**7. Conclusion**

For the electronic reception of roundwood, 2D and 3D systems of the measurement of roundwood diameter are used virtually exclusively. 1D systems do not provide exact data on geometrical properties of logs being also not permitted by any of standard rules (not mentioned in the survey).

Regulations, which are mostly used for the electronic reception of roundwood are as follows: Recommended rules for the measurement and grading of timber in the Czech Republic 2008 (both manual and electronic measurements), Austrian ÖNorm L 1021 (a version which gives roundwood diameter in cm) and German Rahmenvereinbarung für die Werksvermessung von Stammholz. Measurements according to these standards (particularly ÖNorm L 1021) are also used by many company regulations of the supranational processors of roundwood.

All these regulations determine the roundwood volume as the volume of one cylinder of a diameter equal to the mid log diameter and length equal to the nominal length of a log, thus according to traditional methods of the manual measurement. According to manual measurements, diameter is also given in whole cm (exceptions are only logs up to a diameter of 20 cm at Rahmenvereinbarung für die Werksvermessung von Stammholz. Thus, for the determination of the log volume not even accuracy or the density of sensing, which is characteristic of present electronic systems (required by present regulations), are used.

The algorithm of the roundwood volume determination of any rule mentioned above does not result in the determination of the log geometric volume or a volume near the value but a volume, which is lower. The decline is mainly caused by the mid diameter value given in

consuming and not practicable everywhere. A procedure of measuring the logs by sections appears to be sufficiently accurate and generally practicable. The length of sections derived from the minimum requirements of present regulations is 10 cm. In addition, the method accuracy is supported by the lower sensitiveness of the section method to the type of filtration. Misrepresenting effects of filtration become evident in the volume deviation of one section but not of the whole log (in a limiting case). Properties of particular procedures

To check and calibrate the equipment, procedures are proposed, which affect both accuracy of sensing geometric parameters of timber (logs) and the method of their evaluation. It is achieved by static sensing the etalons/measurement standards/ (the present method of the inspection of accuracy of setting the equipment and sensing the log dimensions) and subsequent operational (dynamic) measurement (checking the filtration and processing results of measurements). For calibration in this way it is necessary to determine (in rules, regulations) allowable tolerances of particular measurements and resulting evaluated

The inspection of equipment is also related to the determination of authorities qualified to check and calibrate electronic measuring devices (existing in the majority of countries) and determination of sanctions at the infraction of agreed procedures of measurements and determination of geometrical parameters of logs (so far not existing in the Czech Republic).

For the electronic reception of roundwood, 2D and 3D systems of the measurement of roundwood diameter are used virtually exclusively. 1D systems do not provide exact data on geometrical properties of logs being also not permitted by any of standard rules (not

Regulations, which are mostly used for the electronic reception of roundwood are as follows: Recommended rules for the measurement and grading of timber in the Czech Republic 2008 (both manual and electronic measurements), Austrian ÖNorm L 1021 (a version which gives roundwood diameter in cm) and German Rahmenvereinbarung für die Werksvermessung von Stammholz. Measurements according to these standards (particularly ÖNorm L 1021) are also used by many company regulations of the supra-

All these regulations determine the roundwood volume as the volume of one cylinder of a diameter equal to the mid log diameter and length equal to the nominal length of a log, thus according to traditional methods of the manual measurement. According to manual measurements, diameter is also given in whole cm (exceptions are only logs up to a diameter of 20 cm at Rahmenvereinbarung für die Werksvermessung von Stammholz. Thus, for the determination of the log volume not even accuracy or the density of sensing, which is characteristic of present electronic systems (required by present regulations), are used.

The algorithm of the roundwood volume determination of any rule mentioned above does not result in the determination of the log geometric volume or a volume near the value but a volume, which is lower. The decline is mainly caused by the mid diameter value given in

given in this paper are expressed in the same way.

**7. Conclusion** 

mentioned in the survey).

national processors of roundwood.

values. It has not been determined for dynamic measurements yet.

