. Riitta Vornanen, Maritta Törrönen (University of Eastern Finland), Janissa Miettinen & Pauli Niemelä (University of Helsinki, Finland) focus their analysis on the conceptualizing of insecurity from the perspective of young people. This is an interesting approach for studying insecurity based on the dynamics of interpersonal and intercultural relationships in communities. Considerable research has been carried out in Finland regarding this issue, differentiating six areas for the study of security: 1) health, 2) community relations, 3) security systems, 4) cultural and humanistic issues, 5) territorial (national) security, 6) econological and environmental security. This chapter offers a qualitative study that confirms that young people describe insecurity in a three-dimensional way: by connecting it first to their inner feelings and emotions as an inner experience with basic security and balance, second, to their social relationships, and third, to external circumstances, including socio-economic resources, violence, and war. Their social relationships give special significance to parents, to other relatives, and to friends. The external circumstances cover international relationships and global circumstances. At the societal level, insecurity connects with security resources, social support, and a secure environment. The results provide evidence for developing the concept of insecurity as a multi-level experience, which has manifestations at a personal level as well as in young people's orientation to more distant issues.

XIV Preface

and political organizations.

atrocity and genocide threaten civilian lives.

community, hope and positive approaches to life.

incomplete school certificates that restrict access to higher education. She extends her analysis beyond the borders of local communities into the different arenas in which processes of social exclusion occur, not restricting the focus to education or the labor market, but rather seeing inclusion and exclusion in both of these arenas, together with young people's belonging or non-belonging and participation or non-participation in local communities, gangs and peer groups, families, leisure activities as well as in civic

Prof. Mary J. Gallant (Rowan University, USA) addresses issues of international law and the politics of war and genocide through a revision of policies by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. The 1990s wars afford insight into the challenge of sustaining diversity and community. The role of international law is highlighted in terms of being a force for social order in the aftermath of great social upheaval. Leaving justice entirely to the victims is hardly likely to produce anything better than suspicion and bitterness. Where local courts are left to bring justice to victims and perpetrators, they tend to bring unhelpful harshness and there is the constant danger of politicization. The author recommends that future research examine the difficulties of multi-national efforts and effective action when war,

Justice and citizenship is also the subject of the chapter by Prof. Diane Ketelle (Mills Liberal Arts College, California). In the context of San Quentin State Prison, the oldest, largest and only death-row prison in California, the author presents several examples of self-narratives written by imprisoned inmates in an attempt to come to terms with their past and future. The prison was built with a capacity to hold 3,302 inmates, but in recent years it has held over 5.000. Most of the inmates are African American, Latino or Native American, which points to a clear relation between ethnic minority groups in the USA, reduced exposure to education and reduced employment opportunities. The case is similar to those presented above in the European context. The writing workshop project, conducted by the author of this chapter, contributed to fortify the lives of inmates and develop their interrelational capacities along the lines of the emotional and the spiritual. They were able to read, write memoirs and poems, and participate in reading discussions, systematically creating a sense of bonding,

One of the positive outcomes of close interpersonal relations in communities is a great sense of trust in others and less vulnerability in relationships. In certain environments, such as during armed conflict or in prisons, people may see each other as threats and enemies. Issues of security are becoming more and more important in our global world. Protection against terrorism and violence, for example, requires laws and political actions that alleviate insecurity. Riitta Vornanen, Maritta Törrönen (University of Eastern Finland), Janissa Miettinen & Pauli Niemelä (University of Helsinki, Finland) focus their analysis on the conceptualizing of insecurity from the perspective of young people. This is an interesting approach for studying insecurity

