**3.1 Neural mechanisms of empathic process and social relationships**

As described above, in line with individual differences in the ability of empathic processing, Nomura et al. (2010) revealed that for a person who has a high ability of perspective taking, the right VLPFC activates to take the other-perspective of the unfair other. Previous studies have presented evidence that the right VLPFC can modulate the activity of the amygdala even when emotional responses in the amygdala are implicitly evoked by emotional signals independent of the current conscious cognitive processing (Hariri, Bookheimer, & Mazziotta, 2000; Nomura, Ohira, Haneda, Iidaka, Sadato, Okada, & Yonekura, 2004).

According to these findings, the results reported by Nomura et al. (2010) suggest that the amygdala activation in the participants with high perspective-taking ability is suppressed while taking the perspective of an unfair person, and this leads to a decrease in their subjective negative emotions. The suppression of negative emotion is formed by the cognitive appraisal of the social behaviors of others by top-down processing. It was found that because participants with a higher perspective-taking ability evaluate the valence of emotions from the others' perspective when observing a happy facial expression by disliked others, they possibly use top-down intentional processing to effectively suppress the negative emotion evoked automatically by bottom-up processing. In contrast, participants with a lower perspective-taking ability could not suppress the negative emotion when they took the perspective of the disliked other. This reflects the decreased activation in the right VLPFC. In this way, the sensitivity to stimuli to evoke emotions varies according to the individual difference of the empathic ability, and this would produce different brain activities associated with the suppression of negative emotions. Further studies using fMRI and PET are needed to assess the neural basis related to the empathic process, including the activity of the amygdala.

#### **3.2 Application and prospects of NIRS**

We finally describe the advantages and disadvantages of brain imaging techniques using NIRS. Although fMRI and PET also measure the local bloodstream of the brain, each of these NIRS devices has its own advantages and disadvantages and is chosen depending on the purpose of research.

The disadvantage of NIRS in comparison with other imaging techniques is that the spatial resolution is lower. In addition, NIRS cannot measure deep parts of the brain such as the amygdala, brainstem, and cerebellum because brain tissues can only be measured approximately 3 cm from the surface of the head. Furthermore, it is difficult to identify the detailed anatomical position associated with brain function. The brain regions cannot be identified precisely from the scalp, and it becomes necessary to measure three-dimensional MR images in order to confirm the positions between the probes and brain regions. However, the positions of the probes can be determined according to the international 10-20 system for electroencephalogram recording, and at present, a number of studies using NIRS adopt this system.

On the other hand, NIRS has some strong advantages. First, it is highly non-invasive and thus safe. The burden on participants is relatively low, since they are not injected with

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radioisotopes into the blood-stream and do not need to be restricted in a noisy device like fMRI and PET. Accordingly, it is possible to examine brain activity during performance tasks with natural body movement (cf. Morioka, in this book), as well as the brain activity of infants and children (cf. Ozawa; Kaneko, Yoshikawa, Ito, Nomura, & Okada, in this book). The second advantage is that the temporal resolution of NIRS is higher than those of fMRI and PET. The third is that a NIRS device has high portability with its relatively compact size and does not need special laboratory equipment. In addition, it offers easy operation. As a result of these advantages, NIRS techniques are contributing to the progress of evaluations such as the embodiment and development of infants and children, which were difficult to examine by fMRI or PET in the early cognitive neuroscience.

In this chapter, we discussed the neural basis underlying the empathic process based on the approach of social cognitive neuroscience. As explained above, given the limitations of NIRS, i.e., the lower spatial resolution and the inability to measure the deeper parts of the brain, it is difficult for this technology to contribute to brain function imaging studies on its own. In the future, we will need to construct a model of neural mechanisms underlying social cognition, adopting the evidence obtained from imaging techniques using fMRI or PET in a complementary manner. Furthermore, psychological and brain neuroimaging studies with concurrent biochemical and pharmacological measurement of both neurotransmitter functions, in particular those investigating the effect of gene polymorphisms, appear to be useful for clarifying the relationship between social brain functions and personality traits.

NIRS can also be used with devices measuring eye movement and skin electricity activity at the same time. The use of these combinations with NIRS will enable us to investigate issues such as detection of intentionality and eye-direction, as well as emotion. Furthermore, it will be relatively easy to measure the brain activity of two persons cooperatively performing a task at the same time. Consequently, we can anticipate the application of NIRS to interpersonal relationships and cooperative behavior. Further research on social cognitive neuroscience will be expected to provide new evidence for the neural mechanisms underlying cognitive functions, including emotions, empathy and joint attention under a bidirectional situation.