However, it refers to themes occurring out of the field of measuring systems.

whole cm. Units of mm, which are included in electronically taken data, are not taken into account at the conversion. This "cutting off" is carried out even 2 times one after another in the course of calculations, namely at basic measured values and at average values.

The rate of decline of values of the log volume achieved according to particular procedures is compared with the volume of logs determined by a section method (sections as cylinders of a length of 10 cm and diameters given in mm). The method is selected because it evaluates (from given data on the log) a volume, which is closest to the log geometrical volume. The rate of decline varies from -5.5% (German Rahmenvereinbarung für die Werksvermessung von Stammholz, logs of medium diameters) to -9% (Austrian Ö-Norm L 1021, mid diameter value given in whole cm). Procedures, which give lower deviations (EN 1309-2 – 1.5 to 3%, ÖNorm L 1021, mm version – 0.7 to 3% or the ČSN 48 0050 Standard 48 0050 – 1 0.3 to 0.8%) are used minimally in practice (in the CR, their use was not found at all). Results achieved correspond to a comparison carried out in Germany (Sauter, U., Staudenmaier, J. & Verhoff, S. 2010).

The values are affected by the way of filtration of taken data. The filtration is a necessary step, which is carried out always. The method of its implementation is not, however, included in any known Central-European regulation. Through various types of filtration applied at the same taken data on logs even about 2% deviations (from values presented in the paper) were achieved.

At the majority of procedures, the fall (deviation) is considerably dependent on the roundwood diameter. It is less dependent (but not insignificantly) on its length. In the paper, the dependences are presented in diagrams. Values of the roundwood/log volume obtained by one procedure cannot be therefore "converted" (with operational accuracy) to values obtained by another procedure using one universal coefficient. It is always necessary to take into account properties of the concrete delivery of roundwood.

From the operational aspect it is not necessary to know the volume of roundwood exactly. Present technically achievable accuracy is quite sufficient for timber processing. From commercial aspects, the actual deviation is not important but its various values at various procedures.

An ideal solution into the future is to unify procedures. However, experience from negotiations does not make possible the author to believe in the early realization of this solution, because the will of parties concerned is missing. Therefore, it is necessary to aim at:


**7** 

Abdullah Beyaz

*Turkey* 

**Machine Vision Measurement** 

*Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Machinery,* 

**Technology and Agricultural Applications** 

Many of the techniques of digital image processing, or digital picture processing as it often was called, were developed in the 1960s at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Bell Laboratories, University of Maryland, and a few other research facilities, with application to satellite imagery, wire-photo standards conversion, medical imaging, videophone, character recognition, and photograph enhancement. The cost of processing was fairly high, however, with the computing equipment of that era. That changed in the 1970s, when digital image processing proliferated as cheaper computers and dedicated hardware became available. Images then could be processed in real time. As general-purpose computers became faster, they started to take over the role of dedicated hardware for all but the most specialized and computer-intensive operations (Anonymous, 2011b). With the fast computers and signal processors available in the 2000s, digital image processing has become the most common form of image processing and generally, is used because it is not only the most versatile method, but also the cheapest. Digital image processing technology for medical applications was inducted into the Space Foundation

Today image processing is used in a wide variety of applications for two somewhat different purposes: improving the visual appearance of images to a human viewer, preparing images for the measurement of the features and structures that they reveal. The techniques that are appropriate for each of these tasks are not always the same. This chapter

A machine vision system processes images acquired from an electronic unit, which is like the human vision system where the brain processes images derived from the eyes. Machine vision is a rich and rewarding topic for study and research for agriculture engineers, electronic engineers, computer scientists and many others. Increasingly, it has a commercial future. There are many vision systems in routine industrial use: cameras inspect mechanical parts to check size, food is inspected for quality and images used in biometrics benefit from

Imaging systems cover all processes involved in the formation of an image from objects and the sensors that convert radiation into electric signals, and further into digital signals that

**1. Introduction** 

Space Technology Hall of Fame in 1994.

covers methods that are used for measurement tasks.

machine vision techniques (Nixon & Aguado, 2002 ).

#### **8. References**