If relationship is fundamental in building security, it is also important to study how a growing number of multicultural societies cope with cultural and linguistic diversification. There are over 6600 languages in the world and over 2000 only in Africa. Multilingualism is therefore a challenge to maintain equal opportunities, secure the implementation of policies and laws. And build trust. For this reason, UNESCO favours linguistic diversity and the maintenance of multilingualism. Several chapters address linguistic concerns in this volume. Prof. Beban Sammy Chumbow (University of Yaounde & Cameroon Academy of Sciences) presents the Tier Stratification Model of language planning in multilingual settings. The model, in accordance with UNESCO, seeks to capture the dialectic and dynamic relation that should exist at the private and public realms. Given the potential problem of dominance and tension in situations of language contact and the need for a harmonic relationship in a pluralistic state, certain "principles of functional complementarities" are rationalized as relevant factors in the mediation in an ideal language planning model that seeks to enhance national identity while maintaining pluralism and ethno-linguistic diversity. Prof. David John Farmer (Virginia Commonwealth University, USA) also concentrates on linguistic aspects and his contribution analyzes the relevance of epistemic pluralism within public policy. The chapter discusses the relevance of Ludwig Wittgenstein's language games in neuro-economics. The discussion on language and content technologies has a strong potential for innovation in all sectors, as chapters in this volume show. Prof. Farmer presents their applicability as quality-of life-indicators across social dimensions, including people's health, education, personal activities and environmental conditions. Two more contributions highlight the relationship between language, cognition and interpersonal relationships. Prof. Barbara Sicherl-Kafol (University of Ljubljana, Slovenia) and Prof. Olga Denac (University of Maribor, Slovenia) explore musical language and empathic awareness in cross-cultural environments. Their research involves several public organizations and universities in

#### XX Preface

Ljubljana and points to the importance of creativity as a social force in the Ljubljana Music Festival and Slovenian Musical Days.

Preface XVII

promotion of Open Access publications, particularly for research funded with public

Quality assessment is usually regarded as a tool for assessing performance of public institutions. Quality assurance is also a policy tool for assuring minimum standards of higher education services provided by national, local public, and private higher education institutions under the official recognition of national governments. Prof. Akiyoshi Yonozawa (Nagoya University) presents the Japanese initiatives for quality assessment in education and research in the Social Sciences and Humanities. The author also discusses the rationale for assessing the quality of research, international recognition, and the challenges facing the social sciences and humanities under globalization. As of 2011, Japan has 86 national, 95 local-public, and 599 private universities. While acknowledging the efforts of all national, local and private higher education institutions, the assumptions and conclusions of the article apply mainly to the national university sector. In 2004, Japan national government introduced a corporate-style governance system into public universities. This was accompanied by a new evaluation scheme to be implemented by the National Institution for Academic Degrees and University Evaluation (NIAD-UE). Most local public universities have adopted the model and face pressure from local assemblies to engage in formal performance assessments. In addition, the Japanese government requires seven-year, cyclical 'certified evaluations' (accreditation) for all national, local public, and private universities and colleges. Project-based funding schemes, such as the 'Centres of Excellence (COEs)' in research and 'Good Practices,' which are found in various other education programs, are regarded as indirect forms of performance assessment. Japanese initiatives are much in line with the quality assessment proposals introduced

by the European Space of Higher Education in recent years.

Similarly, knowledge dissemination in education is experiencing a general trend to urge students to become more active and involved in their own learning processes. Intention, initiative and entrepreneurship are highly praised qualities that are seen to have a positive effect on the functioning of communities. Thomas Hansson's contribution illuminates the mediating role of technological tools in education and questions the belief in collective subjectivity, particularly fashionable with the popularization of social-software and online tools for the co-creation of a shared 'learning objects'. The paper explains the differences between individual and collective input to human activity systems. According to Hansson, neither an individual subject, nor a collectivity of subjects, influence the potential for learning. It is rather the singular individual(s) within the group who controls collective development of higher mental functions for the members of the group. If participating members stop providing data, there would be no shared learning object, explains the author. The findings show that less successful participants post their verbal input at a level that is rational from an individual perspective alone, less aware of social construction, social competence or empathy. Prof. Jan-Albert van den Berg (University of the Free State South Africa) also evaluates social networks in relation to the dynamics of communal

funds.

