**7. Acknowledgment**

We are grateful to Kazuo Mishima and Takahiro Soshi for cooperating in our research concerning NIRS.

#### **8. References**


thought, and action in accordance with a given purpose (Halford et al., 2010). The findings discussed here clearly suggest a novel function for the PFC, that of controlling sleepiness

NIRS is a developing technique and it is expected that its applications will increase to cover other cerebral regions in future and that further noise reductions will improve the technique further: it will undoubtedly provide invaluable information about human cognition and its

We are grateful to Kazuo Mishima and Takahiro Soshi for cooperating in our research

Andrews, R.M., Browne, A.L., Drummond, P.D., & Wood, F.M. (2010). The impact of

Aschoff, J. (1998). Human perception of short and long time intervals: its correlation with

Ashoff, J., & Daan, S. (1997). Human time perception in temporal isolation: effects of

Baeken, C., De Raedt, R., Ramsey, N., Van Schuerbeek, P., Hermes, D., Bossuyt, A., Leyman,

Bartel, P., Offermeier, W., Smith, F., & Becker, P. (2004). Attention and working memory in

Blatter, K., Graw, P., Münch, M., Knoblauch, V., Wirz-Justice, A., & Cajochen, C. (2006).

Buysse, D.J., Monk, T.H., Carrier, J., & Begley, A. (2005). Circadian patterns of sleep,

Callicott, J.H., Mattay, V.S., Bertolino, A., Finn, K., Coppola, R., Frank, J.A., Goldberg, T.E.,

*and Environmental Medicine,* Vol.61, No.2, pp. 167-170, ISSN 1076-2752 Binks, P.G., Waters, W.F., & Hurry, M. (1999). Short-term total sleep deprivations does not

survivors. *Burns,* Vol.36, No.1, pp. 29-37, ISSN 0305-4179

Vol.13, No.5, pp. 437–442, ISSN 0748-7304

No.1296, pp. 94-103, ISSN 0006-8993

personality and coping on the development of depressive symptoms in adult burns

body temperature and the duration of wake time. *Journal of Biological Rhythms,*

illumination intensity. *Chronobiology International,* Vol.14, No.6, pp. 585–596, ISSN

L., Vanderhasselt, M.A., De Mey, J., & Luypaert, R. (2009). Amygdala responses to positively and negatively valenced baby faces in healthy female volunteers: influences of individual differences in harm avoidance. *Brain Research,* Vol.3,

resident anaesthetists after night duty: group and individual effects. *Occupational* 

selectively impair higher cortical functioning. *Sleep,* Vol.22, No.3, pp. 328-334, ISSN

Gender and age differences in psychomotor vigilance performance under differential sleep pressure conditions. *Behavioural Brain Research,* Vol.168, No.2, pp.

sleepiness, and performance in older and younger adults. *Sleep,* Vol.28, No.11, pp.

& Weinberger, D.R. (1999). Physiological characteristics of capacity constraints in working memory as revealed by functional MRI. *Cerebral Cortex,* Vol.9, No.1, pp.

and compensating brain function deteriorated by sleep loss.

neural substrates.

concerning NIRS.

**8. References** 

**7. Acknowledgment** 

0742-0528

0161-8105

312-317, ISSN 0166-4328

1365-1376, ISSN 0161-8105

20–26, ISSN 1047-3211


Effects of Sleep Debt on Cognitive Performance and Prefrontal Activity in Humans 39

Lim, J., & Dinges, D.F. (2010). A meta-analysis of the impact of short-term sleep deprivation

Miller, E.K., & Cohen, J.D. (2001). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. *Annual* 

Nilsson, J.P., Söderström, M., Karlsson, A.U., Lekander, M., Akerstedt, T., Lindroth, N.E., &

deprivation. *Journal of Sleep Research,* Vol.14, No.1, pp. 1-6, ISSN 0962-1105 Obrig, H., Neufang, M., Wenzel, R., Kohl, M., Steinbrink, J., Einhäupl, K., & Villringer, A.

Owen, A.M., Doyon, J., Petrides, M., & Evans, A.C. (1996). Planning and spatial working

Owen, A.M., Stern, C.E., Look, R.B., Tracey, I., Rosen, B.R., & Petrides, M. (1998). Functional

Rammsayer, T.H. (1999). Neuropharmacological evidence for different timing mechanisms

Rasmussen, T., Holstein-Rathlou, N.H., & Lauritzen, M. (2009). Modeling neuro-vascular

Saggino, A., & Balsamo, M. (2003). Relationship between WAIS-R intelligence and the five-

Soshi, T., Kuriyama, K., Aritake, S., Enomoto, M., Hida, A., Tamura, M., Kim, Y., &

Stenuit, P., & Kerkhofs, M. (2008). Effects of sleep restriction on cognition in women.

