**9. Conclusions**

For the last two decades, AFM has been established as an important tool for the study of surfaces. AFM produces information with minimal surface preparation that is not matched by other techniques. The quality of images has increased, as our understanding of the theory of the interaction of the tip and the sample. Atomic resolution images recorded on a variety of samples such as natural minerals, synthetic materials, zeolites, biological samples etc. have established the AFM as the microscope for the atomic scale.

Looking ahead, we must face several challenges to produce fast and reproducible atomic resolution images. One should be skeptical of high resolution topographs, and do diligent work in reporting data. The image acquisition procedures and filtering routines discussed in this chapter should be applied judiciously. One should be aware of artifacts introduced during real-time image acquisition or post processing should be dealt with cautiously, and must be reported. Probes play a key role in realizing high resolution topographs. The benefits of sharper tips are numerous, such as smaller contact area and reduced long range forces. Most conventional tips are made from silicon nitride and silicon. Polymers or diamond tips have also used in some applications (Beuret *et al.*, 2000). Recent developments in producing nano-tips through whiskers or carbon fiber may find potential application in AFM for high resolution images (Marcus *et al.*, 1989; Marcus *et al.*, 1990).

Recent developments on cantilever dynamic studies (Holscher *et al.*, 2006; Strus *et al.*, 2005) and new experimental techniques, such as Q-control (Ebeling *et al.*, 2006; Okajima *et al.*, 2003) and higher order vibration imaging (Martinez *et al.*, 2006) will very likely make AFM a powerful tool for high resolution characterization in the future. Despite recent developments in AFM instrumentation for precise control of tip movement, it is still highly desirable to confirm the reliability of AFM topographs with complimentary techniques such as transmission electron microscopy (Matsko, 2007). We can conclude that AFM is a powerful instrument, and could be used for studying a variety of surfaces.

#### **10. References**

14 Atomic Force Microscopy – Imaging, Measuring and Manipulating Surfaces at the Atomic Scale

Fig. 5. Crystal lattice imaging of the alumina face of kaolinite showing (A) Theoretical atomic lattice structure, (B) Flattened-low pass filtered height image, (C) FFT spectra, and (D) FFT transformed flattened-low pass filtered height image of (B). The seven black circles in (D) show the hexagonal ring of hydroxyl atoms with a central inner hydroxyl atom.

For the last two decades, AFM has been established as an important tool for the study of surfaces. AFM produces information with minimal surface preparation that is not matched by other techniques. The quality of images has increased, as our understanding of the theory of the interaction of the tip and the sample. Atomic resolution images recorded on a variety of samples such as natural minerals, synthetic materials, zeolites, biological samples etc.

have established the AFM as the microscope for the atomic scale.

**A BB**

**C D**

Adapted from (Gupta *et al.*, 2010).

**9. Conclusions** 


Crystal Lattice Imaging Using Atomic Force Microscopy 17

Lindgreen, H., Garnaes, J., Besenbacher, F., Laegsgaard, E. and Stensgaard, I. (1992). Illite-

Marcus, R. B., Ravi, T. S., Gmitter, T., Chin, K., Liu, D., Orvis, W. J., Ciarlo, D. R., Hunt, C. E.

Marcus, R. B., Ravi, T. S., Gmitter, T., Chin, K., Liu, D., Orvis, W. J., Ciarlo, D. R., Hunt, C. E.

Martin, Y., Williams, C. C. and Wickramasinghe, H. K. (1987). Atomic Force Microscope-

Martinez, N. F., Patil, S., Lozano, J. R. and Garcia, R. (2006). Enhanced Compositional

Matsko, N. B. (2007). Atomic Force Microscopy Applied to Study Macromolecular Content

Meyer, G. and Amer, N. M. (1990). Optical-Beam-Deflection Atomic Force Microscopy: The NaCl (001) Surface. *Applied Physics Letters*, Vol. 56, No. 21, pp. (2100-2101) Moller, C., Allen, M., Elings, V., Engel, A. and Muller, D. J. (1999). Tapping-Mode Atomic

Nagy, K. L. B. A. E. (1994). *Scanning Probe Microscopy of Clay Minerals* Clay Minerals Society, ISBN: 1881208087; 9781881208082 LCCN: 2005-282925, Boulder, CO Ohnesorge, F. and Binnig, G. (1993). True Atomic Resolution by Atomic Force Microscopy

Okajima, T., Sekiguchi, H., Arakawa, H. and Ikai, A. (2003). Self-Oscillation Technique for

Sharp, T. G., Oden, P. I. and Buseck, P. R. (1993). Lattice-Scale Imaging of Mica and Clay