The following chapters deal with cultural memory and dissemination within communities. Alongside citizenship participation through political action or artistic performances, the transference of public knowledge is an important element in the cohesion of human communities. There are two fundamental ways by means of which this dissemination is achieved: media dissemination, including the press, and knowledge sharing in educative environments. In recent years the visibility of academic research depends more and more on education rankings and journal indexes. Prof. José M. Gómez-Sanch and Prof. Carmen Pérez-Esparrells (Universidad de Zaragoza & Universidad Autónoma de Madrid) explore higher education rankings and how to valorize the research in Social Sciences and Humanities, since these areas tend to be marginalized in journal indexes. Their chapter argues that academic quality is not one-dimensional, but rather multidimensional, and involves the quality of teaching, the quality of research, quality as a combination of activities (teaching and learning, research, development and innovation), quality as an institutional mission, etc. As a result of this multidimensionality there is no consensus on what constitutes "quality" or "excellence" in higher education. Furthermore, quality is not homogeneous in schools, colleges and universities, and programs can greatly vary. In general, although the majority of the more established rankings attempt to measure precisely academic and scientific quality in both teaching and research, experience has shown that the most popular global rankings (i.e. the rankings of world-class universities) in fact reflect many factors related to institutional reputation and prestige, and there is an acknowledged lack of an appropriate battery of performance indicators at international level to comprehensively measure the total quality of higher education institutions, and to consider all the fields of knowledge in which they work. Similarly, Prof. Petruša Miholič and Prof. Dorjan Marušič (University of Primorska, Slovenia) study scientific publishing in the field of social medicine in Slovenia. Their paper also questions bibliometrics and evaluation based on citation analysis, which only measures the response a work triggers within a given scientific community, and the quality of research work, but does not an assessment of the entire activity. The fact that such impact is only achieved if the research is published in English, maintains professional terminology, and enables greater international exposure, is not a criterion for higher quality in publications. In Slovenia, the COBISS (co-operative online bibliographic system and services) monitors research achievements for each individual researcher. Comparison of the results of bibliometric analysis of the ISI Web of Knowledge, the Slovenian Journal of Public Health Zdravstveno varstvo (ZV) and the European Journal of Public Health (EJPH) for the period 2003-2010, leads the author to the conclusion that the ZV is not behind EJPH and that Slovenian scientists could also publish the results of their research projects as scientific papers in local scientific journals. The difference in publication is that publishing in EJPH brings greater exposure and a greater number of received citations. The paper also argues for the promotion of Open Access publications, particularly for research funded with public funds.

XVI Preface

Ljubljana and points to the importance of creativity as a social force in the Ljubljana

The following chapters deal with cultural memory and dissemination within communities. Alongside citizenship participation through political action or artistic performances, the transference of public knowledge is an important element in the cohesion of human communities. There are two fundamental ways by means of which this dissemination is achieved: media dissemination, including the press, and knowledge sharing in educative environments. In recent years the visibility of academic research depends more and more on education rankings and journal indexes. Prof. José M. Gómez-Sanch and Prof. Carmen Pérez-Esparrells (Universidad de Zaragoza & Universidad Autónoma de Madrid) explore higher education rankings and how to valorize the research in Social Sciences and Humanities, since these areas tend to be marginalized in journal indexes. Their chapter argues that academic quality is not one-dimensional, but rather multidimensional, and involves the quality of teaching, the quality of research, quality as a combination of activities (teaching and learning, research, development and innovation), quality as an institutional mission, etc. As a result of this multidimensionality there is no consensus on what constitutes "quality" or "excellence" in higher education. Furthermore, quality is not homogeneous in schools, colleges and universities, and programs can greatly vary. In general, although the majority of the more established rankings attempt to measure precisely academic and scientific quality in both teaching and research, experience has shown that the most popular global rankings (i.e. the rankings of world-class universities) in fact reflect many factors related to institutional reputation and prestige, and there is an acknowledged lack of an appropriate battery of performance indicators at international level to comprehensively measure the total quality of higher education institutions, and to consider all the fields of knowledge in which they work. Similarly, Prof. Petruša Miholič and Prof. Dorjan Marušič (University of Primorska, Slovenia) study scientific publishing in the field of social medicine in Slovenia. Their paper also questions bibliometrics and evaluation based on citation analysis, which only measures the response a work triggers within a given scientific community, and the quality of research work, but does not an assessment of the entire activity. The fact that such impact is only achieved if the research is published in English, maintains professional terminology, and enables greater international exposure, is not a criterion for higher quality in publications. In Slovenia, the COBISS (co-operative online bibliographic system and services) monitors research achievements for each individual researcher. Comparison of the results of bibliometric analysis of the ISI Web of Knowledge, the Slovenian Journal of Public Health Zdravstveno varstvo (ZV) and the European Journal of Public Health (EJPH) for the period 2003-2010, leads the author to the conclusion that the ZV is not behind EJPH and that Slovenian scientists could also publish the results of their research projects as scientific papers in local scientific journals. The difference in publication is that publishing in EJPH brings greater exposure and a greater number of received citations. The paper also argues for the

Music Festival and Slovenian Musical Days.