Strobel, A., Gutknecht, L., Rothe, C., Reif, A., Mössner, R., Zeng, Y., Brocke, B., & Lesch, K.P.

Sweeney, J.A., Mintun, M.A., Kwee, S., Wiseman, M.B., Brown, D.L., Rosenberg, D.R., &

*United States of America,* Vol.95, No.13, pp. 7721-7726, ISSN 0027-8424 Pouthas, V., Maquet, P., Garnero, L., Ferrandez, A.M., & Renault, B. (1999). Neural basis of

*Neurophysiology Supplement,* Vol.50, pp. 598–603, ISSN 0424-8155

*Review of Neuroscience,* Vol.24, pp. 167–202, ISSN 0147-006X

*Neuroscience,* Vol.8, No.2, pp. 353-364, ISSN 0953-816X

*Neuroimage,* Vol.45, No.1, pp. 96-108, ISSN 1053-8119

study. *PLoS ONE,* Vol.5, No.1, pp. e8395, ISSN 1932-6203

*Biological Psychology,* Vo.77, No.1, pp. 81-88, ISSN 0301-0511

No.3 (Part 2), pp. 1151-1161, ISSN 0033-2941

No.12, pp. 1445-1453, ISSN 0300-9564

pp.454-468, ISSN 0022-3077

pp. 123–128, ISSN 0168-0102

273–286, ISSN 0272-4995

2909

perception under 30-h sustained wakefulness. *Neuroscience Research,* Vol.53, No.2,

on cognitive variables. *Psychological Bulletin,* Vol.136, No.3, pp. 375-389, ISSN 0033-

Axelsson, J. (2005). Less effective executive functioning after one night's sleep

(2000). Spontaneous low frequency oscillations of cerebral hemodynamics and metabolism in human adults. *Neuroimage,* Vol.12, No.6, pp. 623-639, ISSN 1053-8119

memory: a positron emission tomography study in humans. *European Journal of* 

organization of spatial and nonspatial working memory processing within the human lateral frontal cortex. *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the* 

time estimation: a PET and ERP study. *Electroencephalography and Clinical* 

in humans. *Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section B,* Vol.52, No.3, pp.

coupling in rat cerebellum: characterization of deviations from linearity.

factor model of personality in a normal elderly sample. *Psychological Reports,* Vol.92,

Mishima, K. (2010). Sleep deprivation influences diurnal variation of human time perception with prefrontal activity change: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy

(2003). Allelic variation in 5-HT1A receptor expression is associated with anxietyand depression-related personality traits. *Journal of Neural Transmission,* Vol.110,

Carl, J.R. (1996). Positron emission tomography study of voluntary saccadic eye movements and spatial working memory. *Journal of Neurophysiology,* Vol.75, No.1,

personality risk factors for affective disorder. *Biological Psychiatry,* Vol.63, No.6, pp. 569-576, ISSN 0006-3223


Gevins, A., & Cutillo, B. (1993). Spatiotemporal dynamics of component processes in human

Grucza, R.A., Cloninger, C.R., Bucholz, K.K., Constantino, J.N., Schuckit, M.I., Dick, D.M., &

Guiou, M., Sheth, S., Nemoto, M., Walker, M., Pouratian, N., Ba, A., & Toga, A.W. (2005).

Halford, G.S., Wilson, W.H., & Phillips, S. (2010). Relational knowledge: the foundation of

Harrington, D.L., Haaland, K.Y., & Knight, R.T. (1998). Cortical networks underlying

Hoddes, E., Dement, W.C., & Zarcone, V. (1971). The history and use of the Stanford

Honma, M., Soshi, T., Kim, Y., & Kuriyama, K. (2010). Right prefrontal activity reflects the

Ivry, R.B. (1996). The representation of temporal information in perception and motor control. *Current Opinion in Neurobiology,* Vol.6, No.6, pp. 851–857, ISSN 0959-4388 Killgore, W.D., Kahn-Greene, E.T., Lipizzi, E.L., Newman, R.A., Kamimori, G.H., & Balkin,

Koslowsky, M., & Babkoff, H. (1992). Meta-analysis of the relationship between total sleep

Kuriyama, K., Mishima, K., Suzuki, H., Aritake, S., & Uchiyama, M. (2008). Sleep accelerates

Kuriyama, K., Uchiyama, M., Suzuki, H., Tagaya, H., Ozaki, A., Aritake, S., Kamei, Y.,

Kuriyama, K., Uchiyama, M., Suzuki, H., Tagaya, H., Ozaki, A., Aritake, S., Shibui, K., Xin,

sleepiness scale. *Psychophysiology,* Vol.9, pp. 150, ISSN 1469-8986

*Physiology,* Vol.90, No.5, pp. 1657–1662, ISSN 0021-8987

Vol.28, No.40, pp. 10145–10150, ISSN 0270-6474

569-576, ISSN 0006-3223

1183, ISSN 0145-6008

1095, ISSN 0270-6474

6613

9457

0102

ISSN 0742-0528

pp. 128–143, ISSN 0013-4694

*Optics,* Vol.10, No.1, pp. 11004, ISSN 1083- 3668

personality risk factors for affective disorder. *Biological Psychiatry,* Vol.63, No.6, pp.

working memory. *Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology,* Vol.87, No.3,

Bierut, L.J. (2006). Novelty seeking as a moderator of familial risk for alcohol dependence. *Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research,* Vol.30, No.7, pp. 1176-

Cortical spreading depression produces long-term disruption of activity-related changes in cerebral blood volume and neurovascular coupling. *Journal of Biomedical* 

higher cognition. *Trends in Cognitive Sciences,* Vol.14, No.11, pp. 497-505, ISSN 1364-

mechanisms of time perception. *The Journal of Neuroscience,* Vol.18, No.3, pp. 1085-

ability to overcome sleepiness during working memory tasks: a functional nearinfrared spectroscopy study. *PLoS ONE,* Vol.5, No.9, pp. e12923, ISSN 1932-6203. Hoshi, Y., Kobayashi, N., & Tamura, M. (2001). Interpretation of near-infrared spectroscopy

signals: a study with a newly developed perfused rat brain model. *Journal of Applied* 

T.J. (2008). Sleep deprivation reduces perceived emotional intelligence and constructive thinking skills. *Sleep Medicine,* Vol.9, No.5, pp. 517-526, ISSN 1389-

deprivation and performance. *Chronobiology International,* Vol.9, No.2, pp. 132-136,

the improvement in working memory performance. *The Journal of Neuroscience,*

Nishikawa, T., & Takahashi, K. (2003). Circadian fluctuation of time perception in healthy human subjects. *Neuroscience Research,* Vol.46, No.1, pp. 23–31, ISSN 0168-

T., Lan, L., Kamei, Y., & Takahashi, K. (2005). Diurnal fluctuation of time

perception under 30-h sustained wakefulness. *Neuroscience Research,* Vol.53, No.2, pp. 123–128, ISSN 0168-0102


**3** 

*Japan* 

**Applications of Near Infrared** 

Masahito Mihara and Ichiro Miyai

**Spectroscopy in Neurorehabilitation** 

In developed countries, stroke is a major cause of acquired disability among adults. Although there is a considerable inter-subject variability, the time course of functional recovery assumes an exponential shape, with a faster recovery in the initial few weeks, followed by a slower recovery over the next few months (Jorgensen et al., 1999; Duncan et al., 2000). In the former phase, faster recovery is thought to be due to the reduction of parenchymal oedema or recanalization of the blood flow. The latter phase is believed to depend upon the adaptive plasticity of the brain, including unmasking or disinhibiting the potentially aberrant neural network, and vicariation of function (Ward & Frackowiak, 2004). Although there are many evidences for brain plasticity after stroke or brain injury, most of our knowledge is derived from animal experiments (Jenkins & Merzenich, 1987; Nudo et al., 1996). Direct investigation of functional reorganization after brain damage in humans has only recently become possible with advancements in non-invasive functional imaging techniques, such as positron emission tomography (PET) and functional MRI (fMRI). Among these functional neuroimaging techniques, functional near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) has drawn attention from investigators in rehabilitation medicine since it is thought to be less constrained and more available for measurement during various tasks. In this chapter, we introduce the clinical applications of fNIRS in the field of rehabilitation

medicine and I shall discuss the further possibilities for its application.

**2.1 Principles of functional NIRS** 

**2. Application of functional NIRS in studies of human motor control** 

Near infrared light, particularly that with a wavelength between 700 and 900 nm, can easily pass through biological tissues, including skin and skull bone, and be absorbed by biological chromophores such as haemoglobin, myoglobin, and cytochrome oxidase in the mitochondria. Because myoglobin concentration is much lower than haemoglobin concentrations in the brain tissue and a change in the redox state of cytochrome oxidase occurs only under severely hypoxic conditions, near infrared light is mainly absorbed by haemoglobin when used as a functional brain-imaging tool. The NIRS system with continuous waves, which is widely used in commercially available instruments, measures the transmitted intensity and calculates the relative changes in the haemoglobin concentration according to the modified Beer-Lambert law for highly scattering media

**1. Introduction** 

*Neurorehabilitation Research Institute, Morinomiya Hospital* 