Sokolov, I. Y. and Henderson, G. S. (2000). Atomic Resolution Imaging Using the Electric

Sokolov, I. Y., Henderson, G. S. and Wicks, F. J. (1999). Theoretical and Experimental

Strus, M. C., Raman, A., Han, C. S. and Nguyen, C. V. (2005). Imaging Artefacts in Atomic

*Biophysical Journal*, Vol. 77, No. 2, pp. (1150-1158), 0006-3495

260, No. 5113, pp. (1451-1456), 0036-8075

*Science*, Vol. 284, No. 1-2, pp. (L405-L410)

Afm in Liquids. *Applied Surface* Science, Vol. 210

*Science*, Vol. 157, No. 4, pp. (302-307), 0169-4332

*Applied Physics*, Vol. 86, No. 10, pp. (5537-5540)

(2482-2492), 0957-4484

*Minerals*, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. (331-342)

*Letters*, Vol. 56, No. 3, pp. (236-238), 0003-6951

Washington, DC, USA, 1989

No. 10, pp. (4723-4729), 0021-8979

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

0304-3991

Smectite from the North Sea Investigated by Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy. *Clay* 

and Trujillo, J. (1989). Formation of Atomically Sharp Silicon Needles. 01631918,

and Trujillo, J. (1990). Formation of Silicon Tips with 1 Nm Radius. *Applied Physics* 

Force Mapping and Profiling on a Sub 100-a Scale. *Journal of Applied Physics*, Vol. 61,

Sensitivity in Atomic Force Microscopy by the Excitation of the First Two Flexural Modes. *Applied Physics Letters*, Vol. 89, No. 15, pp. (153115-153111), 0003-6951 Masliyah, J. H. and Bhattacharjee, S. (2006). *Electrokinetic and Colloid Transport Phenomena* 

of Embedded Biological Material. *Ultramicroscopy*, Vol. 107, No. 2-3, pp. (95-105),

Force Microscopy Produces Faithful High-Resolution Images of Protein Surfaces.

through Repulsive and Attractive Forces. *Science (Washington, D. C., 1883-)*, Vol.

(001) Surfaces by Atomic Force Microscopy Using Net Attractive Forces. *Surface* 

Double Layer Technique: Friction Vs. Height Contrast Mechanisms. *Applied Surface* 

Evidence for "True'' Atomic Resolution under Non-Vacuum Conditions. *Journal of* 

Force Microscopy with Carbon Nanotube Tips. *Nanotechnology*, Vol. 16, No. 11, pp.


Drake, B. and Hellmann, R. (1991). Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging of the Albite (010)

Drake, B., Prater, C. B., Weisenhorn, A. L., Gould, S. A., Albrecht, T. R., Quate, C. F.,

Ebeling, D., Holscher, H., Fuchs, H., Anczykowski, B. and Schwarz, U. D. (2006). Imaging of

Gan, Y. (2009). Atomic and Subnanometer Resolution in Ambient Conditions by Atomic Force Microscopy. *Surface Science Reports*, Vol. 64, No. 3, pp. (99-121), 0167-5729 Gan, Y., Wanless, E. J. and Franks, G. V. (2007). Lattice-Resolution Imaging of the Sapphire (0001) Surface in Air by Afm. *Surface Science*, Vol. 601, No. 4, pp. (1064-1071) Giessibl, F. J. (2000). Atomic Resolution on Si(111)-(77) by Noncontact Atomic Force

Gould, S. A. C., Drake, B., Prater, C. B., Weisenhorn, A. L., Manne, S., Hansma, H. G.,

*of Vacuum Science & Technology , A*, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. (369-363), 0734-2101 Gupta, V., Hampton, M. A., Nguyen, A. V. and Miller, J. D. (2010). Crystal Lattice Imaging

*Journal of Colloid and Interface Science*, Vol. 352, No. 1, pp. (75-80), 0021-9797 Gupta, V. and Miller, J. D. (2010). Surface Force Measurements at the Basal Planes of

Hartman, H., Sposito, G., Yang, A., Manne, S., Gould, S. A. C. and Hansma, P. K. (1990).

Holscher, H., Ebeling, D. and Schwarz, U. D. (2006). Theory of Q-Controlled Dynamic Force

Israelachvili, J. N. (1985). *Intermolecular and Surface Forces: With Applications to Colloidal and* 

Johnsson, P. A., Eggleston, C. M. and Hochella, M. F. (1991). Imaging Molecular-Scale

Klinov, D. and Magonov, S. (2004). True Molecular Resolution in Tapping-Mode Atomic

Kumai, K., Tsuchiya, K., Nakato, T., Sugahara, Y. and Kuroda, K. (1995). Afm Observation

Microscope. *Clays and Clay Minerals*, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp. (337-342)

*American Mineralogist*, Vol. 76, No. 7-8, pp. (1442-1445)

Cannell, D. S., Hansma, H. G. and Hansma, P. K. (1989). Imaging Crystals, Polymers, and Processes in Water with the Atomic Force Microscope. *Science*, Vol.