Quality assessment is usually regarded as a tool for assessing performance of public institutions. Quality assurance is also a policy tool for assuring minimum standards of higher education services provided by national, local public, and private higher education institutions under the official recognition of national governments. Prof. Akiyoshi Yonozawa (Nagoya University) presents the Japanese initiatives for quality assessment in education and research in the Social Sciences and Humanities. The author also discusses the rationale for assessing the quality of research, international recognition, and the challenges facing the social sciences and humanities under globalization. As of 2011, Japan has 86 national, 95 local-public, and 599 private universities. While acknowledging the efforts of all national, local and private higher education institutions, the assumptions and conclusions of the article apply mainly to the national university sector. In 2004, Japan national government introduced a corporate-style governance system into public universities. This was accompanied by a new evaluation scheme to be implemented by the National Institution for Academic Degrees and University Evaluation (NIAD-UE). Most local public universities have adopted the model and face pressure from local assemblies to engage in formal performance assessments. In addition, the Japanese government requires seven-year, cyclical 'certified evaluations' (accreditation) for all national, local public, and private universities and colleges. Project-based funding schemes, such as the 'Centres of Excellence (COEs)' in research and 'Good Practices,' which are found in various other education programs, are regarded as indirect forms of performance assessment. Japanese initiatives are much in line with the quality assessment proposals introduced by the European Space of Higher Education in recent years.

Similarly, knowledge dissemination in education is experiencing a general trend to urge students to become more active and involved in their own learning processes. Intention, initiative and entrepreneurship are highly praised qualities that are seen to have a positive effect on the functioning of communities. Thomas Hansson's contribution illuminates the mediating role of technological tools in education and questions the belief in collective subjectivity, particularly fashionable with the popularization of social-software and online tools for the co-creation of a shared 'learning objects'. The paper explains the differences between individual and collective input to human activity systems. According to Hansson, neither an individual subject, nor a collectivity of subjects, influence the potential for learning. It is rather the singular individual(s) within the group who controls collective development of higher mental functions for the members of the group. If participating members stop providing data, there would be no shared learning object, explains the author. The findings show that less successful participants post their verbal input at a level that is rational from an individual perspective alone, less aware of social construction, social competence or empathy. Prof. Jan-Albert van den Berg (University of the Free State South Africa) also evaluates social networks in relation to the dynamics of communal

#### XXII Preface

perspectives of embodied spirituality. The author's approach places its emphasis on hermeneutical methodology, where spirituality is a universal human concern, and argues that pastoral theology needs to be revisited beyond the boundaries of religious and disciplinary contexts in order to formulate possible perspectives for an anthropology of singularity.

Prof. Şendil Can (Mugla University Turkey) studies the impact of parental guidance on pre-service teachers' attitudes towards educational technologies in Turkey. His study shows that positive attitudes contribute to make more efficient use of technologies in teaching, enhancing motivation for all partners involved in the learning process.

Finally, the chapters that deal with ecological and social welfare issues. Prof. Sammy Beban Chumbow (University of Yaounde & Cameroon Academy of Sciences) focuses on the study of the implementation of health awareness in Cameroon. The paper presents a case study for the implementation of health measures in Cameroon (such as reduction of infant and maternal mortality, fight against HIV/AIDS, roll back malaria, etc.). The study confirms the hypothesis that a mastery of the language used in the sensitization exercise leads to a higher level of understanding of the innovation and this favors the appropriation model. The logical conclusion is that to enhance appropriation of innovations in development, there is a need to incorporate the language factor in initiatives in order to go beyond awareness and achieve a change in attitude, behavior, and ultimately a change of mind-set. Prof. Muhamad Saiful Bahri Yusoff and Prof. Ab Rahman Esa (Universiti Sains Malaysia) offer a literature review on stress-management in medical students and reveal important positive outcomes on several areas related to health, such as improved loneliness and mood disturbances, improved physiologic and immunologic health markers, improved quality of life, spirituality, and empathy, increased awareness about stress and its effects and management, etc.

> **Asunción López-Varela**  Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain
