**7. References**

158 Infrared Spectroscopy – Life and Biomedical Sciences

significantly lower than that in healthy controls. These findings suggest that developmental changes in prefrontal activity of individuals with ASDs emerge before adulthood, i.e. they

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder whose prevalence has been estimated to be 3% to 7% of school-age children (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000). The essential clinical symptoms include inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity. Some hyperactive-impulsive or inattentive symptoms must be present before the age of 7 years, although some symptoms that cause impairment tend to persist life-long. Some impairment from the symptoms is typically evident at school and at home, with behaviour that is clearly inappropriate for the developmental age in social,

In particular, ADHD is characterised by impairments in executive function, i.e. the failure of inhibitory control and the dysregulation of brain systems mediating reward and response (Sonuga-Barke, 2003). The Go/NoGo task, stop-signal task, and Stroop colourword task have been used to investigate the inhibition process in these patients. Some studies have examined brain function in ADHD children during the Stroop colour-word task using NIRS. Moser et al. examined the brain activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Moser et al., 2009), and showed that the oxy-haemoglobin concentration peaked later in ADHD children than in healthy children. Additionally, the concentration of deoxy-haemoglobin increased just after the onset of stimulation in ADHD children but decreased in healthy children. Negoro et al. examined the activation of frontal regions in the brain using 24-channel NIRS during the Stroop colour-word task (Negoro et al., 2010), and showed that the concentration of oxy-haemoglobin in the inferior prefrontal cortex in ADHD children decreased compared with that in healthy children, especially in the both

The trail-making test, which assesses executive function, has been used for the measurement of brain activation in ADHD children. Weber et al. showed that the concentration of oxyhaemoglobin increased in ADHD children during the short attention phase, whereas no significant change was observed in healthy children (Weber et al., 2005). A significant increase in oxy-haemoglobin was also reported for both groups during the extended attention phase, although an additional increase was observed in deoxy-haemoglobin level

These findings suggest that during tasks involving executive function, the haemodynamic

NIRS can greatly aid in extending our existing experimental paradigms. With NIRS, we can measure haemodynamic changes in the cerebral cortex of children, and accumulate more information on brain activity from infancy to adolescence. Such information is of great importance in studying brain function from a developmental perspective. However, surprisingly, the available research, even on topics like the typical trajectory of functional

responses in ADHD children are different from those in healthy children.

**5.2 Brain dysfunction in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder** 

appear during adolescence.

academic, or occupational settings.

the inferior lateral prefrontal cortex.

only in the healthy children.

brain development, is less.

**6. Conclusions** 


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**Section 2** 

**Cereals, Fruits and Plants** 

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