Biomaterials in Liquids: A Comparison between Conventional and Q-Controlled Amplitude Modulation ('Tapping Mode') Atomic Force Microscopy.

Microscopy with a Force Sensor Based on a Quartz Tuning Fork. *Applied Physics* 

Hansma, P. K., Massie, J., Longmire, M. and et al. (1990). From Atoms to Integrated Circuit Chips, Blood Cells, and Bacteria with the Atomic Force Microscope. *Journal* 

of the Silica and Alumina Faces of Kaolinite Using Atomic Force Microscopy.

Ordered Kaolinite Particles. *Journal of Colloid and Interface Science*, Vol. 344, No. 2,

Molecular-Scale Imaging of Clay Mineral Surfaces with the Atomic Force

Microscopy in Air. *Journal of Applied Physics*, Vol. 99, No. 8, pp. (84311-84311), 0021-

Structure and Microtopography of Hematite with the Atomic Force Microscope.

Force Microscopy with High-Resolution Probes. *Applied Physics Letters*, Vol. 84, No.

of Kaolinite Surface Using "Pressed" Powder. *Clay Science*, Vol. 9, No. 5, pp. (311-

Surface. *American Mineralogist*, Vol. 76, No. 9-10, pp. (1773-1776)

*Nanotechnology*, Vol. 17, No. 7, pp. (S221-S226), 09574484

*Letters*, Vol. 76, No. 11, pp. (1470-1472), 00036951

pp. (362-371), 0021-9797

*Biological Systems* Academic Press

14, pp. (2697-2699), 00036951

316), 0009-8574

8979

243, No. 4898, pp. (1586-1589), 0036-8075


Sugawara, Y., Ishizaka, T. and Morita, S. (1991). Scanning Force/Tunneling Microscopy of a Graphite Surface in Air. *Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology , B*, Vol. 9, No. 2, Pt. 2, pp. (1092-1095), 0734-211X

**0**

**2**

*Czech Republic*

**Atomic Force Microscopy in Optical**

<sup>1</sup>*Institute of Physics, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Charles University Institute of Biophysics and Informatics, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University* <sup>2</sup>*Institute of Physics, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Charles University*

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a state of the art imaging system that uses a sharp probe to scan backwards and forwards over the surface of an object. The probe tip can have atomic dimensions, meaning that AFM can image the surface of an object at near atomic resolution. Two big advantages of AFM compared to other methods (for example scanning tunneling microscopy) are: the samples in AFM measurements do not need to be conducting because the AFM tip responds to interatomic forces, a cumulative effect of all electrons instead of tunneling current, and AFM can operate at much higher distance from the surface (5-15 nm),

An exciting and promising area of growth for AFM has been in its combination with optical microscopy. Although the new optical techniques developed in the past few years have begun to push traditional limits, the lateral and axial resolution of optical microscopes are typically limited by the optical elements in the microscope, as well as the Rayleigh diffraction limit of light. In order to investigate the properties of nanostructures, such as shape and size, their chemical composition, molecular structure, as well as their dynamic properties, microscopes with high spatial resolution as well as high spectral and temporal resolving power are required. Near-field optical microscopy has proved to be a very promising technique, which can be applied to a large variety of problems in physics, chemistry, and biology. Several methods have been presented to merge the optical information of near-field optical microscopy with the measured surface topography. It was shown by (Mertz et al. (1994)) that standard AFM probes can be used for near-field light imaging as an alternative to tapered optical fibers and photomultipliers. It is possible to use the microfabricated piezoresistive AFM cantilevers as miniaturized photosensitive elements and probes. This allows a high lateral resolution of AFM to be combined with near-field optical measurements in a very convenient way. However, to successfully employ AFM techniques into the near-field optical

Artificial periodical nanostructures such as gratings or photonics crystals are promising candidates for new generation of devices in integrated optics. Precise characterization of their lateral profile is necessary to control the lithography processing. However, the limitation of AFM is that the needle has to be held by a mechanical arm or cantilever. This restricts

**1. Introduction**

preventing damage to sensitive surfaces.

microscopy, several technical difficulties have to be overcome.

**Imaging and Characterization**

Martin Veis1 and Roman Antos2