#### **4. References**


radioisotopes into the blood-stream and do not need to be restricted in a noisy device like fMRI and PET. Accordingly, it is possible to examine brain activity during performance tasks with natural body movement (cf. Morioka, in this book), as well as the brain activity of infants and children (cf. Ozawa; Kaneko, Yoshikawa, Ito, Nomura, & Okada, in this book). The second advantage is that the temporal resolution of NIRS is higher than those of fMRI and PET. The third is that a NIRS device has high portability with its relatively compact size and does not need special laboratory equipment. In addition, it offers easy operation. As a result of these advantages, NIRS techniques are contributing to the progress of evaluations such as the embodiment and development of infants and children, which were difficult to

In this chapter, we discussed the neural basis underlying the empathic process based on the approach of social cognitive neuroscience. As explained above, given the limitations of NIRS, i.e., the lower spatial resolution and the inability to measure the deeper parts of the brain, it is difficult for this technology to contribute to brain function imaging studies on its own. In the future, we will need to construct a model of neural mechanisms underlying social cognition, adopting the evidence obtained from imaging techniques using fMRI or PET in a complementary manner. Furthermore, psychological and brain neuroimaging studies with concurrent biochemical and pharmacological measurement of both neurotransmitter functions, in particular those investigating the effect of gene polymorphisms, appear to be useful for clarifying the relationship between social brain

NIRS can also be used with devices measuring eye movement and skin electricity activity at the same time. The use of these combinations with NIRS will enable us to investigate issues such as detection of intentionality and eye-direction, as well as emotion. Furthermore, it will be relatively easy to measure the brain activity of two persons cooperatively performing a task at the same time. Consequently, we can anticipate the application of NIRS to interpersonal relationships and cooperative behavior. Further research on social cognitive neuroscience will be expected to provide new evidence for the neural mechanisms underlying cognitive functions, including emotions, empathy and joint attention under a

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**4. References** 


**6** 

**Introduction of Non-Invasive** 

Shouhei Koyama, Hiroaki Ishizawa, Yuki Miyauchi and Tomomi Dozono

*Shinshu University* 

*Japan* 

**Measurement Method by Infrared Application** 

The infrared light analysis has become an indispensable part of life for humankind. The infrared measurement has been studied in the worldwide, because can be qualitative and quantitative analysis for trace samples. Today, infrared spectrophotometer has been installed in many laboratories and universities, and being used over a very wide field. So, the number of papers on infrared spectroscopy is so many. We also are one of a research group of infrared measurement. Our research policy is "non-destructive measurement using infrared light". In general, blood glucose measurements of the human body to extract blood, and to determine the composition of textile products will break down to samples. If we can measure these value in non-destructive, we can contribute to society. So I described our

past "non-destructive measurement using infrared light" research in this document.

In this study, measuring systems are used a FT-IR (IR-Prestige-21 : SHIMADZU, Travel-IR : SensIR Technologies) as in Fig.1. The block diagram of measurement system is shown in Fig.2. The broadband infrared light is interfering by Michelson interferometer, and sent to the sample place. In the sample place, we selected the best method (ATR method, diffuse reflection method, IR fiber probe method) by each sample. We are only using the MCT (mercury cadmium tellurium) detector in IR fiber probe method, using the DLATGS (Deuterated L-Alanine Triglycine Sulphate) detector in other method. Absorption infrared interference light is detected by the optical detector, appear on the PC as an interferogram signal. This signal transformed by Fourier transformation, we get the IR absorption spectrum. The horizontal axis of spectrum is wavenumber, and the vertical axis is

ATR method is performed as follows. We place to the sample on the prism. At this time, if there is a gap, the S/N ratio is lower. Infrared light goes into the prism, and goes forward by repeating the total reflection. When IR light repeats total reflection in the prism, evanescent

**2.1 FT-IR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrophotometer)** 

**2.2 Attenuated Total Reflectance method (ATR method)** 

**1. Introduction** 

**2. Measurement system** 

absorbance.

related fMRI study. *NeuroImage,* Vol.21, No.1, (January 2004), pp. 352–363, ISSN 1053-8119

